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Area, 2015, 47.4, 350–353, doi: 10.1111/area.12218
Geography, urban geomorphology and sustainability Mary Thornbush Department of Geography, Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1 Email:
[email protected] Revised manuscript received 18 July 2015 This introduction to the special section of Area ‘Geography, Urban Geomorphology and Sustainability’ provides an overview of the key landscapes and common themes in urban geomorphology (centred upon urban rivers, karst landscapes and the weathering of buildings) within the six papers comprising the special section. First, urban geomorphology is defined geographically confined to areas of concentrated urbanisation, where the natural environment is anthropogenically modified and where natural processes modify anthropogenic structures. A novel approach to sustainable urban geomorphology is developed through the case studies comprising the special section. These clearly illustrate key contemporary issues within the field and a long-term perspective, considering future as well as historic human–environment associations and modifications. Key words: Anthropocene, human impacts, environmental change, urbanisation, case studies
Introduction Human impacts on the environment can result in disturbance and increasing vulnerability in the landscape (e.g. Pikelj and Juracˇic´ 2013), affecting ecosystem services, environmental health and ultimately sustainability. Anthropogenic impacts have been considered ecologicalenvironmental pressures that can be linked with population growth, as in southwest China (Huang et al. 2008). Such pressures may affect the economy, particularly in relation to the ecosystem services provided by the natural environment (Bohnet and Pert 2010). The interconnected nature of natural and anthropogenic systems calls for multivariate analysis that recognises their equal importance and integrates the environmental, ecological, economic and social components (Martínez et al. 2007). Questions regarding landscape change, resilience and sustainability are clearly relevant and appropriate to study using innovative holistic approaches that may provide novel solutions to natural and societal problems. Such holistic approaches are widely integrated within geological and geomorphological studies (e.g. Glasser 2001; Skilodimou et al. 2003). This allows multiple elements of the landscape to be addressed and considered simultaneously (cf. Price 2011), such as streamflow characteristics, channel morphology, the
effect of vegetation cover removal from urban streams and the combined effect on land drainage and flood risk (Skilodimou et al. 2003). Increasing recognition of the interconnected nature of many anthropogenicenvironmental issues is encouraging natural scientists (such as hydrologists and geomorphologists, and physical geographers more widely) to work with social scientists (such as economists and human geographers) and practitioners (such as environmental regulators, town planners and policymakers) to develop integrated interdisciplinary frameworks to address contemporary research needs. The process of urbanisation has had a profound effect on the environment and has significant implications for the rate and nature of physical processes (Steele et al. 2014). Urbanisation has resulted in major changes to land-use patterns and has modified the nature of the environment, for example through the increase in temperatures within cities associated with the phenomena of urban heat islands (e.g. Wilby 2003). Landscapes that have not been influenced by society are increasingly difficult to discern, and ‘cultural landscapes’ are recognised as reflecting human–nature interactions (e.g. Käyhkö and Skånes 2008; Thornbush 2013). Softer, more sustainable approaches to management and the conservation of landscape features are becoming more common. These include bioengineering techniques replacing traditional
The information, practices and views in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG). © 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
Geography, urban geomorphology and sustainability hard-engineered structures, which enable natural sediment transport processes for replenishment, in the design of stable channels, rather than relying on rock armour layers, gabions or the use of concrete (Byars and Kelly 2001); similarly, developments are taking place in a range of different geomorphological settings (Martínez et al. 2007; Price 2011; Pueyo Anchuela et al. 2015). Urban geomorphology is a rapidly developing interdisciplinary area of research that examines the effects (positive and negative; direct and indirect) of urbanisation on natural landforms (geomorphology) and anthropogenic structures (urban morphology), the processes controlling their development in a given area, and how natural processes, such as weathering, may modify anthropogenic structures (buildings and other urban infrastructure). The papers contained within this special section examine a range of aspects of urban geomorphology and sustainability from an interdisciplinary geographical perspective. It is increasingly recognised that such an approach is required within the field of geomorphology to ensures that its methods and results are more appropriately applied in management (cf. Gregory et al. 2008) and able to generate research that is relevant, as has occurred with the study of human impacts on the environment, such as karst landscapes (Poulos et al. 2000; Andriani and Walsh 2009; Arnous and Green 2011; Beckers et al. 2013). Similar interdisciplinary approaches have been successfully applied in many areas, particularly ecological studies centred on river systems (Biron et al. 2014), agriculture (Rhoads et al. 1999) and the effects of natural hazards (cf. Bathrellos et al. 2012; Armas 2012; Arnous and Green 2011). Such an integrated and interdisciplinary approach is critical for research within the time-frame of the Anthropocene (time since notable urban impacts were evident, and linked with the onset of industrialisation in most countries), such as fluvial geomorphological responses (Downs et al. 2013), and provides an intradisciplinary bridge to physical and human geographical research. It is also possible to undertake research at a range of spatial scales through the application of GIS techniques (e.g. Lamelas et al. 2009; Vijay et al. 2011; Berhane and Walraevens 2013), remote sensing and satellite imagery (e.g. Xu and Ji 2014) as well as model-based approaches, such as digital elevation models – DEMs (e.g. Wang et al. 2015). Urban geomorphology is relevant to a wide range of geographical topics across a range of landscapes, including natural features that have been affected by urbanisation that appear as studies in this special section, including karst landscapes (Martín-Díaz et al. 2015) and urban rivers (e.g. Shuker et al. 2015). A number of these papers specifically address problems associated with urban expansion and development (Martín-Díaz et al. 2015; Randall and Baetz 2015). In the first paper, Thornbush (2015) revisits the
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effects of a traffic abatement strategy within central Oxford, UK, 16 years after its implementation. The results indicate that the Oxford Transport Strategy (OTS) improved local urban environmental health, measured using limestone weathering as an assessment tool (indicator) of historical buildings located in the city centre. The second paper outlines the use of a tool for the assessment and quantification of urban sprawl (Randall and Baetz 2015). The land-use diversity index (LDI) model is used to measure urban sprawl within different districts in Ontario, Canada. The results provide a much finer spatial resolution than currently available measures of urban sprawl, and may help city planners in their quest for smart urban growth.The third paper (Martín-Díaz et al. 2015) highlights how rapid post-war urban development in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) is unsustainable. The paper focuses on the geomorphological risks associated with construction as a post-Socialist urban process. The authors contend that the unsustainable urban development recorded is a direct consequence of the inappropriate placement of vulnerable social groups as well as neoliberal urban development policy. The remaining three papers in the special section outline the results of detailed investigations of urban rivers. Two of the papers specifically address how urban rivers may be physically restored, with the first presenting the results of a unique community-led stream naturalisation project of peripheral greenfield streams in Melbourne, Australia (Sammonds and Vietz 2015). The second study demonstrates the utility of the Urban River Survey (URS) method for monitoring hydromorphological responses to river restoration in England, and how this may be used to help fulfil requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive (Shuker et al. 2015). The final paper highlights the naturally dynamic nature of riverine systems and the wide range of factors that influence their development, and how this may be influenced by urbanisation. This knowledge is used to develop channel evolution models that do not require regular anthropogenic maintenance as a way to underpin the sustainable restoration of urban streams (Booth and Fischenich 2015). The papers included in this special section illustrate interest in sustainable urban geomorphology (also as conveyed in a special issue by Hudson et al. 2015) that operates at a range of spatial and temporal scales and has international relevance across Europe, North America and Australasia. These papers illustrate that more socially aware and informed perspectives can be achieved within physical geography. This cross-/interdisciplinary approach allows fundamental concepts, such as landscape and particularly urban landscapes, to be conceptualised from diverse perspectives. It is increasingly recognised that physical geography needs to be more effectively considered and integrated in relation to anthropogenic modiArea 2015 47.4, 350–353 doi: 10.1111/area.12218 © 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
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fications to the natural environment, with humans deliberately and inadvertently modifying the environment. This will provide stronger connections with human geographers and provide cross-disciplinary and interdisciplinary opportunities to further research in both the physical and social sciences. By 2007, half of humanity occupied urban areas, and the process of urbanisation continues at such a pace that it is anticipated that approximately 70 per cent of the global population will be located in cities by 2050 (Population Reference Bureau 2015). This trend is likely to continue and place increasing pressure on both natural and urban landscapes. It is, therefore, vitally important that exciting areas of research, such as urban geomorphology, continue to grow, flourish and reach out to other researchers within and beyond physical geography in recognition that the future of the environment is inextricably linked with humans and that the urban environment represents an ever-growing part of that domain. References Andriani G F and Walsh N 2009 An example of the effects of anthropogenic changes on natural environment in the Apulian karst (southern Italy) Environmental Geology 58 313–25 Armas I 2012 Multi-criteria vulnerability analysis to earthquake hazard of Bucharest, Romania Natural Hazards 63 1129– 56 Arnous M O and Green D R 2011 GIS and remote sensing as tools for conducting geo-hazards risk assessment along Gulf of Aqaba coastal zone, Egypt Journal of Coastal Conservation 15 457–75 Bathrellos G D, Gaki-Papanastassiou K, Skilodimou H D, Papanastassiou D and Chousianitis K G 2012 Potential suitability for urban planning and industry development using natural hazard maps and geological–geomorphological parameters Environmental Earth Sciences 66 537–48 Beckers A, Dewals B, Erpicum S, Dujardin S, Detrembleur S, Teller J, Pirotton M and Archambeau P 2013 Contribution of land use changes to future flood damage along the river Meuse in the Walloon region Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 13 2301–18 Berhane G and Walraevens K 2013 Geological and geotechnical constraints for urban planning and natural environment protection: a case study from Mekelle City, northern Ethiopia Environmental Earth Sciences 69 783–98 Biron P M, Buffin-Bélanger T, Larocque M, Choné G, Cloutier C-A, Ouellet M-A, Demers S, Olsen T, Desjarlais C and Eyquem J 2014 Freedom space for rivers: a sustainable management approach to enhance river resilience International Management 54 1056–73 Bohnet I C and Pert P L 2010 Patterns, drivers and impacts of urban growth: a study from Cairns, Queensland, Australia from 1952 to 2031 Landscape and Urban Planning 97 239–48 Booth D B and Fischenich C J 2015 A channel evolution model to guide sustainable urban stream restoration Area 47 408– 21 Area 2015 47.4, 350–353 doi: 10.1111/area.12218 © 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
Byars M S and Kelly M 2001 Sediment transport in urban stream restoration Bridging the gap World Water Congress, American Society of Civil Engineers/ASCE 1–10 Downs P W, Dusterhoff S R and Sears W A 2013 Reach-scale channel sensitivity to multiple human activities and natural events: lower Clara River, California, USA Geomorphology 189 121–34 Glasser N F 2001 Conservation and management of the Earth heritage resource in Great Britain Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 44 889–906 Gregory K J, Benito G and Downs P W 2008 Applying fluvial geomorphology to river channel management: background for progress towards a palaeohydrology protocol Geomorphology 98 153–72 Huang Q, Cai Y and Xing X 2008 Rocky desertification, antidesertification, and sustainable development in the karst mountain region of Southwest China Ambio 37 390–2 Hudson P, Goudie A and Asrat A 2015 Human impacts on landscapes: sustainability and the role of geomorphology Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 59 1–5 Käyhkö N and Skånes H 2008 Retrospective land cover/land use change trajectories as drivers behind the local distribution and abundance patterns of oaks in south-western Finland Landscape and Urban Planning 88 12–22 Lamelas M T, Hoppe A, de la Riva J and Marinoni O 2009 Modelling environmental variables for geohazards and georesources assessment to support sustainable land-use decisions in Zaragoza (Spain) Geomorphology 111 88–103 Martín-Díaz J, Nofre J, Oliva M and Palma P 2015 Towards an unsustainable urban development in post-war Sarajevo Area 47 376–85 Martínez M L, Intralawan A, Vásquez G, Pérez-Maqueo O, Sutton P and Landgrave R 2007 The coasts of our world: ecological, economic and social importance Ecological Economics 63 254–72 Pikelj K and Juracˇic´ M 2013 Eastern Adriatic Coast (EAC): geomorphology and coastal vulnerability of a karstic coast Journal of Coastal Research 29 944–57 Population Reference Bureau 2015 Human population: urbanization (http://www.prb.org/Publications/Lesson-Plans/ HumanPopulation/Urbanization.aspx) Accessed 11 July 2015. Poulos S E, Chronis G Th, Collins M B and Lykousis V 2000 Thermaikos Gulf coastal system, NW Aegean Sea: an overview of water/sediment fluxes in relation to air–land–ocean interactions and human activities Journal of Marine Systems 25 47–76 Price K 2011 Effects of watershed topography, soils, land use, and climate on baseflow hydrology in humid regions: a review Progress in Physical Geography 35 465–92 Pueyo Anchuela Ó, Casas Sainz A M, Pocoví Juan A and Gill Garbí H 2015 Assessing karst hazards in urbanized areas. Case study and methodological considerations in the mantle karst from Zaragoza city (NE Spain) Engineering Geology 184 29–42 Randall T A and Baetz B W 2015 A GIS-based land-use diversity index model to measure the degree of suburban sprawl Area 47 360–75 Rhoads B L, Wilson D, Urban M and Herricks E E 1999 Interaction between scientists and nonscientists in community-based
Geography, urban geomorphology and sustainability watershed management: emergence of the concept of stream naturalization Environmental Management 24 297–308 Sammonds M J and Vietz G J 2015 Setting stream naturalisation goals to achieve ecosystem improvement in urbanising greenfield catchments Area 47 386–95 Shuker J L, Moggridge H L and Gurnell A M 2015 Assessment of hydromorphology following restoration measures in heavily modified rivers: illustrating the potential contribution of the Urban River Survey to Water Framework Directive investigations Area 47 396–407 Skilodimou H, Livaditis G, Bathrellos G and Verikiou-Papaspiridakou E 2003 Investigating the flooding events of the urban regions of Glyfada and Voula, Attica, Greece: a contribution to urban geomorphology Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography 85 197–204 Steele M K, Heffernan J B, Bettez N, Cavender-Bares J, Groffman P M, Grove J M, Hall S, Hobbie S E, Larson K, Morse J L, Neill C, Nelson K C, O’Neil-Dunne J, Ogden L, Pataki D E, Polsky C and Chowdhury R R 2014 Convergent surface water distributions in US cities Ecosystems 17 685–97
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Thornbush M J 2013 Introduction: archaeogeomorphology (geomorphology, culture, and place) Applied Geography 42 155–6 Thornbush M J 2015 Building health assessed through environmental parameters after the OTS in the city centre of Oxford, UK Area 47 354–59 Vijay R, Sharma A, Ramya S S and Gupta A 2011 Fluctuation of groundwater in an urban coastal city of India: a GIS-based approach Hydrological Processes 25 1479–85 Wang T, Belle I and Hassler U 2015 Modelling of Singapore’s topographic transformation based on DEMs Geomorphology 231 367–75 Wilby R L 2003 Past and projected trends in London’s urban heat island Weather 58 251–60 Xu X and Ji W 2014 Knowledge-based algorithm for satellite image classification of urban wetlands. International Conference of Computational Methods in Sciences and Engineering 2014 (ICCMSE 2014) AIP Conference Proceedings 1618 285–8
Area 2015 47.4, 350–353 doi: 10.1111/area.12218 © 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
