The paper explares the respanses of one group of people living in the Pacific Islands following their connection to Pactok, an early computer mediated ...
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Getting wired A Pacific islands study Wesley Ward and Dirk Spennemann ABSTRACT
The paper explares the respanses of one group of people living in the Pacific Islands following their connection to Pactok, an early computer mediated communication (CMC) system. In early 1997,56 Pactok users in five countries-Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu--answered a predominantly quantitative survey on why they used Pactok, including possible dependent and intervening variables that influenced this use. Survey results indicated that Pacific Islanders used CMC differently from non-Pacific Islanders, as did groups of organi,sations. The groups also accessed different sources and types of information and used different Pactok features. The small population limited any extrapolation of survey results to other situations in the Pacific and other developing regions. However, the case study demonstrated that PlC citizens were more likely to search local and regional information sources and use Pactok '5 more interactive features than non-PlC citizens. This group mostly used e-mail and file transfer and searched for information from intemational sources, contrary to the aims of the project established to disseminate CMC in the region. INTRODUCTION
Wesley Ward teaches in the Division of Communi·
cations and International Relations at Charles Sturt
University and Dirk Spen-
nemann teaches in the School of Environmental and Information Sciences
at Charles Stur! University.
omputer-mediated communication (CMC) has been used in the Pacific since the 1970s_ It was first available for civilian use in the Pacific Islands through the US PEACESAT system (Okamura & Van Dusen-Mukaida 1995)_ An Australian-based system, Pactok, was developed in the 1980s as an inexpensive electronic mail (email) and conferencing system for non-government organisations, or NGOs (Pactok 1997)_
C
The Internet grew rapidly in the Pacific Islands during the 1990s_ Between January 1995 and January 1999, for example, the number of Internet host machines in Fiji increased from 5 to 214 (ISC 1999)_ During this time, national Internet providers were established in Pacific Island countries (PICs), allowing wider access to the World Wide Web_ Getting wired 91
CMC, DIFFUSION, AND THE DETERMINISM DEBATE Diffusion theory, originally posed by Rogers and Kincaid (1981), was developed to explain how technology was disseminated. It was modified by Rogers (1986) to explain .the rapid dissemination of CMC from developed to developing countries. Rogers (1995) grouped the initial users of technology into 'innovators' and 'early adopters', who often promoted the technology to later adopters.
Rogers further modified diffusion theory, which was originally based on disseminating agricultural technologies, to account for differences between CMC and other technologies and for social influences on technology. He assumed that CMC: • requires a critical mass of users before individuals can adopt the technology • is often re-invented and modified to suit the groups using it, and • is better measured for effectiveness by degree of use rather than rate of adoption. Critical theorists such as Sussman arid Lent (1991) disapproved of early diffusion theories, including that of Rogers, claiming that the theories supported the dominating image of Western modernisation, cultural imperialism, and technological determinism. Social determinists maintain that societies created needs for technology, and that each technology is imbued with the values and social biases of its developers. They state that society should chose the technologies it requires for current circumstances and needs and subsequently shape technology to suit its purposes. Technological determinists, such as Kobayashi (1994) and Gates (1996), assume, however, that technology and its developers are free of social values and can lead societies to greater well-being. Melody (1991) and Misa (1994) developed a compromise position: that technological development is driven by economic forces, with elements of social and technological determinism. Therefore, in developing countries, CMC and telecommunication infrastructure have developed concurrently, out of economic necessity, with global economic growth. Hanson and Narula (1990) proposed a compromise diffusion model that recognised elements of social, technological, and economic determinism. They stressed that societies face technological and cultural challenges and consider technological changes to be subject to simultaneous external and internal influences, including economic. They emphasised that the quality and meaning of a message was as important as how the message was delivered, and so hardware and software should be modified to suit cultures and individuals using CMC. Australian Journal of Communication. Vol 27 (3) 2000
92
THE PACIFIC SUSTAINABLE DEVElOPMENT NEJWORICING PROGRAM
Pactok became a major component of the Pacific Sustainable Development Networking Program (PSDNP), which commenced in 1993 under the auspices of the United Nations Development Program, or UNDP (UNDP, 1997). An analysis of the PSDNP is presented by Ward and Spennemann (in press). The PSDNP focused primarily on using CMC to promote sustainable development by improving information access, communications, networking, and awareness among key PlC decision makers. During 1993/94, the PSDNP extended Pactok to three PICs-Fiji, Samoa, and Vanuatu. Pactok was previously established without UNDP funds in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and Solomon Islands. Funding and technical support provided under the PSDNP Phase 1 was halted in December 1996. This paper examines the use of Pactok in the five listed PICs, based on Pactok user surveys and computer analysis completed at the end of Phase 1 of the PSDNP. The study analysed the nature of organisations and people who accessed Pactok and the reported reasons and purposes for Pactok usage. Possible internal and external factors that could influence Pactok use were explored. METHODS
The study used an analysis of Pactok sites and host organisations, and a quantitative analysis of Pactok users, using two self-reporting surveys. SITE ANALYSIS
A quantitative site analysis of Pactok users and their organisations was carried out on 8 January 1997, using an electronic mail message sent to 173 e-mail addresses listed by Pactok. Four sites in Vanuatu replied with 'message undelivered'. Following discussions with the Vanuatu host manager, these sites were removed from the active list. The type of organisation maintaining each active site was determined with the assistance of national host managers. E-MAIL SURVEY
Quantitative surveys addressed dependent, intervening, and independent variables relevant to CMC and e-mail.asidentified in previous studies and observations by Danowitz et al. (1995), Levy (1995), Missingham (1996), Press (1996), Rogers (1986), Sadowsky (1993), and Shaikh et al. (1995). Respondents answered the survey questions using Likert scales, ranked categories, or yes/no replies wherever possible. The Getting wired 93
survey was pre-tested and subsequently formatted for e-mail distribution. An initial message in January sought consent from each Pactok user before the survey was transmitted to respondents in the PSDNP countries of Fiji, Samoa, and Vanuatu, and the two non-PSDNP countries, PNG and Solomon Islands. The survey was divided into four sections. The first, which identified possible dependent variables, questioned respondents on the usefulness of Pactok for seven tasks. Respondents then indicated sources and types of information they sought through Pactok and the frequency with which they contacted sources for specific types of information. This section included some open-ended questions. Questions in the third section related to possible intervening variables, such as training, government concerns, security requirements, and access to telecommunications, which could influence CMC use in an organisation. The final section assessed independent variables concerning individual respondents and possible intervening and dependent factors such as the use of Pactok's interactive features, the relative use of Pactok, access to other email systems, and the future of Pactok in the organisation. Pactok users who had not initially requested the survey were reminded, via e-mail, on three occasions between January and March 1997, while users who had received surveys but not completed and returned them were also reminded. The e-mail survey period concluded on 23 April. All national host managers, except Solomon Islands, returned updated e-mail address lists between 23 February and 17 March 1997, which indicated 82 out of 167 Pactok sites remained active. Subsequent investigation revealed that the Solomon Islands Pactok hub had closed in December 1996, although six sites were still using Pactok. AIR MAIL SURVEY
An air mail survey, using identical questions and similar layout to the e-mail survey, was posted in early May to 55 Pactok sites that had not received the earlier e-mail survey and for which postal addresses were found. The postal survey period concluded on 30 July. DATA ANALYSIS
Initial analyses of frequency distributions and categories indicated that the significance of causal factors could be analysed using crosstabulation and phi and Cramer's V correlation statistics. Statistical validity and precision of data were analysed using chi square and minimum Australian Journal of Communication. Vol 27 (3) 2000 94
frequency statistics. The small sample size (n=56) precluded more detailed factoral analysis. RESULTS SITE ANALYSIS
Initial site analysis indicated there were 169 active Pactok sites in January 1997. A summary of sites by organisational type and by receipt of PSDNP funding is shown in Table 1.
Table 1:
Distribution of Pactok sites between organisations in PSDNP and nonPSDNP countries, as total numbers and proportions (Total sites=169).
Organisation type
PSDNP sites
Non-PSDNP sites
n
%
n
%
Non-governmental organisation
27
"'**22
16
41
Regional organisation
28
**22
1
3
Others
66
51
20
51
9
5
2
5
130
100
39
100
Unknown
Total
Note: PSDNP countries are Fiji, Samoa, Vanuatu, and non-PSDNP countries are PNG, Solomon Islands. PSDNP and non-PSDNP groups were compared using cross-tabulation and phi and eramer's V analyses. Statistical significance is indicated by·· (p
