From Globalization to Glocalization: Rethinking English Language

English as a Global Language Education (EaGLE) Journal: Vol. 1 No.1 (2015) 47-63 © Foreign Language Center, National Cheng Kung University & Airiti Press Inc. DOI:10.6294/EaGLE.2015.0101.03

From Globalization to Glocalization: Rethinking English Language Teaching in Response to the ELF Phenomenon Wenli Tsou1

Abstract This position paper proposes that the notion of glocalization can provide valuable insights into English as a lingua franca (ELF) in the practice of English language teaching worldwide. Glocalization shares some common grounds with ELF, which is an emerging phenomenon in which localized expressions used by non-native English users achieve a measure of legitimacy. This work will first situate Taiwan’s English education in the context of globalization as an example, before moving on to a discussion of the glocalization of the English language, and the need for glocalizing education policies and practices. This paper concludes by highlighting some of the implications which glocalization has for English language teaching and teacher education in Taiwan. Keywords: globalization; glocalization; English as a lingua franca (ELF); English language teaching (ELT); teacher education

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Professor, Department of Foreign Languages & Literature, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan. Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected]

48 EaGLE Journal 1(1), 2015

1. Introduction Along with globalization, English has established itself as the world’s common language for academic and business interaction, becoming the international language of choice, or lingua franca (Bamgbose, 2001; Graddol, 2006; Murata & Jenkins, 2009). Meanwhile, a recent phenomenon, commonly known as English as a lingua franca (ELF), has ushered in a paradigm shift in which the status of native-speaking English as the Standard, or the perfect language model, has been rethought, thus leading to the gradual acceptance, or legitimization, of localized varieties of English (Murata & Jenkins, 2009). This new perspective is revolutionary in that non-native speakers of English are becoming empowered: they are ELF “speakers not learners” (Mauranen, 2007, p. 1). In other words, no longer are localized uses of the English language viewed as errors or deficiencies; rather, they are considered to be unique varieties with their own rights. The growing phenomenon of ELF, without a doubt, has strong implications for the users of English as a foreign or second language. For instance, non-native speakers need not feel inferior when they cannot produce native-like accents. They now have some flexibility to use English in any way as long as the communicative objective is achieved. As a result, when English is used as an international language, its usage is being enriched by users all over the world, and the varieties of English are expanding beyond the traditional British and American forms of English. Despite the excitement created by this new phenomenon, consensus on the optimal direction of this evolution in global English has yet to be reached. A review of literature reveals several practical considerations. For one, many teachers, learners, and users of English alike have expressed a continuing need for a standard (Modiano, 2001; Trudgill & Hannah, 2002). Without a common reference, such as the role that British and American English have traditionally played, it is difficult for English teachers to know what to teach or how to assess student performance. Another consideration that renders the pedagogy of English teaching difficult is the question of how English teachers should integrate local varieties of English into the English learning curriculum.

From Globalization to Glocalization: Rethinking English Language Teaching in 49 Response to the ELF Phenomenon

The phenomenon of ELF shares some common grounds with the notion of glocalization, a concept popularized by sociologist Roland Robertson (1995), who refers to glocalization as “the simultaneity– the co-presence–of both universalizing and particularizing tendencies” (Robertson, 1995, p. 25). The tension between globalization and localization was also observed by Swales (2004), who defined the phenomenon of glocalization as “a bifurcation away from the historically powerful nation state in two directions: one upward towards a world increasingly dominated by multinational corporations and international and supranational entities ... and one downward (as it were) towards regional aspirations, niche marketing, local involvements” (p. 11). In short, both ELF and glocalization are similar in their conception of the combination of global ideas with local considerations. The phenomena of ELF and glocalization have several implications for English language teaching in Taiwan. In order to understand how glocalization has affected English language education on the island, this article first examines how English education in Taiwan has responded to globalization, before moving on to discuss the glocalization of the English language, where the phenomenon is most visible, and then extending the discussion of glocalization to its impact on education and pedagogy. The examination of the glocalization process of English will yield a better understanding of how English is used and adapted in all its cultural contexts. Finally the impact of glocalization on English language teaching and teacher education in Taiwan will be discussed. In response, this paper proposes that recognizing the existence of glocalization may provide some insights into the best ways to practice English teaching in an ELF context, and help Taiwan’s English users find a legitimate role in which they can contribute to the way English is taught and learned in Taiwan.

1.1 Globalization and English education in Taiwan: A solid example Globalization started in Taiwan as early as in the 17th century. Since that time, Taiwan has been under the global influences of many


colonizers including the Dutch and Spanish, the Chinese dynasties, Japan, and then the Nationalist Party from China (Wang & Kuo, 2010). With Taiwan’s exposure to multiple cultures and with its growing international trade activities with many parts of the world, it has become increasingly important that the Taiwanese people become capable of using English to communicate internationally. Thus English instruction has become an increasingly important subject in the country’s education curriculum. Since the 1950s, English has been a mandatory subject for junior high students and above (W.-F. Tsai, 2010). In 2002, compulsory instruction was expanded to elementary school (Li, He, Tsou, Hong, Curdt-Christiansen, & Huong, 2011). Since 2003, English proficiency has been included as a graduation requirement for colleges and universities in Taiwan. Education policy was established by Taiwan’s Ministry of Education (MOE), who also established a list of recommended proficiency tests (Pan & Newfields, 2012). Because of the close economic ties between Taiwan and the United States, American English has been the language model in education. As a result, Taiwanese learners have strived to attain native-like American English proficiency (Tsou & Chen, 2014). In the Taiwanese education system a standard is important because students’ English learning is mostly test-driven: students are regularly tested for reading skills, vocabulary, and grammar. In a test-centric curriculum students learn not for communication, but for knowing the correct answers, which can only come from having a standard. The consequence of such a system is that students value accuracy over fluency. They believe that a good speaker of English is one who speaks like an American. To them, American English enjoys a prestigious status unlike other English varieties (Tsou & Chen, 2014). The problem with the system is twofold. First, students who do well in English tests may not be able to use the language for communication. Due to the lack of opportunities for using English in daily lives, most college graduates are unprepared for career opportunities in which English is a necessity. Even students from prestigious Taiwanese universities may find themselves deficient in communicating in English for professional purposes.


The other problem with the test-driven system in English learning is that deviations from the standard are viewed as errors, and not as attempts at compensation or negotiation. In a study which college students from a leading Taiwanese university were asked to rate the properness of several localized English expressions commonly spoken by Taiwanese speakers of English, only one (“long time no see”) out of the twelve expressions are considered acceptable by students (Tsou & Chen, 2014). Phrases such as “I think I can’t” and “look up the dictionary,” regarded by Bolton (2008) as “Chinese Pidgin English,” are examples of expressions which Taiwanese college students are reluctant to use. Globalization has presented Taiwan’s education system with both an opportunity and a threat. In a globalized world, English is no longer an academic subject in which to excel, but a necessary tool for academia and for non-academic workplaces. With the world becoming more connected than ever, college students in Taiwan, regardless of their test performances, must be able to use the language in real situations in order to excel in the globalized workplace.

1.2 Glocalization of the English language The notion of glocalization was f irst used to describe how multinational product or service companies, with an aim to global expansion, adapt to specific local cultural conditions (Robertson, 1995). Famous examples of glocalization in the workplace are global food and beverage companies that operate in many different parts of the world: McDonald’s, KFC, and Starbucks, to name a few. These companies revised their menus according to local tastes (e.g., McDonald’s rice burgers and KFC’s Chinese style breakfast puff pastry). As international brands begin operations in different markets, products and services are not the only areas to be glocalized. Starbucks coffee shops offer localized merchandise, and their bulletin boards display news of local events. Although the glocalization of English has been identified in different parts of the world, it is worth noting that not all localization is for international communication only. Aboriginal Australia developed global


and local norms, or English variations, for intercultural and intracultural purposes (Sharifian, 2010). That is, the global norm is used when communicating with people outside of the countries, while the local norm is employed by people of different tribes within the countries. In Singapore, where citizens have various first languages, glocalization of English has been observed, despite the government’s attempt to specify the roles of its citizen’s mother tongues (the Asian languages) and English as a global language (Alsagoff, 2010). The separation of these two types of languages has proven impossible; in reality, cultural mixing and a two-way flow of the languages have led to a global-local variational continuum of English, in which speech displays degrees of variation, rather than either the standard or non-standard end (Alsagoff, 2010). Several localized varieties spoken by Chinese users of English have also been observed. Shi’s (2013) study presents a continuum of glocalized Englishes: from the lowest (in terms of acceptability) Chinese Pidgin English, to Chinglish, Chinese English, and on to China English, the last version being closest to Standard English (Shi, 2013). According to Shi (2013), the least acceptable varieties, Chinese Pidgin English and Chinglish, are considered “bad English,” and the somewhat acceptable variety, Chinese English, is considered beginners English. These versions, containing undesirable interference from Chinese, are commonly viewed as erroneous and deficient. Examples of Chinglish are strange expressions that do not comply with Standard English norms. They are often misspellings or literal translations of Chinese language. However, as Shi (2013) pointed out, some Chinglish could also have evolved from advertisements with unconventional usage which were created for a specific purpose such as to attract the attention of English-speaking customers. Localized expressions in the Chinglish variety may also include usage that reflects Chinese mindsets. The language may sound unfamiliar to native speakers of English, but are familiar to Chinese readers. For instance, a sign in the park may say, “The little grass is sleeping. Please don’t disturb it,” which shows how nature is anthropomorphized in Chinese (Shi, 2013, p. 116). In English, it would have been “Keep off


the Grass.” Finally, the most accepted variety is China English, a kind of hybrid which, proponents claim is “the English used by the Chinese people in China, being based on Standard English with Chinese components including its lexicon, syntax and discourse” (Li, 1993, as cited in Shi, 2013). Despite the Chinese government’s efforts, it looks like both Chinglish and China English will strive and continue to penetrate the English language. According to an article published in the China Daily in 2013, The Oxford English Dictionary, widely acknowledged to be the most authoritative and comprehensive record of the English language, has about 1,000 words of Chinese origin, one such example being taikonaut, a hybrid of space in Chinese (taikon), and naut as in astronaut (Jin & Chen, 2013). The same article also quoted the CEO of Global Language Monitor (2008), a consultancy that specializes in global trends and their subsequent impact on various aspects of culture, who predicted that the Chinese language will continue to be a prime driver of the globalization of the English language (Jin & Chen, 2013). With internationalization of businesses becoming the norm, glocalization of the English language is expected to affect not only intercultural but intracultural communication. Following the expansion of Western multinational corporations, many Chinese companies are looking to expand internationally. These aspiring companies, most of which are high-tech and were founded by professionals who have international education and experience, and which aim to recruit international talent, are likely to mandate English as an official corporate language. This means that English will begin to play a role in intracultural communication in Chinese economies. With time, localized varieties will be used and accepted.

1.3 Glocalization of education While glocalization is most evident in international businesses, the process of glocalization in academia is also taking place in response to global forces. For example glocalization has appeared in academic dialogue discussing how educational leaders could best respond to the phenomenon. A study by Brooks and Normore (2010) revealed an interconnection


between worldwide discourses and local educational practices and policies, and showed how academic leaders are called to incorporate a glocal perspective in educational policy making. As a result educators around the world are beginning to recognize that globalization is influencing local educational practices, and are preparing to address the consequence of such an evolution. In their article, Brooks and Normore (2010) identify nine specific domains in which the glocal perspective is most needed: the political, economic, cultural, moral, pedagogical, information, organizational, spiritual and religious, and temporal literacy domains. Examples of glocalization in educational practices can be found in several areas of academic research. In medical education in particular, where medical knowledge has been both localized and universalized due to globalization, Hodges, Maniate, Martimianakis, Alsuwaidan, and Seqouin (2009) urged that medical schools must critically examine the globalization of discourse in medical education and embrace differences and discontinuities found in different countries. Weiss (2014) pointed out that, while the establishment of standards is likely to contribute toward universalizing tendencies, academic leaders must recognize that professional knowledge and practices tend to cross borders in many different ways and to develop new forms (p. 10). Glocalization also has implications in the education, theory, and practices of human resource (HR) management (Snider, 2013). In the area of employer branding, the trend for multinational corporations is to create a strong local employment brand, so that local employees can relate themselves to, and be involved with, the larger company culture. In their efforts to create a stimulating work environment, it is important for corporations to build a locally relevant workplace so that employees’ traditions and preferences are respected. Finally, in the area of talent recruitment, each market should understand the needs of local talents so that they can attract and retain young professionals. For Snider (2013), glocalization in HR means that multinational companies need to reduce the number of American executives assigned to branches; instead, resources should be spent to recruit and develop local leaders.


Glocalization has also been observed in Taiwan art education. Related educational policies have undergone glocalized changes and adaptation in response to outside influences, and in the process, Taiwanese arts have developed unique glocalized qualities (Wang & Kao, 2010). Since 1987, when Taiwan’s martial law was lifted, students began to learn about local histories, folk art traditions, and local dialects, as well as gaining exposure to ideas developed internationally such as postmodernism, feminism and post-colonialism (Wang & Kuo, 2010). As a result, the term glocalization is representative of the art experience and practice in Taiwan. These are but a few examples on how glocalization has impacted education in Taiwan. These examples also serve as a reminder to both education leaders and teachers that new policies and teaching practices must be developed to address both global and local needs.

2. Responding to Glocalization Extending the dialogue of glocalization from education in general to English as a foreign language (EFL) pedagogy, we see that the notion could help add insights into how English is taught in Taiwan. The following discussion proposes several possible implications related to ELF teaching and teacher education.

2.1 ELF teaching In language teaching, glocalization means that both global and local perspectives are considered in curriculum development. This paper suggests that the notion of glocalization should be introduced in higher education because this is the time when most students have acquired an adequate understanding of the English language to begin using the language in their English and subject classrooms. This is also when most college students in Taiwan meet and interact with international students. Thus this is the prime time for students to develop awareness of various variations of the English language used by people from different parts of the world. For a start, introducing glocalization may mean that the instruction of


grammar includes comparisons of Mandarin Chinese and English. Whereas primary and secondary school students memorize English vocabulary and grammatical rules for examinations, once they are in college they are expected to begin using English in their academic studies, and in their interaction with international students. A cross-cultural understanding of language helps students learn to negotiate the meaning of, and to effectively use, the English language for communication. When parallel corpuses in English and Chinese are compared, they show that two common English grammatical structures are lacking in Chinese: these include the less frequent use of the passive voice and the non-existent use of the past perfect tense (Lu, Tsou, & Chen, 2014). Given such usage differences, teachers may wish to highlight the occasions when the passive voice is used. For instance, the passive voice is commonly seen in the methodology section of journal paper writing when research procedures are described. The passive voice is also used for rhetorical purposes such as when the speaker wishes to focus on the event and not the person who did the act. Glocalization may also mean that teachers could consider deemphasizing the teaching of the past perfect form if students do not need to use it for their studies or career. Glocalization can also mean that conventions for academic writing could be given allowance to accommodate local tendencies. One example is that, for medical students in Taiwan, most of their medical records often begin with the patient’s medical history (Lu et al., 2014). This tendency in writing is different from the traditional case report format found in international journals such as The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM). In comparison to the standard opening sentence in NEJM’s case presentations, which read “an x-year-old patient was admitted/seen at this hospital for (symptoms or illness),” most medical notes written in Taiwan began with the patient’s medical history (e.g., A 75 y/o female has hypertension, CAD/1-V-D s/p PCI, and history of right corona radiata infarction and gastric ulcer). Note that the NEJM’s format implies that the writer is taking the point of view of the physician and the hospital, whereas the writing convention of Taiwanese doctors suggests a more patient-


centered approach (Lu et al., 2014). While journal paper submissions must comply with certain guidelines, in this instance, glocalization means that English and content teachers learn to be more open-minded about various forms of expression. In curriculum planning, local influences may be highlighted so that students become aware of the way that languages influence each other. Vocabulary teaching could include hybrid words to show how Chinese and English have infiltrated each other. Examples of English words with Chinese origins are typhoon, gung ho, and kowtow, while examples of phrases include lose/save face, paper tiger, and barefoot doctor. A recent addition to the English language from Taiwan has to do with its famous export of bubble tea (also known as pearl milk tea), now a drink popular in many countries. While the hybrid vocabulary might not appear in college English textbooks, these words can be taught in lessons that aim to help students recognize how glocalization has shaped the English vocabulary, and learn to appreciate the input of Chinese words in the English language. As students develop an awareness of the mutual influence between Chinese and English, they can gradually learn to accept Chinese-influenced English expressions and begin to take pride in introducing their own culture. A glocally revised curriculum should include tasks that teach students how to introduce Taiwanese culture through English in the context of tourism and the creative industries. For example, in classrooms students could do research and presentations about the internationally renowned Cloud Gate Dance Company, which has performed and won awards in international arts festivals in New York, London, Moscow, Melbourne, and other parts of the world. In the area of teaching English for the workplace, it is even more important to discuss glocalization of the English language in Taiwan’s businesses. As mentioned in the previous section, English has gradually become an intracultural communicative tool in Taiwan’s high-tech industry. While spoken English is used by Taiwanese mostly for intercultural communication, many high-tech companies in Taiwan have required that (or at least, encouraged) all written communications (emails, power point


slides, proposals, reports, etc.) be done in English. According to English teachers who work with engineers from the high-tech industries, in many contexts English has been appropriated to facilitate such intracultural communication. One example of glocalized use is using the word “co-work” as a verb for working with or cooperating with someone (e.g., I co-worked with him on this project). Another example is the use of join (e.g., Would you like to join the meeting/party?). The more commonly used expression would be Would you like to come to the meeting/party? In describing problems, it is also common for engineers in hitech companies to overuse the verb suffer and the verbal phrase suffer from frequently in their weekly reports (e.g., The machine suffered from frequent breakdown). The glocalization of written English in Taiwan, for intracultural communication, should be introduced in higher education to prepare students for the workplace. Although the usage is not standard, teachers of career English can help college graduates expect, and be more prepared to deal with, various usages when they encounter them. For curriculum revision, also important is intercultural skill training so that Taiwanese users of English can acquire knowledge of other societies and cultures, can develop positive attitudes toward non-standard varieties, and can possess much needed sensitivity to cultural differences (Byram, 2000). Intercultural skill development means experiencing global exposure to different English usages as well as learning to be open-minded so that we do not inadvertently look down on expressions used by non-native speakers of English that do not conform to Standard English norms. Also important is learning interpretation skills in non-verbal communication in crosscultural interaction. This training can help learners avoid stereotyping various kinds of users, while minimizing miscommunication among users.

2.2 ELF teacher education In a similar manner, policies and practices in EFL teacher education should reflect the notion and implications of glocalization so that English teachers, especially those in higher education, are better prepared for the trend. In addition to providing students with a knowledge of English,


intercultural skill training should be an important element of the teacher training curriculum. When English teachers acquire a global perspective and cross-cultural understanding, they can develop awareness and intercultural competence as to how English is used as a lingua franca by people from different parts of the world. In view of how glocalization has reoriented HR management theories and practices (discussed earlier), English teachers could benefit from a reorientation of learning objectives: it is suggested that they be careful not to place too much emphasis on correctness, usually based on American English standards, but should teach their students to accept and appreciate varieties of English (Y.-R. Tsai & Tsou, 2014). As the global workplace must respond to glocalization, the language classroom should be redesigned to become a place where students can gain exposure to multiple voices and localized expressions of English (Crystal, 1997; Rogerson-Revell, 2007). More importantly, English teachers in Taiwan should be encouraged to participate in the glocalization process. Instead of resisting, teachers should take ownership and pride in localized expressions. As local employees assume leadership in multinational company branches, English teachers, equipped with global mindsets, could be instrumental in integrating local culture and preferences into English teaching, and thus help to formulate a localized variety of English which in turn enriches the scope and content of the international language of English. In actual classroom practice, English teachers can try the following approaches: raising the awareness of English varieties; integrating activities for cross-cultural communication; including discussions about the globalization of English in class; introducing discussions about international etiquette; discussing different aspects of Taiwanese culture; and providing opportunities to make comparisons between Taiwanese culture and foreign cultures. Glocalization has impacted the English language in many ways, and the implications of these changes must be noted by English teachers through training. Although the present discussion focuses on EFL in higher education, it is the belief of the researcher that English teachers from K-12 and higher education all need to understand how the English language has


undergone changes in the past decade so they can in turn help students adjust their mindsets and embrace the exciting changes which are taking place in the English language.

3. Conclusion Given the definition of glocalization as meaning “the simultaneity– the co-presence–of both universalizing and particularizing tendencies” (Robertson, 1995, p. 25), the transformation of the English language in different parts of the world is a representation of glocalization. In the process, the global, universalizing, aspects of British and American English are interwoven with the local particularizing aspects of localities. In the process, accommodations are made according to cultural conventions, thus transforming the English language from a global language into a glocal language. As the glocalization of English has become an indisputable and irreversible phenomenon, the process has affected how English as a language is used by speakers of different cultures. As speakers of English from different parts of the world use English for intercultural and, to a lesser degree, intracultural communication, more localized expressions are expected to be created, and gradually accepted. Referencing to local accommodations made by multinational companies and international academic communities, this paper calls for curriculum updates in language teaching and teacher education so that English users in Taiwan can be equipped with knowledge of societies and cultures, an open mindset to accept other varieties of English, and language skills needed to facilitate communication in the ever-changing global workplace. Glocalization is a notion of crucial importance to all users of the English language who wish to take advantage of educational opportunities and social mobility in today’s globalized world. Learning English should no longer be seen solely as an academic pursuit, but rather as a vital skill. Its aims should include the ability to understand and be understood, whether the need is for basic vocabulary to give directions to a tourist or to acquire a


more professional vocabulary to be able to be a high-stakes negotiator. The phenomenon of glocalization calls for a strategic renewal in our approach to curriculum planning and teacher training so that these activities include localized aspects of the English language as well as an increased focus on cross-cultural understanding. When Taiwanese users’ language capacity is effectively developed for this new global language context, Taiwanese speakers of English will gain a competitive edge in realizing their educational and career aspirations.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by grants from the Ministry of Science and Technology as well as National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan. The author would like to thank Prof. Kao Shin-Mei, Prof. Liu Gi-Zen and Prof. Fay Chen for their incisive comments and insightful feedback on an earlier version of the article.

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