they engage with the world they are interpreting (Crotty 1998)..This is not to .say that the .... TEA TACTICS. You may like to read the award-winning case stud).
. From "Jo An Ch' introd uct'IOn to public· relations a . . . . . .. . ~. Y Ia an~ Gae Synnott (ei:ls.), ·ch~adpf~~~umcatl?n management" I ... ·..·· ·.. . ·: ::.. . _- J ·' 2012, pp. 259-285 )•
.::-~,·~· :'
.:·_
CHAPTER AIMS By the end olthis chapter you should be able to: '·' describe Mw.stra.tegy is an integral part ol public relations practice understand the key concepts .ol contested space, intentional representation, and
~ meaning ~ intended diflerentiate between functionalist and constructionist approaches to public relations ~
strategy apply a planning model, Irom research through to evaluation
,, develop strategy .to achieve specilic objectives 'll describe the major tactics including specia.l events and sponsorship used within public relations and in what settings they might be uselul.
~~:-~_;.:::~s-?;,~\;=~~~ttri:5~~f~:f:;r~E: _..: .:~;- ·
260
P.O.RT: PUBLIC RELATIONS OPERATIONS AND PRACTICE
Introduction This chapter does more than introduce you to public relations strategy and the tactics important to. the
strategy; itpresents the public relations role as one that is highly strategic in the way that communication is planned to support achievement of the organisation's objectives. A good working definition of strategy in public relations is. that strategy ·is the overarching plan or method by which you are going to achieve a specific goal in a contested environment. Every organisation will require a public relations strategy as the basis ofits communication programs and plans. When you first. encounter some of the language of public -relations you might wonder whether you have. mistakenly enrolled fu military school: words such as 'strategy', 'tactics'; and· 'target' are commonly used in public relations texts. While it is simplistic.to equate public relations activities to military.camp.aigns, the language used in the field reftects'three key concepts in public relations-intentional representation, contested sp_ace and intended meaning.
Intentiona/.representation is where we decide how we want to presentan organisation or some aspect ofits operation. For·example, you may want to position your organisation as the best in.its field. Perhaps you want to promote the: extent to which it supports the local community or maybe you are trying to represent a healthy behaviour as 'the right thing to do'. The intended representation is how you want your-audience·.to perceive the organisation, the issue or the.problem. Much of public relations practice centres on what messages are created. and how responses are shaped in our interactions with .target publics. These messages and responses.are not just the words on the website or in a brochure but comprise everything an orgariisation says'and does. Words, images and actions convey meaning and they convey our organisational intent. But we·can't guarantee that the intendedme.ariing·is the one received by our target publics. This is because messages do·not travel in a linear way through 'clear air'. Instead, they hit contested·space, our second key concept. This contested space is not an easy concept to grasp at first, and in fact does .not ~tin thetransmission (functionalist) model of communication (see Chapter 3). This contested space .is where meaning is constructed, deconstructed, and reconst11JCted. The public relations role is to provide organisations with. 'dynamic and comprehensive methods and processes of intentional. representation in conte~ted sites in which information is exchanged, meaning_constructed·and managed, and consensus;·consent,and!egitimation gained or lost with others' (Berger 1999: 186). The construction of meaning is a dynamic process that involves not just a sender but also the intended and unintended audiences, publics, and communities who construct their own meanings from a range of inputs. Socii!l constructionism claims that mearungs are .constructed by human beings as they engage with the world they are interpreting (Crotty 1998)..This is not to .say that the entire world is totally subjective, but social constructionism· tells us that there are no·universal"interpretations;·there areinstead·interpretations that groups of people or communities accept as useftil and· these stand·over interpretations that are judged by people to serve no useful purpose. This aligns with emerging social constructionist theory in contemporary public relations (for example, Gordon·& Pellegrin 2008; Heide 2009; James 2009; Tsetsura ·2010).
10 STRATEGIES TO PROACTIVELY MANAGE ACTIVITY 261
People.receive inputs in the form of messages from an~organisation. They may also receive messages from the orgariisation's competitors; critics•.supporters.and regulatory bodies or be exposed!!> comment through online discussions. The. messages .they receive about.l:he organisation are very likely not to be just what the organisation is saying because meaning is also .constructed from what actions are taken and .what expectations -itis or is not. meeting. Combine ·these with ·inputs .that people draw from their own experiences and surrounding.environment·and you can see that many inputs will contribute to the construction of meaning. :; Imagine you areworkingJor an organisation suoh:as.the.Australian,Red Cross .Blood Service-and your brief is to.encourage mcyre.peopte·to become blo.od·donors_. Your·strategy"1s,to work lhrough community groups so. you contactcommunity groups to outling the ne.ed for mor~ blood donors. requesting their support tO encourage their members to dC.mate·bLood. ~
REFLECT&. DISCUSS
What happons:to your inten·d~d.m~aning if the.person reading your letter tried to give blood some time ago and found that it really"hurt? Or iftheir neighbour ga;1e blood·once·and fainted? Perhaps they misheard something on the radio a ft}W years back about pee pte-getting diseases from blood donations. Your letter may not deliver your intended outcome:and you may nevo>r know why. especial\;: if 'JOU.designed your 3Cth·ities-with. ~ trJnsmission-style model of communication. Discuss how you might overcome such .barrier5 in ::s campaign.
Transmission models of communication assume that the intended audien_ces are fairly passive. Whether this was everthe·case. is· debatable but ,technologies such as the .internet, which have only been commonly used in Western countries since·the mid-1990s, now require public relations practitioners to assume that intended audiences or publics are anything but passive (for further insight hi to how online audiences engage with and become ·the gatekeepers. of commuriication through social media activity, see Chapter 14).
Intended meaning, the third key·concep_t, is where the public or audience constructs the organiSational message ·and understands the meaning· in the· way. it was intended. With so. much competition ·for audience attention, and so many different frames of. reference: used. by ·audiences as they. construct
meaning. -achieving· this can be quite·a challenge. Public relations .practitioners choose strategies and. tactics that they believe will achieve. the intentional representation andJntended meaning. Charities presenrthemselves to:potential donors as caring and responsible; computer companies position themselves as innovative. A government initiative to· save .water will use different strategies arid tactics from. those used· to promote a music festivaL The .strategies and tactics yo_u choose will be those that have the best chance of ensuring your. target publics accept·your intended representation and construct your intended meaning.. Practitioners need to understand what happens in the contested ·space-where public relationS operates so they can design activities and campaigns to best achieve:these outcomes, Think about a newly e·stablishod not-for-profit organisation, such-as Black Dog lnstitute or the Amanda REFLECT & DISCUSS Young Fo.undation. that has had· to cr:eat~ awareness for 'ts cause. proj~ct its profile and ·Seek. d.onations in a competitive environment with dwindling disposable dollars available. How has the organisalion scught to intentionally represent itself to the publiC? Who·do you think·is its target public?
MEL.ANIE JAMES AND PiWEROBSOio/
262
I'~
P.T : PUBLIC RELATIONS OPERATIONS AND PRACTICE
lQ STRATEGIES TO PROACTIVELY MANAGE ;.r.TIVITY
263
What is strategy? BOX 10.1
Strategy is central to the role and function of public relations, Public relations practitioners work in a competitive environment andstrategyrelates to the concept ofcompetition. The nature ofthe competitive environment isn't always clear at first. If you're working in a commercial environment where you're promoting·the benefits of one product over another, the competition will be obvious. However, even if you're working in an internal communication role or for a not-for-profit organisation, the messages you develop will be competing with a myriad of other messages for attention. You have to work strategically. Strategic public relations managers work to ~provide communication strategies that support the business goals' {Grunig & Grunig 2011: 7). Porter (2008) tells us that strategy is about creating a unique and valuable position and that this involves choosing 'activities that are different to rivals' (p. 53.) This means, for example, if you're developing a safety campaign for employees, you'll need to find a way to make your efforts stand out from rival messages about security of their online messages or changes to their work practices. This increases the ·chances of your .target public paying attention to your messages and constructing your intended meaning. Let's look at another example.Jfyou are promoting a cinema complex, your competitor might seem to·be the other cinema complex in the next suburb. Infact, the competition is more likely to come from the home television or computer, People are not sitting around debating whether to attend one cinema complex or another: more likely they are debating whether to go out at all because staying home may be an attractive option. All these campaigns.operate in contested spaces. Multiple messages are competing for attention and are viewed in relation to each other. There.js competition.forattention and there is a strong possibility that the intended audience may not construct the meaning you want to create. This is where a workable and dynamic public relations strategy can make a difference. A simple analogy is media strategy. Space for editorial in newspapers or coverage on television news is limited and many organisations and ideas compete to be picked up and used in journalists' stories. For organisations; media coverage is important because it puts ·the message jn front of the audience through a credible medium. For example, when Lipton launches a.new range of teas, it could choose to rely solely on advertising to communicate·the message but media coverage provides third-party endorsement of the message and. makes it more credible. Lipton will need to use a strategic approach to target the right media outlets .and choose the right angle to attract media interest. After all, a. new range of teas in itself is not very newsworthy but certain media tactics.(for example, research showing teas boost brain function, a celebrity endorsement or the launch of 'tea cocktail' recipes) could help the message become newsworthy to certain publications. Regardless of the appropriateness and ingenuity of the media tactics, the story is unlikely to end up on the front page of a national newspaper, but it could be ofinterest to food magazines, health publications, lifestyle television shows and the like.
TEA TACTICS You may like to read the award-winning case stud)
cy Impact Communications Australia. on how the lea
a range of strategies and tactics designed for di·:erse
publics-,isit Www.lib.uts.edu.au/gta/?page:show&id=670.
c:ompany. Twinings, reir.vigorated its brand through
Think about a contentioU!:i issue in which public de bat~ i~ happenin9 or likel:l to happen, such os tht?
REFLECT & DISCUSS
pre·1ention of logging of forests in Third World countries. Many differont people or organisations y,oould have a vkw, including nationat go ..·ernment~•. foreslq: c.cmpanics,endronrr:.t:;ntal organisaticns. and the tourism industry.
~ lder.tify thE> intentional repr~s..:nt.:tion .tha-t ecch organisSticn·wriuld present on this iss~ e. .J
What goal would each be trying to achieve in relation to the issue?
~ What message~ {intended meaningsJ would e·ach be trying to communicate? De·:etop one-strategy that' ~ach party could adopt to achieve its intended result.
Word,of-mouth is another way organiSations can gain thirdcparty endorsement and increase the credibility .of their messages. Social media has had a considerable impact oil word-of-mouth because now recommendations can come· from strangers around the world, not just friends and family. However, before you send out your organisation's message via social media, it is crucial to take a strategic approach to your online communication. Considerations such as what social media plaiforms to use, when to update the information, who can respond, what tone. to use and what type ofmessages you post are all important elements of taking a strategic approach to social media. Setting up a Facebook page without having a plan rarely results in an organisation achieving its goals. More likely, the page will become stagnant and fail to gain attention in the contested space. Increasingly, public relations managers invest ·significant strategic effort into search engine optimisation (SEO) and social media optimisation. (SMO). SEO is a process whereby online content is· constructed in a way that raises its chances of being listed at the top of search results. SEQ can be applied to a whole website or toindividual items of content. Social Media Optimisation (SMO) is. where social media elements like blogs or content sharing options are added to web content and where audiences are driven to web content through social media links such as· those on Twitter, Facebook or Tumblr. These SMO tactics operate by driving people to your website,. and they also act to increase the chances of the website content being listed higher up in search results. Driving .audiences to online content that supports your overall public relatimis goals has emerged as an area of high strategic importance. ."1ELAI!IE JAMES AND PF.UE
ROB~ON
264
P.;: potentiat sponsor could be regarded a5·mutuaL benents. Is the return for the potential sponsor sufficient? What else could
a company ask for? Can you see whether there are othcr·benefits that could be obtained for either K;:ren or the potential sponsor?
Developing and managing sponsorship deals is an emerging specialist area of public relations. When executed effectively, sponsorship can deliver excellent .outcomes for all parties.
Sponsorships may be .undertaken for corPorate hospitality whereby a sponsorship provides a means of entertaining clients or internal publics, for example a corporate box at the tennis. or corporate entertainment at the ballet. However, this is a benefit of sponsorship, not a rationale for entering into the sponsorship agreement in the first place.
~
Do you think corporate sponsorship contributes pcsitivP.ly to :ltl e·.:ents'?
....J
Should organisati:::m.r. avoid being spons:.~red by companies that produce prC'Iducts that aE· knc:wn
·~
Vr;u'r(' asked tc consider a·sponsorship for the local rugby team. Your bo~s·s r.an play!: in the team.
REFLECT & DISCUSS
to cause harm. -suer -.:.s gambling or tobacco ccmpanic:~?
Sponsorship is often undertaken on the basis that the positive sentiment around the event, activity, group or individual will transfer to the sponsor. that is, the intentional representation of that event/ activity/group/individual will now also apply to the sponsor brand. This can help the organisation achieve increased awareness in the contested space, enhance their image and build relationships with new publics. However, this transfer of intentional representation doesn't always end well for the sponsoring organisation. Many organisations have been affected by an event, brand, individual or program that has attracted media coverage or social media mentions for the wrong reasons. When adverse publicity occurs, the positive sentiment that was supposed to transfer from the sponsorship can become negative and your organisation can face consumer backlash over the sponsorship. In November 2011, controversial Australian media personality Kyle Sandilands hit the headlines after degrading a journalist on-air after she wrote a negative review of his new television show. The internet and social media exploded with angry comments, many calling for a boycott of sponsors of the Kyle and Jackie
What questionz.. do you ask before muking a decision:·
TACTICS IN FOCUS-CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT Related to sponsorship is the concept of celebrity endorsement. Celebrity endorsement is where an organisation pays a celebrity to promote a brand or product. The growth of celebrity public relations and the celebrity brand is significant. Many female and male film stars seem to have a universal attraction and each country has its celebrity sports stars who promote a range of products and services. The arrival of David Beckham in Japan, Australia, or New Zealand results in a frenzy of media activity. The public relations-marketing mix is evident when the fame and charisma of a soccer star becomes central to the marketing of aftershave lotion, beauty cream, sports equipment, and clothing labels. MELAIIIE JAMES AtiD PRUE ROBSON ·:;_1
276
1G STRATEGIES TO PROACTIVELY ~1ANAGE ACTIVITY
r.;.RT 2 PUBLIC RELATIONS OPERATIONS AND PRACTICE
Celebrity· endorsem.ent can become problematic if celebrities become embroiled. in controversy, resulting in negative stories.and videos appearing on YouTube or other online media. Brand managers may quickly distance themselves and move to the next celebrity for endorsement. But, perversely, brand managers may find that negative publicity increases the awareness of the brand and thus will continue to use that particular celebrity. sometimes even more. Celebrity public relations is a fascinating role for the brand manager and the celebrity's manager, who use strategic management to plan exposur.e and extensive media coverage. But in terms of. overall public relations practice. this is not a primary area of employment or public relations activity even though it is given a great deal of attention in the media. REFLECT&: DISCUSS ::.:
Name the stars who are part of celebrity branding and promotion in your st.Jte or country, or who
have uni·.-ersal appeaL :,J
Are you more inclined to buy th·e products they promote? Why?
~; In 2012, Jennifer Hawkins was named as the new brand.ambassador of Mount Franklin· Lightly Sparkling water. Why do you think she was chosen'! Do you think she was.a good choice?
TACTICS IN FOCUS-SPECIAL EVENTS A special event is any planned activity for an occasion that is outside the regular day-to-day happenings of an individual, orgatlisation, city or country. This could range from a birthday party to Australia Day celebrations. Allen et a!. (2011: 11.:..12) define special events as: 'specific rituals. ·presentations, performances or celebrations· that are consciously planned and created to mark special occasions or achieve particular social, cultural or corporate goals and objectives. Special events. can include national days and celebrations, important civic occasions, unique cultural performances, major sporting fixtures, corporate functions, trade promotions and product.launche5.' Special events are usually classified by event type or size. Shone & Parry (2010) categorise events as leisure/sporting (for example, the Sydney to Hobart yacht race). personal (for example. a dinner party), cultural (for example; the swearing in of the Governor-General) or organisational (for example. a product launch), There is obviously some crossover between categories because the wedding of Prince William and Kate Middleton's in 2011 could be considered a personal, cultural and organisational event aU-inone! Special events can also vary in size and complexity. An intimate lunch with five key journalists could be a special event for one organisation, while a trade expo with over a million delegates could be a special event for another. In this chapter, we are· mostly concerned with organisational events that are undertaken to achieve an organisation's goals and objectives. These events can be aimed at internal or external publics. Internal events such as corporate retreats, staff training da~ or the company Christmas party are often developed to motivate staff and build a strong organisational culture. Some of the reasons for organisational events aimed at external publics are to reward customers, encourage community engagement, increase the organisation's profile in the community, build relationships with new publics, and promote the company's key messages. Events can also be planned to generate media coverage.or generate 'hype'. A stunt, like T"Mobile's flash mob in Liverpool Street Station (lifesforsharing 2009) can be one way to .generate both media coverage and.· social media sharing to promote your brand values in a contested space. For stunts to
277
work. it is important that the idea is new and exciting to the·target public. Flash mobs have been executed many times since, but most have failed to generate the buzz in of the Liverpool Street Station (over 32 million views on YouThbe) without putting a new angle on the tactic. Another way that events can generate media coverage is to hold a specific media event. This could be a media conference about your organisation, unveiling your latest product at a launch party or simply a meet-and-greet so journalists can get to know your organisatiot(s key people. As we have seen it is important to ensure the tactics that you: use are appropriate .to the situationthey must support that strategy and help· to achieve the public relations goals· and objectives that have been set in the planning process. Whenever someone suggests that an event is needed, ask if it truly is the right choice to execute the strategy in the budget and timeframe you have. When planning an event you may need to consider (and budget for) staffing, venue; equipment. catering, entertainment, security. transport,· parking, .necessary permits and regulations, competing events, scheduling, and how you are going to promote the event, .and that is .just the start! Your organisation may find a better return on investment by sponsoring an existing event that helps it meet its objectives ratherthan creating its own event. Another consideration is .sustainability. Events ·can have a large carbon footprint, and measures to reduce or offset this should be considered in the event planning process.. While· the focus in this .section has been on creating events as part of a public relations strategy; pubJic.relations is also undertaken for major events such as theO!ympic Games or the Rugby World Cup. These examples are starid-alone special events that have their own marketing, advertising. sponsorship and public relations teams. as part.of thl public rel.;tions oase studies from tho online Golden Target Award database [see Web resour;;esl. Look at the go•ls, objecti';es, and communicatio~ strategies and identiiy the links bt?t·.tteen them. Then reed the implementation report on how thE: selected tGctics worked to achieve thr desired strategic outcome~. De the stated results in the evuluation !:.ection link directty back to
baselin• employability skills, and seeks to replicate the work environment, building student motivation, punctuality.
Case study
commitment and understanding of What 1s required to succeed in the \'lorld of 'Nork.
having-mea£ 1Jrable objectives? 2
lmagin~ ycu need to dew~ lap strategies and t;Jctic~ for a put. lie relations· campaign de:·;igned to gPt
PUBLIC-RELATIONS-:MARKETING MIX
ycung pcop~e to (:nrol to vote befcre the next federal electiC!n. Oiscu£~ 'Nhat yoi.J think would be th-1 m.:;in challenges in t:ngaging young people's interest In such a campaign.
a
The: goal of such a campaign might be tr: ha\·e nlt elig1btc people enrcU.ed to vote. Write some campaign objective-:. Re·:ie;·, ycur effcrts to ensure that the::,; are specific. me:asurable. achie•:able. resulb-oriented, .Jnd that th~:,.: h.3-.:e il. timeframe for t(lmp:etion. Draft scme kr::t str:~tegies that. give~~ your kno·:.'ledge of young peoptc. might be ·.·:orth cons:dering. Discuss.the:>~ strategies and thr- :actics that would be needed to implement them.
THE BRIEF The Pindan College- Pilbara Business Plan: 2007-2010 identified marketing and profile development as a Key Result Area. Perth-based consullancy The Hub Marketing Communications was hired to develop the marketing communications plan.· Objectives for the plan were to:
~·
1
I
"
~~
-'., >" ~~. .'.
'"'~">:
}:~~~\- ~}-~~;:~-~
create a high profile and brand awareness of the College strengthen the understanding of the College in key markets build sustainable stakeholder rolationshipswith kty markets to strengthen support for the College assist in the attraction of new students for enrolment
develop the foundation templates required for ongoong sustainabiloly of the College.
RESEARCH AT THE PLANNING STAGE As a First step, solid research was required to understand the operating environment. influential stakeholders' perceptions. competitors and possible partners. Qualitative and quantitativ·e research was used to develop a comprehensi·Je
plan. based on real perceptions and gaps. to market the College to key audiences. stakeholders and key influential people. Research ·.vas conducted with the following objectives. to: build and strengthen relationships with key stakeholders to engage them in the establishment of the College identify any issues and challenges currenll)• perceived or existing in the local environment. and potential solutions MELA/./E
J~MES
AIJD PRUE ROBSOII
I
I,~I', l\•''1:~ I 2 PUBLIC RELATIONS ·. . OPERATIONS . . ANO·PRACTICE I !/,.
280.
i:}
f>T·.RAT-EG.IEST·llPRO.:.CTIVELY MANAGE ACTIVITY
281
/I:'·jlfJ/i: I',.;' J 'I
/ .''
/I.' I
I
::I I . 'I
' '.
determine key messages for the first six
the vision and cor& purpose of the Coltege. In
months based on concerns and feedback gained
relation to strategies and tactics. the research:
determine •
th~
key priority areas for action
fine-tuned the communication tools, methods
determine the main perceptions and opinions of
and messages to address key concerns. issues
the College. Stakeholders ·.vere divided into segments based
or gaps in knowledge •
identified current and potential chaltenges
on the1r occupaticn, industrJ and their relationship
and developed solutions. which 'Nere then
·.... ;th the Cotteg~ and then selected for invot·.ement
translated into the communication plan and
based on their relation. input. and le·1t!l of influence and knowledge regarding the education and training landscape in the Pilbara. The research ·,·:a" conducted through face-to-face interviews with thirty-seven stakeholders.
tactics •
informed the deYelopment cf ke:: messages for
•
informed the d&·••lopment of key priori!}' areas for actionas part cf the twelve-month
each target audience Ultlm.ate.l)i what· I do IS: grapple. wt.th 'Jften-hmes
Practitioner profiLe
markr:!ting and communication strategy and
CONTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH TO STRATEGY The rosearch process itself v:as a good public relations tool in communicating to ke;' stakeholders
business plan. Source: Th3nt-.s IJ N1cotte Jenkms and Dr NanC"{ Re:es fc.r prc-.•ding th•s case stu:.:y
MATTHEW GAIN
tough client challenges working. together with some pretwamaz1tig people · t' absoltitety .love what I doc The variety and the ~bility ta·woikwtt.h very srrtart· p~op~e·1s w~at makes n:ae cOme Dac,k ever.y day. :llove·ihe process of commg
~
Matthew Ga:n fs
Oir~ct_or
{!,
Cor;s~rner-
8;-ands·and Q,g,tat
Mafkelmg.a~ Ed~tmon Austr.alta.
For mqre. than a decad~.
Matthew has .led public retanon·s and dig ita! marketing campaigns m l\ostrali3 and •ntermlltonally
!Or teadinq consumer brands svch a':i·Samsung. eBay. N~·us
L•mited, Mkrosoi!, P&G, M3sterCard.XbIS OPEfMTIONS AND PRACTICE
mfluence than "others. 'but the" technology .rneal)5o_ ·al"!ybody whO. cari· tweet can ·n_oV.•
>;J STRATEGIES TO PROACTIVELY M4NAGE ACTIVITY
reauy.any.th11lg To me.this ShOw.s· initiative
and t~ve.nt_lvet:~.ess·; two'skills'lhat:~re really
When everybody can generate global news, public "relatibns skill; ,;hotild be more .Yalued !han e"ver And "there are cou~H~S:S examp_les of' \vhe:r-e· pubhc
Important m:·tfie pro_bter:n-solvu~g·
relations .consullants and smart agencies
ar"e benetitting.llike"to think"that.Edeinian·s recent.mclus1o~ inAd"A.ge·s"ZOJ;1-·A list of t~e ·t'op t_~~-- global mat:ke:t,,n~. ~~~~-ci~s. ·_is e;.r.ld_encE::of. this.-lntere.Sti(lgl}'.-E~eiman.\Vas the ·an~y:p~b,li¢
