Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia
Governance and Policies
Edited by Gary Haq and Dieter Schwela
6
Editors
Dr Gary Haq, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York Dr Dieter Schwela, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York
Module Contributors
Professor Bingheng Chen, School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai Dr Dilip Biwas, Former Chairman, Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi Dr David L. Calkins, Sierra Nevada Air Quality Group, LLC, San Francisco Bay Area, CA Dr Axel Friedrich, Department of Transport and Noise at the Federal Environment Agency (UBA), Berlin Mr Karsten Fuglsang, FORCE Technology, Copenhagen Dr Gary Haq, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York Professor Lidia Morawska, School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane Professor Frank Murray, School of Environmental Science, Murdoch University, Perth Dr Kim Oanh Nguyen Thi, Environmental Technology and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok Dr Dieter Schwela, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York Mr Bjarne Sivertsen, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Olso Dr Vanisa Surapipith, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok Dr Patcharawadee Suwanathada, Pollution Control Department, Bangkok Mr Harry Vallack, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York
Production Team
Howard Cambridge, Web Manager, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York Richard Clay, Design/layout, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York Erik Willis, Publications Manager, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York
Funding
The modules were produced by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) and the University of York (UoY) as part of the Clean Air for Asia Training Programme. The programme was led by the SEI and UoY in collaboration with the Pollution Control Department (Thailand), Vietnam Environment Protection Agency (VEPA), and Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia). The Clean Air for Asia Training Programme was funded under the European Union’s Asia Urbs programme (TH/Asia Urbs/01 (91000)). Additional funding was received from the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World Health Organization, Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), and Force Technology.
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Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia The Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia is for adult learners studying the issue without the support of a class room teacher. It is aimed at students with some basic knowledge of environment and air pollution issues, acquired in a variety of ways ranging from conventional study, working in an environmental related field or informal experience of air pollution issues.
Clean air is recognised as a key component of a sustainable urban environment in international agreements and increasingly in regional environmental declarations in Asia. National and local governments have begun to develop air quality management strategies to address the deterioration in urban air quality. However, the scope and effectiveness of such strategies vary widely between countries and cities.
The course provides you with an opportunity to develop your understanding of the key components required to develop a programme to manage urban air pollution and to achieve better air quality. By working through the six modules you will gradually achieve a higher level of understanding of urban air pollution and the measures taken to monitor air quality and to prevent and control urban air pollution.
The aim of air quality management is to maintain the quality of the air that protects human health and welfare but also to provide protection for animals, plants (crops, forests and vegetation), ecosystems and material aesthetics, such as natural levels of visibility. In order to achieve this goal, appropriate policies, and strategies to prevent and control air pollution need to be developed and implemented.
Urban Air Pollution in Asia
Module Structure
Urban air pollution affects the health, well-being and life chances of hundreds of million men, women and children in Asia every day. It is responsible for an estimated 537,000 premature deaths annually with indoor air being responsible for over double this number of deaths. It is often the poor and socially marginalized who tend to suffer disproportionately from the effects of deteriorating air quality due to living near sources of pollution.
The foundation course consists of six modules which address the key components of air quality management. An international team of air pollution experts have contributed to the development of the course. Each module is divided into a number of sections each devoted to a different aspect of the issue, together with examples and key references.
Module 6 - Governance and policies
Introduction
1
Section 1 Setting Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
2
2 3 7
1.2 1.3 1.4
Air Quality Guidelines Risk Assessment for Establishing Air Quality Guidelines International and National Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
Section 2 Developing Clean Air Implementation Plans
16
16 17 18
2.1 2.2 2.3
Clean Air Implementation Plan Framework for Air Quality Management Development of Air Quality Management Programme
Section 3 Implementation and Enforcement
20
20 23 25 31 35 36 37 42 42
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9
Implementation Planning Role of Stakeholders Policy Instruments Reducing Air Pollution from the Transport Sector Reducing Air Pollution from Industrial Sources Reducing Air Pollution from Area and Natural Sources Institutional Arrangements for Air Quality Governance Co-Benefits for Climate Change and Urban Air Pollution Clean Development Mechanism
Summary
Information Sources
47 49
Learning objectives In Module 6 Governance and Policies you will examine the issues which need to be addressed in an overall policy framework for clean air. At the end of the module you will have a better understanding of: • air quality guidelines and standards in Asia • clean air implementation plans • role of different stakeholders in achieving clean air • range of policy instruments available to implement air quality management objectives • institutional arrangements for air quality governance.
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations ABC Atmospheric brown cloud ACFA Asian Clean Fuels Association ACS American Cancer Society ADAC Automatic data acquisition system ADB Asian Development Bank ADORC Acid Deposition and Oxidant Research Center AirQUIS Air quality information system ALAD Aminolaevulinic acid dehydrase AMIS Air quality management information system APHEA Air Pollution and Health, A European Approach API Air pollution index APINA Air Pollution Information Network APMA Air pollution in the megacities of Asia project APNEE Air Pollution Network for Early warning and on-line information Exchange in Europe AQG Air quality guideline AQM Air quality management AQMS Air quality management system AQO Air quality objective AQSM Air quality simulation model As Arsenic ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations ASG Atmospheric Studies Group ATD Arizona test dust AWGESC ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities AWS Automatic weather station BaP Benzo[a]pyrene BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BMR Bangkok Metropolitan Area BRT Bus rapid transit BS Black smoke BTEX Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes CAI-Asia Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities CAIP Clean air implementation plan CARB Californian Air Resources Board CAS Chemical Abstract Service CBA Cost benefit analysis Cd Cadmium CD Compact disc CDM Clean development mechanism CEA Cost-effectiveness analysis CER Certified emissions reduction CMAS Institute for the Environment, Chapel Hill CMB Chemical mass balance CNG Compressed natural gas CO Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide CO2 COHb Carboxyhaemoglobin COI Cost of illness COPD Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease CORINAIR CORe INventory of AIR emissions CPCB Central Pollution Control Board CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CVM Contingent valuation method DALY Disability-adjusted life years DAS Data acquisition system DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane DETR Department for Transport and the Regions DQO Data quality system DQO Data quality objective DWM Diagnostic wind model EB Executive board EC European Commission EEA European Environment Agency EGM Eulerian Grid Module EIA Environmental impact assessment
ETS EU FID FOE FST GBD GDP GHG GIS GTF HAP HC HCA HCMC HEI HEPA Hg HIV/AIDS I&M IBA ICCA IFFN IPCC IQ IR ISO IT IUGR IUPAC IVL km LBW LCD LPG LPM MAPs MCIP MMS MOEF MOPE MT MW NAA NAAQS NASA NDIR NILU NKBI NMMAPS NO NO2 NOx NYU O2 O3 OECD PAH PAN Pb PbB PCB PCD PDR
Environmental tobacco smoke European Union Flame ionisation detector Friends of the Earth Foundation for Science and Technology Global burden of disease Gross domestic product Greenhouse gas Geographic information system Global Technology Forum Hazardous air pollutant Hydrocarbon Human capital approach Ho Chi Minh City Health Effects Institute Ho Chi Minh City Environmental Protection Agency Mercury Human immunodeficiency virus/ Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Inspection and maintenance Ion beam analysis International Council of Chemical Associations International Forest Fire News Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Intelligent quotient Infrared Organization for Standardization Interim target Intrauterine low growth restriction International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Swedish Environmental Research Institute kilometre Low birth weight Less developed country Liquid petroleum gas Lagrangian particle module Major air pollutants Meteorology-Chemistry Interface Processor Multimedia messaging service Ministry of Environment and Forests Ministry of Population and Environment Meteo-Technology Molecular weight Neutron activation analysis National Ambient Air Quality Standards National Aeronautics and Space Administration Non-dispersive Infrared Norwegian Institute for Air Research Neutral buffered potassium iodide National Morbidity and Mortality Air Pollution Study Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide Nitrogen oxides New York University Oxygen Ozone Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Peroxyacetyl nitrate Lead Level of blood lead Polychlorinated biphenyl Pollution Control Department People’s Democractic Republic
PESA Proton elastic scattering analysis PID Photo ionisation detector PIGE Particle induced gamma ray emission PILs Public interest litigation PIXE Particle induced X-ray emission PM Particulate matter PM10 Particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter Particulate matter less than 2.5 PM2.5 microns in diameter PMF Positive matrix factorisation POP Persistent organic pollutant PPM Parts per million PRC People’s Republic of China PSAT Particulate matter source apportionment technology PSI Pollutant standard index PSU/NCAR Pennsylvania State University / National Center for Atmospheric Research PVC Polyvinyl chloride QA/QC Quality assurance/quality control QEPA Queensland Environmental Protection Agency ROS Reactive oxygen species RBS Rutherford backscattering spectrometry SA Source apportionment SACTRA Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment SAR Special Administrative Region SMC San Miguel Corporation SMS Short message service Sulphur dioxide SO2 SOx Sulphur oxides SPCB State Pollution Control Board TAPM The Air Pollution Model TEA Triethanolamine TEAM Total Exposure Assessment Methodology TEOM Tapered element oscillating microbalance TSP Total suspended particulate UAM Urban airshed model UCB University of California at Berkeley UF Ultra fine UK United Kingdom UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations framework on climate change UN-Habitat United Nations Habitat US United States USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency UV Ultra violet UVF Ultra violet fluorescence VOC Volatile organic compound VOSL Value of statistical life VSI Visibility Standard Index WAP Wireless Application Service WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WRAC Wide ranging aerosol collector WTP Willingness to pay XRF X-ray fluorescence YLD Years of life with disability YLL Years of life lost
List of Tables, Figures and Boxes Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 6.4 Table 6.5 Table 6.6 Table 6.7 Table 6.8 Table 6.9 Table 6.10 Table 6.11 Table 6.12 Table 6.13 Table 6.14 Table 6.15 Table 6.16
Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2
World Health Organization guideline values targets for particulate matter (Annual Mean) Particulate matter standards in selected Asian countries Sulphur dioxide standards in selected Asian countries Nitrogen dioxide standards in selected Asian countries Ozone standards in selected Asian countries Carbon monoxide standards in selected Asian countries Lead standards in selected Asian countries Factors considered in the implementation of strategies to prevent and/or control air pollution Types of environmental regulation Summary of key actions taken to control air pollution in India (1995–2001) Overview of policy instruments to control emissions from transport General guidelines for fuel quality General guidelines for inspection and maintenance programmes Gaining support for air quality management Examples of measures to reduce emissions of air pollutants and climate active pollutants and their effects Evaluation of technical options for local and global air pollution abatement
Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4
The risk assessment and management scheme Annual average ambient air quality standards for PM10 in selected Asian countries in relation to the WHO guideline value for PM10 The adoption of European vehicle emission standards in selected Asian countries Selection process of the best measures adapted to each case
Box 6.1 Box 6.2 Box 6.3 Box 6.4 Box 6.5 Box 6.6 Box 6.7 Box 6.8 Box 6.9
Components of a Clean Air Implementation Plan Air quality management in Europe and North America Role of stakeholders in clean air initiatives in New Delhi (India) Pollution control policy in Singapore Review of regulation in Indonesia Cleaner fuel for stationary sources in Singapore Control of dust from wind and waste burning in Shenyang (China) Phasing-out of leaded petrol in Vietnam Private sector participation in the Philippines – The anti-smoke belching campaign
Introduction
T
he success of efforts to clean the air is determined by governance structures and policies unique to each country. To achieve cleaner air, policies and strategies need to be developed within the limits of existing governance structures. They should be undertaken in partnership with key stakeholders such as government agencies, private sector businesses and civil society which all have a role to play in implementing strategies to achieve better air quality.
poor respiratory health also needs to be considered. For ecological systems the reduction of biodiversity as a consequence of high air pollution may be an important issue for preserving the food chain. Decisions on the allocation of resources for improved urban air quality need to be considered within the context of the burden of disease related to other environmental factors such as unsafe water, poor sanitation, and vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. In addition, co-benefits related to mitigation of climate change by concomitant reduction of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and air pollution should be considered as part of an overall AQM strategy.
Air quality management (AQM) strategies require a careful balancing of source control measures and their costs against the benefits of reduction of risks to human health and the environment. Continuous progress towards cleaner air should be the goal, recognising that the attainment of zero risk is not possible. Decision-makers are therefore required to balance the costs of AQM against health, environmental and economic benefits, taking into consideration issues of intergenerational, distributional equity and environmental justice when deciding on different strategies. AQM issues also need to be prioritised within the context of other local influences on public health and the environment. For example, the contribution of indoor air pollution, associated with biomass burning for heating and cooking, to cancer risk and
This module examines these main components and deals with the issues which need to be addressed in the overall framework of governance and policies for clean air. Key components include setting air quality guidelines and standards, developing clean air implementation plans, translating the plans through implementation and enforcement of efficient actions, establishing institutional arrangements for air pollution governance and land use planning to achieve clean air.
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6 Section 1 Setting Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
A
ir quality can be described in terms of the extent of air pollution both at a given time and at relevant time intervals. Air quality is a judgment of the direct effects on the atmosphere, human health, animals, plants, and materials that we perceive, and the indirect effects on the ecosystem and, subsequently, human life.
1.2 Air Quality Guidelines
A
ir quality guidelines (AQGs) are intended to provide the basis for protecting public health and the environment from the adverse effects of environmental pollutants. They aim to eliminate, or reduce to a minimum, exposure to those pollutants that are known, or likely to be, hazardous to human health or well-being and the environment. The main objective of AQGs is to protect human health; ecology-based AQGs serve to protect terrestrial vegetation, agriculture and biodiversity.
Ambient air quality objectives are used to define the desired environmental quality that will protect public health and ecosystems. The objectives are established using an evaluation of scientific, social, technical and economic factors. The following are some of the factors considered when establishing ambient air quality objectives:
The guidelines are intended to provide background information and guidance to national or international authorities in the making of risk assessment and risk management decisions. In general, the guidelines address single pollutants whereas, in real-life, exposure is to a mixture of chemicals. This can have additive, synergistic or antagonistic effects. Although air quality guidelines are considered to be protective to human health they are by no means a “green light” for pollution and attempts should be made to keep air pollution levels as low as practically achievable.
• Sensitive receptors - some parts of the human population more vulnerable to air pollution than the general population, such as children, the elderly and disabled persons; or components of the environment or a specific stage in biological organisms’ development more sensitive than that of others.
It should be emphasised that the guidelines are health based or based on environmental effects and are not standards per se. In setting legally binding standards, other considerations such as prevailing exposure levels, technical feasibility, source control measures, abatement strategies, as well as social, economic and cultural conditions must be taken into consideration. Consequently, standards may be above or below the health-based air quality guidelines.
• Pollutant behaviour in the atmosphere - the reactions the pollutant undergoes and its residence time in the atmosphere. • Pollutant behaviour in the environment - the ability of a substance to bioaccumulate or biodegrade after entering the environment. • Natural levels and fluctuations - concentration levels and fluctuations of pollutants that occur naturally or enter the atmosphere from uncontrollable sources (e.g. volcanoes). • Technological feasibility - the cost and availability of technology to control or avoid emissions.
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1.3 Risk Assessment for Establishing Air Quality Guidelines
dose-response assessment, and risk characterisation (see Figure 6.1). Step 1 Hazard Identification In the first step, scientists determine the types of health problems a chemical could cause by reviewing studies of its effects in humans and laboratory animals. Depending on the chemical, the health effects may include short-term ailments, such as headaches; nausea; and eye, nose, and throat irritation; acute diseases such as exacerbation of respiratory ailments, asthma attacks; or chronic diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cancer. Effects on sensitive populations, such as pregnant women and their developing fetuses, the elderly, or those with health problems (including those with weakened immune systems), must also be considered. Responses to toxic chemicals will vary depending on the amount and length of exposure. For example, short-term exposure to low concentrations of chemicals may produce no noticeable effect or reversible changes in lung function parameters, but continued
A
ir quality guidelines are developed to facilitate the evaluation of air quality. Guideline values are determined with the objective of providing protection against adverse health effects, nuisances, and effects on animals, plants, materials, and the ecosystem. Toxicological data from well-known agencies and organisations are included for the protection of human health. Since the guidelines are set at a negligible risk level, air concentrations below a corresponding guideline value are assumed to present only a small to negligible health risk to the population. However, concentrations of a pollutant that exceed an air quality guideline value does not necessarily mean that an unacceptable risk level is attained: every case is unique and must be considered separately. The risk assessment process consists of four basic steps: hazard identification, exposure assessment,
Figure 6.1: The risk assessment and management scheme Source: NRC (1983)
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6 Human studies are preferred for risk assessment, but because the effects of the vast majority of chemicals have not been studied in humans, scientists often rely on animal studies to evaluate a chemical’s health effects. Animal studies have the advantage of being performed under controlled laboratory conditions that reduce much of the uncertainty related to human studies. If animal studies are used, scientists must determine whether the effect of a chemical in humans is likely to be similar to those in the animals tested. Although effects seen in animals can also occur in humans, there may be subtle or even significant differences in the ways humans and experimental animals react to a chemical. Comparison of human and animal metabolism may be useful in selecting the animal species that should be studied, but it is not always possible to determine which species is most like humans in its response to chemical exposure. However, if similar effects were found in more than one species, the results would strengthen the evidence that humans may also be at risk.
exposure to the same levels of chemicals over a long period of time may eventually cause harm. An important step in hazard identification is the selection of key research studies that can provide accurate, timely information on the hazards posed to humans by a particular chemical. The selection of a study is based upon factors such as whether the study has been peer reviewed by qualified scientists, whether the study’s findings have been verified by other studies, and the species tested (human studies provide the best evidence). Some studies may involve humans that have been exposed to the chemical (e.g. occupational studies), while others may involve experimentation with laboratory animals (toxicological data). Occupational studies generally measure the effects of chemicals on healthy workers. One weakness is that they do not consider children, the elderly, those with pre-existing medical conditions, or other sensitive groups. Since occupational studies are not controlled experiments, there may be uncertainties about the amount and duration of exposure or the influence of lifestyle choices, such as smoking or alcohol use, on the health of workers in the studies. Exposure of workers to other chemicals at the same time may also influence and complicate the results.
Step 2 Exposure Assessment In exposure assessment, scientists attempt to determine how long people were exposed to a chemical, how much of the chemical they were exposed to, whether the exposure was continuous or intermittent, and how people were exposed: through eating, drinking water and other liquids, breathing, or skin contact. All of this information is combined with ‘exposure factors’ such as body weight, body mass index, breathing rates, water consumption, and daily activity patterns to estimate how much of the chemical was taken into the bodies of those exposed. People can be exposed to toxic chemicals in various ways. These substances can be present in the air we breathe, the food we eat, or the water we drink. Some chemicals, due to their particular characteristics, may be both inhaled and ingested. For example, airborne chemicals can settle on the surface of water, soil, leaves, fruits, vegetables, and forage crops used as animal feed. Cows, chickens, or other livestock can become contaminated when eating,
Laboratory studies using human volunteers are better able to gauge some health effects because chemical exposures can then be measured with precision. These studies usually involve small numbers of people and, in conformance with ethical and legal requirements, use only adults who agree to participate in the studies. Laboratory studies often use simple measurements that identify immediate responses to the chemical but might miss significant, longer-term health effects. Scientists can also use physicians’ case reports of an industrial or transportation accident in which individuals were unintentionally exposed to a chemical. However, these reports may involve very small numbers of people, and the level of exposure to the chemical could be greater than exposure to the same chemical in the environment.
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drinking, or breathing the chemical present in the air, water, feed, and soil. Fish can absorb the chemicals as they swim in contaminated water or ingest contaminated food. Chemicals can be absorbed through the skin, so infants and children can be exposed simply by crawling or playing in contaminated dirt. They can also ingest chemicals if they put their fingers or toys in their mouths after playing in contaminated dirt. Chemicals can also be passed on from nursing mothers to their children through breast milk.
assumptions about people’s consumption of fruits and vegetables that may absorb soil contaminants. To avoid underestimating actual human exposure to a chemical, scientists often look at the range of possible exposures. For example, people who jog in the afternoon, when urban air pollution levels are highest, would have much higher exposures to air pollutants than people who come home after work and relax indoors. Basing an exposure estimate on a value near the higher end of a range of exposure levels (closer to the levels experienced by the person who exercises by running every day than by the person remaining indoors) provides a realistic worst-case estimate of exposure. These kinds of conservative assumptions, which presume that people are exposed to the highest amounts of a chemical that can be considered credible, are referred to as “health-protective” assumptions.
To estimate exposure levels, scientists rely on air, water, and soil monitoring, human blood and urine samples, or computer modelling. Although monitoring of a pollutant provides excellent data, it is time consuming, costly, and typically limited to only a few locations. For these reasons, scientists often rely on computer modelling, which uses mathematical equations to describe how a chemical is released and to estimate the speed and direction of its movement through the surrounding environment. Modelling has the advantage of being relatively inexpensive and less time consuming, provided all necessary information is available and the accuracy of the model can be verified through testing. Computer modelling is often used to assess chemical releases from industrial facilities. Such models require information on the type of chemicals released, the facility’s hours of operation, industrial processes that release the chemicals, smokestack height and temperature, any pollution-control equipment that is used, surrounding land type (urban or rural), local topography and meteorology, and census data regarding the exposed population.
Step 3 Dose-Response Assessment In a dose-response assessment, scientists evaluate the information obtained during the hazard identification step to estimate the amount of a chemical that is likely to result in an effect on human health. An established principle in toxicology is that “the dose makes the poison.” For example, a commonplace chemical such as table salt is harmless in small quantities, but it can cause illness in large doses. Similarly, hydrochloric acid, a hazardous chemical, is produced naturally in our stomachs but can be quite harmful if taken in large doses. Scientists perform a dose-response assessment to estimate how different levels of exposure to a chemical can impact the likelihood and severity of health effects. The dose-response relationship is often different for many chemicals that cause cancer than it is for those that cause other kinds of health problems.
In all health risk assessments, scientists must make assumptions in order to estimate human exposure to a chemical. For example, scientists assessing the effects of air pollution may need to make assumptions about the time people spend outdoors, where they are more directly exposed to pollutants in the ambient air, or the time they spend in an area where the pollution is greatest. An assessment of soil contamination may require scientists to make
Exposure to a cancer-causing chemical may result in cancer if the chemical happens to alter cellular functions in a way that causes cancer to develop. Thus, even a very low exposure to carcinogens might increase the risk of cancer, if only by a very small amount. Several factors make it difficult to estimate the risk of cancer. Cancer appears to be
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6 cancer risk of one in one million means that in a population of one million people, not more than one additional person would be expected to develop cancer as the result of the exposure to the substance causing that risk.
a progressive disease because a series of cellular transformations is thought to occur before cancer develops. In addition, cancer in humans often develops many years after exposure to a chemical. Also, the best information available on the ability of chemicals to cause cancer often comes from studies in which a limited number of laboratory animals are exposed to levels of chemicals that are much higher than the levels humans would normally be exposed to in the environment. As a result, scientists use mathematical models based on studies of animals exposed to high levels of a chemical to estimate the probability of cancer developing in a diverse population of humans exposed to much lower levels. The uncertainty in these estimates may be rather large. To reduce these uncertainties, risk assessors must keep informed of new scientific research. Data from new studies can be used to improve estimates of cancer risks.
An individual’s actual risk of contracting cancer from exposure to a chemical is often less than the theoretical risk to the entire population calculated in the risk assessment. For example, the risk estimate for a drinking-water contaminant may be based on the health-protective assumption that the individual drinks two litres of water from a contaminated source daily over a 70-year lifetime. However, an individual’s actual exposure to that contaminant would most likely be lower due to a shorter time of residence in the area. Moreover, an individual’s risk not only depends on the individual’s exposure to a specific chemical but also on his or her genetic background (i.e. a family history of certain types of cancer), health, diet, and lifestyle choices, such as smoking or alcohol consumption. Cancer risks presented in risk assessments are often compared to the overall risk of cancer in the general population (approximately 250,000 cases for every one million people) or to the risk posed by all harmful chemicals in a particular medium, such as the air.
Non-cancer health effects (such as asthma, nervous system disorders, birth defects, and developmental problems in children) typically become more severe as exposure to a chemical increases. One goal of dose-response assessment is to estimate levels of exposure that pose only a low or negligible risk for non-cancer health effects. Scientists analyse studies of the health effects of a chemical to develop this estimate. They take into account factors such as the quality of the scientific studies, whether humans or laboratory animals were studied, and the degree to which some people may be more sensitive to the chemical than others. The estimated level of exposure that poses no significant health risks can be reduced to reflect these factors.
Health reference levels (HRLs) refer to exposure levels that will not cause significant risks of noncancer health effects. Long-term exposure to levels below these levels are assumed to produce no adverse effects. The concept of HRLs was developed in 1991 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2007a). Government agencies use HRLs to characterise non-cancer health risks. These levels are generally developed from exposure levels that do not produce adverse effects in experimental animals. These exposure levels are adjusted to account for animal-human differences (such as body weight and breathing rate) and for underlying uncertainties (such as the difference in sensitivity between healthy adults and more sensitive people like children and the elderly).
Step 4 Risk Characterisation The last step in risk assessment brings together the information developed in the previous three steps to estimate the risk of health effects in an exposed population. In the risk characterisation step, scientists analyse the information developed during the exposure and dose response assessments to describe the resulting health risks that are expected to occur in the exposed population. A
6
Risk analysts then compare the HRLs with the exposure estimates to determine how many people are exposed to concentrations higher than the HRL. Some of these people might experience adverse effects.
exclude users. In most countries the adopted outdoor air quality standards are intended to reduce human health and ecological risks as much as technologically feasible and financially affordable.
Although scientists can estimate risks caused by toxic air pollutants in animals experimentally or in humans who have unusual exposures, converting these estimates to those expected in people under a wide range of conditions is difficult, and can be misleading.
In setting outdoor air quality standards, any areas that require special environmental protection should be identified, to avoid new or continued impact on vulnerable subpopulations and/or sensitive ecosystems. An outdoor air quality standard for a specific pollutant is a limit, which a certain statistical parameter of concentrations (for instance median, arithmetic mean, 98-percentile) should comply with. In situations with high “natural” background concentrations (for instance due to wind blown aerosols from desert areas) the setting of standards may prove difficult.
By their nature, risk estimates cannot be very accurate since scientists do not have enough information on actual exposure and on how toxic air pollutants harm human cells. The exposure assessment often relies on computer models when the amount of pollutant people are exposed to cannot be easily measured. Exposure-response relationships often rely on assumptions about the effects of pollutants on cells for converting results of animal experiments at high doses to human exposures at low doses. When information is missing or uncertain, risk analysts generally make assumptions that tend to prevent them from underestimating the potential risk and provide a margin of safety in the protection of human health.
National and local government authorities in Asia have adopted a range of air quality standards either based on World Health Organization (WHO) guideline values or the USEPA’s standards. The WHO air quality guideline values are based on the threshold limits for various air pollutants. These are derived from the concepts of lowest–observedeffect level, lowest–observed-adverse-effect level, or no-observed-adverse-effect level, by application of uncertainty factors. If thresholds for the onset of health effects do not appear to exist, air quality guidelines are derived in the form of percentagechange-of-effect/concentration relationships (risk –concentration relationships). The guidelines developed by WHO are health or environment based (Schwela, 1998). However, these are not standards per se although several countries have adopted these for laying down standards after considering various factors such as prevailing exposure levels, natural background concentration, meteorological conditions and socio-economic considerations. The policy options in setting standards include questions on which proportion of the general population and which susceptible groups should be protected (WHO, 1997).
1.4 International and National Air Quality Guidelines and Standards
T
he authorities of a state or a union of states decide on the air quality standards or limit values. The setting and application of outdoor air quality standards is an example of the authorities’ right and obligation to define the standards and to implement them. The state has the right to exclude people and industries from using the air as a waste disposal site. It has the right and obligation to determine who may release pollutants into the air and at what level this may be accepted. The authorities may also enforce their right to
The USEPA has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for the ‘criteria
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6 Table 6.1: World Health Organization guideline values targets for particulate matter (Annual Mean) Annual Mean Level
WHO interim target (IT-1)
WHO interim target (IT-2)
WHO interim target (IT-3)
WHO Air quality guidelines
AQG: Air Quality Guideline
PM10 [µg/m3]
70
50
30
20
PM2.5 [µg/m3]
Basis for the Selected Level
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These levels are estimated to be associated with approximately 15 per cent higher long-term mortality than at AQG. In addition to other health benefits, these levels lower the risk of premature mortality by approximately 6 per cent (2-11%) compared to WHOIT2 levels.
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In addition to other health benefits, these levels reduce the premature mortality risk by another approximately 6 per cent (2-11%) compared to WHOIT2 levels.
15
These are the lowest levels at which, total, cardiopulmonary and lung mortality have been shown to increase with more than 95 per cent confidence in response to PM2.5. The use of PM2.5 guideline is preferred.
10
IT: Interim Target
Source: WHO (2005)
The PM2.5 guideline values were derived by assuming that the ratio of PM2.5 and PM10 is approximately 0.5. In setting air quality standards for PM the actual ratio has to be taken into consideration. It should also be noted that the USEPA has revoked in 2006 the annual PM10 standard (see Table 6.2) due to a lack of evidence linking health problems to long-term exposure to coarse particle pollution (USEPA, 2007b).
WHO guideline
Figure 6.2: Annual average ambient air quality standards for PM10 in selected Asian countries in relation to the WHO guideline value for PM10 PRC = People’s Republic of China; SAR = Special Administrative Region; HK = Hong Kong Note: Annual PM10 standard presented here for PRC is based on Class II category (100 µg/m3) applied for residential areas, mixed commercial residential areas, cultural, industrial and rural areas. Source: CAI-Asia (2006)
8
Table 6.2: Particulate matter standards in selected Asian countries TSP [µg/m3]
Compound Country
Cities
1 hr
3 hrs
8 hrs
PM10 [µg/m3] 24 hrs
1 yr
24 hrs
1 yr
WHO
50
20
25
10
EU
50
40
USEPA
150
35
10
Bangladesh
150
50
65
15
65
15
China
24 hrs
1 yr
1 hr
PM2.5 [µg/m3]
300
200
150
100
Hong Kong, SAR, China
260
80
180
55
India (residential, rural & other areas)
200
140
100
60
(Class II)
Indonesia
230
90
150
Jakarta
230
90
150
Surabaya
230
90
Japan Republic of Korea
100 150
70
Busan
150
70
Seoul
120
60
Nepal
230
Philippines
230
90
120
300
100
Singapore Sri Lanka
150 200
500
450
350
Taiwan, China Thailand
330
Vietnam
100
150
60
150
50
150
65
120
50
150
50
Source: Schwela et al. (2006)
pollutants’ which are common throughout the country. The criteria pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and particulate matter (PM) with cutoff parameters of 10 and 2.5 µm.
The short-term standards are designed to protect against acute or health effects due to short-term exposure, whilst the long-term standards are meant to protect against chronic health effects due to long-term exposure.
The US air quality standards consist of two types: primary and secondary. Primary standards are intended to protect against adverse human health effects. Secondary standards are intended to protect against welfare effects such as decreased visibility and damage to farm crops, vegetation and buildings. Some pollutants have standards both for short-term and long-term averaging times.
In 2005 WHO published updated air quality guidelines to protect human health. However, few large Asian cities are able to meet the guideline values for PM less than 10 microns (PM10). WHO has also provided interim targets for AQM in cities (see Table 6.1, page 8, above). These can be useful for policy makers in Asian countries as they provide attainable interim targets for actions to
9
6 Table 6.3: Sulphur dioxide standards in selected Asian countries SO2 [µg/m3]
Compound Country
Cities
10 min
WHO
1hr
8 hrs
500
EU
24 hrs
1yr
20 350
USEPA Bangladesh
125
20
365
78
365
80
China (Class II)
500
150
60
Hong Kong, SAR, China
800
350
80
80
60
900
365
60
Jakarta
900
260
60
Surabaya
900
365
60
266
105
392 314
Nepal
131 105 70
57 26 50
Philippines
180
80
Singapore
365
78
India (residential, rural & other areas) Indonesia
Japan Republic of Korea* Busan Seoul
Sri Lanka
200
Taiwan Thailand*
785
Vietnam
120
80 140
79
314
105
125
50
Source: Schwela et al. (2006)
reduce PM concentrations in urban air. Figure 6.2 (page 8, above) shows the annual average ambient air quality standards for PM10 in selected countries compared to the WHO PM10 guideline value.
Air quality standards in Asia
Most Asian countries have set ambient air quality standards for a number of criteria pollutants. However, these have tended to differ from country to country (see Tables 6.2 - 6.7). China and India have taken the approach of setting different standards for different types of locations, with the weakest standards for industrial areas, more strict standards for residential and rural areas, and the most stringent standards for conservation and tourist areas. However, the majority of Asian countries have more lenient standards than the guideline or limit values published by WHO or the European Union (EU) (Schwela et al., 2006).
10
Mobile emission standards
In order to achieve the ambient air quality standards, it is necessary to prescribe sourcespecific emission standards. These include industrial units, power plants and automobiles. Hence, at the national level, emission standards for different sources have been formulated. The major air polluting industries such as smelters, cement plants, chemical manufacturing units, iron and steel, petroleum refineries, and pulp and paper mills, are covered through such emission standards. The industrial emission standards in different countries have been guided by the nature and extent of pollution caused by specific industries. To reduce vehicle exhaust pollution, several countries have adopted emission standards for vehicles at the manufacturing stage and also
Table 6.4: Nitrogen dioxide standards in selected Asian countries NO2 [µg/m3]
Compound Country
Cities
1 hr
WHO
200
EU
200
8 hrs
24 hrs
1 yr 40 40
USEPA
100
Bangladesh
100
China (Class II)
240
120
80
Hong Kong, SAR, China
300
150
80
80
60
400
150
100
Jakarta
400
92.5
60
Surabaya
400
150
100
India (residential, rural & other areas) Indonesia
Japan
75 to 113
Republic of Korea*
282
150
94
Busan
282
150
94
Seoul
263
132
75
Nepal
80
40
Philippines
150
Singapore Sri Lanka
100 250
Taiwan
150
100 94
Thailand*
325
Vietnam
200
40
Source: Schwela et al. (2006)
the emission standards for on-road vehicles. In recognition of the major importance of vehicle emissions in determining urban air quality, numerous Asian countries have implemented legislation to reduce vehicle emissions. There is a trend towards the introduction of increasingly stricter standards. Regulations have been developed and enforced to require that new vehicles must satisfy increasingly strict emissions standards in most Asian nations and the lag time with European (Euro) standards has been considerably reduced since the mid-1990s when Asian countries started to formulate vehicle emission standards (see Figure 6.3, page 15, below). Standards for mobile sources in Asia are divided into two types of standards: standards for new vehicles and standards for in-use vehicles.
Standards for new vehicles These are the Euro standards. The Euro standards are type approval standards. Emissions from new vehicle prototypes are tested against these standards by car manufacturers. The limit values are given in g/ km or g/kWh for the Euro vehicle exhaust emission occurring during a standard test cycle. This test cycle is an urban driving cycle, and it is simulated during the test in a chassis dynamometer. The Euro standards for nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC) and CO ensure a high efficiency of the catalytic converters in petrol cars over a lifetime of a minimum number of kilometres (km) (typically 80,000 km). Tests are performed on new and older cars. To obtain permission to import a certain car type, the importing company must show a certificate from the manufacturer that a prototype of the car has passed the test and complies with
11
6 Table 6.5:
Ozone standards in selected Asian countries O3 [µg/m3]
Compound Country
Cities
1 hr
WHO
8 hrs
24 hrs
1 yr
100
EU
120
USEPA
235
Bangladesh
235
China (Class II)
160
Hong Kong, SAR, China
240
157
India (residential, rural & other areas) Indonesia Jakarta Surabaya Japan
235
50
200
30
235
50
118
Republic of Korea*
200
120
Busan
200
120
Seoul
200
120
Philippines
140
60
Singapore
235
Sri Lanka
200
Nepal
Taiwan
120
Thailand*
200
Vietnam
120
80
Source: Schwela et al. (2006)
the Euro limit values. Euro standards have been implemented in Europe in steps, starting with the Euro 1 standard in 1991. At present, the Euro 5 standard is under implementation in the European Union. Most Asian countries have adopted the Euro 1 standards, and some countries such as India are implementing Euro 2 and Euro 3 standards for vehicles registered in large metropolitan areas.
tested during on-road testing, where vehicles are stopped through random testing. In-use standards normally specify the following: • petrol vehicles: Maximum allowable concentration of CO (unit: % v/v CO) and HC (unit: ppm HC) (in some countries also NOx) in the exhaust pipe during low idling; • diesel vehicles: Maximum allowable concentration of smoke (opacity) during idling (unit: HSU, Hartridge Smoke Units).
By and large, the vehicle emission standards are in accordance with those in European countries. Standards for in-use vehicles In-use vehicle standards (or in-service vehicles standards) are used for existing, registered vehicles. Testing of compliance against these standards is performed as part of inspection and maintenance (I&M) programmes, i.e. I&M of vehicles is undertaken on a regular basis (e.g. annually). In-use standards may also be
In some metropolitan areas, the frequency of in-use testing is quite high, for example in New Delhi all petrol vehicles are tested every 3 months. To support the introduction of stricter vehicle emissions standards, fuel quality is required to meet tighter standards. With the exception
12
Table 6.6:
Carbon monoxide standards in selected Asian countries CO [µg/m3]
Compound Country
Cities
WHO
15 min 100,000
30 min 60,000
1hr 30,000
EU
8 hrs 10,000 10,000
USEPA
40,000
10,305
Bangladesh
40,000
10,000
China (Class II)
10,000
Hong Kong, SAR, China
30,000
10,000
India (residential, rural & other areas)
4,000
2,000
Indonesia
4,000
30,000
10,000
Jakarta
26,000
9,000
Surabaya
30,000
10,000
Japan
22,900
Republic of Korea*
Nepal
24 hrs
28,625
10305
Busan
28,625
10,305
Seoul
28,625 100,000
11,450
10305 10,000
Philippines
35,000
10,000
Singapore
40,000
10,305
Sri Lanka
30,000
10,000
Taiwan
10,000
Thailand*
34,350
10,305
Vietnam
30,000
10,000
Source: Schwela et al. (2006)
of a limited number of countries (Afghanistan, Mongolia, Myanmar, North Korea and Vietnam) all Asian countries have phased out lead completely (PCFV, 2007). An issue following the phasing-out of leaded gasoline is the use of octane enhancing fuel additives. Many countries have introduced inspection and maintenance requirements for inuse vehicles, but the success of efforts to implement these requirements has been mixed. Many countries are still struggling to develop effective inspection and maintenance systems. The quality of fuels plays an important role in influencing the nature and extent of air pollution. For coal based combustion systems high sulphur content is a major problem (e.g. China) while in India, although the sulphur content is low, high ash content in coal is a major challenge. To reduce emissions from the use of coal several countries have stipulated coal
quality specifications and emission standards from coal combustion systems. The removal from roads of high emission vehicles (such as motorcycles using old two-stroke technology) and the conversion of vehicles from high-emission fuels (such as old buses using diesel) to cleaner fuels (such as compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)) has also contributed to the improvement of air quality in many cities. Examples of this are the banning of baby taxis in Dhaka and other cities in Bangladesh, and the conversion of Delhi’s buses, taxis, and auto-rickshaws, and auto-rickshaws in some of Pakistan’s cities, to CNG. In many countries the rapid growth in the number of motorcycles has not been matched by effective regulation of their emissions (Walsh, 2001; CAI-Asia 2003).
13
6 Table 6.7:
Lead standards in selected Asian countries Pb [µg/m3]
Compound Country
Cities
1 hr
24 hrs
1month
3months
WHO
1 yr 0.5
EU
0.5
USEPA
1.5
Bangladesh
0.5
China (Class II) Hong Kong, SAR, China
1.5
India (residential, rural & other areas) Indonesia
1
0.75 1.0
Jakarta
1.0
Surabaya
1.0
Japan Republic of Korea
Busan
0.5
Seoul
1.0
Nepal
0.5 0.5
Philippines
1.5
Sri Lanka
2
Taiwan, China
0.5 1
Thailand
1.5
Vietnam
5
Source: Schwela et al. (2006)
14
1.0
Country European Union a Bangladesh b Bangladesh
Hong Kong, China
95
96
Euro 1 Euro 2
97
98
99
00
Euro 1
02
03
04
05
Euro 4
06
07
08
09
Euro 5
10
11
12
Euro 2 Euro 1 Euro 1
Euro 3
Euro 2
c
India d India Indonesia Malaysia Nepal Pakistan Philippines a PRC e PRC a Singapore b Singapore South Korea Sri Lanka Taipei, China Thailand Vietnam
01
Euro 3
Euro 4
Euro 1 Euro 1 Euro 2
Euro 5
Euro 2
Euro 3
Euro 3
Euro 4
Euro 2 Euro 1
Euro 4
Euro 2 Euro 1
No conclusive information available Euro 1 Euro 1 Euro 1
Euro 2
Euro 1
Euro 2
Euro 2 Euro 3
Euro 2
Euro 1
Euro 4 Euro 4 Beijing only
Euro 3
Euro 2
Euro 4 Euro 4 Euro 1
US Tier 2 Bin 7
g
US Tier 1 Euro 2
Euro 1
Euro 5
Euro 2 Euro 4
Euro 3 Euro 2
Euro 2
Euro 3
Euro 4
Euro 5
Euro 6
US 1
US 2
Figure 6.3: The adoption of European vehicle emission standards for new light duty vehicles in selected Asian countries Notes: Italics – under discussion; a– b– c– d–
gasoline; diesel; Entire country; Delhi, Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Hydrabad, Agra, Surat, Pune, Kanpur, Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Lucknow; Other cities in India are in Euro 2; e – Beijing and Guangzhou (as of 01 September 2006) have adopted Euro 3 standards; Shanghai has requested the approval of the State Council for implementation of Euro 3; f – Euro 4 for gasoline vehicles and California ULEV standards for diesel vehicles; g – equivalent to Euro 4 emission standards.
Source: CAI Asia (2008)
15
13
Euro 6
14
6 Section 2
Developing Clean Air Implementation Plans
T
he primary goal of AQM is to maintain the quality of air that protects human health and welfare. It recognises that air quality must be maintained at levels that protect human health and also provide protection for animals, plants (crops, forests and natural vegetation), ecosystems, materials and aesthetics, such as natural levels of visibility (Murray, 1997). To achieve this air quality goal, it is necessary to develop policies and strategies. Government policy is the foundation for AQM. Without an appropriate policy and adequate legislation, it is difficult to maintain an active or successful AQM programme. A policy framework refers to policies in several areas, including transport, energy, planning, development and the environment. Air quality objectives are more readily achieved if these interconnected government policies are compatible, and are available for coordinating responses to issues that impinge on different areas of government policy (WHO, 2000). Measures have been adopted in many developed countries for integrating air quality policy with the policies in other sectors such as health, energy, and transport (UNECE, 1995;1999).
Box 6.1 Components of a Clean Air Implementation Plan • Emissions inventory • Air pollutant concentrations inventory – monitored and simulated • Comparisons of emissions and air quality standards or guidelines • Inventory of effects on public health and the environment
2.1 Clean Air Implementation Plan
T
he Clean Air Implementation Plan (CAIP) has been a very efficient instrument of air pollution abatement in developed countries. The CAIP outlines the instruments and strategies to comply with air quality and emission standards, adopt control measures, and implement them (see Box 6.1). In the developing countries, much simplified CAIPs would have to be developed. The main sources of emissions in many cities of the developing world are old vehicles and industrial sources such as power plants, brick kilns, and cement factories. Their relative contribution to air pollution could be determined by use of rapid emissions inventories. The emission factors used in such inventories are published (WHO, 1993; GAPF, 2007) and computer programs are available (WHO, 1995; 1997; 1998) which enable emissions and ambient concentrations to be estimated, and the impact of possible control measures to be evaluated. Projections for the future can also be estimated. By using the experience obtained in developed countries, the control action to be taken is often clear. Dispersion models can simulate spatial distributions of concentrations when the monitoring data are not adequate (WHO, 2000). Modelling results can be used for assessing compliance with emission standards, planning new activities, designing ambient air monitoring networks, identifying the main sources of air pollution and developing mitigation policies and strategies. CAIPs need to be developed with the existing knowledge base available from various sources. These include the findings of modelling applications, maps on topographic features, field surveys/data, scientific and media reports on air pollution and its impacts, geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing images, impacts of interventions and feedback of stakeholders.
• Causal analysis of effects and attribution to individual sources • Control measures and their costs • Benefits of avoided health impacts • Transportation and land use planning • Enforcement procedures • Resource commitment • Projections for the future
16
2.2 Framework for Air Quality Management
E
xperience from many countries has shown that a detailed process is necessary to conduct an AQM programme. The programme should be based on the principles of air quality objectives, the use of sound science, the analysis of mitigation options, and the involvement of all key organisations and stakeholders in the public decision making process.
appropriate. The key elements of AQM framework for each country or region could be constructed around answers to the following basic questions: 1 What are the air quality targets for the country/region, and when are they expected to be attained? 2 How are the current air quality conditions identified and assessed relative to the contributions of various source categories? 3 How should an integrated emissions inventory system that includes all stationary and mobile sources be developed?
While recognising that the specific process used may have to be adjusted or modified to fit local circumstances, there are several essential elements that need to be addressed in any integrated process. Moreover, there may also be situations in which some elements of the approach have already been the subject of prior studies, and those would need to be incorporated into the overall framework, as
4 What are appropriate air quality modelling methodologies that can be used to simulate the impact of emission sources on ambient air quality?
Box 6.2 Air Quality Management in Europe and North America European countries and the US have achieved significant improvements in urban air quality over the past four decades. The main factors which have influenced the improvement in urban air quality include the following (USEPA, 2007c; EC, 2005a): (a) Enactment and enforcement of emission and air quality regulations; (b) Structural changes in economy with switch over to the less polluting service sector ; (c) Technological advances to increase energy efficiency and reduce emissions. For the industrial sector, integrated pollution control has required that all emissions from industries must be considered together. The overall environmental performance has been taken into account including issues such as generation of waste, use of raw materials, energy efficiency, risk management etc. For the transport sector, measures have been taken to reduce motor vehicle emissions, improve fuel quality, and improve transport and traffic management to control travel demand. The European Commission has identified seven key issues for improvement of urban air quality. These are (EC, 2005a): 1
AQM and regulations should be effectively integrated with other environmental sectors preferably through a single protection agency and a single legal instrument.
2
Quality assured assessment of ambient air should be undertaken before formulating a strategy for air quality improvements, compiling an emissions inventory and mapping emissions.
3
A comprehensive AQM strategy should be drawn up to improve and maintain air quality, addressing all issues of concern.
4
Arrangements should be put in place for effective public participation.
5
Adequate provision should be made for monitoring and enforcement of legislation, regulations, permits and licenses.
6
Record keeping and reporting should be performed to meet the requirements of air quality standards and guidelines.
7
CAIPs should be regularly reviewed and updated to ensure that they remain relevant to the key issues of concern .
17
6 5 What are the emission reductions that are necessary to meet the desired air quality targets?
outputs or measurements may be considered in devising emission control measures for achieving air quality standards. The measures need to be enforced and if the standards are achieved, they need continued enforcement. If the standards are not achieved after a reasonable time, the emission control measures may need to be revised. In some cases, monitoring may show that ambient air pollutant concentrations are considerably higher than some options for standards. An issue for those developing standards is whether national standards should reflect the need to protect human health and the environment, when this objective is unlikely to be achieved in the short to medium term with the available resources. In some countries, standards are set at realistically attainable levels, given the prevailing technical, social, economic and political conditions, even though they may not be consistent with the levels needed to fully protect human health and the environment. Over time, air quality standards may also change, after review, as conditions within a nation change and as the scientific relationship between air quality, health of the population and quality of the environment becomes better understood (WHO, 2000).
6 How should potential control measures be prioritised in view of anticipated growth patterns, future emissions scenarios, and their cost-effectiveness? The same general approach has been advocated and followed by the United States, Europe and by international agencies (World Bank, 1997; EC, 2005a; USEPA, 2007c) (see Box 6.2).
2.3 Development of an Air Quality Management Programme
T
here are many possible models for the development of an AQM programme. As an example, the sequence of steps followed in the US is as follows: Step 1: Defining the Goal: Maintain quality of air to protect human health and welfare. Step 2: Policy Enunciation: Achieve and maintain outdoor concentrations of major pollutants at levels considered ‘safe’ for human health (primary standards) and welfare (secondary standards). Step 3: Formulation of Strategies: Regional AQM plan and emission control standards.
Strategy for integrated air quality management
Step 4: Tactics: Transportation plan, land use and pollution controls. Use of best available control technology, emission trading and penalties for noncompliance.
The strategy for integrated AQM involves a mix of legal, technical and economic instruments. Strengthening institutional mechanisms for coordination with stakeholders at various levels is a must for effective AQM (see Table 6.8, page 21). Monitoring and assessment of air pollution and its impacts, enforcement of legal provisions, promotion of clean fuels and technologies, fiscal incentives and economic instruments, interinstitutional linkages and public participation are the key issues for AQM.
When the goals and policies have been developed, the next step is to develop the strategy or plan. It can start with the formulation of ambient air quality standards or guidelines. It may also involve development of an emissions inventory (see Module 2 Emissions). The monitoring of both meteorological conditions and air pollutant concentrations would also normally occur, as these data are required by models used to estimate the air quality and to validate the model output. Air quality standards and model
An integrated approach to AQM should be comprehensive and aim to facilitate the setting of air quality priorities and support the development of capability in the relevant institutions. Such an
18
approach has been formulated in the strategic framework for AQM in Asia (APMA/CAI-Asia, 2004). The strategic framework provides a broad high-level approach targeted at government, industry, media, academic, non-governmental organisations, and the general public. It outlines the key challenges existing in AQM in Asia and provides recommendations with respect to different components of a comprehensive AQM system. By taking a strategic approach to AQM some of the challenges highlighted can be addressed to allow effective AQM for better air quality in Asia. This strategic and integrated AQM approach would incorporate the following: • developing CAIPs as formulated in the strategic framework. This includes addressing the greatest challenges in Asian cities such as emissions inventories (see Module 2) and health and environmental impact assessments;
• increasing political and public awareness of the health and environmental impacts of air pollution and their costs in relation to the costs of air pollution abatement; • promoting more public health and environmental studies in the framework of environmental impact assessment (Schwela et al., 2006). The success or failure of air pollution control activities in different countries will depend on institutional capacity. An assessment of AQM capacity in 20 Asian cities examined four indicators of capability: (a) Air Quality Measurement Capacity; (b) Data Assessment and Availability; (c) Emission Estimates; and (d) Management Enabling Capacities (Schwela et al., 2006). The findings of the study indicated that: • Cities with high levels of economic activity and well developed AQM systems tend to have better air quality than those cities with a poorly developed AQM system.
• extending dedicated air quality legislation to other sectors, involving all stakeholders, and strengthening the use of economic instruments;
• More emphasis needs to be given to conducting emissions inventories and source apportionment.
• emphasising transport demand management and transport planning. This would include reducing the need to travel for essential services, providing attractive and efficient public transport systems, developing an urban environment, which is clean, safe and more conducive to walking and cycling;
• Cities need to measure emissions and enforce limits on key pollutant sources. • Quality assurance of data and control plans should be developed and enforced.
• increasing the use of tools for AQM and land use planning (e.g. zoning) and taking into consideration air quality information in road and industrial site planning; • tightening air quality standards towards the EU limit values and/or WHO guideline values;
19
• The identified stages of development in terms of AQM capability can assist cities in setting priorities and developing strategies for strengthening their AQM capability.
6 Section 3
Implementation and Enforcement
A
t an early stage in the development and implementation of AQM strategies, it is crucial to have identified and defined, in close consultation with key stakeholders, the specific issues to be addressed. Guidance has been provided by a number of international and regional agencies (World Bank, 1999; UN Habitat, 2001; APMA/CAI-Asia, 2004).
3.1 Implementation Planning
W
hen planning the implementation of strategies to prevent or control air pollution, the following issues may need to be considered in consultation with key stakeholders: • objectives to be achieved; • policy instruments available; • likelihood of success and major risk factors for each strategy option;
normally at least a 10-year period. The priorities of the community need to be considered while being realistic in terms of the local technical, social, economic and environmental context. The level of acceptance of strategies to improve air quality depends on the understanding of the issues, and the perception by key stakeholders that the proposed strategies are fair and equitable. A strategy should be developed in cooperation with the stakeholders, both within the government (national, regional, local) and in the private sector and civil society. Involving key stakeholders in strategy implementation ensures that their perspectives are discussed with the aim of achieving a consensus. The key priorities need to be agreed. It also provides a sense of ownership among the stakeholders and helps improve the likelihood of successful implementation. Air quality issues involve many sectors of the economy, community organisations and decisionmaking government agencies. These cross-cutting issues deal with legislation and policies in areas of economic development, industry, transport, energy, land use planning, health and others. Therefore, representatives from these sectors need to be involved in discussions when implementing AQM strategies.
• social and economic costs and benefits for key stakeholders; • policy reforms and institutional strengthening to support implementation; • long-term environmental targets as well as interim milestones to assess progress of implementation of strategies; • indicators to be used to assess progress;
Policy instruments
Implementation strategies should use a set of policy instruments. There is a wide range of policy instruments and approaches available to prevent or control air pollution. However the most suitable instruments should be short-listed after consideration of the factors listed in Table 6.8.
• cost-effectiveness and who bears the costs; and • ease of implementation of the strategy.
The objectives to be achieved and stakeholder consultation
The main types of policy instruments available are direct regulation, co-regulation, self-regulation, economic instruments and education instruments (see Table 6.9, page 22).
Clear objectives need to be decided before considering what actions to be taken. The implementation strategy needs to consider the objectives and the time frame of the strategy:
20
Table 6.8: Factors considered in the implementation of strategies to prevent and/or control air pollution Factor
Technical
Administrative
Economic
Social
Political
Consideration Effectiveness Sustainability under local conditions Feasible with the legal and administrative framework Enforceability Costs and benefits Equity in sharing of costs and benefits Culture of compliance Public support Stakeholder pressure
Policy instruments are more effectively implemented when prepared as mutually supportive actions supported by key stakeholders. Resources are also more likely to be available when their linkage to a strategic framework is clear and they are part of a mutually supportive package of interventions.
The social and economic costs and benefits for key stakeholders
The implementation of strategies to reduce air pollution may have adverse and unintended consequences for some stakeholders. The conversion of parts of city centres to pedestrian areas may reduce vehicle emissions in a city centre, but these measures can have some adverse economic and social consequences for local businesses and residents. Economic instruments that make polluting activities more expensive may adversely affect poor groups in society while having little impact on the behaviour of wealthier groups.
The likelihood of success and major risk factors of each implementation option
In selecting the options for implementation, it is important to use appropriate tools to estimate the environmental benefits of options. Interactive tools that can be used are emission assessment tools, dispersion models and decision support systems for assessing air quality near polluting activity sectors.
The policy reforms and institutional strengthening to support implementation
Before selecting implementing strategies, it is essential to predict their effects, especially their effectiveness and efficiency in addressing air quality, as well as unintended economic and social consequences. High priority, inexpensive, and easily implementable strategies should be used first, with complex problems requiring considerable resources to be introduced at a later stage.
The implementation of strategies to reduce air pollution often requires partnerships among government and non-government agencies to address issues involving cleaner fuels, transport, energy, planning and economic development. The success of these strategies may not be a high priority for all partners. Changes to regulations (e.g. fuel
21
6 Table 6.9:
Types of environmental regulation
Type
Command and control
Description
Example
Issue of licences, setting of standards, checking for compliance with standards, sanctions for non-compliance
Air pollution control regulations Government monitoring Emission standards Enforcement policies Load-based emission charges
Economic instruments
Use of pricing, subsidies, taxes, and charges to alter production and consumption patterns
Tradeable emission permits Differential taxes True cost pricing of resources
Co-regulation and voluntary initiatives
Adoption of rules, regulations and guidelines, negotiated within prescribed boundaries Voluntary adoption of environmental management measures
National registers of pollution emissions inventories Environmental management systems Industry codes of practice
Self-regulation
Self-imposition of rules and guidelines and environmental audits by industry groups
Self-audit within industry groups Emission reduction targets Education, training and information programmes
Education and training Education and information
Community right-to-know
Pollution inventories
Corporate reporting programmes
Corporate sustainability reports
Source: after WHO (2000)
implementation. The progressive implementation of Euro vehicle emission standards in most countries of Asia is an example of this approach (ACFA, 2005). A phased implementation can provide a long-term strategy to address complex issues, but providing results in the short-term. Positive short-term results enhance political support and resources for implementation of the strategy.
regulations) and amendments to other legislation and changes in institutional arrangements may be needed to ensure continued institutional support for implementation. Institutional strengthening may be required in the form of access to resources and training in new procedures.
The long-term environmental targets as well as interim milestones to assess progress towards implementation of strategies
To manage a long-term strategy it is important to monitor progress through the different phases of implementation, for example, with progress reports, feedback on targets, etc. This enables the tracking of progress and enables evaluation and review of important decisions. The indicators and targets selected should be clearly related to the successful implementation of the strategy, and relatively simple to monitor, quantify, and verify.
Some strategies to improve air quality may take considerable time to be successful, for various reasons, including technical barriers, lack of resources and training and social resistance. In these cases, a phased, step-by-step implementation may be required. The strategy should have a clear time frame for the different phases of
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For example, the decrease in the monitored levels of SO2 in urban air can be a good indicator of the impact of a strategy to install desulphurisation units in power plants and industrial facilities. Similarly, a decrease in the observed levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in urban air can be a good indicator of the impact of a strategy to lower the sulphur content of diesel and fuel oil.
Indicators to assess progress
Indicators to assess progress achieved in implementing the strategy include the reduction of: • concentration levels and exposures; • the air pollution related burden of disease; • emitted amounts of harmful substances; • effects on the environment; • energy used by all stakeholders; • emission of greenhouse gases; and • the increase in energy efficiency.
Cost-effectiveness analysis - who bears the costs?
Most strategies aim as far as practicable to follow the “Polluter Pays Principle”, whereby those responsible for emissions bear the full costs of monitoring and controlling those emissions.
The ease of implementation of the strategy
While sophisticated implementation strategies, which may have proved effective in other countries, may seem attractive, it is usually preferable to select implementation strategies that are achievable within the technical, social and economic contracts of the implementing agency with whatever institutional strengthening is required. These may be phased in with increased sophistication, if necessary, as experience is gained over time.
The above implementation strategies may need to be amended or added to in response to specific local situations, for example, adaptation to local air quality problems, local opinions, and locally sustainable technologies and experience.
3.2 Role of Stakeholders
T
he stakeholders in AQM include the national and local governments, private sector and civil society. Depending on the political system, the governance structures and policy making systems vary from country to country (see Boxes 6.3 and 6.4). However, in most of the countries, the legislatures, executives in government agencies and judiciary are the three major constituents of the governance structures. The legislatures are responsible for framing the laws which are to be implemented by the concerned agencies of the government. The judiciary examines cases concerning infringement of laws. In a federal system, the national policies and laws are formulated by the apex bodies of public representatives (such as Parliament) and the federal government for adoption and implementation through local government. The local governments, through their respective elected bodies and concerned government agencies, are also responsible for formulation of policies and laws for implementation within their jurisdictions. Within the government structure, the Ministry/Department of Environment or other government agencies at the national and local levels are designated for implementation of air quality related policies and laws. The private sector and the civil society have an important role in influencing the policies and laws on environmental matters including AQM. The private sector and civil society include the private enterprises such as industries, non-governmental agencies, academic and research institutions, and mass media. In the decision making process, formal as well as informal methods for involvement of private sector and the civil society are adopted in different countries.
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6 Box 6.3 Clean Air Initiatives in Delhi (India) - Role of Stakeholders The stakeholders involved in AQM in India include the polluters, affected communities, State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF). The polluters have the primary responsibility of ensuring effective measures to comply with the regulatory norms and the identified action points for pollution. To this end, the polluters are required to take necessary action and report to the respective SPCBs. The SPCBs are required to stipulate the eff luent and emission st andards from different sources. Besides the regulatory standards, the Boards need to incorporate the action points in the consent (permit) mechanism for allowing discharges from the polluting sources. The Boards also need to conduct regular inspection of the sites and monitoring implementation of the action points. The CPCB has to coordinate with the SPCBs and facilitate the implementation
of the action plans. To this end, CPCB has to obtain periodic reports from the SPCBs and conduct site visits as and when needed for overseeing the progress and identifying the bottlenecks. The MOEF has to provide overall guidance and pol i cy di r e c t ions f or e f f e c t i v e implementation of the action plans. For troubleshoot ing where needed, MOEF has to take up the issues with concerned administrative ministries/agencies at the central and state level. The affected communities have an important role in drawing the attention of the SPCBs/ CPCB /MOEF regarding the environmental problems faced by them due to polluting activities. Under the relevant provisions in the pollution control laws and the Environment (Protection) Act, any citizen can ask the concerned authorities for redressal of the problems faced by them due to polluting activities. If their representations are not duly attended, the citizens can file law suits against the polluters and also
In the formal method of interaction, whilst formulating the policies and laws, consultations are held with the cross sections of private sector and the civil society. Through the electronic and print media, the drafts of policies and laws are also made accessible to the public at large for eliciting the views/suggestions. The private sector and
the regulatory authorities through the writ petitions/public interest litigations (PILs). Indian experience in regulating vehicular air pollution in the capital city New Delhi has been an innovative model of the role played by various stakeholders including the judiciary, regulatory bodies, non-governmental agencies and the general public. A public interest lawyer filed a PIL before the Indian Supreme Court seeking its intervention for control of air pollution in the city. The Court directed the concerned authorities on the implementation of various measures including the use of CNG as automotive fuel. The Court and the bodies advising it had to confront and resolve several significant issues. The policies that evolved as a consequence took into account the scientific and statistical data as well as relevant institutional considerations. The Court assisted the regulatory bodies over political and bureaucratic hurdles that they could not themselves overcome (Bell, 2003).
civil society can also informally influence decision making by voicing their opinion on specific issues. In certain cases, the judicial interventions also trigger the evolution of policies and laws. For eliciting public opinion with regard to environmental impacts of development projects,
Box 6.4 Pollution Control Policy in Singapore In the 1970s rapid industrialisation and urbanisation led to a deterioration of air quality in Singapore. In order to address poor air quality, the Singapore government impl ement ed comprehensi ve a ir pollut ion cont rol programmes targeted at stationary and mobile sources. For stationary sources, actions included: i) adopting air quality standards and reviewing those standards regularly; ii) undertaking enforcement measures
such as licensing, and inspections and checks on industries to ensure they complied with pollution control requirements; and iii) empowering industries to conduct their own source emission tests. For mobile sources, actions included: i) setting vehicle emission standards and tightening standards when necessary; ii) e n f o r c i ng m a n d a t o r y p e r i o d i c inspections of in-use vehicles; iii) controlling fuel quality, including the
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use of unleaded petrol, low sulphur diesel, etc.; iv) promoting the use of low emission vehicles, for example, compressed natural gas vehicles; and v) launching a fuel economy labelling scheme to promote greater awareness of fuel economy among vehicle owners. Singapore made considerable progress in improving urban air quality and developing a comprehensive AQM system. Source: AWGESC (2005)
the procedures of ‘public hearing’ have been instituted in several countries. It provides an opportunity to stakeholders, particularly local communities, who are likely to be affected by the impact of the project including air pollution.
3.3 Policy Instruments
T
here are many types of instruments available to policy-makers to address issues of pollution prevention and pollution control. Each instrument has particular strengths and weaknesses, and a combination of instruments usually offers the best approach to most air quality issues (World Bank, 2000). In practice, a mixture of policy instruments to prevent or control air pollution is used (see Table 6.10).
The AQM initiative requires widespread stakeholder engagement, communication, and cooperation. Stakeholders are not limited to industry, government or regulatory authorities or intergovernmental organisations. The full cooperation and understanding of the entire population is essential if policies are to be effective; understanding is an essential prerequisite of compliance. In addition to setting air quality objectives (AQOs) based on sound science, and controlling emissions based on an understanding of the source inventory, successful programmes typically rely on full societal cooperation. This in turn means presenting complex air quality information in ways that are understandable and easily visualised by all segments of the population, and in the case of health-related effects, in a way that provides the means for susceptible persons to protect themselves. This could be done by using an Air Pollution Index (API) or an Air Quality Index (AQI) which is a combined basket of air pollution measurements (e.g. for NOx, SOx, ozone, CO, and particulates) individually weighted to reflect the potential long-term and short-term impact on health. This value is again adjusted to fit into a memorable sliding scale (0–10, 0–200 or 0–500 are common, with a desirable AQI threshold (say, the 24-hour AQI) set at the midpoint of the scale (see Module 4, Monitoring). In areas where periodic forest fires or heavy industrial activity contribute to smoke or smog episodes, the particulate number may be broken out into a ‘Visibility Standard Index’ (VSI). In order to further increase the public acceptance of the system the API/AQI can be combined with a banding system. Combined with meteorological information, reasonably accurate forecasts of severe pollution episodes may be made.
Regulatory instruments
Laws and regulations are at the heart of AQM strategies. The traditional approach to the implementation of AQM strategies has been the “command and control” approach. It usually involves the regulation in law of emissions standards, the licensing of emissions sources subject to prescribed licence conditions, the monitoring and reporting of emissions, and penalties for breaches of licence conditions. Under this system, the means and outcomes for functions such as pollution control are prescribed by government and supported by regulation (the command), and compliance with conditions is checked by government inspectors. Licences are issued, standards are set, compliance with standards is checked, non-compliance cases are subject to enforcement action in some cases, through the courts, mitigating circumstances are considered, and penalties may be imposed (the control). New developments or major changes to emissions sources of specified types are subject to environmental impact assessment, and new sources may be subject to tighter mandatory performance standards than existing operations. The command and control approach is the most widely used technique, and the backbone of the regulation of air quality in most countries. Although this system has some public confidence and can provide a degree of juridical certainty to industry and the public, it is also time-consuming, expensive and legalistic. As the work and resources required of all participants to take infringements to court are usually very substantial, and the
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6 Table 6.10: Intervention
Summary of key actions taken to control air pollution in India (1995–2001) Industry
Urban
Switching to cleaner fuels (reduction in sulphur, use of gaseous alternatives)
Increasing share of domestic and commercial users of cleaner fuels (gas and kerosene for cooking, electricity for heating)
Improved technology
More efficient and cleaner combustion technology
Better road infrastructure (road widening, traffic management, new flyovers)
Scrapping old commercial vehicles and their replacement with a new fleet
Stronger and better enforced regulation
Tightened and better enforced emissions norms leading to installation of pollution control devices
Enforcement of land-use zoning regulations (closure and relocation of industry from non-conforming areas, development of green belts/areas)
Introduction and enforcement of new and more stringent emission norms for new and in-use vehicles
Cleaner fuels
Transport Use of cleaner fuels (gasoline lead elimination, sulphur reduction in liquid fuels, use of gaseous fuels) Better lubricant quality and only premixed 2T oil for two- and three-wheelers
* For the cities of New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Chennai Source: Akbar (2004)
penalties imposed by the courts may not always be appropriate, the outcomes may be unsatisfactory for all participants. The command and control approach is rigid, with the potential for arbitrary decisions. It tends to focus on end-of-pipe solutions instead of pollution prevention approaches. While it may establish requirements for emissions performance standards, it provides no incentive for sources to minimise emissions, provided that their licence conditions are met. It provides little encouragement for continuous improvement. This approach usually ignores equity principles and costs as it may require highly expensive “best available technology” for new sources, while existing sources may continue to pollute at much higher levels provided the conditions of their licences are met. Command and control regulation has been quite successful in addressing some air quality issues, especially in the control of large point sources through emission standards and the
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implementation of emission standards (e.g. Euro 1 to Euro 5, for mobile sources). Large, reputable organisations concerned about their public image usually comply with regulations. Regulation has been less successful in controlling the behaviour of small and medium sized organisations that have sometimes responded by concealment. It also requires regulators to have a comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the workings of the industry they are trying to control, as well as the specialist skills required of regulators operating in a legal environment. These high levels of knowledge and skill are not always available within the regulation system of developing countries. To be effective, regulatory approaches require a credible deterrent threat. Regulation places considerable pressure on the regulator to perform to the standard required. Where there are inadequate resources to monitor, inspect and ensure compliance no credible deterrent threat usually exists if an organisation is not concerned about its public image. Enforcement measures
include the imposition of substantial and punitive fines, public exposure where an organisation is concerned about its public image, threat of prison sentences for Directors, requirements for expensive remedial work including monitoring, pollution control, site remediation or withdrawal of licences to operate. The regulatory approach has worked extremely well in many cases such as measures to reduce emissions of SO2 and coarse particulates, and to eliminate the use of lead in petrol. The considerable success in improving air quality in Japan since the late 1960s was largely achieved through command and control (Hashimoto, 1989). The United States followed a model of regulation from the early 1970s that was widely copied around the world, even long after its limitations, including inflexibility and high cost, were recognised (Vogel, 1986). By use of command and control Germany developed a set of CAIPs in specially designated areas which led to substantial decreases in air pollution (Schwela and Köth, 1994). A survey of the use of policy instruments for air pollution abatement in Europe found that regulations usually provide more direct control of pollution sources and reduce the uncertainty of the policy result, but economic instruments generally brought about emissions reductions in a more cost-effective manner (UNECE, 1999; 2004). In other cases the use of regulations can be cheaper than other instruments. In Hong Kong, China, a comparison of options for controlling SO 2 emissions found that a ban on the importation of high sulphur fuels by regulation was the best option for reducing SO 2 emissions. The cost of compliance monitoring made the costs of flue gas desulphurisation or the use of market based instruments more expensive than a ban on high sulphur fuels (Barron, 1995). The use of regulations to prevent the use of high sulphur fuels and to promote energy conservation may be less expensive for developing countries than some other options (Pearce, 1996).
Self-regulation
The reform of regulations in the last two decades in many countries around the world has reduced dependence on the regulatory approach, especially among developed countries (World Bank, 2000). The trend is towards increased use of a policy mix, including other policy instruments. One approach is self-regulation. Self-regulation is the adoption by an organisation or group, of a system of practices with the aim of regulating the behaviour of the members. Self-regulation is commonly practiced by industry groups where members share similar environmental issues (Gunningham and Grabosky, 1998). Some industry groups, for example, chemical industry or petroleum industry groups, are more familiar than regulators with current best practice within their own industry, and they are able and willing to set codes of practice, industry standards and targets to be achieved by members of their industry groups. Individual organisations conduct self-monitoring of compliance, and compliance with the code is subject to Box 6.5 audit. The Responsible Care Review of Regulations in programme operated by the Indonesia chemicals industry in many Continuous monitoring in ten cities in Indonesia in the year 2002 showed countries is a good example that on at least ten days in that year of self-regulation (ICCA, people were exposed to unhealthy air. Indonesia has over 75 regulations 2006). It has the potential related to air pollution. Hence the to be flexible, responsive question was raised regarding the effectiveness of these regulations to market conditions, in air quality management. Pelangi, efficient, and it requires less an independent research institute, government intervention initiated a review of regulations related to air quality management in and thereby costs to the Indonesia. It involved a consultation taxpayer, than command and process conducted in the form of int erviews, expert panel, focus control. Unfortunately, the theory does not match the practice of self-regulation. In many cases the standards are weak, monitoring is superficial, and enforcement is ineffective and not transparent (Gunningham
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group discussion, multistakeholders workshop and public dialogue. In addition to the consultation process, public outreach activities were also undertaken to increase public awareness on air pollution issues and to disseminate the findings of research.The participatory approach developed in the programme can be used as a model for formulation of policies (Napitupulu et al, 2003).
6 market, and also to the pollutant, or pollutants, which are being addressed. Table 6.11 provides examples of economic incentives to reduce vehicle emissions.
and Grabosky, 1998). Where self-regulation operates effectively, governments maintain a watching brief to a greater or lesser extent. Where self-regulation regimes are considered by the public or government to be failing to deliver outcomes in the public interest, the regimes may in part or in whole be replaced by government regulations (Gunningham and Rees, 1997).
In the control of emissions from industry and the energy sector, emission permits allow for the introduction of environmental fees when the emission limit is exceeded. If the fee is high enough, there will be a clear incentive for the industry or power plant to implement cleaner technologies or introduce air pollution control equipment. Or (as happens in many European countries) the authorities can close the plant if emission limits are repeatedly exceeded.
Economic instruments
A variety of economic instruments to reduce air pollutant emissions are available to policy makers in developing countries (RietbergenMcCracken and Abaza, 2000; Breithaupt, 2001). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) argues that economic instruments provide the best means of internalising the negative environmental externalities (OECD, 2001). It claims that the costs of environmental protection should be imposed on the polluter (“polluter pays principle”), instead of being subsidised by governments, enabling the costs of environmental protection to be incorporated into prices and markets.
However, if the fee is disproportionately low compared to the cost of reducing emissions, there is a risk that the companies will prefer to pay the fees rather than to implement air pollution control. For example, the Wuhu Shaoda power company in eastern China is expected to be willing to pay an estimated fee of, the equivalent of, US$500,000, according to an official with knowledge of the plant’s emissions, for the several thousand tons of SO2 that it will emit in 2005 (Pottinger et al., 2004). That is much less than the US$14.5 million engineers at the plant say it would cost to buy SO2 removal systems.
Economic instruments have a role in encouraging good performance and penalising poor performance. The cost must be set at a level that provides an incentive for industry to reduce emissions as far as practical, while remaining competitive in the marketplace (OECD, 2001).
A good example of the incentive effect of an air emissions charging scheme is the Swedish scheme for imposing a charge on emissions of NOx. It was introduced for large emission sources in 1992 and extended to smaller emission sources in 1996 (Hawke, 2002). Revenues generated are redistributed to plants liable to pay the charge. The Swedish government halved NOx emissions from approximately 24,500 to 12,500 tonnes between 1990 and 1996 (EEA, 2000).
A powerful economic instrument for air quality improvements is economic pricing policy. It has been estimated that direct energy subsidies in developing countries total nearly US$230 billion each year (El-Ashry, 1993). Reducing subsidies for energy use encourages energy conservation, reduces emissions from power stations, and frees investment for other purposes such as less polluting technologies (Hall, 1995).
Another market oriented approach to reduce emissions as part of an AQM strategy involves the use of a system of cap–and-trade of emission permits. In this system, the regulating authority quantifies the total mass of emissions to be
Economic incentives for AQM must be designed according to clearly defined, specific goals. To be effective and cost-minimising, economic incentives must be tailored to the conditions of the specific
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Table 6.11:
Overview of policy instruments to control emissions from transport
Control issue
Regulation
Economic
• maximum emission standards for conventional emissions (CO, HC, NOx, PM) and for toxic air pollutants (lead, 1,3-butadiene, halogenated organics, PAH, benzene/aromatics) Tailpipe emissions
• tax differentials favouring abatement technology
• certification and assembly line testing
• vehicle taxes scaled for emission levels
• mandatory I/M, anti-tampering and enforcement programmes
• fiscal incentives for retiring old vehicles
• incentives/disincentives
• diesel smoke control programmes • durability standards • fuel quality standards for gasoline (lead, volatility, benzene, aromatics) Fuel composition
Evaporative emissions
• fuel quality standards for diesel fuel: volatility sulphur aromatics centane number PAH • limitations on fuel additives
• differentiated fuel pricing favouring cleaner fuels
• evaporative emission standards • fuel volatility emissions standards. • fuel efficiency for vehicle fleets • broad based carbon tax on fuels/emission charges
• maximum power/weight ratios Fuel efficiency improvements
Management of demand to move to more efficient modes to:
• speed limits • various traffic management measures to increase share of optimal drive-cycle (anti-congestion measures), combined with measures controlling vehicle kilometres travelled
• fuel-economy based vehicle taxes • R&D incentives (direct funding, tax credits, emissions test exemptions)
• broad base carbon tax on fuel
• parking control measures • individual ownership limitations • pedestrian-only zones in cities
• emission-related vehicle taxes • road pricing or distance charges • parking charges
• car use restrictions
• increase load factor of fleet;
• privileges (e.g. restricted highway lanes) for high-occupancy vehicles
• reduce travel demand times;
• improvement of biking/walking conditions
• reduce travel time.
• marketable fuel economy credits
• “park and ride” programmes • limitations and restrictions on freight transport
• fiscal incentives for carpool programmes • insurance adjustment for distance • land use and physical planning instruments to reduce commuter travel and redistribute urban activities • redistribute mechanisms for financing more efficient transport modes
• regular air quality monitoring General
• inventory of air pollution sources • international co-ordination of air quality and policy measures
Source: OECD (1995)
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• other mechanisms to internalise social cost of transport
6 permitted in an area and issues the equivalent number of tradeable emissions entitlements. These tradeable permits can be freely bought and sold. This system has the potential to achieve government policy objectives at the lowest cost to industry, and in some cases to government. A comparison of command and control and market-based incentives in Santiago, Chile, found that flexible market-based incentives allowed substantially higher reductions in emissions to be achieved for the same expenditure as traditional regulatory approaches (O’Ryan, 1996).
cleaner fuels, and will be closely related to the ability of the population to move up the energy ladder. Other incentives could be the introduction of a ban or fee for open waste burning. Obviously, alternative waste disposal systems should be available before such an incentive to avoid waste burning can be introduced. There are obvious constraints for the government to introduce tax on fuels that are widely used in households by poor people. For instance, many people in Vietnam use briquettes of coal (than to ong). These briquettes are locally produced, have a high content of sulphur, and are thus considered to be highly emitting fuels. These briquettes are, at the moment, much cheaper than liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and widely used outside urban areas, and also by street vendors in urban areas. However, the possibility for people to buy cleaner and more expensive fuel will not be achieved before their income allows them to do so. Another example of such a paradox is the subsidisation of kerosene. In countries where kerosene is subsidised, it is widely used for cooking, as in Nepal where it is a relatively cheap fuel. As kerosene is cheaper than diesel and petrol in Nepal, adulteration is known to occur through the addition of kerosene to diesel, compromising vehicle fuel quality (Ale, 2003).
The United States has substantial experience with emissions trading, where trading is subject to detailed regulations, and a dynamic market in surplus emissions entitlements exists (Hawke, 2002). It is considered that this system provides flexibility to industry to pursue the lowest cost options while meeting government policy objectives. Recently, a number of European nations have introduced emissions trading in greenhouse gas emissions (Hawke, 2002). With emissions trading in the US, emissions of SO2 were halved by 1990, compared with emissions in 1980. This cap and trade instrument has met with mixed reactions. Grover (2003) claims that the benefits include more environmental and regulatory certainty, more flexibility, lower compliance costs, lower transaction costs, better emissions data and fewer administrative resources. However, Hawke (2002) considers that the administrative burden of the regulatory framework is considerable, with complex requirements under state implementation plans, complex trading arrangements, and resulting uncertainty. While it may be considered that sufficiently developed markets are a pre-requisite for an emissions trading system in developing countries, some principles of emissions trading may be applied without well-developed markets (Zhang, 2003).
Compared to direct regulation, incentive-based regulation may lead to more cost-effective pollutant reduction measures. Through economic incentives, the state will have to spend a minimum of resources (that would otherwise have been spent on regulation and enforcement), and the market mechanism may determine the most cost-effective control technology.
Co-regulation and voluntary instruments
Co-regulation should consist of the implementation of negotiated agreements between individual organisations and regulators including:
Economic incentives may be introduced to change behaviour in air polluting activities in households. Primarily, this will focus on motivating people to use
• environmental performance targets and strategies;
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• documented product stewardship responsibilities; • independent third party verification. It should also be underpinned by the requirement that the regulator takes action when circumstances require it. A number of countries have introduced implementation of voluntary negotiated agreements between individual companies and regulators. This is a jointly agreed systematic approach to environmental management including performance targets and strategies, product stewardship responsibilities and external verification to achieve “beyond compliance” goals. This also needs to be underpinned by the capacity of the regulator to take enforcement action when circumstances require it. Co-regulation is a model used in the US, the Netherlands, and elsewhere, to enable regulators to audit the performance of those companies with very good environmental performance. It is implemented through negotiated agreements to meet performance targets and objectives. For the regulator it enables proportionately more time and resources to be focused on poor environmental performers and the command and control regulation of those organisations requiring this direct form of regulation. The growing world-wide adoption of environmental management systems, such as the EU EcoManagement and Audit Scheme, and the ISO 14000 series (ISO, 2004) has also influenced voluntary regulation.
by the central government. Actions to control air pollution have sometimes been only possible by establishing communications between local communities, local government and the relevant national government agency responsible for air quality issues. There are numerous examples available of this approach (ADB, 2001, Daniere and Takahashi, 2002). Two-way communication between local communities and those responsible for AQM is essential, and it requires use of many techniques to be successful (Murray, 1997).
Implementation of strategies
AQM strategies for outdoor air pollution can be implemented in three categories: transport, industry, and area sources and natural sources of air pollution. The following sections briefly examine various strategies for managing air quality from each of these sectors. A key to implementation is an assessment of the priorities of the issues associated with emissions from each sector. The strategies to reduce air pollution should address the priority issues and pollutants first. In most cases, the emissions with the greatest health effects are targeted first.
3.4 Reducing Air Pollution from the Transport Sector
A
ir pollution from the transport sector has important health and environmental effects. Road transport is responsible for a significant proportion of NO2 and PM (PM10 and PM2.5), which are the pollutants most likely to exceed air quality objectives. Therefore reducing emissions from road transport is a key part of local AQM.
Education and information instruments A number of measures can be adopted which Effective education and information communication tools raise awareness of air quality issues, and can be important in changing behaviour and attitudes in ways that cannot be addressed by other instruments. The successes of AQM strategies have often involved action at all levels in the community. In many cases it is local level response to complaints from citizens that triggers action
address not only vehicle pollution control but demand management. Table 6.11 provides an overview of the policy instruments available to control emissions from the transport sector. To achieve an environmentally sustainable transport system, ensuring a minimal environmental impact both in the short- and long-term, measures will need to be taken to reduce the overall demand
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6 for travel, and to encourage the use of less polluting modes of transport. This requires the adoption of a combination of measures ranging from emission standards to land-use policies, in order to ensure that the overall need to travel and vehicle pollution are reduced. These are discussed in detail by Gwilliam et al. (2004) and ADB (2003). However, none of these strategies alone will provide the optimum solution. Combinations of strategies applied progressively over a period of time and in an integrated manner will normally achieve the best results, although the details and optimum mix of strategies will vary according to local circumstances. The strategies for managing pollutants from transportation activities are discussed below.
Land use
Land use planning has important implications for energy consumption and vehicle-related air pollution. Travel and transport developments interact to allow significant land-use changes. The result has been the development of more energy-intensive land-use and increased vehicle activity patterns. Land-use planning has been shaped by the increasing dominance of the motor vehicle as the main mode of transport. As urban developments become more decentralised, and move to the fringe of the city, there is an increase in car dependence for normal everyday travelling, to work, school, shopping and leisure activities. There is a need to integrate land-use and transport planning within local AQM strategies in order to improve air quality and change travel behaviour. The provision of infrastructure in the past has shown that it exacerbates rather than solves the problem. New roads can generate more new traffic (SACTRA, 1999).
Traffic management
Traffic management can be used to reduce vehicle emissions. Traffic management measures have included computerised traffic light control, network and junction design, parking controls,
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reducing the supply of space allocated to car parks, speed limits, restricted access for non-essential traffic, bus priority lanes, pedestrian areas and cycling facilities. These measures not only reduce energy use but also provide an environment which is more people-friendly and which encourages greater walking and cycling. Small traffic management schemes can influence air quality in their immediate vicinity, but are likely to have a relatively small effect over a larger area. Free-flowing traffic and smooth driving techniques usually mean lower emissions and better fuel consumption. It should be a general objective of traffic management to reduce congestion, making smoother driving possible, but without speeding. However, improving traffic flow and reducing congestion may attract more vehicles and additional measures may be required to prevent an increase in vehicle movements. Enforcement of traffic laws and regulations can provide considerable improvement in traffic flow (USEPA, 1998). However, improved traffic flow can also generate increased traffic unless used in combination with management of traffic demand. This may include measures to discourage use of vehicles in congested areas of the city during peak periods by using parking policies, congestion charges, and electronic road pricing. Hong Kong and Singapore have been relatively successful in controlling demand for vehicles, but they have found that these strategies need to be supported by suitable land use policies (ADB, 2003). Travel demand management is attractive to Asian cities as it normally involves implementation of relatively low cost actions with considerable success.
Encouraging alternatives to private motor vehicles
Use of public transport and non-motorized transport help reduce transport emissions by reducing use of private vehicles. However, efficient bus or rail systems need to be developed by making them sufficiently attractive to induce high occupancy rates. High standards of quality of
service need to be implemented to avoid or curtail the operations of informal transport providers using small, old polluting, poorly maintained vehicles. Bicycle and pedestrian programmes also need to be attractive to the public by giving emphasis to safe and efficient transport. Policy guidelines to assist in the development of efficient transport policies are provided by USEPA (1998) and Gwilliam et al. (2004).
vehicles and increasing the taxation on polluting fuels and vehicles. However, regulations to reduce fuel adulteration and substitution, which is prevalent in some countries in Asia, should be considered. Fuels and vehicles can be thought of as a joint system, as cleaner vehicle technologies usually require improved fuels. Cleaner fuels usually involve the elimination of lead, and reductions in sulphur, benzene, vapour pressure and total aromatics in petroleum, and lowering the density, sulphur, and polycyclic hydrocarbons in diesel (see Table 6.12 and Box 6.6). The introduction of cleaner fuels needs close consultation with stakeholders, particularly the oil and auto industries, and usually requires short- and medium-term strategies to enable the fuel and vehicle industries sufficient time to adapt. Countries importing fuel and vehicles find it easier to impose tighter emission and fuel standards than do manufacturing countries. The rapid phase-out of lead in petrol and adoption of Euro standards illustrates the rapid pace of progress with introduction of cleaner fuels in Asia (ACFA, 2005).
Reducing emissions from vehicles
Improvements in fuel and vehicle technologies provide cost-effective options to reduce vehicle emissions in many developing countries where there is a rapid growth in private vehicle ownership. Developing countries may have large numbers of older vehicles with poor levels of maintenance and high emission factors. Governments can implement the use of cleaner fuels and tighter emission standards for new vehicles without direct additional costs to governments. They achieve this by passing the costs to consumers, and amending the taxation schedules to reduce taxes on cleaner fuels and
Table 6.12:
General guidelines for fuel quality
Fuel standards depend on local conditions, including the level of air pollution and the costs of upgrading, but general guidelines include: Moving to unleaded gasoline should be the first priority while ensuring that benzene and total aromatics do not rise to unacceptable levels. Progressively implement steps to reduce the sulphur (S) content of both gasoline and diesel fuels to very low levels, taking into account the circumstances and resource constraints. If the S content of gasoline is high, reduce it to 500 parts per million (ppm) and preferably lower as soon as possible, to ensure efficient operation of catalytic converters following lead removal. If the S content in diesel is high, identify and implement a strategy to reduce it to 500 ppm or lower.
In countries with high levels of air pollution from mobile sources, especially those that have already taken steps towards a S content of 500 ppm, or where new or significantly renovated oil refining capacity is being invested in, examine the cost-effectiveness of moving to ultra-low S standards, taking into account maintenance capability and the investments in the necessary emission control technologies to exploit lower S fuels. Where the resource and infrastructure conditions for natural gas are favourable and those for cleaner diesel technology are much less so, give consideration to shifting high mileage public transport fleets from diesel to CNG. Take steps to prevent fuel adulteration and the smuggling of low-quality fuels from neighbouring countries, and giving consideration to holding fuel marketers legally responsible for the quality of fuels sold.
If moving to 500 ppm S for diesel is difficult in the near term but lowering it to 2,000–3,000 ppm is relatively inexpensive, immediately move to this level. Source: Gwilliam et al. (2004)
33
6 governments in Asia have adopted the Euro series of emission standards for new petrol and diesel vehicles. This has enabled many Asian countries to benefit from the experience of European nations with the implementation of these standards, and from harmonisation of vehicle emissions standards.
Box 6.6 Phasing-out of Leaded Petrol in Vietnam The phasing-out of leaded petrol inVietnam provides a good example of how an institutional context can encourage decision-makers to assess regional best practice. Including the experience of neighbouring countries, balanced interests, and implemented decisions to help address a difficult air quality issue, even at relatively low levels of economic development. Vietnam was well placed to switch, as competitively priced unleaded petrol was already available on international markets, and the absence of substantial refining interests withinVietnam also meant that there was little opposition from this sector. However, the experience of neighbouring countries was important in providing decision-makers in the government of Vietnam and other key stakeholders with confidence that the proposal was technically feasible and cost-effective for Vietnam.
Without a balance between the emission standards for new vehicles and for in-use vehicles, there can be adverse unintended consequences. Stringent requirements for new vehicles can be expensive, and if standards for in-use vehicles are lax or not effectively implemented, vehicle replacement is delayed, resulting in an ageing, high emission vehicle fleet. Effective implementation of standards for in-use vehicles is necessary to ensure that vehicles with high levels of emissions are repaired or retired from the road.
Source: after Kojima and Lovei (2001a; 2001b)
Improving fuel quality may also involve the introduction of alternative fuels to reduce particulate emissions. These alternative fuels include LPG, CNG, biofuels, hydrogen and electricity. In addition to reducing emissions of air pollution, these fuels may diversify energy sources and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. ACFA (2005) has summarized recent policy developments in the implementation of cleaner fuels in Asia.
Vehicle inspection and maintenance (I&M) programmes can successfully reduce emissions from old vehicles and ensure that new vehicles remain in good condition (see Table 6.13 and Box 6.7). Emissions of CO and HC can be reduced up to 25 per cent through strict I&M programmes. Criteria pollutants commonly regulated for inuse diesel vehicles are PM, smoke, and NO2 for petrol-fuelled vehicles, CO, HCs, and NOx and for two- and three-wheeled vehicles, CO, HCs and smoke (ADB, 2003).
Vehicle technologies being used to reduce emissions include catalytic converters, exhaust gas recirculation, and diesel particle traps. Use of these technologies in new vehicles is largely driven by new vehicle emission standards. Most
Table 6.13:
General guidelines for inspection and maintenance programmes
An effective vehicle inspection and maintenance programme can help enforce emission standards by reducing emissions from in-use vehicles. International experience with I&M programmes suggests the following be considered when implementing an I&M programme: 1 The government must be willing and able to provide the resources necessary for effective audits and supervision of the programme, even if supervision is outsourced, to ensure an adequate level of accountability and transparency. 2 The programme must use centralised, test-only private sector centres with modern instrumentation, maximum automation, and “blind test” procedures to provide a high level of quality control. All centres should be subject to independent monitoring.
3 To ensure that all vehicles in the designated categories are tested, the following procedures are necessary: • an up-to-date and accurate vehicle registration record; • a requirement to display a clearly visible sticker certifying that the vehicle has been certified and passed; and • a penalty large enough to deter evasion must be used. 4 Education campaigns and clinics should be used to improve vehicle maintenance, especially for two-stroke engine maintenance
Source: adapted from Gwilliam et al (2004)
34
These I&M programmes also accelerate the disposal of old and inefficient cars. However, they may face financial, political and enforcement difficulties, and different countries have had varying levels of success with effective implementation of I&M. Test procedures should be designed to make it difficult to cheat or avoid testing, and to minimise differences between test centres and maximize reproducibility. Strong independent oversight and auditing of the system is required.
• use of planning regulations to restrict the location of new industries, for example to avoid proximity to residential zones or other sensitive land uses, and to establish suitably sited and serviced industrial areas; • compulsory environmental impact assessment (EIA) for specified new major industries to require assessment of their potential for air pollution and to recommend improvement in location, processes, fuels, industry technology and emission limits. The most powerful and cost-effective AQM options occur during the planning stages for a new facility (WHO, 2000);
If resources are limited, it is usually advisable in the initial phase of implementation to focus resources on a limited number of vehicle categories, such as vehicles that travel a large number of kilometres per year and are heavily polluting (such as commercial diesel vehicles) in preference to testing every vehicle every year (Gwilliam et al., 2004).
• relocation of existing industries away from residential and other sensitive land uses;
Where centres conduct both testing and maintenance it is difficult to supervise and audit the test and repair systems to provide quality control and prevent corruption. Outcomes are better where the testing and repair functions are clearly separated with centralised, test-only I&M centres (ADB, 2003).
• control of visual appearance by planning guidelines and landscaping etc. The last two measures do not reduce emissions and can, therefore, be only considered as secondary actions, particularly in view of the spreading trends of urban areas. (b) Promoting cleaner production Cleaner production and ecoefficiency aim to increase the efficiency of industrial processes and reduce consumption, prevent pollution, reduce wastes at source and minimise risks to people and the environment. Cleaner production is a way to achieve both environmental protection and economic benefits by better managing the production process, often saving energy and materials. In the case of AQM, the main cleaner production successes have been achieved
3.5 Reducing Air Pollution from Industrial Sources
T
o implement strategies to reduce industrial emissions within the city, it is important to have adequate information on the type of emissions from these industries, tendencies in emissions, effectiveness of actions to reduce these tendencies, and priorities. Most of this information should be available from emissions inventories (see Module 2, Emissions). The main strategies for addressing industrial pollution are the promotion of cleaner production and emissions reduction by industry, and land use planning and zoning. (a) Land use planning and zoning The main techniques used are:
35
Box 6.7 Cleaner Fuel for Stationary Sources in Singapore Singapore’s success in achieving clean air is partly due to efforts to encourage industries to use cleaner fuel. Industries located in designated industrial estates are required to use fuel oil containing not more than 1 per cent sulphur by weight. Industries on Jurong Island andTuas industrial estate may use natural gas, a cleaner fuel. Those located near housing estates or residential premises are required to use cleaner fuel, i.e. diesel with 0.05 per cent or less sulphur content, or town gas. Electricity will increasingly be generated from gas-fired combined cycle power plants, as these are more efficient than oil-fired steam plants. Today, approximately 60 per cent of Singapore’s electricity is generated from natural gas. Source: AWGESC (2005)
6 by improving the quality of fuels, for example by reducing the sulphur content or requiring cleaner fuels such as gas. Although cleaner production is the most sustainable solution, some end-of-pipe solutions are still necessary to address industrial air pollution. However, prevention of pollution by use of clean fuels and the adoption of new technologies that avoid emissions is generally less expensive than end-of-pipe techniques to reduce pollution, if the costs of the effects of pollution on health and the environment are included (APMA/CAI-Asia, 2004). Fuel taxes have been successfully used in many countries to provide economic incentives to use cleaner fuels and reduce the use of polluting fuels (World Bank, 1999). (c) Promoting emissions reduction in industry Box 6.8 provides an example of private sector participation in reducing emissions. The promotion of the reduction of industrial emissions may involve: • setting priorities by focusing on emissions from the major emission sources;
• setting strict fines for exceeding emission standards.
3.6 Reducing Air Pollution from Area and Natural Sources
F
orest fires, burning of biomass and open burning of waste can be major contributors to poor air quality in a city. Air pollution due to natural processes, including PM transported from bare soil may also contribute to poor air quality. Surface mining and overgrazing of land in semiarid areas can act as sources of particles. Prevention and control strategies may include enforcement of bans on burning of materials or waste, and promotion of alternatives to burning (see Box 6.9). These may also include paving roads, establishing revegetation programmes in dust control areas and use of street sweeping equipment. Education strategies may involve informing the community about sources of emissions, and the impact of these practices on health and the environment (WHO, 2000). Open burning of waste can produce toxic emissions. To address this issue it is necessary to identify areas where this occurs, assess the extent of the problem; then assess the adequacy of the city’s provision of disposal means in these areas and, if necessary, improve the facilities and capacities for waste management.
• requirements for use of cleaner fuels; • requiring the use of best available technology: policies need to focus on the implementation of best available technology for specific industrial processes. The industry must provide an action plan for how it will implement best available technology. Experiences show that this often results in a realistic action plan generating commitment from all stakeholders;
3.7 Institutional Arrangements for Air Quality Governance
R
esponsibility for air quality rests with everyone. It is essential that there is a consensus among key stakeholders on suitable institutional arrangements including the institutional responsibilities, coordination and planning, political support, financial resources, technical capabilities. Collaboration and coordination of structures and responsibilities is essential for implementation of actions, budgets and a time-frame for each action plan (see Table 6.14, page 38, below).
• compulsory notification of accidents; • licensing of specified polluting processes; • compulsory emission standards required under licence conditions: many developing countries have set emission standards for different types of industries. However, enforcement is often weak. An enforcement strategy should be addressed; and
36
Institutional arrangements, laws and regulations are important parts of an AQM. Barriers to successful AQM in Asia include weak institutions that lack technical skills and political authority; enforcement agencies that often lack both the necessary information and the means to implement policy, and unclear legal and administrative procedures. Countries have their own political and administrative hierarchies and technical expertise that affect institutions, laws and regulations related to air pollution control.
Box 6.8 Private Sector Participation in the Philippines – the Anti-Smoke Belching Campaign In the Philippines, the private sector has been actively involved in air quality management issues. An example of this involvement is that of a brewery, San Miguel Corporation (SMC), in the anti-smoke belching campaign. The SMC’s Polo brewery is visited by approximately 2,000 vehicles a day. The management set up a strict policy allowing only clean vehicles to enter their complex. The brewery assigned staff to monitor air quality whilst the government initially lent them equipment and trained their staff. Clean vehicles get a sticker which allows them entry into the factory complex to conduct business with SMC. Dirty vehicles cannot enter and owners are asked to clean their fleet or lose business. This approach is now a corporate policy of SMC in all their plants and offices and used by many other companies that have collaborated under the Centre for Corporate Citizenship.
Organisations implementing key policy instruments
It is important to ensure that stakeholders expected to implement key AQM strategies have the legitimacy and powers to effectively implement them. A range of local, regional and national government agencies may have overlapping responsibilities in areas of AQM including local government, environment, energy, transport, industry, planning, finance, health and other institutions including meteorological departments and research institutes. These overlapping responsibilities need to be addressed. A range of key NGOs, business associations, and civic groups, should be involved in discussions of institutional arrangements. Knowledge of specific responsibilities and capabilities is important to strategy implementation.
Source: UN Habitat (2001)
Coordination of AQM plans with existing plans Cities need to ensure compatibility among new environmental strategies and the existing development strategies at city or national level. Integration of land use planning with transportation planning and AQM planning, all of which bear a direct influence on a city’s air quality, is an ideal illustration of the need for coordination of AQM strategies with other existing strategies.
As discussed in Section 2.1, CAIPs are plans to improve air quality, and to facilitate coordination and reporting of the different activities being conducted, in a structured and transparent way (APMA/CAI-Asia, 2004). A CAIP should be integrated with economic and urban plans. A
Box 6.9 Control of Dust from Wind and Waste Burning in Shenyang (China) Dust from soil, roads and waste burning contributed to approximately half of particulate pollution in Shenyang especially during spring and autumn. In order to address this problem, a comprehensive action plan was developed to address the issues including the following actions: • requirements to reduce stockpiles of dust-generating materials; • replacement of dry sweeping of roads with road-washing; • revegetation of the city and paving of unpaved areas; • improved management of construction sites to reduce dust emissions; and, • enforcement of regulations to prevent burning of vegetation and waste. Source: adapted from UN Habitat (2001)
37
6 Table 6.14:
Gaining support for air quality management
Development and maintenance of strong partnerships • consistent sharing and systematic dissemination of information from both the public and private sectors; • provision of documentation in non-technical and, where appropriate, local language to raise the public awareness; • capacity building programmes: for example, for environmental NGOs; this can be combined with “sensitivity” training for public sector institutions to enhance their understanding of the needs and views of civic society. Community outreach • develop a plan for community participation including a time line for this plan; • aim to disseminate high quality information on how the public can contribute towards improving air quality; • solicit funding for this activity both from private and public sector grants; • identify and appoint a coordinator for this activity; • seek commitment from key stakeholders to support the formulated strategies and action plans; these key stakeholders could include government, major local businesses, issue-specific businesses (i.e some actions may be directly relevant to specific businesses in the city, e.g. transport or energy companies), the media and the politicians. Suggestions for enlisting broad community support • approach youth groups/young people through the educational system; • use the media with care to raise awareness, but not alarm; • approach community groups and religious groups; • adopt a famous person, i.e. a public figure (e.g. a sportsperson, TV or movie star) to catalyse broad support; • enlist the support of an elected official; • enlist the support of NGOs; and, • adopt a step-by-step approach for building support and fostering trust. Packaging the message for community information • send the message to young people through education materials, poster competition, web sites, games etc.; • develop reliable media contacts to promote the message; • use the web to distribute information and networks; • organise special events where the public figure or famous personality will be the centre of attention and help deliver the message; • take advantage of media attention on pollution issues; • reach out through meetings, staying focused on the issue but being flexible with stakeholders; use their issues to involve them; • Develop a system for continuous follow-up, e.g. email, e-newsletters etc.; • Offer something when you can, e.g. thank supporters, give credit, tell success stories and focus on potential financial savings from proposed strategies. Source: UN Habitat (2001)
successful CAIP should encourage stakeholder participation in its development as this enhances transparency and public support. It should also be formulated to attract legal and funding commitment and political support. A CAIP must include a clear time frame of what is achievable. It should incorporate achievements in the short-, medium- and long-term and should include indicators and methods for tracking achievements. Within the plan, there must be a clear designation
38
of responsibilities. CAIPs must be flexible enough to allow for adjustments if changes are necessary. Implementation plans are most successful when defined, documented, communicated and enforced as clear and detailed agreements for coordinated actions that describe each stakeholder’s commitment for priority actions within a well-defined timetable. They typically include: allocation of staff time and resources, use of financial resources for both investment and for
operation and maintenance, detailed geographic focus, and a monitoring system for adherence to commitments, and achievement of objectives and targets as well as amendments, as required. This participatory and consultative process is effective in reaching agreements on implementation of plans. The plans should be widely disseminated to stakeholders, not directly participating in its development, through consultative meetings.
Resources
While all strategies need human resources for implementation, many strategies require additional financial resources for their implementation. A number of ways can be explored in order to obtain the required resources. These include both internal and external means of financing strategy implementation as discussed below. (a) The Government’s regular budget Resource allocation is easier to secure when there is a broad-based participatory approach to strategy formulation and action planning. This includes gaining the necessary political will and organisational support for the strategy. Politically, this means that funds can be allocated from the government’s regular budget to fulfil the financial requirements of implementation.
Political support
The support of political leaders at both national and local levels is essential to improve air quality, as alongside senior public servants, they are the parties who must agree with and approve the proposed strategies, and more importantly, who will identify and assign staff and financial resources for implementation. Also important for successful implementation is a working group of members who can be directly involved in strategy implementation, and should be involved at an early stage. It is imperative that these members consult with their constituencies or organisations so that the strategy selected will not come as a surprise to the responsible institutions, and to facilitate its adoption.
(b) Partnerships with the private sector Engagement with the private sector in the early stages of the process can help implementation. The private sector directly controls emissions that influence the air quality in a city, and in many cases has the financial and technical ability to make a difference. However, commitment is important so the early involvement of the private sector in information gathering and strategy formulation to gather their views and use their expertise on air quality gives them a sense of ownership of the strategies and the process.
Another way to gain political support for AQM is to illustrate the gravity and enormity of the adverse health effects of air pollution. If the political will and organisational support are sustained and a participatory approach and open involvement of a wide range of public and private stakeholders is achieved throughout the process without friction, it becomes easier to apply the necessary technical and financial resources for successful strategy implementation.
(c) International Programmes Financial and technical support can also be obtained externally from a number of donor communities and international agencies in their relevant fields of expertise and experience. These include intergovernmental agencies such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UN-Habitat),
The maintenance of political support requires transparency and accountability in ensuring effective implementation with stakeholder support without major opposition, and ensuring reporting on the stages of implementation to policy makers, senior public servants, and other key stakeholders.
39
6 Knowledge management
and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The World Bank and Asian Development Bank also support environmental initiatives and have made significant contributions to the improvement of urban air quality in Asia. The CAI-Asia also provides support for Asian cities to improve air quality.
A broad-based participation, information and education strategy is necessary to maintain community support for measures to address air quality issues. Through sustained public awareness and involvement, continuous policy advocacy, critique and review, revitalisation of both human and financial resources for air quality improvement can be maintained.
(d) Bilateral Agencies Bilateral agencies are supportive of sustainable development projects.
Information dissemination to the public is an important tool in raising public awareness. Information can be prepared and distributed from databases in many different ways to meet the needs of the users. Information can be disseminated through internet presentations, Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) solutions, Short Message Service (SMS) and Multimedia Messaging Solution (MMS) services. Several projects have been designed for utilizing such services and also in international research programmes such as the EU’s Information Society (EC, 2007). The EU’s Information Society activities translate its policies into progress ‘on the ground’. Activities range from basic and applied research into tomorrow’s cutting-edge information society technologies to stimulating the take-up of these technologies in different sectors of the economy and across Europe’s regions.
Implementation capacities
Even if resources are available, the implementation capacity may not be adequate. In this case, institutional strengthening may be required or implementation plans should be amended to be less ambitious or phased to allow a longer time frame. It is also crucial to strengthen the AQM capacities of the stakeholders involved in the process. Capacity building measures including training workshops and courses, as well as exchanges of lessons learned between cities, regionally and globally, for AQM.
System review and improvement
The third part of the systematic Plan-Do-Check approach is the monitoring, review and improvement component. Systematic monitoring is a key part of the implementation of AQM strategies. Systematic monitoring of the implementation process enables an assessment of the effectiveness of implementation, including achievement of target and milestones, and amendment of implementation measures where they are inadequate. It enables an assessment of gaps or problems in strategy coordination, involvement and support of stakeholders whether targets are being achieved within the desired time frame and, if not, the reasons for the slippage. To illustrate some of the different approaches to monitoring, indicators for AQM capabilities are available (Schwela et al., 2006). These can be used by cities to assess their own capabilities providing a systematic basis for modifying their implementation processes.
Often it is a challenge to bring numerous organisations together to address air quality at the city, state and national level. These many agencies have their own interests, priorities and agendas. Stakeholder participation should include the public sector at the municipal, state and national levels; the private sector (for example consulting firms, training bodies, industries, etc.), both formal and informal, and the community sector, including NGOs and business organisations and neighbourhood groups. Access to information in a convenient form and a suitable type is essential to enable communities to have the opportunity to provide input into processes of decision-making (World Bank,
40
2000). Many countries have introduced laws and regulations requiring organisations to disclose information relating to emissions, discharges and wastes produced. This approach has been termed the ‘community right to know’ as the best known model for this approach is the Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act introduced in the US in 1986 (Gunningham and Graboski, 1998). Disclosure aims to inform the community about details of the activities, emissions, discharges and wastes of an organisation, their impacts, measures to control them and policies of the organisations. It relies on the recognition of good performers and the public shaming of poor performers as the driver to improve environmental performance (World Bank, 2000). The development of emissions inventories of pollutants from major sources in the US and the ready public access to this information, has led to major improvements in pollution prevention and control programmes by industry. A former administrator of the USEPA, William Reilly, has described the Toxic Release Inventory as “one of the most effective instruments available” for reducing toxic emissions, a view supported by his successor, Carol Browner (Gunningham and Grabosky, 1998). Consequent to its success it has been copied to a variable extent by many countries including Australia, Canada, and European nations. Another example is the Aarhus Convention (UNECE, 1998). The Aarhus Convention establishes a number of rights of the public (individuals and their associations) with regard to the environment. The Parties to the Convention are required to make the necessary provisions so that public authorities (at national, regional or local level) can contribute to these rights to become effective. The Convention provides for the right of everyone to:
• participate in environmental decisionmaking (public participation in environmental decision-making); • review procedures to challenge public decisions that have been made without respecting the two aforementioned rights or environmental law in general (access to justice). The EC has been party to the Convention since May 2005. The Decision on conclusion of the Aarhus Convention by the EC was adopted on 17 February 2005 (EC, 2005b). In 2003 two Directives concerning the first and second “pillars” of the Aarhus Convention were adopted: • Directive 2003/4/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on public access to environmental information (EC, 2003a); • Directive 2003/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 May 2003 providing for public participation in respect of the drawing up of certain plans and programmes relating to the environment (EC, 2003b). The transfer of knowledge needed for effective AQM should be institutionalised. Another area for coordination is that among different types of knowledge institutes (e.g. the data exchange among traffic agencies, environmental institutes, transport planning and land use planning agencies to assess motor vehicle emissions). It can be concluded that the experiences of many cities highlight institutional issues as the most critical factor for ensuring success (UN Habitat, 2001).
• receive environmental information that is held by public authorities (access to environmental information);
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6 3.8 Co-Benefits for Climate Change and Urban Air Pollution
M
easures to control polluting air emissions as part of an AQM strategy tend to be immediate, more certain and occur at the place where the control measure is taken (e.g. urban or regional scale). In contrast, the impact of control measures on climate change is long-term and global. These differences have been reflected in the current scientific and policy frameworks, which tend to address these problems separately (IPCC, 2007). The actual global temperature change due to GHG emissions will depend critically on choices that society will make. Policies to address urban air quality have tended be in the form of local and regional measures. However, these can be adapted at low cost to also reduce GHG emissions. This is particularly important for developing countries in Asia, where economic and social development rather than climate change mitigation is a higher priority (Chandler et al., 2002). The IPCC (2007) fourth assessment stated that: “Integrating air pollution abatement and climate change mitigation policies offers potentially large cost reductions compared to treating those policies in isolation.” Table 6.15 presents measures which are likely to lead both to reductions in emissions of both air pollutants and GHGs. Such measures could form part of an integrated strategy to address both urban air quality and global climate change.
3.9 Clean Development Mechanism
T
he United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed in 1992 at the UN Earth Summit, and has been ratified by 192 countries. The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilise GHG concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. Recognising that binding obligations are necessary to achieve the objective, countries
42
adopted the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The Protocol acknowledges that the industrialised countries must lead efforts to address climate change, and commits those included in Annex B to the Protocol to emissions targets. Under this Protocol, 36 industrialised countries and the European Union have committed to reducing their emissions by an average of eight per cent by 2012 against 1990 levels. Industrialised countries must first and foremost take domestic action against climate change. However, the Protocol also allows them to meet their emission reduction commitments abroad through ”market-based mechanisms”. The clean development mechanism (CDM) is one of the Protocol’s market-based mechanism which permits industrialised countries to earn emission credits through investment in sustainable development projects that reduce emissions in developing countries. The CDM is a means for developed countries to achieve part of their target under the Kyoto Protocol by purchasing Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) from GHG reduction projects in developing countries. A prerequisite for a CDM project is that it must contribute to sustainable development in the host country. It is up to each host country government to decide and define their criteria for sustainable development. A UNFCCC body called the CDM Executive Board (EB) decides on the validity of the methodology for generating CERs of each project. Since the beginning of 2006, the estimated potential of emission reductions to be delivered by the CDM is more than 2.2 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent. This is approximately the combined emissions of Australia, Germany and the United Kingdom (UNFCC, 2007). However, the current CDM project portfolio provides a limited contribution to tackling urban air pollution (Curb-Air, 2007). For example, the large number of renewable energy and efficiency projects approved under the CDM only have a significant impact to the extent they displace coal utilisation in or near urban areas. The same argument is valid for fuel switch projects.
Table 6.15: Examples of measures to reduce emissions of air pollutants and climate active pollutants and their effects Measure
Effect
Switching from coal to natural gas for power generation.
Reduces CO2 emissions for each kiloWatt generated. Emissions of SO2 and NOx are also reduced.
Efficiency improvements in domestic appliances and industrial processes, e.g. through technical developments.
Reduces emissions of both types of pollutant, but efficiency measures sometimes result in increased demand, which must be avoided.
Energy conservation, e.g. through improved insulation of houses.
Reduces emissions of both types of pollutant.
Use of new technologies in road transport, e.g.
Reduces carbon dioxide emissions for each kilometre travelled and also emissions of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. It is essential that the whole fuel/ vehicle cycle is analysed (e.g. the emissions associated with hydrogen generation).
• hybrid vehicles • hydrogen from natural gas or from renewable energy sources • lean burn petrol vehicles fitted with nitrogen oxide traps Demand management/behavioural change: improved public transport coupled with disincentives for private car usage.
Reduces emissions of both types of pollutant.
Source: DEFRA (2007)
Other projects which could have potential benefits for urban air quality are under-represented. However, the Curb-Air project (2007) identified a number of barriers which currently prevent co-benefit projects being included in the CDM portfolio:
Transportation
The transport sector is a major contributor to air pollution in Asian cities. Measures which could have the co-benefit of reducing urban air pollutants and GHGs are listed below: • fuel switch from petrol/diesel to CNG or LPG;
• establishing a baseline with regard to emission factors and baseline scenarios; • difficulty and/or high cost of monitoring GHG/air pollution reductions; and
• fuel switch from petrol/diesel to (sustainable) biofuels (impact on air pollutants uncertain);
• limited financial contribution from CERs, compared to project investment.
• public transportation policies, such as bus rapid transport (BRT);
A sector analysis of air pollution reduction options based on their co-benefits (i.e. ability to reduce GHG emissions and improve urban air quality) shows that a number of options are available at the urban level (Curb-Air, 2007). These options are discussed below.
• traffic management, such as flyovers, separated traffic lanes, or improved roads; • vehicle policies, such as scrap and technical control programmes; • vehicle efficiency improvements; • fuel cell or hybrid/electric cars.
43
6 Transport projects are particularly effective i n a c h i e v i n g c o - b e n e f i t s . H o we ve r, t h e development and approval of baseline and monitoring methodologies is an important step for implementation of such projects. With regard to the use of biofuels several methodologies have been (re)submitted and are awaiting approval by the CDM EB. However, for other transportation technologies this is not the case.
Buildings Sector
Several options for co-benefits exist in the residential and service sector exist. These include: • fuel switch from coal to gas in building heating (including district heating); • fuel switch from coal to (sustainable) biomass for heating/cooking; • in case baseline biomass utilization is unsustainable: fuel switch from biomass to gas in cooking stoves or heating;
Industry and Power Production
Relocation is an effective measure to reduce urban air pollution from industry and power plants. However, this has no effect on GHG emissions and regional air pollution. In addition, flue gas treatment can reduce energy efficiency and lead to an increase in CO2 emissions. Measures which can be applied to plants in or near urban areas exist, which also have co-benefits include:
• improved cooking stoves; • renewable electricity (e.g. solar home systems); • insulation of buildings to reduce energy consumption; • energy efficiency measures such as efficient lighting.
• fuel switch from coal to gas; • fuel switch from coal to biomass (reduces SO2 emissions, and in case the baseline is open biomass burning close to city it also mitigates PM emissions); • energy efficiency measures; • (Non biomass) renewable energy; • cleaner coal technology, such as integrated gasification combined cycle or CO2; capture and storage (where air pollutants are reduced in addition to CO2). In the industry and power sectors many project types are already being implemented, such as energy efficiency, biomass utilisation and fossil fuel switch, thereby contributing to the improvement of urban air quality. For cleaner coal technologies one baseline methodology was approved in October 2007, thus increasing the opportunities for these technologies which have a larger co-benefit potential.
In the buildings sector several project types can contribute to achieving better air quality. With regard to district heating, combined heat and power (CHP) as well as natural gas utilization can be used and several such projects have already been implemented. Smaller scale projects such as renewable energy at the household level, improved cooking stoves and energy-efficient lighting are being developed but only one baseline and monitoring methodology has been approved as of June 2007 (distribution of energy efficient light bulbs to households). Table 6.16 presents some general features of different measures in terms of air quality impact; climate change impact; acceptability and costs; ease of implementation (Bakker et al, 2004). It illustrates how CO2 and local air pollutants can simultaneously (or not) be reduced. However, a measure might result in a different outcome when
44
implemented in different cities and contexts (CurbAir, 2007b).
goals are exploited. In addition, the CDM may contribute to several developing country development objectives, including:
Achieving Co-Benefits in Asia
The CDM has the potential to contribute further to achieving co-benefits, especially in the transport sector. This is beneficial to both the developed and developing countries participating in the project because synergies between global carbon abatement goals and local sustainable development
• increased energy efficiency and conservation; • transfer of technologies and financial resources; • local environmental benefits, e.g. cleaner air and water;
Table 6.16: Evaluation of technical options for local and global air pollution abatement Air quality impact
Climate change impact
Acceptability
Cost
Ease of implementation
Fuel switch transport Engine technology Tailpipe controls Reformulating fuel Mass transit Vehicle maintenance
++ ++ ++ ++ + +
+ +/0 -1) 0 + +/0
0 + + ++ + ++
+/+ + + ++ +
+ + ++ ++ + +
Engine downsizing
++
++
-
0
-
Electric/hybrid cars
++
++
0
-
¿?
Fuel cell cars
++
++
¿?
-
¿?
+
+
+
0/-
+
Energy Conservation (demand)
++
++
+
+/-
+
Energy Conservation (supply)
++
+
+
0/-
+
Renewable energy
++
++
+/-
-
+
Nuclear energy
++
++
-
0/-
-
Technical option
Traffic management
Remarks Supply crucial Fuel quality is critical Refinery emissions In developing countries In developing countries High speed and strong engine popular Medium-, long-term Long-term, clean H2 production required
Hydrogen
++
++
+/0
-
-
Many long-term options can be developed Often cost-effective in the long-term Long-term Public opinion differs across regions Clean H2 source critical
CNG or LPG replacing diesel/gasoline
++
++
+/-
+/-
+
Supply and safety crucial
Gasoline replacing diesel Fuel quality Combustion technology Combustion process Fuel gas treatment Industry relocation VOC mitigation Gas cooking stoves
+ ++ ++ ++ ++ + + +
02 ++ 0 -1 0 0 +3
+ ++ ++ + ++ +/+/0 ¿?
+ + 0/0 + +/0 +
+ ++ + + ++ + +/0 +
CO2 increases Life cycle impacts
Common practice In developing countries Sources are diffuse In developing countries
Reduce wood stoves in cities
+
+3
0
¿?
-
In developing countries
Forest fire management
+
+
++
+
0?
“0” means a neutral result. “Acceptability” refers to the general (public and private) initial response and perception of the measure. In the case of costs, a “+” indicates that the option is relatively cheap. “Ease of implementation indicates whether an option can be implemented in a relatively simple way and is already common practice 1) The increase in energy consumption as a result of tailpipe controls and flue gas treatment is 1-3% 2) Radiative forcing of sulphate particles not taken into account 3) Assuming biomass is not harvested from sustainable sources Source: Bakker et al. (2004)
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6 • local environmental co-benefits, such as health benefits from reduced local air pollution;
Given the wide range of possible measures Asian cities may be inclined to select and implement a measure depending on the factors indicated in Figure 6.4. Factors include geographic and socioeconomic characteristics, environmental concerns, sources of air pollutants and GHGs, political and stakeholder commitment, current laws and regulations, social preferences, abatement costs, risks associated with the implementation of the measure, financial concerns, and technical barriers. Any selection of a measure should be the result of a transparent, consultative and participatory decision making process, taking into account the factors described.
• poverty alleviation and equity considerations through income and employment generation; • sustainable energy production; and • Private and public sector capacity development.
Wide range of possible actions that may improve air quality and reduce CO2
Geographic and socio-economic city characteristics
Main environmental concerns
Main sources of air pollutants and greenhouse gases
Transparent consultative and participatory decision making process
Political will and commitment
Society support and acceptance to implement such measures Financial concernes (and possible CDM viability)
Technical barriers
Optimal (set of) measures
Figure 6.4: Selection process of the best measures adapted to each case Source: Curb-Air (2007b)
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Summary
T
his module has examined the main components which form the basis of a strategic framework to manage urban air quality. You have learnt about:
The key messages you should take away from this module on governance and policies are: ► Participation of all stakeholders is decisive for successful AQM.
• risk assessment for establishing air quality guidelines and standards
► Clean air implementation plans should consider all relevant sources in emissions inventories, monitoring of relevant air quality compounds, and estimation of health and environmental impacts.
• WHO air quality guidelines and Asian, EU and USEPA national air quality standards • clean air implementation plans
► Good governance in AQM and GHG reduction must include the implementation and enforcement of laws, regulations and decrees relating to air pollution and GHGs.
• AQM framework • importance of implementation and enforcement, policy reforms, institutional strengthening
► Co-benefits of GHG mitigation and air pollutant reduction are essential for viable clean air implementation plans.
• use of appropriate policy instruments such as command and control approaches and economic instruments
► CDM is a viable option for local and global air pollution abatement.
• institutional arrangements for air quality governance • co-benefits for climate change mitigation and air pollution reduction • need for stakeholder participation. Clean air implementation plans provide a tool to outline the strategies and instruments for pollution abatement. The setting of air quality standards based on risk to human health provides the legal basis to control polluting air emissions. A number of policy instruments exist to achieve a reduction in urban air pollutants and GHG emissions. These include regulatory instruments such as emission and fuel quality standards, economic instruments such as a pollution tax and incentives to encourage self regulation. Once a policy framework is in place, the implementation and enforcement of the strategy will determine the success of achieving a reduction in polluting emissions.
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6 Finally...
M
odule 6 is the final module in the Foundation Course on Air Quality Management. If you have worked through all six modules you should now have developed a good understanding of urban air pollution and management in Asia.
Please pass the course on to someone else who may also be interested in learning about the subject. The course modules can be downloaded from:
www.sei.se/cleanair
We hope you have enjoyed the course and that you will return to the modules again in the future as a reference source. In order to address the problem of urban air pollution, we need to raise awareness and understanding of the issue and enhance our capacity to prevent and control sources of air pollution.
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Information sources ACFA (2005) Fuel policy development. Asian Clean Fuels Association, Singapore. Available from: http:// acfa.org.sg/library.php?subcat1=Conference%20Papers&subcat2=2005&subcat3=Globa l%20Fuels%20Standards%20Workshop,%20Manila,%2028%20June%202005# ADB (2001) Asian Environment Outlook 2001. Asian Development Bank, Manila. http://www.adb.org/ Documents/Books/AEO/2001/ ADB (2003) Reducing vehicle emissions in Asia. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Available from: http://www.adb.org/documents/guidelines/Vehicle_Emissions/reducing_emissions. asp#contents ADB (2005) Asian Environment Outlook 2005 - Making Profits, Protecting Our Planet: Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Performance in Asia and the Pacific. Asian Development Bank, Manila. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AEO/2005/default.asp Akbar, S. (2004) Impacts of policy interventions on urban air quality in India: A retrospective analysis. Presentation at the Better Air Quality Workshop, Agra, 6-8 December, 2004. http://www. cleanairnet.org/baq2004/1527/articles-59138_akbar.ppt#15 Ale, B.B. (2003) Fuel alterations and tailpipe emissions. Journal of the Institute of Engineering 3: 12-16. http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles-58998_Fuel_Adulteration_Ale.pdf APMA/CAI-Asia (2004) A strategic framework for air quality management in Asia. CAI-Asia, Manila. Available from: http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/article-58180.html AWGESC, (2005) Proposed list/types of environmental best practices - clean air, ASEAN Working Group on Environmentally Sustainable Cities, Association of South East Asian Nations, Jakarta. http://www.aseansec.org/framework.htm Bakker, S.J.A, H.C. de Coninck, J.C. Jansen, L. van Bree (2004) Air Pollution, Health and Climate Change – Synergies and trade-offs. In: Kok, M and H.C. de Coninck (eds). Beyond Climate. Options for broadening climate policy. RIVM report 500019001, Bilthoven Barron, W.F., Liu, J., Lam, T.H., Wong, C.M., Peters, J. and Hedley, A. (1995) Costs and benefits of air quality improvement in Hong Kong. Contemporary Economic Policy, XIII, 105-117 Bell, R.G. (2003) Clearing the Air: Why Air Quality Reforms Finally Took Hold in Delhi. Presented at the Better Air Quality Workshop, Manila, 17-19 December 2003. Available from www.cleanairnet. org/caiasia/1412/article58699 Breithaupt, (2001) Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities. Module 1d Economic Instruments. GTZ, Eachborn, Germany. http://www.gtz.de CAI-Asia (2003) Emission standards for new motorcycles. Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities, Manila. http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles-58969_motorcycle.pdf CAI-Asia (2004) Benchmarking urban air quality management in Asian cities. CAI-Asia, Manila. Available from:http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/article-58984.html
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6 CAI-Asia (2006) Private communication by May Ajero, Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities, Manila CAI-Asia (2008) Emission standards for new light-duty vehicles (as of 8 January 2008). Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities, Manila. http://www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles-58969_resource_1. pdf Curb-Air (2007a) Urban air quality and CDM opportunities in 4 Asian cities, Energy Research Centre, Amsterdam. www.curb-air.org/ Curb-Air (2007b) Case studies on how to simultaneously improve urban air quality and mitigate Climate Change, Energy Research Centre, Amsterdam. www.curb-air.org/ Daniere, A. and Takahashi, L.M. (2002) Rethinking environmental management in the Pacific Rim: exploring local participation in Bangkok, Thailand. Ashgate Studies in Environmental Policy and Practice, Aldershot, UK DEFRA (2007) Air Quality and Climate Change: A UK Perspective, Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, London DieselNet (1997-2008) Cars and Light-Duty Trucks—Tier 2. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/us/ ld_t2.php EC (2003a) Directive 2003/4/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2003. on public access to environmental information and repealing Council Directive 90/313/EEC. Official Journal of the European Union L41:26-32. European commission Brussels. http:// www.ico.gov.uk/upload/documents/library/environmental_info_reg/detailed_specialist_ guides/european_directive_(eur-lex).pdf EC (2003b) Directive 2003/35/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 May 2003. providing for public participation in respect of the drawing up of certain plans and programmes relating to the environment and amending with regard to public participation and access to justice Council Directives 85/337/EEC and 96/61/EC. Official Journal of the European Union L156:17-24. European Commission, Brussels. http://www.cefic.be/Files/ Publications/4.pdf EC (2005a) Thematic strategy on air pollution. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. COM(2005) 446 final. European commission, Brussels. http:// eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0446en01.pdf EC (2005b) Council Decision of 17 February 2005 on the conclusion, on behalf of the European Community, of the Convention on access to information, public participation in decisionmaking and access to justice in environmental matters (2005/370/EC). Official Journal of the European Union L124:1-3. European Commission, Brussels. http://ec.europa.eu/ environment/aarhus/pdf/dec_2005_370_en.pdf EC (2007) Information Society activities at a glance. Europe’s Information Society – Thematic Portal. European Commission, Brussels. http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/ index_en.htm EEA (2000) Environmental taxes: recent developments in tools for integration. Environmental Issues Series No. 18, European Environmental Agency, Luxembourg. http://reports.eea.eu.int/ Environmental_Issues_No_18/en
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El-Ashry, M.T. (1993) Balancing economic development with environmental protection in developing and lesser developed countries. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 43, 18-24 GAPF (2007) The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Manual. Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum, Stockholm Environment Institute, University of York, York. http://www.sei.se/editable/pages/sections/atmospheric/Forum_emissions_ manual_v1.3.doc; http://www.gapforum.org/; and http://www.sei.se/index.php?section= atmospheric&page=projdesc&projdescpage=99928 Grover, K.S. (2003) Air quality management in developing counties: mandates to markets. Presented at the Better Air Quality Workshop, Manila, 17-19 December 2003. Available from: www.cleanairnet. org/baq2003/1496/article-57791.html Gunningham, N. and Grabosky, P. (1998) Smart regulation. Designing environmental policy. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK Gunningham, N. and Rees, J.V. (1997) Industry self-regulation. Law and Policy, 19, 363 Gwilliam, K., Kojima, M., and Johnson, T. (2004) Reducing air pollution from urban transport. World Bank, Washington. Available from: http://www.cleanairnet.org/cai/1403/article-60384.html Hall, J.V. (1995) Air quality policy in developing countries. Contemporary Economic Policy, XIII, 77-85 Hashimoto, M. (1989) History of air pollution control in Japan. In: How to conquer air pollution: a Japanese experience. Edited by Nashimura, H. pages 1-93. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Holland Hawke, N. (2002) Environmental policy: implementation and enforcement. Ashgate, Aldershot, UK ICCA (2006) Responsible Care. International Council of Chemical Associations. http://www.responsiblecare. org IPCC (2007) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report, Synthesis Report, Summary for Policymakers, IPCC, Geneva. www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ ar4_syr_spm.pdf ISO (2004) Environmental management systems - Requirements with guidance for use. ISO 14001: 2004. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva Kojima, M. and Lovei, M. (2001a) Urban air quality management – coordinating transport, environment and energy policies in developing countries. World Bank Technical Paper no. 508 The World Bank, Washington DC Kojima & Lovei (2001b) Coordinating Transport, Environment, and Energy Policies for Urban Air Quality Management: World Bank Perspectives. The World Bank, Washington D.C. http://www. un.org/esa/gite/csd/masami.pdf Murray, F. (1997) Urban air pollution and health effects. In: The Global Environment. Edited by Brune, D. Chapman, D.V., Gwynne, M.D., and Pacyna, J.M. pages 585-598. VCH, Weinheim, Germany Napitupulu, L., Syahril, S. and Soejachmoen, M.H. (2003) A Participatory Approach on Air Quality Management in Indonesia. Better Air Quality Workshop, BAQ 2003, 17-19 December, Manila
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6 NRC (1983) Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process. Committee on the Institutional Means for Assessment of risks to Public Health. Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington DC. http://books.nap.edu/ openbook.php?record_id=366&page=R1 OECD, (2001) The firm, the environment and public policy. Report ENV/EPOC/WPNEP(2001).31/Final. OECD, Paris, France O’Ryan, R.E. (1996) Cost-effective policies to improve urban air quality in Santiago, Chile. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 31, 302-313 PCFV (2007) Status of leaded gasoline phase-out in the Asia-Pacific region – August 2007. http://www.unep. org/pcfv/PDF/MapAPLead-Aug2007.pdf Pearce, D. (1996) Economic valuation and health damage from air pollution in the developing world. Energy Policy 24, 627-630 Pottinger, M., Stecklow, S. and Fialka, J.J. (2004) Invisible Export – A Hidden Cost of China’s Growth: Mercury Migration. The Wall Street Journal, 20 December 2004. http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/ display.article?id=5058 Rietbergen-McCracken, J. and Abaza, H. (2000) Economic instruments for environmental management. Earthscan, London, UK SACTRA (1999) Transport and the economy. Standing Advisory Committee for Trunk Road Assessment, Department for Transport, London. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/economics/sactra/ transportandtheeconomyfullre3148 Schwela, D.H. (1998) Health and Air Pollution – A Developing Country’s Perspective. In: 11th World Clean Air and Environment Congress, Durban, South Africa, 13-18 September 1998, vol.1, Paper 1A Schwela D, Haq G, Huizenga C, Fabian H, Ajero M 2006 Urban Air Pollution in Asian Cities. Earthscan, London UN Habitat (2001) SCP Source book series volume 6: Urban Air Quality management handbook Parts A & B. UN Habitat, Nairobi, KenyaAvailable from: http://hq.unhabitat.org/register/item. asp?ID=1395 UNECE (1995) Strategies and policies for air pollution abatement. Economic Commission for Europe. United Nations, New York and Geneva www. themes.eea.eu.int/Environmental_issues/air quality/ reports UNECE (1998) Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva. http://www.unece.org/env/pp/documents/cep43e.pdf UNECE (1999) Strategies and policies for air pollution abatement – major review. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, ECE/EB.AIR/65. New York, USA UNECE (2004) Strategies and policies for air pollution abatement 2002 – major review. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. New York, USA
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UNFCC (2007) The Kyoto Protocol, United Nations Framework on Climate Change, Bonn, http://unfccc. int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf USEPA (1998) Transportation and air quality TCM Technical Overviews. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/otaq/transp/publicat/pub_tech. htm USEPA (2007a) Risk assessment for toxic air pollutants: A citizen’s guide. Originally published as EPA 450/3-90-024, March 1991. Technology Transfer Network, Air Toxics Web Site: http://www. epa.gov/ttn/atw/3_90_024.html USEPA (2007b) Air and Radiation: National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS). Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. http://www:epa:gov/air/criteria.html USEPA (2007c) Air quality management online portal. United states Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Par, NC. http://www.epa.gov/air/aqmportal/ Vogel, D. (1986) National styles of regulation. Environmental policy in Great Britain and the United States. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA Walsh M.P. 2001 2-3 Wheelers in Asia and their impacts on the environment. Presentation at the Regional Workshop: Action Plans for reducing Vehicle Emissions, Hanoi, 5 September 2001. http:// www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia/1412/articles-37291_05_Walsh.pdf WHO (1993) Assessment of Sources of Air, Water and Land pollution, Part One: Rapid Inventory Techniques in Environmental Pollution; by Alexander Economopoulos. WHO/PEP/GETNET/93.1-A, World Health Organization, Geneva WHO (1995) Decision Support system for Industrial Pollution Control DSSIPC. PC Programme for assessment of air emissions inventories, liquid and solid waste inventories, estimation of pollution in air, water and soil. PAHO/World Bank, Washington DC WHO (1997) Healthy Cities Air Management Information System, AMIS 1.0.CD ROM. World Health Organization, Geneva WHO (1998) Healthy Cities Air Management Information System, AMIS 2.0.CD ROM. World Health Organization, Geneva WHO (2000) Guidelines for Air Quality, WHO/SDE/OEH/00.02, World Health Organization, Geneva. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_00.02_pp1-104.pdf , http://whqlibdoc. who.int/hq/2000/WHO_SDE_OEH_00.02_pp105-190.pdf WHO (2005) WHO Air Quality Guidelines Global Update 2005 - Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide. World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen. http://www.euro.who.int/Document/E90038.pdf World Bank, (1997) Urban air quality management strategy in Asia – guidebook (Eds. Shah J.J., Nagpal, T., Brandon C.J.) The international Bank for Reconstruction/The World Bank, Washington, DC World Bank (1998) Reducing air pollution from urban transport. World Bank, Washington.
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6 Available from: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/envext.nsf/51ByDocName/ PollutionPreventionandAbatementHandbook World Bank (1999) Pollution prevention and abatement handbook 1998. Towards cleaner production. World Bank, Washington. Available from: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/envext. nsf/51ByDocName/PollutionPreventionandAbatementHandbook World Bank, (2000) Greening industry: New roles for communities, markets and governments. World Bank, Washington. Available from: www.worldbank.org/nipr/greening/full_text/chap3.pdf Zhang, J. (2003) Emissions trading in China: lessons learned and market-based instruments in developing countries. Presented at the Better Air Quality Workshop, Manila, 17-19 December 2003. Available from: http://www.cleanairnet.org/baq2003/1496/articles-49017_program.pdf
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The Foundation Course on Air Quality Management in Asia is for adult learners studying the issue without the support of a class room teacher. It is aimed at students with some basic knowledge of environment and air pollution issues, acquired in a variety of ways ranging from conventional study, working in an environment related field or informal experience of air pollution issues. It provides the opportunity to develop an understanding of the key components required to manage urban air pollution and to achieve better air quality. The course consists of six modules which address the key components of air quality management. An international team of air pollution experts have contributed to the development of the course. Each module is divided into a number of sections devoted to a different aspect of the issue together with examples and key references.
www.sei.se/cleanair
