Extraction and SpatialâTemporal Evolution of Urban Fringes - MDPI

International Journal of

Geo-Information Article

Extraction and Spatial–Temporal Evolution of Urban Fringes: A Case Study of Changchun in Jilin Province, China Shouzhi Chang 1,2 1 2 3 4

*

ID

, Qigang Jiang 1, *, Zongming Wang 3 , Sujuan Xu 4 and Mingming Jia 3

ID

College of Geo-Exploration Science and Technology, Jilin University, Changchun 130026, China; [email protected] Changchun Institute of Urban Planning and Design, Changchun 130022, China Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China; [email protected] (Z.W.); [email protected] (M.J.) Jilin Province Zhongshi Testing Company, Changchun 130000, China; [email protected] Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0431-8850-2426

Received: 12 May 2018; Accepted: 18 June 2018; Published: 22 June 2018

Abstract: An urban fringe area, depicted as a typical ecotone, is a region where both social and environmental problems are concentrated. Identifying and evaluating the spatial–temporal characteristics of urban fringe areas is significant for future development. On the basis of the land use data extracted from remote sensing data, the Shannon diversity index (SHDI) of each unit can be calculated, and identifying the urban fringe area by the breakpoint method is reliable. By using the rapidly growing Changchun as example, this study identifies the urban fringe of Changchun in 1995, 2005, and 2015 by applying the breakpoint method. The expansion amount, change mode, direction of expansion, landscape, and influence factors are evaluated. Policy and planning are the main factors influencing the development direction of the Changchun fringe area. The urban fringe area of Changchun City is extended to the east, southeast, and north. From 1995 to 2005, the outlying expansion was the dominant type. The main change mode was the infilling type due to the reduction of available land, from 2005 to 2015. In accordance with the landscape metrics, the landscape within the urban fringe transformed from fragmentation to regularization. The development of the urban fringe also transformed from a disorderly to an orderly manner. Keywords: urban fringe; landscape metric; remote sensing; breakpoint method; Changchun

1. Introduction Herbert Louis [1] proposed the concept of the “urban fringe area” (stadtrand zonen) in 1936. An urban fringe is located between an urban built-up and a rural area. The urban fringe area is transitional, gradual, and dynamic in numerous aspects, such as population, economy, land use, and ecology [2–4]. Depicted as a typical ecotone, an urban fringe plays an important role in urban evolution. China has previously undergone a dramatic urbanization process. The urbanization level was 49.9% in 2010 and reached 57.35% by 2016 [5]. The studies on the evolution of the urban fringe are significant in strengthening the orderly management of land resources and realizing the rational control of urban development and rural urbanization [6]. The primary task of an urban fringe region study is to execute the spatial recognition and boundary division of the urban fringe area. No uniform standard is available for the extraction of an urban fringe [6]. The urban fringe depicts significant differences between two continuous areas. Population diversity, and economic and social development factors are the most obvious characteristics of urban fringes in China [4,7]. Therefore, some scholars have adopted economic and social indicators to divide the urban ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 241; doi:10.3390/ijgi7070241

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fringe area. Researchers used fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method or a logistic regression model to define the urban fringe area, but these statistical data are updated slowly. In addition, the administrative boundary is also used as the statistical unit, which is not consistent with the reality of urban fringes [7–11]. The land use structure in an urban fringe is complex relative to the core area of a city. Therefore, an assessment based on the land use structure is feasible [12]. Remote sensing provides high-frequency earth observation data over a broad spatiotemporal scale in a spatially explicit manner [6]. Several scholars have conducted research on the urban fringe recognition method by using remote sensing data [13–16]. Different indexes, such as urban land use ratio, land use dynamic degree, and land use comprehensive index, are extracted and detected by mutation, and the urban fringe area is extracted. However, the selected indexes do not reflect the complexity of the land use structure in the urban fringe. Some studies apply the information entropy principle to determine the urban fringe through the threshold, but the selected threshold is subjective. The “breakpoint” analysis method proposed by Converse [17] in 1949 is mainly applied to determine the scope of the urban fringe. The basic principle is to select the maximum distance of the distance attenuation mutation of each element as the end of the flow and change. Therefore, this study combines the “breakpoint” method and the information entropy index in the extraction of urban fringe areas. The urban marginal area differs from the relatively stable natural geographic interface that often shows dynamic characteristics [18,19]. Thus, exploring the dynamic changes of urban fringe areas by using long-time series land use data is necessary. Changchun is located in the hinterland of the Songliao Plain in northeastern China, facing the dual problems of economic development and environmental protection. The years since 1995 have seen population growth and economic development, with the strategy of revitalizing the old industry base in Northeast China. From 2010 to 2015, Changchun’s central area measured 610 km2 , which is only 0.25% of the total area of Jilin Province, but the total population increased from 3.13 million to 3.48 million, and the proportion of the total population in the province increased from 11.40% to 12.64%. With the rapid development of urbanization, urban population and land gradually extended to the urban fringe [20]. The ecological environment in the urban fringe of Changchun is also facing threats. In 2009, the State Council formally approved the regional cooperation and development program involving the development of Tumen River and Changchun–Jilin–Tumen to signal the rise in construction in the area. In 2016, the State Council further approved the establishment of Changchun New Area, covering 499 km2 , which has a rich water system, high forest coverage, and strong ecological sensitivity. Therefore, the study of the changes in the fringe area of Changchun is also significant for future spatial planning. In China, the 1994 tax reform stabilized the central government’s revenue, but the revenue share of the local governments was not commensurate with the increased local responsibility. As land is a scarce resource in urban China compared with the abundant labor supply, selling land through rapid urban spatial expansion can meet the financial demands of local governments. For this reason, the land economy has become a main driving force in China’s urbanization [1]. Thus, understanding the spatial–temporal patterns can provide valuable insights for planners and decision makers to plan and renovate the urban fringe. Numerous studies have been conducted on the identification of urban fringes, but only a few studies have focused on their temporal and spatial characteristics [21,22]. This study uses Changchun, a rapidly growing city, as an example of evaluating the change dynamic characteristics of the urban fringe, in which land use data were acquired from remote sensing images. This study hopes to provide a methodical reference for urban fringe dynamic assessment and a highly accurate and scientific reference for urban planning. 2. Study Area and Materials 2.1. Study Area Changchun City (43◦ 140 N–44◦ 050 N, 125◦ 030 E–126◦ 000 E) is the capital of Jilin Province. It is considered the natural geographical center of northeastern China with an altitude of 250–350 m a.s.l.


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(Figure 1). The climate of Changchun is characterized by temperate continental monsoons with obvious ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20 seasonal variations. The highest temperatures were recorded in July (mean value: 23.1 ◦ C), while (Figure 1). The climate of Changchun is characterized by◦temperate continental monsoons with the lowest were recorded in January (mean value: −15.1 C) [23]. The topography of Changchun is obvious seasonal variations. The highest temperatures were recorded in July (mean value: 23.1 °C), relatively flat, as is alowest transitional zoneinbetween the eastern mountain area the Songliao Plain in while itthe were recorded January (mean value: −15.1 °C) [23]. Theand topography of is relatively as itis is aa transitional between the eastern mountain area and theof more than the west (W).Changchun The southeast (SE)flat, part hilly low zone mountainous area with an elevation Songliao Plain in the west (W). The southeast (SE) part is a hilly low mountainous area with an 200–400 m. The northwestern part is an alluvial platform, belonging to the undulating topography of elevation of more than 200–400 m. The northwestern part is an alluvial platform, belonging to the the high plain (Figure 1). undulating topography of the high plain (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Location of the study area.

Figure 1. Location of the study area. 2.2. Materials

2.2. Materials

To establish the land use datasets, Landsat TM and Landsat Operational Land Imager (OLI) images were used for the land use classification. To cover the study region, two scenes of Landsat Multispectral Scanner or Thematic MapperTM (TM)and data Landsat were acquired for each year (Table To establish the land use(MSS) datasets, Landsat Operational Land1).Imager (OLI) Cloud-free satellite images from September to October were acquired when vegetation cover is at a images were used for the land use classification. To cover the study region, two scenes of Landsat maximum for each year. Radiometric calibration was performed for all of the images before they Multispectralwere Scanner (MSS) or Thematic Mapper (TM) data were acquired for each year (Table 1). delivered by the China Remote Sensing Satellite Ground Station (http://www.rsgs.ac.cn).

Cloud-free satellite images from September to October were acquired when vegetation cover is at Table 1. The satellite data used in the study. a maximum for each year. Radiometric calibration was performed for all of the images before they Sensor Date Path/Row were delivered by the China Remote Sensing Satellite Ground Station (http://www.rsgs.ac.cn). Landsat-5 TM Landsat-5 TM Table 81.OLI The Landsat

29 September 1995 8 September 2005 satellite data used 22 October 2015

in

118/29, 118/30 118/29, 118/30 the study. 118/29, 118/30

Sensor

Date

Path/Row

Landsat-5 TM Landsat-5 TM Landsat 8 OLI

29 September 1995 8 September 2005 22 October 2015

118/29, 118/30 118/29, 118/30 118/29, 118/30

3. Methodology 3.1. Land Use Classification The backdating approach is a synthesis of the post-classification comparison and pre-classification change detection. It typically starts with a reference map, and then, based on the map, classification

Five major land cover types and other land were found within the study area: forest, grassland, wetlands, farmland, and settlements. With this modified approach applied in this study, land use maps from 1995 to 2015 were generated through the following two steps: Reference map production: The 2015 land use map was derived from 2015 Landsat OLI ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 241 4 of 19 imagery using an object-based classification approach by the eCognition Developer 8.64 software. The work flow involved segmenting images, using a bottom-up region merging method [23], and change and analyses are conducted [24]After only at locations changes to maintain the consistency of rule-building, exporting vectors. a trial andwith error process for testing the segmentation the features [25,26]. In order to reduce the ‘salt and pepper’ effect, the backdating approach integrated parameters, three levels of objects were created by setting parameters for different scales, the shape with an object-based used forin land use 2. classifications. Five major cover was typesused and and factor, and compactnessmethod factor,was as shown Table Then, a decision tree land approach other land were found within the study area: forest, grassland, wetlands, farmland, and settlements. the rule sets were created based on the statistical analysis of the training areas resulting from the With this modified approach applied in this study, land use maps from 1995 to 2015 were generated field surveys and images, including spectral information, spatial relations, and geometric through the following two steps: characteristics (Figure 2). Visual interpretation and manual editing were conducted to further Reference map production: The 2015 land use map was derived from 2015 Landsat OLI imagery confirm classifications for a highly accurate reference landDeveloper use map.8.64 Accuracy assessment usingthe an object-based classification approach by the eCognition software. The work was conducted with ground survey data. The overall accuracy of the 2015 land use map was 92%. flow involved segmenting images, using a bottom-up region merging method [23], rule-building, and Land usevectors. map creation forand other years: Using the 2015 land use map as the reference map, exporting After a trial error process for testing the segmentation parameters, three levels of the landobjects use classification 1995 and 2005 were derived separately an object-based were created bymaps settingfor parameters for different scales, the shape factor, andusing compactness factor, as shownapproach in Table 2.with Then,change a decision tree analysis. approach was used and the rule the sets classification were created based backdating vector More details about approach on the statistical analysis of the training areas resulting from the field surveys and images, including can be found in previous studies [24–26]. Accuracy assessment was also completed for the land use spectral information, spatial relations, and geometric Visual interpretation classification maps in 1995 and 2005 using historicalcharacteristics field survey (Figure points 2). and Google Earth images, and manual editing were conducted to further confirm the classifications for a highly accurate reference as well as visual interpretation of the Landsat TM data as reference data. The overall accuracies of land use map. Accuracy assessment was conducted with ground survey data. The overall accuracy of these three classification maps were 85% for 1995, and 87% for 2005. the 2015 land use map was 92%.

Table segmentationparameters. parameters. Table2.2.Multi-scale Multi-scale segmentation Parameter Parameter Scale Scale Shape Shape Compactness Compactness

Level 1 Level 1 50 50 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4

Level 2 30 30 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4

Level 2

Level 3 10 10 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.4

Level 3

Figure 2. The outline of the decision tree. The threshold of each rule set varied with images. NDVI is

Figure 2. The outline of the decision tree. The threshold of each rule set varied with images. NDVI is the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), calculated from bands four and five of Landsat the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), calculated from bands four and five of OLI; GLCM mean is the mean value of the gray level co-occurrence matrix and is widely used in Landsat OLI; GLCM mean iscalculated the meanbyvalue of the level co-occurrence matrix widely textural features extraction, the gray scalegray value of the images. Elevation andand slopeisare calculated from ASTER GDEM V1 data; NDWI is the Normalized Difference Water Index, calculated from bands three and five of Landsat OLI; NDBI is the Normalized Difference Build-up Index.

Land use map creation for other years: Using the 2015 land use map as the reference map, the land use classification maps for 1995 and 2005 were derived separately using an object-based backdating approach with change vector analysis. More details about the classification approach can be found in previous studies [24–26]. Accuracy assessment was also completed for the land use classification maps in 1995 and 2005 using historical field survey points and Google Earth images, as well as

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used in textural features extraction, calculated by the gray scale value of the images. Elevation and5 of 19 slope are calculated from ASTER GDEM V1 data; NDWI is the Normalized Difference Water Index, from bands three and five of Landsat OLI; NDBI is the Normalized Difference Build-up visualcalculated interpretation of the Landsat TM data as reference data. The overall accuracies of these three Index.

classification maps were 85% for 1995, and 87% for 2005.

3.2. “Fringe “Fringe Effect” Effect” and and Land Land Use Use Information Information Entropy EntropyModel Model 3.2. Anecotone, ecotone,which whichisisa atransition transition area between two biomes or different patches of landscape, An area between two biomes or different patches of landscape, has has increased biodiversity, referred to “fringe as the “fringe effect,” as it provides spatial and increased biodiversity, referred to as the effect,” as it provides significantsignificant spatial and temporal temporal variation in resources [3,22,27,28]. Information entropy is the physical quantity used to variation in resources [3,22,27,28]. Information entropy is the physical quantity used to measure the measure the complexity and balance of the system, and is applied to the study of land use complexity and balance of the system, and is applied to the study of land use landscape pattern landscape pattern and the establishment landscapes. In accordance with the Shannon recognition and therecognition establishment of landscapes. In of accordance with the Shannon diversity index diversity index (SHDI), the entropy model of land use can be established as follows [29,30]: (SHDI), the entropy model of land use can be established as follows [29,30]: = −∑n , (1) H = − ∑i=1 pi lnpi , (1) where H is the diversity index (information entropy value). denotes the proportion of area covered bythe land cover index class (information , and quantifies thevalue). diversity of landthecover type on basiscovered of two where H is diversity entropy pi denotes proportion of area components: of different land types (richness) areacomponents: distribution by land cover number class i, and quantifies the cover diversity of land coverand typeproportional on basis of two among land cover types more land types per unit area, the higheramong the heterogeneity number of different land (evenness). cover types The (richness) and proportional area distribution land cover of land use patches theland greater the SHDI. Urban ruralthe areas mostly include built-up areas types (evenness). Theand more types per unit area, theand higher heterogeneity of land use patches or agricultural WhenUrban land and use types are singly used, the SHDI is low. the biggest and the greater land. the SHDI. rural areas mostly include built-up areasHowever, or agricultural land. feature of the fringe is the diversity ofisland types, the thatbiggest is, land use types interlaced When land use urban types are singly used, the SHDI low.use However, feature of theare urban fringe layout of is land loose,use and thus,that SHDI is high isand thethe diversity types, is, land use[31,32]. types are interlaced and the layout is loose, and thus, using[31,32]. remote sensing technology, the dynamic and fine-scale monitoring of the change of SHDIBy is high landBy useusing structure in sensing urban areas can be monitored. Inand comparison the method of change extracting remote technology, the dynamic fine-scalewith monitoring of the of the use edgestructure area byin using the ratio built-up area, SHDI can reveal the homogeneity land urban areas can beofmonitored. In comparison with the method of extracting and the heterogeneity of landscape spaces andarea, quantify dispersion fragmentation degree of urban edge area by using the ratio of built-up SHDIthe can reveal theand homogeneity and heterogeneity of landscapes. SHDIand is influenced bydispersion the scale variation and selecting anof optimal scale for calculating landscape spaces quantify the and fragmentation degree urban landscapes. SHDI is and analyzing the land cover information entropy is essential further preserve the pattern and influenced by the scale variation and selecting an optimal scale fortocalculating and analyzing the land reduce data redundancy [7]. In accordance previous studiesand [7],reduce the 960-meter scale is [7]. the cover information entropy is essential to furtherwith preserve the pattern data redundancy optimal scale for land use data interpreted by using Landsat. The research area was divided into In accordance with previous studies [7], the 960-meter scale is the optimal scale for land use data 4154 grids by of using size 960 m × 960 The area of the different types of 960 eachmgrid were interpreted Landsat. Them. research arearatios was divided into 4154use grids of size × 960 m. calculated, andofthen, the SHDI values corresponding grid were calculated accordance The area ratios the different use typesof ofthe each grid were calculated, and then, the in SHDI values ofwith the Equation (1). grid were calculated in accordance with Equation (1). corresponding 3.3. 3.3. Extraction Extraction of of Breakpoints Breakpoints of of SHDI SHDIin in360 360Directions Directions By By using using Renmin Renmin Square Square in in Changchun Changchun as as the the center center and and starting starting point point of of the the east east direction, direction, ◦ 360 360 profile profilelines lineswere werecreated createdat atintervals intervalsof of11°to tocover coverthe theentire entireresearch researcharea. area.The Thelongest longestdistance, distance, from to to thethe boundary of Changchun’s municipal area, was used the radius. 2 fromRenmin RenminSquare Square boundary of Changchun’s municipal area, wasasused as theFigure radius. shows the profile lines coverlines the entire area.study After area. the SHDI was intersected Figurethat 2 shows that the profile cover study the entire Aftercharacteristic the SHDI characteristic was with the 360 profile lines, corresponding in 360 directions study area were intersected with the 360the profile lines, thedata corresponding dataofinthe 360 directions of obtained the study[2,11]. area This implemented by using ArcGIS (Figure wereoperation obtained was [2,11]. This operation was implemented by 3). using ArcGIS (Figure 3).

Figure3. 3. Schematic Schematic diagram diagramof ofthe thedata datacolumns columnsderived derivedin in360 360directions. directions. (The (The center center of of the the circle circleisis Figure blurred because the 360 lines are too dense.) blurred because the 360 lines are too dense.)


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In this study, the breakpoints were detected by using SHDI, to prevent the irregular change of SHDI in some places. This study adopted the window sequence method. In any direction, L denotes the sequence length, Si represents the SHDI value of a sequence, and N is the total number of windows in the direction. The change rate and distance attenuation mutation value are calculated as follows [2,33]: Vi = |Si+1 − Si |/L (2) N

V = 1/N ∑ Vi

(3)

DDVi = Vi /V.

(4)

i=1

The SHDI value of each direction obtained by the method for intersect analysis was exported. By using Renmin Square as the starting point, the attenuation mutation value of each point is calculated by using MATLAB. The pixel in a certain direction with the maximum DDVi was the breakpoint. Breakpoints were displayed over the filled contour maps of SHDI. The inner and outer boundary lines of the urban–rural fringe areas were obtained by measuring the distance between the breakpoints and the center of the study area. Consequently, the abnormal mutation points were eliminated, and the breakpoints were connected with curves. By using remote sensing technology, the dynamic and fine-scale monitoring of the change of land use structure in urban areas can be monitored. In comparison with the method of extracting the edge area by using the ratio of built-up area, SHDI can reveal the homogeneity and heterogeneity of landscape spaces and quantify the dispersion and fragmentation degree of urban landscapes. SHDI is influenced by the scale variation and selecting an optimal scale for calculating and analyzing the land cover information entropy is essential to further preserve the pattern and reduce data redundancy [7]. In accordance with previous studies, the 960-meter scale is the optimal scale for land use data interpreted by using Landsat. The research area was divided into 4154 grids of size 960 m × 960 m [7]. The area ratios of the different use types of each grid were calculated, and then, the SHDI values of the corresponding grid were calculated in accordance with Equation (1). 3.4. Urban Fringe Fragmentation Dynamic Metric This study on urban fringe was assessed by using landscape metrics at the landscape level. Five metrics were obtained to indicate urban fragmentation (Table 3): patch density (PD), mean patch size (MPS), edge density (ED), mean perimeter–area ratio (MPAR), and area-weighted mean shape index (AWMSI). The five metrics can describe urban fragmentation from different aspects [34–36]. PD is the ratio between urban land patch number and total land area, and it describes the density of land use and the extent of fragmentation. ED measures the total edge lengths divided by the total land area. AWMSI is a measure of shape complexity. Metric calculations were conducted with Patch Analyst 5.1 [37,38]. Table 3. Selected landscape metrics. Metrics

Unit

Range

Description

PD MPS MPAR ED

per 100 hectare Hectares % Meters per hectare

NP ≥ 0 MPS > 0 MPAR > 0 ED ≥ 0

AWMSI

None

AMMSI ≥ 1

Number of patches per 100-hectare landscape Average patch size Mean perimeter–area ratio, all patches Amount of edge relative to the landscape area AWMSI is equal to 1 when all patches are circular and increases with increasing patch shape irregularity


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4. Results and Discussion 4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Land Use Transition in Central Area 4.1. Land Use Transition in Central Area From the perspective of spatial distribution, settlements and farmland are the main land use types From the perspective and farmland main land use in the central area, followed of by spatial forest. distribution, From 1995 tosettlements 2005, the change of landare usethe in Changchun was types inThe thecity central area,tofollowed From(SW). 1995 Furthermore, to 2005, the the change of land farmland use in dramatic. extended the E, SE,by andforest. southwest surrounding Changchun The(Figure city extended to the SE, and southwest (SW).area Furthermore, was convertedwas into dramatic. settlements 4). The area ofE, settlements in the central increased the from surrounding farmland was converted into settlements (Figure 4). The area of settlements in the 2 2 213.73 km to 379.70 km , which increased by 77.65%, and the average growth was 16.60 km2 per year. central area increased from 213.73 km2 to 379.70 km2, which increased by 77.65%, and the average Along the road, a large area of farmland converted to settlements was also observed. The increase of growth was 16.60 km2 per year. Along the road, a large area of farmland converted to settlements forest area was mainly due to the conversion of other land use types in the SW part. During 2005–2015, was also observed. The increase of forest area was mainly due to the conversion of other land use the city continued to spread to the northeast (NE), SE, and SW, the speed of urban expansion slowed types in the SW part. During 2005–2015, the city continued to spread to the northeast (NE), SE, and down, the area of settlements increased to 412.84 km2 , the annual increase was 3.31 km2 , and the main SW, the speed of urban expansion slowed down, the area of settlements increased to 412.84 km2, the type of change was farmland conversion to settlements. annual increase was 3.31 km2, and the main type of change was farmland conversion to settlements.

(a) 1995

(b) 2005 Figure 4. Cont.


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(c) 2015 (c) 2015 Figure 4. (a–c) Land use in Changchun (1995–2015). Figure 4. (a–c) Land use in Changchun (1995–2015). Figure 4. (a–c) Land use in Changchun (1995–2015).

The land use structure changed significantly during 1995–2005, and the proportion of The use land use structure changed significantly 1995–2005, the proportion of The land structure changed significantly duringduring 1995–2005, and the proportion of settlements settlements increased from 35.04% to 62.50%, whereas the proportion ofand farmland areas declined settlements increased from 35.04% to 62.50%, whereas the proportion of farmland areas declined from 48.05% to 17.76%. The proportion increased from 12.97% todeclined 16.17%. From 2005 to to increased from 35.04% to 62.50%, whereas of theforest proportion of farmland areas from 48.05% from to 17.76%. The proportion of types forest increased from 12.97% to 16.17%. From 2015, the48.05% proportion of forest different land use changed slowly. The 2005 main change was2005 thattothe 17.76%. The proportion increased from 12.97% to 16.17%. From to 2015, the proportion 2015, the of proportion different to land usetotypes changed slowly. change was that the to proportion land use of continued grow 67.69%, and the proportion of farmland decreased of different land use types changed slowly. The main change wasThe thatmain the proportion of land use proportion of land use continued to grow to 67.69%, and the proportion of farmland decreased to 11.83% (Figure continued to grow5).to 67.69%, and the proportion of farmland decreased to 11.83% (Figure 5). 11.83% (Figure 5).

100

100

90

90

80

80

grassland grassland

7070 6060

wetland wetland

5050

forest forest

4040

farmland farmland

3030

otherland land other

2020

settlements settlements

1010 00 1995 1995

2005 2005

2015 2015

Figure 5. Changes in in thethe proportion landuse usetypes types (1995–2015). Figure 5. Changes proportionof of different different land (1995–2015). Figure 5. Changes in the proportion of different land use types (1995–2015).

4.2. Quantitative Change Characteristics 4.2.4.2. Quantitative Change Characteristics Quantitative Change Characteristics In 1995, 2005, and 2015, the urbanfringe fringe areas of of Changchun were 773.03, andand 802.85 In In 1995, 2005, and were269.72, 269.72, 773.03, 802.85 1995, 2005, and2015, 2015,the theurban urban fringe areas areas of Changchun Changchun were 269.72, 773.03, and 802.85 2, respectively (Figure 6). The urban core areas of Changchun were 108.84, 262.97, and 367.12 km 2 , respectively (Figure 6). The urban core areas of Changchun were 108.84, 262.97, and 367.12 km2 , kmkm 2, respectively (Figure 6). The urban core areas of Changchun were 108.84, 262.97, and 367.12 km2, respectively. From 1995 to 2015, the core area of Changchun increased by 258.28 km22 at the rate 2, respectively. 2 atthe respectively. From 1995 to1995 2015, core area of Changchun increased by 258.28 km rate kmof to the 2015, core area Changchun increased 258.28 kmat the rateof 237.30%. TheFrom urban fringe area the increased by of 533.13 km2 at the growthbyrate of 197.66%. The 2 at 2 237.30%. The urban fringe area increased by 533.13 km the growth rate of 197.66%. The growth of growth 237.30%. The urban fringe increased by 533.13 at thefringe growth rate 197.66%. The rate of the urban core area area was lower than that ofkm the urban area, andofthe degree of rategrowth ofexpansion the urban core area was lower than that of the urban fringe area, and the degree of expansion rate of the urban core area was lower than that of the urban fringe area, and the degree of of of the urban fringe was higher than that of the core area (Table 4). theexpansion urban fringe was higher than that of thethan corethat area 4).area (Table 4). of the urban fringe was higher of(Table the core


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During the first period (1995–2005), the urban core area increased by 154.13 km2, whereas the urban fringe increased by 503.31 km2 (i.e., 3.27 times the growth of the core area). From 2005 to 2015, ISPRS Int.growth J. Geo-Inf. 2018,of7,the 241 urban core and the urban fringe decreased, by which the growth rate of the 9 of 19 both rates urban fringe was lower than that of the urban core.

(a) 1995


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(b) 2005

(c) 2015 Figure 6. (a–c) Distribution of urban fringes (1995–2015). Figure 6. (a–c) Distribution of urban fringes (1995–2015). Table 4. Quantitative status of the expansion in the urban fringe of Changchun (1995–2015). Urban Core Area Period

Expanding Amount

Expanding Rate (%)

Expanding Speed (km2/a)

Urban Fringe Expanding Amount

Expanding Rate (%)

Expanding Speed


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Table 4. Quantitative status of the expansion in the urban fringe of Changchun (1995–2015). Urban Core Area

Urban Fringe

Period

Expanding Amount (km2 )

Expanding Rate (%)

Expanding Speed (km2 /a)

Expanding Amount (km2 )

Expanding Rate (%)

Expanding Speed (km2 /a)

1995–2005 2005–2015 1995–2015

154.13 104.15 258.28

141.61 39.61 237.30

15.41 10.42 12.91

503.31 29.82 533.13

186.60 3.86 197.66

50.33 2.98 26.66

During the first period (1995–2005), the urban core area increased by 154.13 km2 , whereas the urban fringe increased by 503.31 km2 (i.e., 3.27 times the growth of the core area). From 2005 to 2015, both growth rates of the urban core and the urban fringe decreased, by which the growth rate of the urban fringe was lower than that of the urban core. Economic development and population growth, which are the basic driving forces of urban expansion, are also major factors affecting the land use change in the urban fringe area. During 1995–2005, the growth of urban fringe was closely related to the speed of urban expansion. The average annual growth rate of gross domestic product (GDP) in Changchun was 31.13%, with an annual population increase of 64.2 thousand persons (Figure 7). The development of urban economy needs the support of space. The increase of population will strengthen the urban residents’ demand for housing, transportation, and public facilities and then expand the urban land to the outside, thereby significantly changing the land structure around the city and increasing the border area. In total, in the second stage, that is, during 2005–2015, GDP and population growth slowed, especially after 2010 when the population of Changchun declined, the demand for urban space declined, and the growth rate of urban11fringe areas ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 20 decreased accordingly. 6000

760

5000

740 4000

720 700

3000

680 660 640

Population

2000

GDP

1000

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

0 1995

620

GDP (100million CNY)

Population (10000 person)

780

Year Figure 7. GDP and population of of Changchun (1995–2015). Figure 7. GDP and population Changchun (1995–2015).

4.3. Expansion Direction

4.3. Expansion Direction

To analyze the expansion pattern of the urban fringe in different directions in the study area

To analyze thethe expansion ofexpansions the urbanoffringe in different directions in the were study area and explore factors thatpattern affect the urban fringe, eight expansion directions compared (Figure 8): E, NE, SE,the south (S), SW, W, northwest and northexpansion (N). and explore the factors that affect expansions of urban (NW), fringe, eight directions were From 1995 to NE, 2005,SE, the south outlying expansion occurred in the E, north SE, and(N). S directions. The compared (Figure 8): E, (S), SW, W, mainly northwest (NW), and area of eastward expansion was 135.39 km2, which accounted for 21.23% of the total expansion area. From 1995 to 2005, the outlying expansion mainly occurred in the E, SE, and S directions. The area The main areas of infilling change were concentrated in the W, SW, and NW directions. The region of eastward expansion was 135.39 km2 , which accounted for 21.23% of the total expansion area. converted to core area was mainly located in the SE, which accounted for approximately 23.99% of The main of infilling change were concentrated in the W, SW, and NW directions. The region theareas total converted area. converted toFrom core 2005 areatowas mainly located themainly SE, which accounted forwith approximately 23.99% 2015, the urban fringeinarea extended northward an area of 40.09 km2, of the which accounted total converted area. for 27.75% of the total area. Except for the NE direction, the amount of infilling in the remaining directions was all large. The top two values of the core area conversions toward the NE and E directions were 26.62 and 26.12 km2, respectively. In general, during 1995–2015, the urban fringe area of Changchun mainly extended to the E, SE, and N directions. The infilling changes mainly occurred in the W and SW parts of the city. The amounts of urban fringe converted into core area in the SE and S parts of the city were the top values (Figure 8).


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From 2005 to 2015, the urban fringe area mainly extended northward with an area of 40.09 km2 , which accounted for 27.75% of the total area. Except for the NE direction, the amount of infilling in the remaining directions was all large. The top two values of the core area conversions toward the NE and E directions were 26.62 and 26.12 km2 , respectively. In general, during 1995–2015, the urban fringe area of Changchun mainly extended to the E, SE, and N directions. The infilling changes mainly occurred in the W and SW parts of the city. The amounts of urban fringe converted into core area in the SE and S parts of the city were the top values (Figure 8). ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW

N

160 NW

W

160

120

NE

NW

80

40

40 W

E

SW

160

NE

E

0

SW

SE (a)

S

N

120

80 0

NW

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SE S

(b)

N

120

NE

core conversion

80 40 W

E

0

SW

SE

(c)

infilling

outlying expansion

S Figure 8. Distribution of expansion types in different directions of the urban fringe in Changchun

Figure 8. Distribution of expansion types in different directions of the urban fringe in Changchun (1995–2015). (a) 1995–2005; (b) 2005–2015; (c) 1995–2015. (1995–2015). (a) 1995–2005; (b) 2005–2015; (c) 1995–2015.

A development zone refers to a specific area of a country or region to attract external factors of promote ownto development, and of implement special policies management in a A production, development zone its refers a specific area a country or region to and attract external factors certain area. The development zone plays an important role in the development of Changchun City. of production, promote its own development, and implement special policies and management in In area. 1991, The Changchun City established high-tech development zone. Economic and Technological a certain development zone plays an important role in the The development of Changchun City. Development Zone was set up in 1993, and the Jingyue Tourism Development Zone was In 1991, Changchun City established high-tech development zone. The Economic and Technological established in 1995. In 2016, the State Council further approved the establishment of Changchun Development Zone was set up in 1993, and the Jingyue Tourism Development Zone was established in New Area (Figure 9). Usually, enterprises in the development zone can get land use rights at lower 1995. Inprices 2016,and the enjoy State Council furtherAs approved the establishment of Changchun NewforArea (Figure 9). tax concessions. the development zone has preferential policies investment Usually, enterprises in the development can get land use rightsand at lower pricesinand enjoy tax and construction, it has promoted thezone agglomeration of enterprises population the region. concessions. As the development zone has preferential policies for investment and construction, The exuberant demand for land is the main factor that causes the urban fringe of Changchun ittohas promoted the agglomeration enterprises and population in theofregion. The exuberant expand to the E, SE, andofSW during 1995–2015. The direction urban fringe expansion demand is closely for to the distribution of development land is related the main factor that causes the urbanzones. fringe of Changchun to expand to the E, SE, and SW The urbanThe master plan ofof theurban 1995 edition that urbanrelated layout to structure adopts the of during 1995–2015. direction fringe suggested expansion is the closely the distribution decentralized group style, and clearly put forward the transfer of urban development from the development zones. center to the fringe, from the old urban region to the new area. The urban master plan of the 2005 The urban master plan of the 1995 edition suggested that the urban layout structure adopts the edition put forward the spatial structure of “dual-core, multi-level and eight areas”. “Dual-core” decentralized group style, and clearly put forward the transfer of urban development from the center refers to the establishment of new town in the southern part of the city. Under the guidance of this to the fringe, from the old urbantoregion to the The urban master plan of theforward 2005 edition plan, Changchun extended the south. Innew 2011,area. the master plan of Changchun put the put forward the spatial structure of “dual-core, multi-level and eight areas”. “Dual-core” refers to urban spatial structure of “dual-core, two wings and multi-group”, transferred some functions ofthe the central urban area to other areas, and formed two urban centers in the central and southern part. The planning of urban spatial structure leads the city to expand towards the S and the E, and promoted the expansion of the urban fringe in the SW, SE, and E. The development of the economy has promoted the construction of the road in the region. The road is the main medium to contact the cities and peripheral areas. The expressway in the E of


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establishment of new town in the southern part of the city. Under the guidance of this plan, Changchun extended to the south. In 2011, the master plan of Changchun put forward the urban spatial structure of “dual-core, two wings and multi-group”, transferred some functions of the central urban area to other areas, and formed two urban centers in the central and southern part. The planning of urban spatial structure leads the city to expand towards the S and the E, and promoted the expansion of the urban fringe in the SW, SE, and E. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20 The development of the economy has promoted the construction of the road in the region. The road is theChangchun main medium to contact the cities and The expressway in Changchun the E of Changchun is is dense and also promotes theperipheral expansion areas. of the urban fringe area of to the denseE.and also promotes the expansion of the urban fringe area of Changchun to the E.

Figure 9. Distribution of development zones of Changchun.

Figure 9. Distribution of development zones of Changchun.

4.4. Change Mode

4.4. Change Mode On the basis of existing research, the expansion of the urban fringe area is divided into three types. outlying expansion type the is transformed ruralfringe hinterland the previous On theThe basis of existing research, expansion from of thethe urban area of is divided into period three types. into the region of the urban fringe of the current period. The infilling type depicts a region The outlying expansion type is transformed from the rural hinterland of the previous period into the belonging to the urban fringe area between two periods (previous and current). However, in the region of the urban fringe of the current period. The infilling type depicts a region belonging to the interior, where land use type changes have happened, the core conversion type is an appropriate urban fringe area between two periods (previous and current). However, in the interior, where land descriptor, that is, the transformation from an urban fringe to a core area of the city [14,35]. use type In changes an appropriate descriptor, that is, the general,have fromhappened, 1995 to 2015,the thecore mainconversion change typetype of theisurban fringe was outlying expansion. transformation from an urban fringe to a core area of the city [14,35]. The number of urban fringe areas converted into core areas was considerably smaller than the In general, fromfringe 1995 to 2015, the 10). main change type of of thetopographic urban fringe was increase in urban area (Figure The characteristics relief areoutlying often theexpansion. basic The number fringe areas converted into pattern. core areas was considerably thaneffect the increase skeleton of of urban the large-scale regional distribution During 1995–2015, thesmaller restraining on the urban spatial expansion of The Changchun is becoming increasingly prominent. The eastern partskeleton of in urban fringe area (Figure 10). characteristics of topographic relief are often the basic Changchun City is a hilly land, and the land available for urban use is reduced. The infilling of the large-scale regional distribution pattern. During 1995–2015, the restraining effect on the urban changes in the of urban fringe increased in the SE direction. prominent. The eastern part of Changchun spatial expansion Changchun is becoming increasingly From 1995 to 2005, the urban fringe of the outlying expansion reached 637.78 km2, which City is a hilly land, and the land available for urban use is reduced. The infilling changes2 in the urban accounted for 82.50% of the total urban fringe in 2005. The infilling area was 155.70 km , which fringe increased in the SE direction. 2 accounted for 57.7% of the total area in 1995. A total of 134.48 km of urban fringe was transformed into a core area, which accounted for 51.14% of the total core area in 2005. In this phase, the urban fringe change mode was dominated by outlying expansion (Figure 11). From 2005 to 2015, the urban fringe of the outlying expansion reached 144.49 km2, which accounted for 18% of the total area in 2015. The infilling area was 663.62 km2, which accounted for 85.85% of the total area in 2005. The urban fringe area transformed into a core area covering 177.80 km2, which accounted for 48.43% of the total core area in 2015. In this phase, the urban fringe area was dominated by infilling types (Figure 11).


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(a) 1995–2005


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(b) 2005–2015

(c) 1995–2015 Figure 10. (a–c) Distribution of change types in the urban fringe of Changchun (1995–2015).

Figure 10. (a–c) Distribution of change types in the urban fringe of Changchun (1995–2015). 800 700 600

1995–2005 2005–2015


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From 1995 to 2005, the urban fringe of the outlying expansion reached 637.78 km2 , which accounted for 82.50% of the total urban fringe in 2005. The infilling area was 155.70 km2 , which accounted for 57.7% of the total area in 1995. A total of 134.48 km2 of urban fringe was transformed into a core area, which accounted for 51.14% of the total core area in 2005. In this phase, the urban fringe change mode was dominated by outlying expansion (Figure 11). From 2005 to 2015, the urban fringe of the outlying expansion reached 144.49 km2 , which accounted for 18% of the total area in 2015. The infilling area was 663.62 km2 , which accounted for 85.85% of 2 the total area in 2005. The urban fringe area(c)transformed 1995–2015 into a core area covering 177.80 km , which accounted for 48.43% of the total core area in 2015. In this phase, the urban fringe area was dominated Figure 10. (a–c) Distribution of change types in the urban fringe of Changchun (1995–2015). by infilling types (Figure 11). 800 700

1995–2005

600

2005–2015

km2

500

1995–2015 400 300 200 100 0

outlying expansion

infilling

core conversion

Figure 11. Areas Areasofofdifferent differentchange changetypes types (1995–2015). Figure 11. (1995–2015).

Thecharacteristics characteristics of of topographic skeleton of of thethe large-scale regional The topographicrelief reliefare areoften oftenthe thebasic basic skeleton large-scale regional distribution pattern. During 1995–2015, the restraining effect on the urban spatial expansion of of distribution pattern. During 1995–2015, the restraining effect on the urban spatial expansion Changchun became became increasingly increasingly prominent. part of of Changchun CityCity is hilly, andand the the Changchun prominent.The Theeastern eastern part Changchun is hilly, land available for urban use is reduced. The infilling changes in the urban fringe increased in the land available for urban use is reduced. The infilling changes in the urban fringe increased SE in the direction. SE direction. 4.5.Changes Changesin inUrban Urban Fringe Fringe Fragmentation 4.5. Fragmentation Theland landuses uses and and landscapes landscapes in characteristics. TheThe process The in the theurban urbanfringe fringearea areahave haveunique unique characteristics. process involved outlying expansion, infilling, and core conversion, and thus, the inner landscape of the involved outlying expansion, infilling, and core conversion, and thus, the inner landscape of the urban urban fringe changed significantly. fringe changed significantly. Figure 12 shows the change rate from using the previously selected landscape metrics above. PD values increased sharply and declined slightly, whereas MPS values declined sharply and increased slightly from 1995 to 2005, which indicates that human activities significantly influenced the urban fringe during this period. The original types of land use changed, the density of patches in the urban fringe increased, and the average patch area decreased. Moreover, the relatively dense patches and the increased average patch sizes from 2005 to 2015 indicate that land use in the urban fringe areas has shifted from disorderly to orderly development.

landscape of Changchun’s urban fringe is significantly affected by urban expansion, which reflects the utilization process of the natural landscape from disorderly to orderly development. The landscape index shows that the urban fringe area of Changchun has experienced two stages: the urban growth speed was high during 1995–2005, and disordered. However, during 2005–2015, the available land around settlements reduced. Attention has been paid to the value of land use at the ISPRS Int.of J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 241 15 of 19 edge the city, and7,orderly development and construction have begun.

PD

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

PD

1995

2005

2015

Year (a) 1200

1.44

1000

1.42

MPAR

1.38

600 400

MPAR

1.36

AWMSI

1.34

200

AWMSI

1.4

800

1.32

0

1.3 1995

2005 Year

2015


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180

160

160 140

140 120

120 100

100

80 60 40

MPS

80

ED

60

MPS

ED

(b)

40 20

20 0

0 1995

2005

2015

Year (c) Figure 12. Changes of different landscape metrics (1995–2015). (a) Changes of PD; (b) Changes of Figure 12. Changes of different landscape metrics (1995–2015). (a) Changes of PD; (b) Changes of MPAR and AWMSI; (c) Changes of ED and MPS. MPAR and AWMSI; (c) Changes of ED and MPS.

Under the current land management system in China, the scale of urban construction land MPAR, AWMSI, and ED quantity values increased sharply and slightly 1995 to 2005. Land cannot exceed the provided of the master plan. In declined the master plan offrom Changchun in 1995, 2, and fragmentation resulted in irregularly shaped land patches, but thearea patches startedby to remote developsensing regularly the land allowed for construction was 391 km the built-up recognized was only 213 km2. Changchun had sufficient land for construction, and the land use in the urban fringe was disorderly. By 2005, the built-up area recognized by remote sensing had reached 379 km2, which was close to the upper limit of the area provided in the master plan of 1995. The master plan of the new edition adjusted the permitted area to 445 km2 in 2011. During 2005–2015, only 66 km2 could be used for construction in Changchun (Figure 13). Overall, from 2005 to 2015, the land available in Changchun was scarce, and the infilling growth in the urban fringe areas provided

100

80

60 ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 241 40

MPS

80

ED

60

MPS

ED

120 100

40

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km2

20 20 0 0 from 2005 to 2015. In accordance1995 with the results of the landscape indicators, the landscape of 2005 2015 Changchun’s urban fringe is significantly affected by urban expansion, which reflects the utilization Year process of the natural landscape from disorderly to orderly development. The landscape index shows (c) that the urban fringe area of Changchun has experienced two stages: the urban growth speed was high during 1995–2005, and disordered. However, during thePD; available landof around Figure 12. Changes of different landscape metrics (1995–2015).2005–2015, (a) Changes of (b) Changes settlements Attention hasofbeen paid to the value of land use at the edge of the city, and MPARreduced. and AWMSI; (c) Changes ED and MPS. orderly development and construction have begun. Underthe the current land management system in China, scale of urban construction Under current land management system in China, the the scale of urban construction landland cannot cannot exceed the provided quantity of the master plan. In the master plan of Changchun in the 1995, exceed the provided quantity of the master plan. In the master plan of Changchun in 1995, land 2 and the built-up area recognized by remote sensing the land for construction was 2 , 391 allowed forallowed construction was 391 km andkm the, built-up area recognized by remote sensing was only was only 213 km2. Changchun had sufficient land for construction, and the land use in the urban 213 km2 . Changchun had sufficient land for construction, and the land use in the urban fringe was fringe was disorderly. By 2005, the built-up area recognized by remote sensing had reached 379 km2, disorderly. By 2005, the built-up area recognized by remote sensing had reached 379 km2 , which which was close to the upper limit of the area provided in the master plan of 1995. The master plan was close to the upper limit of the area provided in the master plan of 1995. The master plan of the of the new edition adjusted the permitted area to 445 km2 in 2011. During 2005–2015, only 66 2km2 2 new edition adjusted the permitted area to 445 km in 2011. During 2005–2015, only 66 km could could be used for construction in Changchun (Figure 13). Overall, from 2005 to 2015, the land be used for construction in Changchun (Figure 13). Overall, from 2005 to 2015, the land available in available in Changchun was scarce, and the infilling growth in the urban fringe areas provided Changchun wasfor scarce, the infilling growth in the urban fringe areas provided valuable land for valuable land urbanand construction. urban construction. 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0

445

440 391

379

213

built-up remote built-up remote built-up areas of sensing areas of sensing areas of master plan recognised master plan recognised master plan 1995 built-up 2005 built-up 2011 areas 1995 areas 2005 Figure 13. Built-up areas of master plan and built-up areas recognized by using remote sensing images. Figure 13. Built-up areas of master plan and built-up areas recognized by using remote sensing images.

4.6. Implications for the Construction of Changchun New Area

The available land around the central urban area is insufficient. With the establishment of Changchun New Area, a large amount of construction land has been provided for Changchun, and the city will expand to the NE. A new urban fringe will appear. In the past, urban construction land planning belongs to the Planning Bureau, farmland pertains to the Land Bureau, woodland and wetlands correspond to the Forestry Bureau, and grassland is associated with the agricultural sector. The spatial planning is inconsistent, and the problem in the urban fringe is further prominent. In 2018, the State Council promoted institutional reform, set up the Ministry of Natural Resources, and proposed that a unified spatial planning system should be established. In the future development of Changchun New Area, attention must be paid to the sustainable development of land use in the urban fringe area. 5. Conclusions An urban fringe area is a region where both social and environmental problems are concentrated. The identification and evaluation of urban fringe spatial distribution are the foundation for this work. China is in a state of rapid urbanization. On the basis of the land use data extracted from remote


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sensing data, identifying the urban fringe area with SHDI and the breakpoint method is reliable, and the results can be used as a reference for urban fringe studies in other cities. Changchun, similar to other cities, is undergoing rapid growth. In this study, three types of land use data were extracted from remote sensing images. On the basis of the entropy information of land use, the scope of the urban fringe of Changchun City in 1995, 2005, and 2015 was identified with the breakpoint method. The changes in the number of urban fringe areas, the change mode, and the changes in landscape metrics in the urban fringe were evaluated. Policy and planning are the main factors influencing the development of Changchun fringe area. Since 1991, the establishment and construction of three development zones in Changchun have affected the expansion direction of the urban fringe area. From 1995 to 2015, the urban fringe areas mainly extended to the E, SE, and N. The changes in infilling type mainly occurred in the W and SW, and the core conversion areas were mainly in the SE and S. The results from the landscape metrics indicate that the landscape within the urban fringe transformed from fragmentation to regularization, and the development of the urban fringe transformed from a disorderly to an orderly manner. This condition is mainly due to the reduction of available land because the area of urban construction land was controlled by the master plan of the city. The present work hopes to provide basic support for the study of urban fringe social and environmental problems and urban planning. The reasons for the changes in urban fringes differ, and the problems in urban fringe are complex. This study is insufficient for the quantitative analysis of factors affecting urban fringe changes. With historical and fine-scale social and economic data, the reasons and effects of urban fringes are worth studying in the future. Moreover, through the prediction of future urban land use change, evaluating the future changes of urban fringe areas is also meaningful. Author Contributions: S.C. and Q.J. designed the paper. S.C. and Z.W. analyzed the data and wrote the paper. S.X. and M.J. provided suggestions to improve the study and the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Funding: This study is supported by the Chinese National Science Foundation (No. 41371332) and a project funded by the China Geological Survey (DD20160077). Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers and handling editors for their constructive comments. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Extraction and SpatialâTemporal Evolution of Urban Fringes - MDPI

Extraction and SpatialâTemporal Evolution of Urban Fringes - MDPI

Extraction and SpatialâTemporal Evolution of Urban Fringes - MDPI

Extraction and SpatialâTemporal Evolution of Urban Fringes - MDPI