Fertilizer Best Management Practices in Argentina with Emphasis in Cropping Systems Fernando O. Garcia1 and Fernando Salvagiotti2 IPNI Latin America Southern Cone Program,
[email protected] 2 EEA INTA Oliveros (Santa Fe, Argentina),
[email protected] 1
Abstract Crop production and fertilizer use has steadily increased in Argentina in the last 18 years; however, nutrient balances are still negative. Best management practices for fertilizer use (FBMP) include the selection of the right source to be applied, using the right rate at the right time, and in the right place. This paper summarizes the main FBMP in cropping systems of annual crop rotations in the Pampas region of Argentina. Soil testing is the main tool to determine right rates of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in wheat, maize, soybean, and sunflower. Sulfur (S) responses are predicted mainly from field history and management. Urea, CAN or UAN, on surface-before planting, at planting or at tillering have shown similar efficiencies in wheat, however in maize, differences in N use efficiency among N fertilizers have been observed under surface applications, especially at V5-6 as compared to planting applications. Phosphorus fertilization is generally carried out at planting, banding the fertilizer, and the most common P fertilizers (DAP, MAP, TSP or SSP) present similar P use efficiencies. Sulfur fertilizer sources have shown similar S use efficiencies. Gypsum is the most common S source, and its efficiency highly depends on particle size. Research in the Pampas has shown high residual effects of P and S applications. These residual effects may be managed to improve and/or maintain soil fertility conditions, and to design BMPs not only for a current particular crop but also for the rotation. Balanced NPS management not only increased yields but also enhanced several functional indicators such as net return, farmer’s income, nutrient balances, yield stability, ecosystem services (less land to produce similar amount of grain), water and energy use efficiencies , and, finally, the whole system effectiveness. Nutrient management based on scientific principles, the FBMPs, would contribute to social, economic and ecological sustainability of the whole society by making cropping systems more efficient and effective in reaching its main goals of providing food, feed, fiber, and energy, without harm for the environment.
Introduction Crop production in Argentina has steadily increased in the last 18 years from approximately 40 million ton in 1990 to 95 million ton in 2007 (Fig. 1). This rise in crop production is explained by a 60 to70% increase in planting area, and also by a 20 to 30% increase in grain yield per unit area. Soybean has the largest increase rate in both variables among the four main crops (soybean, wheat, maize and sunflower); especially since 1996 when glyphosate-resistant (GR) varieties were adopted. Currently soybean occupies ca. 51% of the total cropped area. Crop production is mainly under no-tillage systems. Recent estimations indicated that more than 65% of the cropping area is under NT in Argentina (AAPRESID, 2007). Approximately 50% of the total cropped land is under annual leasing conditions, a factor that induces soybean monoculture, a low risk option. These conditions restrict the possibilities of the rational management of crop rotations and soil fertility in the long term. Grain yields increases have been attributed to improvements in: i) genetics (new hybrids and varieties, GR soybean, Bt maize, and others), ii) crop management (planting dates, populations, disease and insect management), iii) no-tillage adoption, and iv) fertilizer use.
Production (thousand t)
100000 90000
Other grains Wheat Soybean
Sunflower Maize
80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Fig. 1. Grain production in Argentina, 1990-2007. Source: Secretary of Agriculture (SAGPyA). http://www.sagpya.mecon.gov.ar/. The Pampas region, located at the east-central plains of Argentina, the main grain producing area of the country, includes approximately 70% of grain crops harvested area (Fig. 2). Climate is temperate subhumid with average annual temperature varying from 14 to 18 ºC, and average annual precipitation increasing from the Southwest (300 mm) to the Northeast (1100 mm). Mollisols constitute the dominant soils. The humid and semiarid subregions are characterized by Udolls and Ustolls, respectively, with minor occurrence of Aquolls in flat areas (Moscatelli and Pazos, 2000). In general, soils of the Pampas are deficient in N and P, but well provided with potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) under native conditions. In recent years, S responses have been observed in several crops, mainly in areas under intensive cropping (high grain yields and long periods under row crops agriculture). Fertilizer use Fertilizer consumption in Argentina is close to 1.75 million metric tons N+P2O5+K2O (Fig. 3). The N:P2O5:K2O ratio is of 9:7:1. Grain crops (wheat, maize, soybean, and sunflower) explain 75% of total nutrient fertilizer consumption (Melgar, 2005). Current estimations indicate that 95%, 90%, 50%, and 60% of the wheat, maize, soybean, and sunflower areas, respectively, receive some kind of fertilization (Table 1). Urea and UAN are the main fertilizer N sources. Ammonium nitrate, calcareous ammonium nitrate (CAN), and ammonium sulfate are also used, but to a lesser extent. Among P fertilizers, diammonium phosphate (DAP), monoammonium phosphate (MAP), triple superphosphate (TSP) and single superphosphate (SSP) are the most common sources. In the last years, bulk blending has become a common practice in the Pampas. NP fertilizers and blends are commonly applied at planting, and N fertilization is commonly performed at planting, but sometimes is carried out pre-plant, or top-dressed at wheat tillering or surface-banded at V5-6 maize stage. Sulfur is applied as calcium sulfate (gypsum), single superphosphate, UAN-ATS liquid solution, or ammonium sulfate among other alternatives. Applications of S are done in bulk blends at planting, broadcasting at pre-plant, or topdressing.
28°
Santa Fe 32°
Córdoba
Entre Ríos
36°
Buenos Aires
La Pampa
40°
Map developed with ArcView - ESRI Fig. 2. Location of the main provinces that include the Pampas region of Argentina.
Nutrient consumption (thousand ton)
1750 1500
N
P
S
K
1250 1000 750 500
250 0
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
Fig. 3. Nutrient consumption in Argentina (1993-2007). Ellaborated from data of SAGPyA and Fertilizar AC.
Table 1. Estimated nutrient use for the main four field grain crops of Argentina in 2007. Crop N P Wheat Maize Soybean Sunflower
S
kg/ha
46
15
10
% fertilized area
95
95
50
kg/ha
57
14
7
% fertilized area
90
90
40
kg/ha
-
15
10
% fertilized area
-
50
50
kg/ha
15
9
5
% fertilized area
60
40
10
The application/removal ratios for N, P, K, and S have improved during the last years (Fig. 4), but nutrient balances are still negative. Estimations for 2007 indicate that 48%, 59%, 42%, and less than 2% of the N, P, S, and K, respectively, removed in grains were applied as fertilizer in field crops.
Application/Removal Ratio
This paper summarizes the main best management practices for fertilizer use (FBMP) in cropping systems of annual crop rotations in the Pampas region of Argentina. More information on FBMPs in cropping systems of Argentina are available in Alvarez (2005), Echeverria and Garcia (2005), Garcia and Daverede (2007), and Bianchini et al. (2008), and the proceedings edited by Garcia and Ciampitti (2009).
0.7 0.6
N
P
K
S
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
Fig. 4. Application/removal ratios for N, P, K, and S in Argentina. 1993-2007.
2005
2007
Fertilizer Best management practices in Argentina FBMPs are based on scientific principles, and can be described as the selection of the right source to be applied, using the right rate at the right time, and in the right place (Roberts, 2007; Bruulsema et al., 2008). Fertilizer source, rate, timing and placement are interdependent, and are also interlinked with a set of best agronomic management practices applied in the cropping system. 1. Right rate Many supporting tools have been evaluated in Argentina for deciding the right nutrient rate in maize, wheat and soybean. As an example, Fig. 5 presents the main tools utilized and/or evaluated for deciding the right N, P and S fertilization rates in wheat. Equivalent tools have been evaluated in maize, soybean, and sunflower. 1.1. Nitrogen 1.1.1. Nitrogen Balance Nitrogen balances are used as a first approximation to determine N fertilization needs in wheat and maize in the region (Barberis et al., 1983; Berardo, 1994; Melchiori, 2002). Simplified N balances are based in the following equation: Nf = [(Nc + Nr) – ((Ni/ei) + (Nmin/emin))]/ef where Nf = Fertilizer N Nc = Crop N demand Nr = residual inorganic N at harvest Ni = inorganic N at planting time Nmin = mineralized N ei, emin and ef = use efficiencies of Ni, Nmin, and Nf, respectively The yield goal for a particular site and N requirement per unit yield are used to estimate Nc; Nr is generally considered 0 or as a fraction of Ni; Ni is usually determined at 60-cm depth at pre-planting; Nmin is estimated by using a fixed percentage N mineralization from organic N , or referenced values obtained from laboratory incubations or field experiments (Echeverría and Bergonzi, 1995; Gonzalez Montaner et al., 1997, Alvarez, 1999; Melchiori, 2002). Efficiency factors are highly variable according to crop, soil, climate, and management conditions and might vary between 0.4-0.8.
1.1.2. Crop simulation models (CSM) CSM constitute a promissory tool to manage N efficiently since they integrate soil, plant, and climatic variables for deciding among different management strategies. Researchers from the University of Buenos Aires and AACREA validated and calibrated CERES-Wheat and CERES-Maize in the Pampas region (Satorre et al., 2001; Satorre et al. 2005), and released the software Triguero and Maicero (FAUBA-AACREA, 2005) for decision- support in wheat and maize, respectively. Both software include modules that simulate crop growth, water and N dynamics in the soil-plant system.
Wheat crop stage
Planting
Tillering
Anthesis
Grain filling
Harvest
Soil testing • P (0-20 cm) • Nitrate-N (0-60 cm) • Sulfate-S (0-20 cm) • Other nutrients: Mg, B, Cu, Zn (0-20 cm)
Remote sensing, Chlorophyllmeter readings (Minolta SPAD 502)
Pre-planting
N balances N simulation models
Sap nitrate concentration
Foliar analysis
Grain nutrient concentration
Fig. 5. Diagnosis tools for wheat fertilization evaluated and/or used at the Pampas region of Argentina (Garcia and Berardo, 2005).
1.1.3. Soil available N at planting or during the growing season The evaluation of available (inorganic) N at planting time has been a useful tool to determine fertilizer N needs in sub humid and semiarid regions of the world. In a particular area, the level of available N at planting (NO3-N at 0-60 cm at planting + N fertilizer) above which no response to fertilizer N is expected can be estimated (critical level). This methodology has been calibrated with success in several areas of the Pampas region of Argentina for wheat and maize, Different critical N levels have been obtained according to the crop (wheat or maize), yield goal and soil and climate conditions of the area (Table 2). Nitrogen fertilizer rates (Nf) are then estimated from the difference between the critical level and the amount of NO3--N determined before planting: Nf = CL – X where Nf is the amount of fertilizer N to be applied, CL is the critical level, and X is the amount of NO 3-N in the soil at 0-60 cm depth. Soil N determinations during the growing season have been also calibrated to estimate N fertilization needs for wheat and maize. In wheat, Barbieri et al. (2008) have estimated a critical level of 126 kg/ha nitrate-N, 0-40 cm at tillering for grain yields of ca. 5000-5500 kgha-1 in southeastern Buenos Aires. In maize, several researchers evaluated the pre-sidedress nitrate test developed by Magdoff et al. (1984) in the US. Depending on grain yield and water availability, critical levels above which grain yield response to N is low or nil were 15 to 27 mg/kg nitrate-N at a 0-30 cm depth (Garcia et al., 1997; Sainz Rozas et al., 2000, Salvagiotti, 2004). Recent research has shown that N mineralization determined in short-term anaerobic incubations might contribute to improve the reliability of planting or pre-sidedress soil N tests in maize (Sainz Rozas et al., 2008).
Table 2. Critical levels of available N at planting (NO3--N, 0-60 cm depth) for wheat and maize in different areas of the Pampas with different expected yields. Critical level Expected Area (NO3--N, 0-60 cm Reference yield + fertilizer) -------- kg ha-1 -------Wheat Southeastern Buenos Aires Southeastern Buenos Aires Central and South Santa Fe Southern Santa Fe and Córdoba
125
3500
González Montaner et al., 1991
175
5000-5500
González Montaner et al., 2003
92
3500-4000
Salvagiotti et al., 2004
100-150
3200-4400
García et al., 2006
Maize Northern Buenos Aires
150
9000
Ruiz et al., 2001
Northern Buenos Aires Central and South Santa Fe Southern Santa Fe and Córdoba
150-170 135 162
10000 < 9500 > 9500
Alvarez et al., 2003
150-200
10000-11000
Salvagiotti et al., 2004 Nutrition network CREA Southern Santa Fe, 2009
1.1.4. Plant analysis Total N concentration in plant is not frequently used as a diagnostic tool for deciding N fertilization in wheat or maize in Argentina. Sap NO3- concentration in stems of wheat (González Montaner et al., 1987) and maize (González Montaner and Di Napoli 1997; Sainz Rozas et al., 2001) has been evaluated in different sites in the Pampas region for recommendation purposes, but some difficulties (sample handling and the requirement of local calibrations ) constrain its use as a routine procedure. 1.1.5. Chlorophyll meter Determinations of greenness index (GI) using the chlorophyll meter Minolta SPAD 502 ® have been carried out to determine N status in wheat and maize. The GI varies according to genotype, growth stage, water availability, and soil and climate conditions, as was shown in numerous studies around the world. In order to avoid this variability, a sufficiency index (SI) (SI=GI of the test field/GI of a non-nitrogen limited field) is used. The best correlations of SI and grain yield response to N fertilization are obtained during late stages in crop development (after jointing in wheat, after V10 in maize). Therefore, the potential use of this tool for recommending N fertilization is limited (Sainz Rozas and Echeverría, 1998; León et al., 2001; Gandrup et al., 2004). Likewise, some studies showed strong correlations between SI and grain protein content in wheat, suggesting that chlorophyll meter determinations may be a useful tool for determining late foliar N applications to improve protein levels (Bergh et al., 2001; Bergh et al., 2004). 1.1.5. Remote sensing Crop canopy sensors should sense a large area and integrates the amount of living plant biomass in this area into reflectance reading, which is subsequently transformed in vegetation index values (NDVI). NDVI values obtained in the field must be compared with NDVI values from an adequately fertilized area to determine the relative N status of the crop (Schepers, 2002). In order to make N fertilizer
recommendations algorithms must be derived from N fertilization experiments to predict crop N response. Several algorithms have been derived that calculate N fertilizer application rates based on crop yield potential and the response to additional fertilizer (Raun et al., 2004). On-going research is validating the performance of the sensors/applicators in Argentina, and developing algorithms for its use in wheat and corn (Melchiori, 2007; see http://nue.okstate.edu/Argentina_Wheat_Algorithm.htm).
1.2. Phosphorus The diagnosis of P fertilization is based on soil P-Bray 1 at 0-20 cm determined before planting. Calibrated critical levels vary according to the crop (Table 3). Rates of P fertilization depend on the criteria of the farmer/consultant: i) build-up and maintenance, or ii) sufficiency levels (Echeverría and García, 1998; Ciampitti et al., 2009). Studies in different soils in Argentina indicated rates of 3 to 10 kg P/ha in order to increase soil P-Bray 1 by 1 mg/kg (Rubio et al., 2007; Ciampitti et al., 2009), depending on the initial soil P-Bray 1 level, soil texture, grain or forage P removal, and time from fertilization. Table 3. Critical levels of soil PBray 1 (0-20 cm) for wheat, soybean, sunflower and maize in the Pampas region of Argentina. Critical level Crop Reference (mg/kg) Wheat
15-20
Echeverría and García, 1998; García, 2007
Soybean
9-14
Echeverría and García, 1998; Gutiérrez Boem et al., 2002; Díaz Zorita et al., 2002; Fontanetto, 2004
Sunflower
10-15
Díaz Zorita, 2004
Maize
13-18
García et al., 1997; Ferrari et al., 2000; Berardo et al., 2001; Garcia et al., 2006
1.3. Sulfur Sulfur deficiencies have been detected in the mid 90’s in several areas of the Pampas region. Responses were observed in soils with decreased soil organic matter content, under long cropping history, high soybean frequency, no-tillage management and adequate N and P fertilization (Martínez and Cordone, 2005). These are the best indicators to distinguish responding from non-responding sites since there has been low correlation between soil sulfate-S test and crop S response. In general, S deficiencies for the main crops are moderate. Some studies have shown no yield increases when S fertilizer rates were above 10 kg S ha-1 in maize and soybean (Ferraris et al, 2005; Salvagiotti, 2004) In wheat, recent work has shown that S concentration and N/S ratio in grain and in plant could be used to characterize S deficient fields (Reussi Calvo and Echeverria, 2009). A critical 0.15%S concentration and, a 13.3:1 N/S ratio in grain, and a 15.5:1 N/S ratio in plant have been estimated as predictors of crops responsive to S fertilization (Reussi Calvo et al., 2009). Nutrient use efficiency is a desired goal for fertilizer best management. Studies in wheat indicated that S fertilization improves nitrogen use efficiency by increasing N uptake, and thus reducing the risk of N loss when fertilization is balanced (Table 4) (Salvagiotti et al, 2009).
Table 4. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), N Recovery efficiency (RE) and N Internal efficiency (IE) of wheat crops fertilized only with N (N100) and N + S (N100+ S20). Each value is the average of 2 genotypes in 3 experimental sites (Salvagiotti et al, 2009). Variable
Units
NUE
kg grain per kg applied N
RE
kg N uptake per kg applied N
IE
kg grain per kg N uptake
N100
N100 +S20
8.4
10.7
0.35
0.47
22.7
22.5
1.4. Other nutrients Potassium, calcium, magnesium and micronutrient are not generally deficient in field crops systems of Argentina. However, in the last years, some field trials have shown responses to boron in alfalfa, sunflower, soybean and maize, calcium in alfalfa and soybean, chloride (Cl) in wheat, cobalt and molybdenum in soybean, and zinc in maize (Melgar et al., 2001; Montoya et al, 2003; Ferraris et al., 2005; Garcia, 2008; Fontanetto et al., 2009).
2. Right source, timing, and placement 2.1. Nitrogen 2.1.1. Wheat Research in wheat has shown similar efficiencies when N was applied as urea, CAN or UAN, on surfacebefore planting, at planting or at tillering (Fig. 6). Some reports in the Pampas region showed that ammonia volatilization losses from surface-applied urea or dribbled UAN were less than 10% (Garcia et al., 1999; Fontanetto et al., 2006). The period from planting to the end of tillering is usually dry for most of the wheat producing area of Argentina. Therefore, early N applications usually result in high N use efficiencies (Melchiori and Paparotti, 1996; Díaz Zorita, 2000). However, in areas in the southeast of the Pampas, winter precipitation may increase nitrate leaching, and in several years N use efficiency would be improved by N topdressing at tillering compared to pre-plant or planting applications (Barbieri et al., 2008) (Fig. 7). Late N applications, at pre-anthesis or anthesis, may increase grain protein concentration. Applications of 22 kg N/ha, using low biuret urea solution, has increased grain protein concentration by 1% (Loewy et al., 2004).
2500
Urea
3236 3344 3389
3300 3422
3000
3322
3611 3722 3844
3500
2759
Wheat grain yield (kg/ha)
4000
CAN
2000
UAN
1500 1000 500 0 Check
Planting
Split
Tillering
Wheat grain yield (kg/ha)
Fig. 6. Wheat grain yield for different N sources and timing of application. Split indicates half rate at planting and half rate at tillering. All applications were broadcast at an equivalent N rate of 60 kg N/ha. Source: Baumer, Divito and Gonzalez, EEA INTA Pergamino, Argentina.
9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
*
FP FT
*
MdP MdP 02 03
*
*
*
MdP MdP Balc 04 05 02
Balc 04
*
Balc Tand Tand Tand 05 02 03 04
Location and year Fig. 7. Wheat grain yield for different N application times (FP, at planting: and FT, at tillering) at 10 locations in four growing seasons in the southeastern Buenos Aires province, Argentina. The stars indicate significant differences between FP and FT at each location/year. (Barbieri et al., 2008).
2.1.2. Maize Nitrogen applications to maize are carried out before planting, at planting, or up to V5-6 stage. Research has shown that fertilization around V5-6 usually have greater N use efficiency than early applications (Sainz Rozas et al., 1999). Differences in N use efficiency among N fertilizers have been observed under surface applications, especially at V5-6, because of NH3-N volatilization losses from surface-applied urea (García et al., 1999; Sainz Rozas et al., 1999; Salvagiotti and Vernizzi, 2006). Ammonia-N losses are lower with dribble UAN than surface-applied urea improving N use efficiency. However, all N fertilizer sources show similar efficiencies when they are incorporated in the soil (Fig. 8) (Fontanetto, 2004).
2.2. Phosphorus
8950 8960 8944
7902 7995 8000
8000
7110 7650 7642
Maize yield (kg/ha)
10000
7840 8525 8560
Phosphorus fertilization is generally carried out at planting, banding the fertilizer with or close to the seed (2-5 cm below and/or to the side), depending on planting equipment. In recent years, research has shown that pre-plant broadcast of P fertilizers would be an efficient alternative under no-tillage systems (Bianchini, 2003; Echeverría et al., 2004) (Fig. 9). This pre-plant broadcast applications should follow some considerations : i) System under no-tillage for more than 5 years, ii) Broadcast at least 45 days before planting, iii) P rates of 25 kg P/ha or more and iv) Precipitation greater of 50 mm between application and planting.The most common P fertilizers used by farmers (DAP, MAP, TSP or SSP), present similar P use efficiencies (Ciampitti et al., 2009).
6000 4000
Urea
2000
Broadcast
CAN
UAN Incorporated
0
40
80 40 N Rate (kg/ha)
80
Fig. 8. Effect of N source and application method on maize yield at San Carlos (Santa Fe, Argentina). Applications were carried out at V5 stage. Yield without N was 6720 kg/ha (Fontanetto, 2004).
6687
6337
6391
6428
5934
5224
5068
4856
4694
4459
Wheat grain yield (kg/ha)
6000
4000
2000 Check
P25 Bd
P25 Br
P50 Bd
P50 Br
0 Tandil 2002/03
Necochea 2003/04
Fig. 9. Wheat grain yield for different P placement methods under no-tillage at two field experiments of the southern pampas of Argentina. Rates are indicated as kg P/ha. Bd indicates banded at planting, and Br broadcasted 45-60 days before planting (Echeverria et al., 2004).
2.3. Sulfur Sulfur fertilizer sources such as ammonium sulfate, single superphosphate, magnesium-potassium sulfate (sulpomag), ammonium tiosulfate (ATS), magnesium sulfate, have shown similar S use efficiencies. These sources are applied before planting or at planting in a single application or blended with P or N fertilizers. Gypsum is the most common source and its efficiency highly depends on particle size. Prilled or standard (2-4 mm) gypsum has shown similar S efficiency as other sulfate sources, but when applied in large particles, the low solubility of calcium sulfate results in a low S use efficiency. These sources are suitable for long-term S fertilization programs.
Managing crop and soil nutrition for the rotation Research in the Pampas has shown high residual effects of P and S applications. These residual effects may be managed to improve and/or maintain soil fertility conditions, and to design BMPs not only for current particular crop but also for the rotation. As an example, application of P and S for both, wheat and soybean, when wheat is planted results in similar P and S use efficiency as if both nutrients are applied for each crop (Salvagiotti et al., 2004) (Fig. 10). Long-term research has also showed the effects of nutrient management for different crop rotations in the Pampas The case of the CREA Nutrition Network The CREA Nutrition Network in Southern Santa Fe includes eleven on-farm experiments established in 2000, following a common protocol which includes N, P, and S fertilizer applications which are repeated in the same plots every year, either under a maize-wheat/soybean or a maize-soybean-wheat/soybean rotation (Garcia et al., 2006). Rates of P and S are equivalent to grain P and S removal + 10%, to enhance soil P and S levels. N rates are applied according to local recommendations for high-yielding wheat and maize crops. Results from this network showed an improvement in soil fertility indicators such as residue cover, soil organic matter, and soil Bray P under balanced NPS fertilization. This cumulative fertilization effect
Grain yield (kg/ha)
results in grain yield improvements along the years (Fig. 11). Relative differences between the NPS and the Check increased from 43% to 87%, 58% to 208%, and 6% to 89% for maize, wheat, and double cropped soybean, respectively.
2935
3000
2285
2925
2508 2240
2010 2000
1000
Check NPS Wheat + PS Soybean NPS Wheat+Soybean
0
Wheat
Soybean
Fig. 10. Double crop wheat and soybean yield with different timing of PS applications: all PS requires for both crops at wheat planting, or PS for wheat at wheat planting, and PS for soybean at soybean planting. Averages of seven field experiments at the northern Pampas of Argentina (Salvagiotti et al., 2004).
At the end of this network, the significant residual effects of balanced fertilization have been observed in different sites. For example, the trial at El Fortin site was terminated in 2003/04, and the residual effects of the treatments were evaluated in the following two years (2004/05-2006/07). Similarly, the trial at El Pilarcito site terminated on 2006/07, and the residual effects were determined on the crops in 2007/08 and 2008/09. In both cases, NPS fertilization in the previous NPS and Check treatments followed farmer’s decision after the termination of the experiment. The first two crops that followed after the experience ended showed grain yields 21% to74% greater in the plots that used to be under NPS treatment than in the plots that use to be the Check, despite the fact that these crop received fertilization (Fig. 12). The residual effects decreased in the third and fourth crop at El Fortin (difference of ca. 7 to 14%). The third and fourth crop at El Pilarcito did not show residual effects probably because of the low yields as result of a severe drought. The improved soil fertility condition as result of balanced NPS management not only increased yields but also enhanced several functional indicators such as net return, farmer’s income, nutrient balances, yield stability, ecosystem services (less land to produce similar amount of grain), water and energy use efficiencies , and, finally, the whole system effectiveness. Nutrient management based on scientific principles, the FBMPs, would contribute to social, economic and ecological sustainability of the whole society by making cropping systems more efficient and effective in reaching its main goals of providing food, feed, fiber, and energy, without harm for the environment.
200
Maize Relative yield (%)
180
160
PS
NS NP
140
NPS 120
100 2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
340
Wheat Relative yield (%)
300 260 PS
NS
220
NP 180
NPS
140 100 2001
2003
2005
2007
200
Soybean
Relative yield (%)
180 160 PS 140
NS NP
120
NPS
100 80 2001
2003
2005
2007
Fig. 11. Evolution of relative grain yields of maize, wheat and soybean for different NPS fertilization treatments in a cornwheat/ soybean rotation. Averages for five sites of the Nutrition Network CREA Southern Santa Fe (Argentina), 2000-2008. Relative yields relative to the Check as 100.
El Pilarcito
El Fortin
144 140
174 160 121
120
114
107
Relative yield (%)
Relative yield (%)
200
127 120 101
102
Barley 2008
Soybean 2008/09
100 80
80 Wheat 2004
Soybean 2004/05
Maize 2005/06
Soybean 2006/07
Wheat 2007
Soybean 207/08
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