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Chapter 35

Mediterranean—S ardinia Isabelle Vella Gregory

35.1 Introduction

Figurines played an active and central role in Sardinian society, where they were central to the conduct of politics and ideology. Appearing at specific points in time in the pre-Nuragic and Nuragic periods, the secondary agency of figurines shaped identity and the conduct of life. While the Neolithic of Sardinia dates to the sixth millennium bc, figurines only appear in the Middle Neolithic (4700–4000 bc). Similarly, while the Nuragic period starts in 2300 bc, figurines in this phase only appear c.900 bc, although this date is subject to debate (Lo Schiavo 1990; Tronchetti 1997). While a visual narrative is present across many periods, the appearance of figurines coincides with changes in social complexity. These highly evocative images are bodies on which aspects of society’s ideology are inscribed. The agency of this inscription is complex, as is the secondary agency pertaining to figurines. Thus, while the repertoire is broken down in categories, this initial disentanglement is important to understand the figurines themselves and their role in society. The repertoire poses many interpretive challenges, due both to incomplete contextual information and to the complexity of the imagery. In both the Neolithic and the later Nuragic period, figurines were important for society’s enactment of memory and an active part of the performance of ideologies. The boundaries between cosmology, and ideology and politics, are blurred at best, and figurines create and maintain the link between the two. Furthermore, the technological processes that underlie figurine production are embedded in a context of shifting power strategies that rely on a visual narrative that is also expressed in monumental buildings of various forms.

35.2 Neolithic and Copper Age Figurines


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800 Isabelle Vella Gregory

Figurines first appear in the Middle Neolithic (Table 35.1, after Tykot 1994). The Middle and Late Neolithic, recognized in ceramic terms as the Bonu Ighinu and Ozieri/San Michele cultures respectively are characterized by village settlements in the coastal lowlands and in the interior valleys along large watercourses. Most Middle Neolithic sites were also occupied in the Late Neolithic, with the appearance of more sites in many interior valleys. Caves remain in use for both habitation and burial but the vast majority of Late Neolithic settlements are open villages. An increase in social and religious complexity is seen from the Middle Neolithic onwards, finding expression in the elaborate domus de janas tombs and figuration. Significant changes in settlement and ritual patterns occur in the Monte Claro (Copper Age) phase. The preceding Abealzu-Filigosa phase is poorly known but there is evidence for the sub-nucleation of previously dispersed Late Neolithic populations (Lilliu 1999; Webster 1996). The pre-Nuragic figurines date to the Bonu Ighinu and Ozieri phases and the Early Bronze Age (Abealzu-Filigosa). The following descriptions are based on Lilliu’s (1999) categorization, but, while some of the existing terminology is used for the sake of continuity in the literature, categories are amended and expanded to take into account figurine context and their role in social relations (Vella Gregory 2006).

Table 35.1 Pre-Nuragic chronology Period

C14 date, bc

Early Neolithic

5700–4700

Cardial I Cardial II Epicardial (Filiestru)

Middle Neolithic

4700–4000

Bonu Ighinu

Late Neolithic

4000–3000

San Michele d’Ozieri Sub-Ozieri

Chalcolithic

Sub-Ozieri Filigosa Abealzu Monte Claro Beaker

3000–2200

Terms such as ‘volumetric’ are employed as descriptors of a group’s physical characteristics, with particular attention being paid to how the body is represented. These figurines acted as secondary agents (Gell 1998) and were crucial to maintaining social relations. The earliest figurines (Bonu Ighinu) are volumetric (Figure 35.1). They are compact, anthropomorphic naturalistic representations distinguished by their curvy lines. The average height for the group is 10.9 cm. The figurines have a variety of facial expressions and all have prominent noses. Headgear, or hairstyles, are generally plain, but two out of twenty have elaborate headdresses (Lilliu 1999). Figurines are either seated or standing, and all have delicate hands and fingers. Arms are usually straight by the sides or flexed, with the hands placed on the stomach or breasts. Some figurines stand out due to their distinctive features. Two figurines from Cuccuru s’Arriu (Hypogeum 386) have elaborate headdresses depicting long strands, possibly of hair, that go below the shoulder. Highly decorative motifs are present just below the crown. These are either clips to hold the hair in place or ornamental pieces. A figurine from Sos Badulesos (Perfugas- Sassari) depicts a person holding a child with both arms. Volumetric figurines do not show any specific sexual characteristics, although they are often labelled as female in the literature (e.g. Antona 1998; Atzeni 1978; Lilliu 1975) on the basis of body fat and a


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Mediterranean—Sardinia 801

Fig. 35.1 Volumetric stone figurine from Cabras, Cuccuru s’Arriu. Height: 18 cm, width: 10.5 cm, thickness: 8.7 cm. (Drawing: copyright R. MacLean.)

general assumption based on goddess worship. However, their attributes are curvy lines and individual facial expression rather than secondary sexual characteristics. Later in date (Early Ozieri), elongated volumetric (Figure 35.2) figurines continue the naturalistic tradition. They range in height from 3 to 7.35 cm. While curvature remains prominent, the compact roundness is replaced by an exaggeratedly elongated head, very narrow waist, and curvy hips. These figurines show an increase in schematization. Noses remain prominent but are longer and more triangular in shape, and there is hardly any variation in facial expression. Arms are always folded just below the chest. Some categories describe single or few finds that exhibit sufficiently unique characteristics. For example, the spatula-shaped figurine from Riparo di Tatinu (Santadi- Cagliari) bears some similarities to the elongated volumetric type in the way the head is represented, whereas the body is a plain rectangle that characterizes Ozieri figurines. Another figurine, described by Lilliu (1999) as a round unperforated plaque, is an oval-shaped stone lacking facial and body features. Its status as a figurine is debatable. In the Ozieri phase figurines are almost exclusively geometric, with an abstraction based on linear forms. Unperforated plaque figurines (Figure 35.3) are cruciform in shape and defined by strict lines. The upper body is a horizontal rectangle depicting shoulders but not arms. These figurines are traditionally described as female due to two small, widely spaced breast-like lumps on the upper body; no genitalia are depicted.


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Fig. 35.2 Elongated volumetric figurine made of bone from Grotta di Monte Meana, Santadi. Height: 7.2 cm. (Drawing: copyright R. MacLean.)

The lower body is a narrow vertical stump which has either a rounded bottom or ends in a narrow vertical rectangle. The face is shown via the eyes and nose or an elongated triangular nose. Facial expression is not noted and the focus is on standardized faces. One exception comes from Grotta di Sa Ucca ‘e su Tintirriolu (Mara-Sassari). This has more rounded, naturalistic breasts, a series of perforated dots forming a C-shape along the side of each breast, and a V-shape on its back. This figurine is made of clay and the nose is consequently pinched rather than elongated. Another exception is a clay figurine from the settlement of Cuccuru Arrius (Cabras), whose lower body possibly depicts a skirt via deeply incised vertical lines. By the sub-Ozieri, figurines are of the perforated plaque (Figure 35.4) type. These range in size from 9.7 to 40 cm. While the body shape can be broadly seen as a continuation, there are important differences. The arms are shown in entirety, with hands (not visible) placed on the hips. The space created by this gesture gives them their perforated plaque name. The shoulders form a broad rectangular upper body, leading to a very narrow waist and a lower stump that can be rounded or arrow-shaped at the bottom. These lack genitalia while breasts are smaller and closer together, and placed higher on the upper body. No facial features are depicted, save for prominent triangular noses. Eyes are only shown on a few figurines. Except for a clay figurine from the settlement of


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Fig. 35.3 Unperforated marble plaque figurine from Turriga, Senorbì. Height: 44 cm, maximum width at the bust: 19.13 cm. (Drawing: copyright R. MacLean.)

Fig. 35.4 Perforated marble plaque figurine from Portoferro, Sassari. Height: 30 cm, width at the shoulders: 10.4 cm. (Drawing: copyright R. MacLean.)


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Conca Illonis (Cabras-Oristano), all bodies are plain. Overall, the body is constrained within strict angular lines. Other figurines are difficult to date and categorize. Six figurines are labelled as male by Lilliu (1999) but they do not form a coherent group. Four clay figurines could be male if the protrusions are interpreted as a penis. One from the settlement of Conca Illonis (Cabras-Oristano) is a now a headless plaque, broken at the arms, with a protrusion that could be a stumpy knob on the lower abdomen or a penis. Another one from the same settlement survives from the waist down and shows a flaccid penis, which is much longer than that of the other figurine from the same settlement. The latter is similar to another male figurine from the settlement of S’Arrieddu (Cabras-Oristano). Finally, a figurine from Cuccuru Arrius (Cabras-Oristano) could possibly be a more complete version of the other fragments, although the genitals are not particularly clear. The other two are completely different and show no indication of genitals. One from the settlement of Su Cungiau is Fundamentas (Simaxis-Oristano) is hourglass in shape with a slightly pointed head. Two deep holes represent eyes and the nose is prominent. The body has straight shoulders, thin arms with hands resting on the belly, a narrow waist, and wide hips. While the head and neck are rounded, the body is mostly composed of straight lines. The other figurine labelled as male is very different. Found in Tomb VII in the necropolis of Serra is Araus (San Vero Milis-Oristano), it consists of a squarish head and upper body. Deep holes denote the eyes and the nose is faintly

represented. This figurine is similar to one from Sa Mandara, which is more complete and has arms visible in profile. Both are made from sandstone. Finally, a curious figurine is labelled Abealzu-Filigosa naturalistic type. This intriguing figurine from the necropolis of Cannas di Sotto (Carbonia-Cabras) measures 6.5 cm and shows a female executed in a naturalistic style at a time when figurine representation is exclusively schematic. The figurine has no facial features, which possibly have been eroded. The head recalls the elongated volumetric type but the neck is prominently shown (Lilliu 1999). The figurine has sloping shoulders, a possibly missing left arm, and the right arm on the waist. Breasts and prominent buttocks are also depicted and the vagina is represented by a deeply incised line. This figurine is not merely intriguing for its different style. The legs seem to end abruptly below the knee and are depicted only as stubs. It also appears that the left arm ends at the elbow. Perhaps this figurine depicts a form of physical disability. The range of materials contrasts sharply with that in the later Nuragic period, where metal predominates. The choice of materials in the Neolithic and Copper Age must be understood in relation to figurine form and is reflective of increasing social control. During the Middle Neolithic we find the widest range of materials: six figurines are made of clay, one of bone, and thirteen of alabaster, chalk, limestone, marl, sandstone, and tufa. Figurines are naturalistic and more rounded. Expressions of difference are seen in bodily decoration, particularly headdresses, but there is a loose broadly defined tradition. Widely available materials are not always used. Indeed, clay is not a material of choice in the later Nuragic period. Bone, also widely available, is used only in the Bonu Ighinu and Early Ozieri. Limestone is used in all phases, except the Early Ozieri. Clay is in use throughout the Neolithic and Chalcolithic but is most widely used during the Ozieri (thirty figurines), followed by marble (fourteen) and various types of stone (five). Marble is also widely used in the Abealzu-Filigosa phase (twenty). There are only two clay figurines, two limestone ones, and twenty-one made of calcite. The range of materials becomes more restricted in the Ozieri and Abealzu-Filigosa phases, when social control becomes more predominant and figurines are rooted in a strictly defined tradition of abstract linearity. During the Ozieri phase the visual landscape is one of imposed order and uniformity. Indeed, the plaque figurines appear alongside Ozieri pots depicting highly schematized ungendered anthropomorphic figures.


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35.2.1 Figurines in their Social Context

The Early Neolithic in Sardinia is lived around caves and rockshelters but also across a sphere of exchange of obsidian from Monte Arci, which is exchanged interregionally and with Corsica, the Tuscan archipelago, and mainland Italy (Tykot 1997). Cardial ware pottery attests to a concern with design and aesthetics, subsequently expressed via figurines in the Middle Neolithic when the inhabited landscape expands significantly to include village settlements on the Campidano plain. While settlement patterns differ somewhat—for example, a preference for caves in the Iglesiente as opposed to caves

and villages in Cagliari—the material culture is fairly homogenous across the island. Faunal assemblages (e.g. from Filiestru Cave [Levine 1983] and Monte Maiori [Foschi Nieddu 1987] in Sassari and Corbeddu Cave, Nuoro [Sanges 1987]) attest to the continued presence of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and prolagus. Frequent finds of ground stone axes suggest more intensive clearing of forests for cultivation, and grinding instruments point to cereal processing (Tykot 1999). Figurines coincide with an increase in agricultural practices but seeing them as solely expressions of fertility would overlook their role in a society increasingly fascinated by different materials, such as shell, chlorite, aragonite beads, greenstone axes, polished stone rings, and bracelets. By the Late Neolithic we have two main ways of life on Sardinia: the homogenous Ozieri culture and the Arzachena culture of Gallura, which is characterized by megalithic funerary circles. Ozieri settlements are mainly open-air sites found across the entire island, with a flourishing agricultural economy seen via numerous grindstones, mortars and pestles, storage vessels, and tools. Obsidian continues to be important, particularly in the sphere of exchange (Tykot 1999), and copper and silver first appear in the Late Ozieri (Lo Schiavo 1989). Ritual is centred around collective megalithic tombs, the domus de janas, of which some 2,500 are known throughout Sardinia. Many of the larger tombs contain a range of painted and carved motifs, mostly bulls’ heads or horns, and features imitating village huts. Some of these domus remain in use in the Early Copper Age, and allées couvertes and megalithic chamber tombs are built. These structures are less architecturally complex and smaller than the domus. From now until the Late Copper Age there is a reduction in size and elaboration when building new tombs. The precise depositional context of figurines is not always clear, but Table 35.2 shows the general context. Middle Neolithic figurines are generally found in settlements, whereas Ozieri figurines sometimes appear in funerary contexts but overwhelmingly in settlements. The main shift in depositional context occurs in the Abealzu-Filigosa phase, when figurines are mostly found in reused domus de janas. This deposition is very significant. The body is defined by very strict lines and a high degree of conformity, and placed in a locale linked with the past. Neolithic and Early Copper Age figurines allow us to trace the development of social relations via the body. They are also indicative of power, particularly the power to determine bodily inscription, which becomes much more apparent in the Nuragic period. The body is key to identity formation and expression. In the Middle Neolithic difference is conveyed via personal touches and a wide range of materials. Much of this activity occurs in a settlement context. The settlement setting for images remains important until the Ozieri phase, but at this time there is an increase in schematization, although it is expressed via a fairly wide range of materials. Eventually, images shift to a funerary context, increasing schematization and a limited range of materials, marking a significant change in the collective habitus. The arena of social relations shifts from the household to old tombs, which provide clear material traces of linkages with the past and the construction of a social relationship based on genealogical memory. The body was an interface between several domains: the biological and the social, past and present.


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Sex

ambiguous

female

mostly female

all female

Phase

Bonu Ighinu

Early Ozieri

Ozieri

Abealzu- Filigosa

perforated plaque

unperforated plaque

elongated volumetric

volumetric

Shape

schematic

schematic

partly schematic

facial features, similar bodies

Detail

majority in necropoleis

majority in settlements

small sample, possibly mostly settlement

small sample, mostly settlement

Context

Increase in trade

Neolithic; cultivation more intensive; cereal processing.

Other

very few clay, significant numbers in marble

menhirs with daggers; precursor to LCA walled settlements

varied, but mostly clay Increase in trade

limited

high variability

Material


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Table 35.2 Figurine deposition and associated socio-economic events

35.3 Nuragic Figurines


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While figurines were an integral part of Late Neolithic and Early Copper Age life, they disappear from society until the later Nuragic period. When they reappear they are almost exclusively made out of metal using the lost wax technique, with a few stone figurines from Monte Prama. They are not, however, the first metal objects. Metal is first worked in the earlier Ozieri and Abealzu-Filigosa phases. The lack of figurines is a conscious choice, as is the decision to produce over 500 bronze figurines (bronzetti) in phases III and IV of the Nuragic period. These evocative figurines need to be understood in terms of the longue durée and secondary agency—that is, they are the immediate other in various social relationships and play a role in initiating events (Gell 1998). They appear at a time of changes in social organization and are placed in locations where people congregate, making them important elements of the performance of ideologies. Their materiality is essential in articulating messages of political and cosmological significance. Their bodies, by virtue of similar elements and marked difference, are key elements of later Nuragic identity. From c.2300 bc, nuraghi, large stone towers, dominate the Sardinian landscape and archaeology (Table 35.3). These are set in a diverse landscape comprising mountains, coast, lowlands, plains, and valleys. The end of the Nuragic period is conventionally dated to the Carthaginian conquest in 500 bc, but the beginning is more problematic. Nuragic I is sometimes dated to 2300 bc or 1800 bc. The beginning of the period is hard to determine because the Late Copper Age and Early Bronze Age remain difficult phases to understand. It is widely accepted that the Early Bronze Age (Bonnannaro) forms the genesis of the Nuragic period and is referred to as Nuragic I or proto-Nuragic. Nuragic I is characterized by small, dispersed farmsteads associated with megalithic tombs and collective burial. Settlement consists of open settlements in the Campidano lowlands and some of the middle uplands, and caves and proto-nuraghi. The latter are the most numerous and are mostly found in the middle upland regions of west-central Sardinia. They are characterized by a platform made of dry-laid cyclopean masonry with a circular, elliptical, rectangular, or irregular plan and interior corridors leading to

Table 35.3 Nuragic chronology Phase

Appellation

Date, bc

Nuragic I

Early Bronze Age

2300–1800

Nuragic II

Middle Bronze Age

1800–1300

Nuragic III

Late Bronze Age

1300–900

Nuragic IV

Early Iron Age

900–500

flat upper surfaces. They are sometimes accessible from an exterior staircase and often have remains of small round or rectangular huts (Lilliu 1988). Nuragic II sees the appearance of the first ‘true’ nuraghi, a reduction in the number of open settlements and continued occupation of proto-nuraghi. There are around 7,000 tholos nuraghi [monumental towers of dry-laid cyclopean masonry] still visible, and many more are thought to have existed (Lilliu 1982, 2005). Their defining feature is the corbelled chamber (tholos) that rises to a narrowing vaulted ceiling. While Early Bronze Age (EBA) practices continue, there was a proliferation of Giants’ Stelae are a prominent component of the tombs, which all have a forecourt comprising a bench, a hearth, and pits for offering. It has been hypothesized that Giants’ Tombs were used to demarcate territorial borders (Trump 1990; Webster 1991, 1996). Considered the apex of Nuragic ‘civilization’, Nuragic III is marked by significant changes in social complexity. Many proto-nuraghi and tholos nuraghi were significantly enlarged with the addition of battlements and large surrounding villages. Metallurgy expanded significantly and Sardinia became more involved in Mediterranean trade. Webster (1996) has identified four main settlement types. Types I–III are types of nuraghe, while Type IV is a generic category that refers to open settlements lacking nuraghi. Ritual structures are also varied and include megalithic tombs, ‘megaron’ temples, sacred wells, and water temples. Giants’ Tombs continue to be used and some new ones are built (Moravetti 1984). The connection between water and ritual is very important in the Late Bronze Age and sites undergo extensive architectural elaboration lasting well into the Iron Age. Nuragic IV was a period of profound changes. Described by Lilliu (1988: 417) as the ‘season of the aristocracies’, it saw the arrival of the Phoenicians and significant shifts in settlement patterns. Some settlements were abandoned, while others engaged in direct contact with the Phoenicians, who established settlements in various parts of the island. The metallurgical industry expanded further. The structure of social organization is much debated, with interpretations ranging from chiefdoms and oligarchy (Webster 1996) to a society of aristocrats, warriors, and commoners (Lilliu 1982, 1988). Settlement types and bronzetti are central to the debate. The latter offer an important insight into Nuragic society and show that a rigid systemic classification based on scales of architecture alone is insufficient. Bronzetti offer a nuanced interpretation of society in Nuragic III and IV. Many of these visually striking figurines have found their way onto the art market. They also tend to be categorized on the basis of art historical notions. In the past, many were excavated using methods appropriate at the time, leading to a further loss of context. A few have been found in nuraghi and many are found in well-temples and sanctuaries. The corpus can be broken down into five categories for ease of understanding, following Tronchetti (1997), who builds these based on the body and its attributes. This classification is expanded based on a more nuanced understanding of the body and different configurations of social and bodily symbols. Some terms, such as signa of war, capotribù, and orant gesture are used for the sake of continuity in the literature and should not be read literally. In particular, signa of war is symptomatic of an interpretive approach that posits a warrior class or elite, but is used here merely to denote an array of weapons and body armour. The categories are denoted C1, C2, and so on (see Table 35.4).


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Table 35.4 Characteristics of bronzetti


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Category (C) Human Signa C1

Gammadion- Orant hilted dagger gesture

Difference/ Approximate Capotribù oddities Labour quantity

✓

100

C2

✓

✓

C3

✓

✓

C4

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

C5

✓

✓

✓

C6

✓

C7

✓

> 100

✓

< 20

> 100

✓ (varies)

✓

✓

> 100