1.7 Bibliography. 34. 2 Our progress appears to ... 2.7 Bibliography. 66. 3 Commercial near-Earth ... 6.3.3 India exploration history. 270. 6.3.4 Japan exploration ...
Paul A. Czysz and Claudio Bruno
Future Spacecraft Propulsion Systems Enabling Technologies for Space Exploration (Second Edition)
Fublisned in association with
Springer
Praxis Publishing
Contents
Preface
xi
List of figures
xv
List of tables Introduction
xxiii 1
1
Overview 1.1 The challenge 1.1.1 Historical developments 1.2 The challenge of flying to space 1.3 Operational requirements 1.4 . Operational space distances, speed, and times 1.5 Implied propulsion performance 1.6 Propulsion concepts available for Solar System exploration . . . . 1.7 Bibliography
11 11 12 13 15 18 23 28 34
2
Our 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
35 35 36 41 43 52 59
progress appears to be impeded Meeting the challenge Early progress in space Historical analogues Evolution of space launchers from ballistic missiles Conflicts between expendable rockets'and reusable airbreathers . Commercial near-Earth launchers enable the first step 2.6.1 On-orbit operations in near-Earth orbit: a necessary second step
63
vi Contents 2.6.2
2.7
Earth-Moon system advantages: the next step to establishing a Solar System presence 2.6.3 The need for nuclear or high-energy space propulsion, to explore the Solar System 2.6.4 The need for very-high-energy space propulsion: expanding our knowledge to nearby Galactic space 2.6.5 The need for light speed-plus propulsion: expanding our knowledge to our Galaxy Bibliography
65 65 66 66 66
3
Commercial near-Earth space launcher: a perspective 3.1 Energy, propellants, and propulsion requirements 3.2 Energy requirements to change orbital altitude 3.3 Operational concepts anticipated for future missions 3.4 Configuration concepts 3.5 Takeoff and landing mode 3.6 Available solution space 3.7 Bibliography
69 73 75 78 80 93 97 103
4
Commercial near-Earth launcher: propulsion 4.1 Propulsion system alternatives 4.2 Propulsion system characteristics 4.3 Airflow energy entering the engine 4.4 Internal flow energy losses 4.5 Spectrum of airbreathing operation 4.6 Design space available—interaction of propulsion and materials/ structures 4.7 Major sequence of propulsion cycles 4.8 Rocket-derived propulsion ' 4.9 Airbreathing rocket propulsion 4.10 Thermally integrated combined cycle propulsion 4.11 Engine thermal integration 4.12 Total system thermal integration 4.13 Thermally integrated enriched air combined cycle propulsion . . . 4.14 Comparison of continuous operation cycles 4.15 Conclusions with respect to continuous cycles 4.16 Pulse detonation engines 4.16.1 What is a pulse detonation engine? 4.16.2 Pulse detonation engine performance 4.17 Conclusions with respect to pulse detonation cycles 4.18 Comparison of continuous operation and pulsed cycles 4.19 Launcher sizing with different propulsion systems 4.20 Structural concept and structural index, ISTR 4.21 Sizing results for continuous and pulse detonation engines 4.22 Operational configuration concepts, SSTO and TSTO
Contents vii 4.23 Emerging propulsion system concepts in development 4.24 Aero-spike nozzle 4.25 ORBITEC vortex rocket engine 4.25.1 Vortex hybrid rocket engine (VHRE) 4.25.2 Stoichiometric combustion rocket engine (SCORE) . . . . 4.25.3 Cryogenic hybrid rocket engine technology 4.26 Bibliography Earth orbit on-orbit operations in near-Earth orbit, a necessary second step 5.1 Energy requirements 5.1.1 Getting to low Earth orbit: energy and propellant requirements 5.2 Launcher propulsion system characteristics 5.2.1 Propellant ratio to deliver propellant to LEO 5.2.2 Geostationary orbit satellites sizes and mass 5.3 Maneuver between LEO and GEO, change in altitude at same orbital inclination ~. . 5.3.1 Energy requirements, altitude change 5.3.2 Mass ratio required for altitude change 5.3.3 Propellant delivery ratio for altitude change 5.4 Changes in orbital inclination 5.4.1 Energy requirements for orbital inclination change . . . . 5.4.2 Mass ratio required for orbital inclination change 5.4.3 Propellant delivery ratio for orbital inclination change . . 5.5 Representative space transfer vehicles 5.6 Operational considerations 5.6.1 Missions per propellant delivery 5.6.2 Orbital structures .'. 5.6.3 Orbital constellations 5.6.4 Docking with space facilities and the International Space Station 5.6.5 Emergency rescue vehicle with capability to land within continental United States 5.7 Observations and recommendations 5.8 Bibliography Earth-Moon system: establishing a Solar System presence 6.1 Earth-Moon characteristics 6.2 Requirements to travel to the Moon 6.2.1 Sustained operation lunar trajectories 6.2.2 Launching from the Moon surface 6.3 History 6.3.1 USSR exploration history 6.3.2 USA exploration history
6.3.3 India exploration history 6.3.4 Japan exploration history Natural versus artificial orbital station environments 6.4.1 Prior orbital stations 6.4.2 Artificial orbital station 6.4.3 Natural orbital station Moon base functions 6.5.1 Martian analog 6.5.2 Lunar exploration 6.5.3 Manufacturing and production site Bibliography Patent literature on MagLev Websites on MagLev
Exploration of our Solar System 7.1 Review of our Solar System distances, speeds, and propulsion requirements 7.2 Alternative energy sources: nuclear energy -. 7.3 Limits of chemical propulsion and alternatives 7.3.1 /sp and energy sources 7.3.2 The need for nuclear (high-energy) space propulsion . . . 7.4 Nuclear propulsion: basic choices 7.4.1 Shielding 7.5 Nuclear propulsion: a historical perspective 7.6 Nuclear propulsion: current scenarios 7.7 Nuclear reactors: basic technology 7.8 Solid core NTR 7.9 Particle bed reactor NTR 7.10 CERMET technology for NTR 7.11 MITEE NTR 7.12 Gas core NTR 7.13 C. Rubbia's engine 7.14 Considerations about NTR propulsion 7.15 Nuclear electric propulsion 7.16 Nuclear arcjet rockets 7.17 Nuclear electric rockets 7.18 Electrostatic (ion) thrusters 7.19 MPD thrusters 7.20 Hybrid/combined NTR/NER engines 7.21 Inductively heated NTR 7.22 VASIMR (variable specific impulse/ magneto-plasma-dynamic rocket) 7.23 Combining chemical and nuclear thermal rockets 7.24 Conclusions 7.25 Bibliography
Stellar and interstellar precursor missions 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Quasi-interstellar destinations 8.1.2 Times and distance 8.2 The question of / sp , thrust, and power for quasi-interstellar and stellar missions 8.3 Traveling at relativistic speeds 8.4 Power sources for quasi-interstellar and stellar propulsion 8.5 Fusion and propulsion 8.5.1 Mission length with / sp possible with fusion propulsion . 8.6 Fusion propulsion: fuels and their kinetics 8.7 Fusion strategies 8.8 Fusion propulsion reactor concepts 8.9 MCF reactors 8.10 Mirror MCF rockets 8.10.1 Tokamak MCF rockets 8.10.2 An unsteady MCF reactor: the dense plasma focus (DPF) rocket 8.10.3 Shielding 8.10.4 Direct thermal MCF vs. electric MCF rockets 8.11 Fusion propulsion—inertial confinement 8.11.1 Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion 8.12 MCF and ICF fusion: a comparison 8.13 Conclusions: Can we reach stars? 8.14 Bibliography
375 375 377 381
View 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5
437 439 447 453 458 458
to the future and exploration of our Galaxy Issues in developing near- and far-galactic space exploration . . . Black holes and galactic travel Superluminal speed: Is it required? Conclusions Bibliography
Appendix A Nuclear propulsion—risks and dose assessment A. 1 Introduction A.2 Radioactivity A.2.1 Alpha decay A.2.2 Beta decay A.2.3 Gamma rays A. 3 Radiation and dose quantities and units A.3.1 Activity (Bq) .; A.3.2 Half-life (s) A.3.3 Absorbed dose, D (Gy) A.3.4 Equivalent dose, H (Sv) A.3.5 Effective dose, E (Sv)
Appendix B Assessment of open magnetic fusion for space propulsion . . . . B.I Introduction B.2 Space fusion power: general issues B.2.1 Application of fusion for space propulsion B.2.2 Achievement of self-sustained conditions B.2.3 Design of a generic fusion propulsion system B.2.4 Mass budget B.2.5 Specific power B.2.6 Fusion power density B.2.7 Specific power a: summary B.3 Status of open magnetic field configuration research B.3.1 Classification and present status of open magnetic field configurations B.3.2 Mirror configurations B.3.3 Field-reversed configurations B.3.4 Spheromaks B.3.5 Levitated dipole B.4 Further studies on fusion for space application B.4.1 Technology B.4.2 Specific design studies B.5 Fusion propulsion performance B.6 Conclusions / B.7 Bibliography '