Green Technologies for Sustainable Water

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of California, Berkeley on 07/03/16. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

Green Technologies for Sustainable Water Management

Edited by

Huu Hao Ngo, Wenshan Guo, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang


Green Technologies for Sustainable Water Management

Edited by Huu Hao Ngo Wenshan Guo Rao Y. Surampalli Tian C. Zhang

Sponsored by the Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Engineering Committee of the Environmental Council of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers

Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers


Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Ngo, Huu Hao, editor. | Environmental and Water Resources Institute (U.S.). Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Engineering Committee. Title: Green technologies for sustainable water management / edited by Huu Hao Ngo [and 3 others] ; sponsored by the Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Engineering Committee of the Environmental Council of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Description: Reston, VA : American Society of Civil Engineers, [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016016116 | ISBN 9780784414422 (print) | ISBN 9780784479780 (PDF) Subjects: LCSH: Water quality management. | Water-supply engineering. | Sewage– Purification. | Green technology. Classification: LCC TD365 .G74 2016 | DDC 628.1028/6—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016016116 Published by American Society of Civil Engineers 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, Virginia 20191-4382 www.asce.org/bookstore | ascelibrary.org Any statements expressed in these materials are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of ASCE, which takes no responsibility for any statement made herein. No reference made in this publication to any specific method, product, process, or service constitutes or implies an endorsement, recommendation, or warranty thereof by ASCE. The materials are for general information only and do not represent a standard of ASCE, nor are they intended as a reference in purchase specifications, contracts, regulations, statutes, or any other legal document. ASCE makes no representation or warranty of any kind, whether express or implied, concerning the accuracy, completeness, suitability, or utility of any information, apparatus, product, or process discussed in this publication, and assumes no liability therefor. The information contained in these materials should not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for any general or specific application. Anyone utilizing such information assumes all liability arising from such use, including but not limited to infringement of any patent or patents. ASCE and American Society of Civil Engineers—Registered in U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Photocopies and permissions. Permission to photocopy or reproduce material from ASCE publications can be requested by sending an e-mail to [email protected] or by locating a title in ASCE’s Civil Engineering Database (http://cedb.asce.org) or ASCE Library (http:// ascelibrary.org) and using the “Permissions” link. Errata: Errata, if any, can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784414422. Copyright © 2016 by the American Society of Civil Engineers. All Rights Reserved. ISBN 978-0-7844-1442-2 (print) ISBN 978-0-7844-7978-0 (PDF) Manufactured in the United States of America. 22 21

20 19

18

17 16

15

1

2 3

4 5


Contents

Preface..............................................................................................................................................xiii About the Editors.........................................................................................................................xv Contributing Authors ................................................................................................................xix 1

Green Technologies for Sustainable Water Management: Introduction and Overview ..................................................................... 1 Huu Hao Ngo, Wenshan Guo, Zhuo Chen, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 2 1.3 Current Status and Future Perspectives....................................................... 6 1.4 Book Overview ........................................................................................................24 1.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................31 References.............................................................................................................................31

2

Rainwater Harvesting in New South Wales, Australia Jaya Kandasamy, Benjamin Kus, and Saravanamuth Vigneswaran 2.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................35 2.2 Sources and Characteristics of Rainwater .................................................36 2.3 Rainwater Treatment Technologies ..............................................................56 2.4 Practical Implications ...........................................................................................72 2.5 Acknowledgments.................................................................................................73 References.............................................................................................................................74

3

Stormwater Treatment Technology for Water Reuse....................... 75 Olof J. Jonasson, Jaya Kandasamy, and Saravanamuth Vigneswaran 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Introduction ..............................................................................................................75 Sources and Characteristics of Stormwater..............................................76 Water Quality Treatment Criteria...................................................................77 Conventional Stormwater Treatment Technologies in Stormwater Harvesting..................................................................................86 3.5 High-Rate Stormwater Treatment Technologies....................................96 3.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 101 References.......................................................................................................................... 101

iii

iv


4

CONTENTS

Sustainable Groundwater Management: Policy and Practice William Milne-Home 4.1 4.1 4.3 4.4

Introduction ........................................................................................................... 107 Global Groundwater Resources in a Changing Climate ................. 110 Risk Management in Groundwater Development ............................. 118 Groundwater Models as Tools for Sustainable Groundwater Management ......................................................................................................... 119 4.5 Groundwater Management and Mineral Resource Development......................................................................................................... 121 4.6 Case Studies of Aquifer Management Policy and Practice in Australia ........................................................................................... 130 4.7 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 135 References.......................................................................................................................... 136

5

District Water Cycle Management for Wastewater Reuse Xiaochang C. Wang and Li Luo 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 147 5.2 Concepts of Water Cycle Management .................................................. 150 5.3 Methods for Water Cycle Analysis ............................................................. 156 5.4 Water Cycle Management for Quality Control .................................... 161 5.5 A Case Study......................................................................................................... 168 5.6 Summary ................................................................................................................. 179 References.......................................................................................................................... 180

6

Green and Sustainable Natural Wastewater Treatment/ Disposal Technologies .......................................................................... 187 Anushuya Ramakrishnan, Tian C. Zhang, and Rao Y. Surampalli 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 187 6.2 GSNWWTDTs: Concepts and Major Categories ................................... 188 6.3 Selected GSNWWTDTs: Applications and Current Issues ............... 194 6.4 Implementation Strategies and Future Perspectives........................ 220 6.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 222 6.6 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ 223 References.......................................................................................................................... 224

7

Green Technologies for Industrial Wastewater Treatment: Sustainable Attributes and Prospects of Anaerobic Granulation............................................................................................. 231 Kuan Yeow Show, Yue Gen Yan, Duu Jong Lee, and Joo Hwa Tay 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Introduction ........................................................................................................... 231 Merits and Limitations of Anaerobic Granulation.............................. 233 Advantages Over Aerobic Treatment....................................................... 235 Energy Generation ............................................................................................. 240

CONTENTS

v


7.5 Granular Sludge Reactors ............................................................................... 243 7.6 Prospects ................................................................................................................. 249 References.......................................................................................................................... 250 8

Value-Added Products from Sludge .................................................. 255 Nouha Klai, Rajeshwar D. Tyagi, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 255 8.2 PHA Production ................................................................................................... 256 8.3 Bio-Pesticides Production ............................................................................... 263 8.4 Vermicomposting Biotechnology................................................................ 270 8.5 Enzymes Production.......................................................................................... 278 8.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 285 8.7 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ 285 References.......................................................................................................................... 286

9

Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater................................................. 297 Verma K. Akshaya, Rout R. Prangya, Bhunia Puspendu, and Dash R. Rajesh 9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 297 9.2 Fundamentals of Anaerobic Treatment................................................... 298 9.3 Effects of Different Parameters.................................................................... 301 9.4 Anaerobic Suspended Growth Processes............................................... 305 9.5 Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Processes ........................................................ 315 9.6 Anaerobic Attached Growth Processes ................................................... 320 9.7 Anaerobic Lagoons ............................................................................................ 323 9.8 Anaerobic Hybrid Reactors ............................................................................ 326 9.9 Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors.............................................................. 327 9.10 Kinetic Modeling of Anaerobic Treatment Processes ...................... 328 9.11 Summary ................................................................................................................. 332 9.12 List of Nomenclature ........................................................................................ 333 9.13 Acknowledgments.............................................................................................. 334 References.......................................................................................................................... 334

10

Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: Sustainability Revolution in Water Management ........................... 337 Jian Zhang, Haiming Wu, Jingtao Xu, Jinlin Fan, Hai Liu, and Shuang Liang 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Introduction......................................................................................................... 337 Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment.......................... 339 Sustainable Design–Plant Selection in Constructed Wetlands ............................................................................................................... 345 Sustainable Operation–Enhancing Techniques Used in CWs.................................................................................................................... 348

vi

CONTENTS


10.5

Sustainable Maintenance–Plant Reclamation and Recycling in Constructed Wetlands ........................................................ 355 10.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 367 References.......................................................................................................................... 368 11

On-Site Treatment Systems: Biological Treatment and Nutrient Removal .......................................................................... 375 Jonathan W. C. Wong, Mayur B. Kurade, and Kuan Yeow Show 11.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 375 11.2 History of On-site Wastewater Treatment Systems ........................ 377 11.3 Need of On-site Treatment Systems ...................................................... 378 11.4 General Principles of On-Site Treatment Systems........................... 380 11.5 Biological Nutrient Removal ....................................................................... 383 11.6 Factors Affecting Nutrient Removal........................................................ 388 11.7 Operational Issues Associated with BNR Processes........................ 391 11.8 Treatment Processes and Systems.......................................................... 393 11.9 On-Site Treatment System Selection...................................................... 409 11.10 Case Study ........................................................................................................... 410 11.11 Summary............................................................................................................... 415 References.......................................................................................................................... 415

12

Anammox: A Sustainable Technology for Nitrogen Removal and Water Recycling ............................................................................. 419 Jih-Gaw Lin, Achlesh Daverey, Kasturi Dutta, Wenshan Guo, and Huu Hao Ngo 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4

Introduction......................................................................................................... 419 History of Anammox ...................................................................................... 420 Microbial Physiology and Requirements for Growth..................... 423 Integration of Anammox Process with Other Nitrogen Removal Processes .......................................................................................... 428 12.5 Inhibitors............................................................................................................... 434 12.6 Reactor Systems Used for Anammox Growth................................... 438 12.7 Applications of Anammox and CANON/SNAD Processes............ 442 12.8 Summary............................................................................................................... 445 References.......................................................................................................................... 445 13

Anionic Pollutant Removal by Biomass-Based Adsorbents .......... 455 Baoyu Gao and Xing Xu 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4

Introduction......................................................................................................... 455 Health Effects and Permissible Limits of Various Anions Species................................................................................................... 456 Commercial Adsorbents for Anionic Pollutants Removal............ 457 Biosorbentsfor Anionic Pollutants Removal........................................ 461

CONTENTS

vii


13.5 Regeneration of Biosorbents...................................................................... 479 13.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives .................................................... 482 References.......................................................................................................................... 483 14

Agricultural By-Products for Phosphorous Removal and Recovery from Water and Wastewater: A Green Technology ...... 491 Huu Hao Ngo, Wenshan Guo, Thi An Hang Nguyen, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 14.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 491 14.2 Process Fundamentals ................................................................................... 496 14.3 Applications......................................................................................................... 508 14.4 Recent Advances .............................................................................................. 524 14.5 Conclusion and Future Work ..................................................................... 525 References.......................................................................................................................... 526

15

Removal of Trace Organic Contaminants by Integrated Membrane Processes for Water Reuse Applications ...................... 533 Faisal I. Hai, Abdulhakeem Alturki, Luong N. Nguyen, William E. Price, and Long D. Nghiem 15.1 15.2

Introduction......................................................................................................... 533 Trace Organic Contaminants (TrOCs) in Aquatic Environments and Their Concerns .......................................................... 534 15.3 Water Reuse: Importance and Quality Control Issues 15.4 Specific Treatment Technologies for TrOC Removal ..................... 538 15.5 Integrated Membrane Processes for Removal of TrOCs .............. 558 15.6 Summary and Future Outlook................................................................... 565 15.7 Acknowledgments ........................................................................................... 565 References.......................................................................................................................... 565 16

Application of Green and Physico-Chemical Technologies in Treating Water Polluted by Heavy Metals .................................. 579 Veeriah Jegatheesan, Harish Ravishankar, Li Shu, and Jinfeng Wang 16.1 16.2

Introduction......................................................................................................... 579 Occurrences, Usage, Regulation and Disposal of Heavy Metals ...................................................................................................... 582 16.3 Heavy Metal Pollution and its Impacts................................................. 588 16.4 Current Remediation Strategies for Heavy Metals.......................... 592 16.5 Green Technology for Heavy Metal Remediation ........................... 602 16.6 Towards Sustainable Water Management........................................... 608 16.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 609 16.8 Acknowledgments ........................................................................................... 609 References.......................................................................................................................... 609

viii


17

CONTENTS

Micellar Enhanced Ultrafiltration (MEUF) and Activated Carbon Fiber (ACF): An Integrated Approach for Heavy Metal Remediation from Wastewater................................................ 615 Seung Hwan Lee and Sohan Shrestha 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5

Introduction......................................................................................................... 615 MEUF Mechanism............................................................................................. 617 Surfactant ............................................................................................................. 619 Membrane Fouling .......................................................................................... 620 Optimization of Surfactant-Based Membrane Separation Processes .............................................................................................................. 622 17.6 Overcoming Major Limitation of MEUF Processes.......................... 641 17.7 Optimization of Adsorption Processes .................................................. 642 17.8 MEUF-ACF: An Integrated Approach...................................................... 644 17.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 644 References.......................................................................................................................... 645 18

Electrocatalytic Membrane Reactor for Industrial Wastewater Treatment: Sustainability and Prospects.................... 651 Xianhui Li, Hong Wang, Yang Yang, and Jianxin Li 18.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 651 18.2 Sources/Characteristics of Refractory Industrial Wastewater ..... 652 18.3 Types of Electrocatalytic Membrane Materials ................................. 655 18.4 Design Optimization of ECMR in Wastewater Treatment ........... 658 18.5 ECMR for Industrial Wastewater Treatment........................................ 661 18.6 Mechanism of ECMR for Wastewater Treatment............................. 672 18.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 674 References.......................................................................................................................... 675

19

Water Reclamation by Heterogeneous Photocatalysis over Titanium Dioxide ................................................................................... 679 Ibrahim El Saliby, Andrew McDonagh, Laszlo Erdei, and Ho Kyong Shon 19.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 679 19.2 Fundamentals..................................................................................................... 680 19.3 Photocatalytic Reactors ................................................................................. 682 19.4 Operational Parameters ................................................................................ 683 19.5 Optimisation Methodology ......................................................................... 687 19.6 Process Efficiency ............................................................................................. 688 19.7 Kinetics of the Photocatalytic Reaction ................................................ 688 19.8 Applications in Water Treatment ............................................................. 690 19.9 Combined Processes: HP + Chemical/Physical Treatment ........... 697 19.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects .......................................................... 698 References.......................................................................................................................... 699

CONTENTS


20

ix

Disposal and Recycling of Sewage Sludge....................................... 705 Qinyan Yue, Baoyu Gao, and Yaqin Zhao 20.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 705 20.2 Characteristics of Sewage Sludge............................................................ 706 20.3 Ceramic Particle Production from Sludge ........................................... 708 20.4 Activated Carbon Production from Sludge......................................... 719 20.5 Summary............................................................................................................... 729 References.......................................................................................................................... 730

21

Adapting to Climate Change: Water Management Strategy........ 737 Manish Kumar Goyal, C. S. P. Ojha, Rao Y. Surampalli, and A. Choudhury 21.1 21.2

Introduction......................................................................................................... 737 Climate Change Impact on Water Resources and Agriculture Sector ............................................................................................ 738 21.3 Methodology for Study: Case Study of Pichola Lake Basin ............................................................................................................ 741 21.4 Strategies for Future Sustainable Water Supplies: Mitigation and Adaptation .......................................................................... 745 21.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 750 References.......................................................................................................................... 751 22

The Resource Economic Dimension of Wastewater Treatment vs. Green Technologies .................................................... 753 Thomas Dockhorn 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6

Introduction......................................................................................................... 753 Wastewater as a Resource........................................................................... 753 Materials Flow Analysis ................................................................................. 765 Resources and their Economic Value .................................................... 770 Costs of Wastewater Treatment ............................................................... 772 Balance Sheet Classification and Redistribution of Cost Centrest ................................................................................................ 784 22.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 786 References.......................................................................................................................... 786

23

Wastewater: A Potential Resource of Energy .................................. 789 Jih-Gaw Lin, Kasturi Dutta, Achlesh Daverey, Wenshan Guo, and Huu Hao Ngo 23.1 23.2 23.3

Introduction......................................................................................................... 789 Energy Production Potential of Different Wastewaters................ 790 Sustainable Energy Management Systems for Wastewater Treatment............................................................................................................. 793

x

CONTENTS


23.4 Environmental Impact.................................................................................... 815 23.5 Summary............................................................................................................... 818 References.......................................................................................................................... 818 24

Fermentative Biohydrogen Production from Wastewaters: An Exploration for Sustainable Green Energy................................. 829 P. Mullai, M. K. Yogeswari, M. Estefanía Lopez, ´ and Eldon R. Rene 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6

Introduction......................................................................................................... 829 Microbiology and Biochemistry of Hydrogen Production........... 830 Factors Influencing Biohydrogen Production .................................... 833 Bioreactors ........................................................................................................... 842 Kinetics of Biohydrogen Production....................................................... 844 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Modeling of Biohydrogen Production ........................................................................................................... 849 24.7 Summary............................................................................................................... 857 24.8 Acknowledgements......................................................................................... 857 References.......................................................................................................................... 857 25

Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactors for Future Green Bioprocesses ............................................................................... 867 Wenshan Guo, Huu Hao Ngo, Cheng Chen, Ashok Pandey, Kuo-Lun Tung, and Duu Jong Lee 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5

Introduction......................................................................................................... 867 Fundamentals of AnMBR.............................................................................. 868 Current Status of AnMBRs in Wastewater Treatment ................... 878 Opportunities for AnMBR Processes and Energy Recovery........ 885 Future Perspectives and Research Needs for AnMBR Technology ......................................................................................... 893 25.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 895 References.......................................................................................................................... 895 26

Composting Toilet for Sustainable Water Management ............... 903 Naoyuki Funamizu and Miguel Ángel Lopez ´ Zavala 26.1 26.2 26.3

Introduction......................................................................................................... 903 Characteristics of Feces................................................................................. 906 Biodegradation of Organic Matter during Composting Process and its Mathematical Model..................................................... 912 26.4 Factors Affecting Composting Process in Toilet .............................. 925 26.5 Compost Safety ................................................................................................. 933 26.6 Operation and Design of Composting Toilet .................................... 941 References.......................................................................................................................... 952

CONTENTS


27

xi

Sustainable Wastewater Management in Palm Oil Mills............... 955 Udin Hasanudin and Tjandra Setiadi 27.1 Introduction......................................................................................................... 955 27.2 Palm Oil Industries .......................................................................................... 956 27.3 Palm Oil Mill Effluent Management–Current Practices................. 963 27.4 Sustainable Palm Oil Mill Effluent Management.............................. 965 27.5 Summary............................................................................................................... 972 References.......................................................................................................................... 973

28

Nanomaterials for Sustainable Society ............................................. 975 Guobin Shan, Wenbiao Jin, Renjie Tu, Yuntian Qu, Wei Wei, Tian C. Zhang, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Rajeshwar D. Tyagi 28.1 28.2 28.3

Introduction......................................................................................................... 975 Nanomaterials for Green Process and Engineering........................ 976 Nanomaterials for Treatment of Industrial/Agricultural Wastes.................................................................................................................... 979 28.4 Nanomaterials for Renewable Energy Production/Storage......... 984 28.5 Nanomaterials for Health Cares................................................................ 985 28.6 Summary............................................................................................................... 988 References.......................................................................................................................... 988 Index................................................................................................................................................995


This page intentionally left blank


Preface

The consumption and degradation of our limited water resources has not only brought numerous challenges to our safe water supply but also various adverse impacts on the environment. These challenges and environmental problems are the main impetus for promoting green technologies to ensure our own well-being in the future as well as preserve the environment for a better tomorrow. Thus, in terms of sustainable water management, the main strategies are directed toward developing environmental-friendly, economically viable and energy effective treatment processes, which have higher removal efficiency of pollutants and possible nutrient recovery while enabling to reduce carbon footprint, minimize waste production and protect human and environmental health. According to United Nations Environment Programme, “Green technology covers a broad area of production and consumption technologies. The adoption and use of green technologies involves the use of environmental technologies for monitoring and assessment, pollution prevention and control, resource and energy recovery, mitigation of climate change, and remediation and restoration.” Nowadays, increasing environmental awareness has driven new insights into the competing factors for water and wastewater treatment technology such as energy consumption, use of hazardous chemicals, health impacts, waste generation, sludge handling and disposal. The purpose of this book is to elucidate basic scientific principles and technological advances of current green technologies for sustainable water management. Solutions to pressing all concerned problems associated with energy optimization during wastewater treatment, the possibility of wastewater as a possible resource, health impacts of treatment technology due to the release of trace organic contaminants and prevention of surface water pollution, are presented in this book. This 28-chapter book consists of three themes: 1) green technologies for water and wastewater management; 2) green technologies for pollution prevention/ control and remediation/restoration; and 3) green technologies toward sustainable society. These three themes are linked by the central thread of sustainable water and wastewater management. We hope that this book will be of interest to researchers, students, scientists, engineers, government officers, process managers and practicing professionals. As an excellent state-of-the-art reference material, the book will contain rich knowledge on the principles and provide them in-depth understanding and comprehensive information of current green technologies, their different environmental applications, recent advantages and disadvantages, critical analysis and modeling

xiii


xiv

PREFACE

of the processes, and future perspective toward research directions and development. The editors gratefully acknowledge the hard work and patience of all the authors who have contributed to this book. The views or opinions expressed in each chapter of this book are those of the authors and should not be construed as opinions of the organizations they work for. Huu Hao Ngo, Wenshan Guo, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang


About the Editors Dr. Huu Hao Ngo is a Professor in School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Australia. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from UTS in 1995. His research involves wastewater treatment and reuse technologies, especially advanced biological waste treatment technologies (membrane bioreactor, specific attached and/or suspended growth bioreactors, biomass and biosorption), membrane technologies and physical-chemical separation technologies as pretreatment or post-treatment. His expertise and practical experience also covers solid waste management and desalination. Currently, his activities more focus on developing specific green technologies: water-waste-bioenergy nexus and greenhouse gas emission control. He is also an Honorary Professor/Adjunct Professor and International Chair Professor of numerous universities in China, Taiwan and Vietnam. He was awarded the fellowship of Australian Academy of Science (AAS) - Korean Science and Engineering Foundation, AAS - Science and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, and AAS - French Embassy. He is a one of the founders of the Joint Membrane Bioreactor Centre (UTS, Tongji University and Tianjin Polytechnic University). Being a member of global professional societies (ACS, IWA, AWA, EDS), he is also a Council Member of International Forum on Industrial Bioprocess, Managing Committee Member of IWA Working Group on Alternative Water Resources (China), key member of the International Science & Technology Cooperation Center for Urban Alternative Water Resources Development, XAUAT and Advisory Committee Member of Tianjin Engineering Center of Biomass-derived Gas/Oil Technology. Ngo has published more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles, 2 books and 19 book chapters. He is an Editor of Bioresourse Technology, Elsevier and also a founder and Editor in Chief of Journal of Water Sustainability while being editorial board member of numerous international journals such as Science of the Total Environment, Elsevier, Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring and Management, Elsevier, Journal of Energy and Environmental Sustainability, ISES etc. Dr. Wenshen Guo is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology at University of Technology, Sydney (UTS). She received her Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering from UTS in 2005. After the completion of her 3-year UTS Chancellor’s Postdoctoral Research Fellowship, she has been working at UTS since 2010. Dr. Guo teaches one postgraduate subject (Green technologies: Water-Waste-Energy Nexus) and two undergraduate subjects (Environmental and Sanitation Engineering and Pollution Control and Waste Management). Her research focuses on the innovative water and wastewater xv


xvi

ABOUT THE EDITORS

treatment and reuse technologies. Her expertise and practical experience cover the areas of water and wastewater engineering such as membrane technologies, advanced biological wastewater treatment technologies as well as environmental assessment and solid waste management. She is a one of the founders of the Joint Membrane Bioreactor Centre (UTS, Tongji University and Tianjin Polytechnic University). She is also the Life Membrane of International Forum on Industrial Bioprocesses (IFIBiop). Dr. Guo has published 155 journal papers and 10 book chapters since 2004. She has been the Guest Editor for Bioresource Technology, Journal of Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste and Membrane Water Treatment. She is currently serving as an Editor for Journal of Water Sustainability and Editorial Board Member of Journal of Chemistry. Dr. Rao Y. Surampalli, P.E., Dist.M.ASCE, is President and Chief Executive Officer of the Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability. He was with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for 29 years and retired as an Engineer Director in October, 2014. He received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Environmental Engineering from Oklahoma State University and Iowa State University, respectively. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the branches of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and also a Board Certified Environmental Engineer (BCEE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE) and a Diplomate of the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers (DWRE). He is an Adjunct Professor in seven universities and distinguished/honorary visiting professor in six universities. Currently, he serves, or has served on 66 national and international committees, review panels, or advisory boards including the ASCE National Committee on Energy, Environment and Water Policy. He also served as President of Civil Engineering Certification (CEC), Inc., that was started by ASCE for Board Certification of various specialties within civil engineering. He is a Distinguished Engineering Alumnus of both the Oklahoma State and Iowa State Universities, and is an elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, an elected Member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, an elected Member of the Russian Academy of Engineering, an elected Fellow of the Water Environment Federation and International Water Association, and a Distinguished Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers. He also is Editor-in-Chief of the ASCE Journal of Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste, past Vice-Chair of Editorial Board of Water Environment Research Journal, and serves on the editorial boards of 8 other refereed environmental journals. He has authored over 600 technical publications in journals and conference proceedings, including 15 patents, 16 books, 115 book chapters, 270 refereed journal articles, over 230 refereed national and international conference proceedings, and presented over 115 plenary/keynote or invited presentations worldwide. Dr. Tian C. Zhang, P.E., D.WRE, BCEE, F.ASCE, A.EASA, F.AAAS is a Professor in the department of Civil Engineering at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL), USA. He received his Ph.D. in environmental engineering from the University of Cincinnati in 1994. He joined the UNL faculty in


ABOUT THE EDITORS

xvii

August 1994. Professor Zhang teaches courses related to water/wastewater treatment, remediation of hazardous wastes, and non-point pollution control. Professor Zhang’s research involves fundamentals and applications of nanotechnology and conventional technology for water, wastewater, and stormwater treatment and management, remediation of contaminated environments, and detection/control of emerging contaminants in the environment. Professor Zhang has published more than 95 peer-reviewed journal papers, 62 book chapters and 10 books since 1994. Professor Zhang is a member of the Water Environmental Federation (WEF), and the Association of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors (AEESP). Professor Zhang is a Diplomate of Water Resources Engineer (D.WRE) of the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers, and Board Certified Environmental Engineers (BCEE) of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Fellow of American Society of Civil Engineers (F. ASCE), Academician of European Academy of Sciences and Arts, and Fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (F.AAAS). Professor Zhang is the Associate Editor of Journal of Environmental Engineering (since 2007), Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste (since 2006), and Water Environment Research (since 2008). He has been a registered professional engineer in Nebraska, USA since 2000.


This page intentionally left blank


Contributing Authors Verma K. Akshaya, National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India Abdulhakeem Alturki, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia Cheng Chen, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Zhuo Chen, Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University, China A. Choudhury, National Institute of Technology, Surathkal, India Achlesh Daverey, Doon University, Dehradun, India Thomas Dockhorn, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany Kasturi Dutta, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela, India Laszlo Erdei, University of Southern Queensland, Australia M. Estefanía López, University of La Coruña, Spain Jinlin Fan, Shandong University, Jinan, China Naoyuki Funamizu, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan Baoyu Gao, Shandong University, Jinan, China Wenshan Guo, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Manish Kumar Goyal, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, Guwahati, India Faisal I. Hai, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia Udin Hasanudin, University of Lampung, Bandar Lampung, Indonesia Veeriah Jegatheesan, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia Wenbiao Jin, Harbin Institute of Technology Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China Olof J. Jonasson, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Jaya Kandasamy, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Nouha Klai, INRS-ETE, Université du Québec, Quebec, Canada Mayur B. Kurade, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Benjamin Kus, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Duu Jong Lee, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan Seung Hwan Lee, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gyeongbuk, Korea Jianxin Li, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin, China Xianhui Li, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin, China Shuang Liang, Shandong University, Jinan, China Jih-Gaw Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan Hai Liu, Shandong University, Jinan, China Li Luo, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, China Andrew McDonagh, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia William Milne-Home, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia P. Mullai, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, India Long D. Nghiem, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia Huu Hao Ngo, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia xix


xx

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Thi An Hang Nguyen, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Luong N. Nguyen, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia C. S. P. Ojha, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India Ashok Pandey, National Institution for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, CSIR, Trivandrum, India Rout R. Prangya, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India William E. Price, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia Bhunia Puspendu, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Yuntian Qu, Harbin Institute of Technology Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China Dash R. Rajesh, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Anushuya Ramakrishnan, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA Harish Ravishankar, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia Eldon R. Rene, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, The Netherlands Ibrahim El Saliby, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Tjandra Setiadi, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia Guobin Shan, INRS-ETE, Universite du Quebec, Quebec, Canada Ho Kyong Shon, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Kuan Yeow Show, Environmental Technology Research Institute, Zhejiang Juneng Co., Ltd., Tongxiang, China Sohan Shrestha, Kumoh National Institute of Technology, Gyeongbuk, Korea Li Shu, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia Rao Y. Surampalli, Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability, Kansas, USA Joo Hwa Tay, University of Calgary, Canada Renjie Tu, Harbin Institute of Technology Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen, China Kuo-Lun Tung, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan Rajeshwar D. Tyagi, INRS-ETE, Université du Québec, Quebec, Canada Saravanamuth Vigneswaran, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Hong Wang, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin, China Jinfeng Wang, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia Xiaochang C. Wang, Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, China Wei Wei, Xi'an University of technology, Xi’an, China Jonathan W. C. Wong, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Haiming Wu, Shandong University, Jinan, China Jingtao Xu, Shandong University, Jinan, China Xing Xu, Shandong University, Jinan, China Yue Gen Yan, Nanyang Technological University, Tumasik, Singapore Yang Yang, Tianjin Polytechnic University, Tianjin, China M. K. Yogeswari, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, India Qinyan Yue, Shandong University, Jinan, China Miguel Ángel López Zavala, Water Center for Latin America and the Caribbean (CAALCA), Monterrey, México Jian Zhang, Shandong University, Jinan, China Tian C. Zhang, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA Yaqin Zhao, Shandong University, Jinan, China


CHAPTER 1

Green Technologies for Sustainable Water Management: Introduction and Overview Huu Hao Ngo1 Wenshan Guo2 Zhuo Chen3 Rao Y. Surampalli4 Tian C. Zhang5 1.1 INTRODUCTION Climate change, rapid development and population growth of many nations and the consequent rapid rise in levels of water consumption and contamination have raised concerns about the unsustainability of current water use patterns and supply systems. Specifically, the world population continues to expand with a growth rate of 1.2% each year, resulting in increased pressure on water quality, safety and health. Although the global amount of water is generally considered to be sufficient for the current population from the perspective of the total hydrologic cycle, world water resources are concentrated in certain areas, and severe water shortages are emerging in other places (Pimentel and Pimentel 2008). In addition to water deficits, improperly managed freshwater resource systems have triggered considerable water pollution. The problems are even worse in developing countries as they discharge approximately 90–95% of their untreated urban sewage directly into surface waters without rigorous water regulations (Pimentel et al. 2012). Therefore, to alleviate these existing situations, the awareness of environmental responsibilities should be strengthened (Tseng et al. 2013).

1

Univ. of Technology, Sydney, Australia.

2

Univ. of Technology, Sydney, Australia.

3

Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua Univ., China.

4

Global Institute for Energy, Environment and Sustainability, Kansas.

5

Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE.

1


2

GREEN TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

The concept of sustainable water management generally involves the improvement of the health of surface water and groundwater systems, avoidance of over-extraction of freshwater supplies, identification of alternative water resources (e.g., rainwater, stormwater, desalinated water and recycled water), and implementation of environmental related policies and educational campaigns (NWC 2011). Faced with many challenges, the use of green technologies that encourage efficient forms of recycling and reuse is encouraged in the water industry. These include various innovations on water collection, treatment, distribution and drainage systems as well as enhanced approaches to management, assessment strategies, policies and regulations. After being successfully implemented, they can play crucial roles in enhancing sustainability, driving green growth and achieving a balance between economic, social and environmental factors while maintaining productivity, prosperity and efficiency (ATSE 2012). This chapter presents the background, current development and future opportunities of green technologies and issues to facilitate the strategic planning of sustainable water management systems. The chapter is structured as follows: the first and second sections introduce the background and deal with fundamental concepts and demand analysis; the third section describes in detail the current and future applications of green technologies for sustainability improvement in water management; and the fourth section overviews the core ideas and key findings from each book chapter. The chapter concludes by discussing the appropriate approaches and policies in achieving sustainability objectives and promoting green design and supplies for water utilization.

1.2 FUNDAMENTALS 1.2.1 Concepts and Need Analysis of Sustainable Water Management Achieving sustainable solutions to today’s environmental problems requires longterm planning and actions. Sustainable management generally incorporates environmental, economic, social, and energy and resource sustainability (Dincer and Rosen 2005). Fig. 1.1 outlined these four essential factors impacting sustainable development and their interdependencies. Resource issues are particularly prevalent at present, and water management appears to provide one component of an effective sustainable solution. Specifically, the sustainable water management approach is to view all water systems as a whole, including drinking water, wastewater, rainwater, and stormwater drainage as a collective system that should be managed together to be truly efficient and sustainable, namely, integrated water management. In this approach, all water systems are looked upon as a positive resource in the environment with multiple supplies for use in many cases (Struck 2012).

3

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW


SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Social Sustainability

Environmental Sustainability

Energy and Resources Sustainability

Economic Sustainability

Figure 1.1. Factors affecting sustainable development and their interdependences Source: Adapted from Midilli et al. (2006); reproduced with permission from Elsevier

Sustainable water management approaches have been increasingly applied to explore and analyze existing and future water-related issues, as well as to support water managers and decision-makers to put forward solutions for potential problems. They are of great necessity and importance as mismanagement is likely to impose significant constraints on exploitation and development and to affect the performance of water resource systems, including their effects on future water availability, water demand and water management strategies (Dong et al. 2013). The specific advantages of sustainable water management are presented as follows: • Solving problems. Some water-related problems such as drought, flooding, groundwater over-extraction, water-borne diseases, land and water degradation, insufficient wastewater treatment, on-going damage to ecosystems, and escalating water conflicts in rural areas that might be intractable to conventional, single-sector approaches can be addressed by sustainable water management approaches. As such, issues could be identified holistically and solved effectively from multiple sectors without creating other troubles and complications. • Avoiding poor investments and expensive mistakes. Decision-making based on short-term, segmented view would be rarely effective in the long-haul and can trigger unsustainable gains, unforeseen consequences and lost opportunities. Worse still, it is often the environment that has been sacrificed, together with negative consequences for both social and economic development. Comparatively, sustainable water management promotes the consideration of economic implications of infrastructure maintenance, water services and potential for cost-recovery, and both short- and long-term environmental impacts. This can avoid the losses and high costs associated with unsustainable development and irreparable harms. • Getting the most value from investments in infrastructure. Sustainable water management can ensure maximum returns on investments from infrastructure planning, design and management both socially and economically. It facilitates the different investments working synergistically

4



and producing greater returns than possible through a single-sector approach. • Allocating water strategically. Sustainable water management can provide strong links among allocation decisions, national development and economic planning processes, using tools such as water pricing and tariffs, appropriate incentives and subsidies, and the removal of ill-considered incentives and subsidies both inside and outside the water sector. This could significantly contribute to the improvement of water use efficiency (GWP 2004). To achieve sustainability, it involves the continuous reconciliation of water demand by the human environment with water supply by the natural system. Thus, depending on specific problems, it may also requires the consideration of land and water management, evapotranspiration, water quality and quantity, upstream and downstream water uses, and all stakeholders in the planning and management processes (GWP 2000). The uncertainties associated with climate, demographic, economic, social, technical and political conditions also need to consider. However, instead of trying to be comprehensive, the optimal water management should mainly focus on the key components and relationships accounting for the greatest variability in the system behavior. This would allow decision makers and water authorities to consider multiple factors and to deal with the complexity and interconnections within and between natural and human environments (Liu et al. 2008).

1.2.2 Concepts and Need Analysis of Green Technologies Green technologies are technologies creating products and facilities that can improve economic productivity, conserve natural resources and limit adverse impacts on the environment and social wellbeing (Environmental Leader 2013). The concept of green technologies can be applied to the water management field to support the growth of new industries (e.g., new end uses of recycled water), bring technological innovations (e.g., state-of-the-art water treatment approaches) to water market and position the country to capture green growth opportunities. While the application of green technology could greatly harness economic opportunities by promoting productivity, prosperity and living standards, the strategies and innovations can also balance the other environmental, social and technical aspects, which would underpin sustainable water management into the future (ATSE 2012). There is an urgent need to exploit and develop appropriate green technologies that promote design, production and supply chain because the major cause of water shortage and continued deterioration of the global environment is the unsustainable and unregulated pattern of consumption and production (Tseng et al. 2013). The limitations on the amount of freshwater consumption that can be taken from natural sources such as groundwater and surface water have forced the industry to expand the supplementary sources of water such as rainwater, stormwater, desalinated water and/or recycled water, which in most cases need



5

extensive treatment before usage for health and environmental safety reasons. Apart from environmental drivers associated with water scarcity issues, to control water quality, many governments promote effluent discharge regulations and encourage the use of best available technologies to limit the allowable concentrations of certain contaminants in waste streams. Additionally, highly purified water is increasingly needed in industries (e.g., energy industry) that require technological solutions to fulfill their water needs (Frost and Sullivan 2010). For instance, the recycled water used as boiler’s make-up water should be of very high quality, especially when the boiler is operated under high pressure. As wastewater containing impurities may lead to boiler corrosion, deposits, sludge formation, scaling, fouling and foaming, advanced treatment processes such as ultrafiltration (UF), reverse osmosis (RO), or ion exchange are often required. Likewise, only high-quality water can be adopted in electronics, food processing, chemical and pharmaceutical industries (U.S. EPA 2004; Chen et al. 2013). To develop green technologies strategically, a comprehensive framework for managing water resources and prioritizing investment decisions is needed. Figure 1.2 shows the procedures and major considerations involved in the establishment of a full assessment framework. It consists of four phases, where phase 1 is the primary screening step to identify the prospects of new green technologies. To verify the feasibility of proposed technologies, Phase 2 starts with the consideration of particular evaluation criteria from five identified categories, including environmental, social, technical, economic and commercial aspects, and then applies the qualitative or quantitative approach for making a trade-off among different factors. Furthermore, phase 3 is to implement fit-for-purpose policies on green growth principles and shared responsibilities according to the analysis

Consideration of green technologies

Sustainability evaluation processes Increase of water sustainability

Application of appropriate policies on principles and responsibilities

Communication, monitoring and review

Environmental Impacts (Greenhouse gas emission, energy consumption, water savings, ecology, etc.) Social concerns (Social benefits, education and training opportunities etc.) Technical Aspects (Availability, technology level and use, technological innovations, advanced technologies etc.) Economic Factors (Investments, water price, operational cost, externalities, etc.) Commercialization (Research and development, incentives, etc.)

Figure 1.2. The comprehensive framework in the development of green technologies for sustainable water management Source: Adapted from Dincer and Rosen (2005); reproduced with permission from Elsevier

6



results. Finally, phase 4 is the management step that includes the communication, review and reporting so as to achieve community-wide acceptance and satisfying outcomes for water sustainability.

1.3 CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 1.3.1 Current Status, Key Drivers and Restraints With respect to water collection and supply systems, water balance analysis becomes essential, as it determines the relationship between storage capacity, reuse demand, and reliability of supply. Particularly, the designs should be effective not only at the full capacity level, but also in reduced-service scenarios such as under non-optimal, supply-limited and unforeseen conditions. However, the over-reliance of supply-driven urban water supplies has been increasingly discovered and criticized, which are regarded as wasteful and expensive supply-side solutions. Thus, demand management should be implemented with a focus on measures that make better and efficient use of limited supplies. The specific definition of demand management is the adaptation and implementation of a strategy (policies and initiatives) by a water institution influencing water demand and water usage to meet objectives (such as economic efficiency, social development, social equity, environmental protection and political acceptability) so as to achieve sustainability of water supply and services (Vairavamoorthy et al. 2008). Table 1.1 lists a series of green technology opportunities proposed for different water resources under the demand management methodology. They are assessed across multiple green-growth and sustainability indicators covering environmental, economic and social impacts via a qualitative approach. Notably, a rigorous quantitative approach (e.g., costeffectiveness analysis, triple-bottom-line analysis or multi-criteria analysis) should be utilized for a complete evaluation (ATSE 2012). In terms of water treatment, as each source of water has its own characteristics and constituents, it requires different treatment levels and technologies for certain use purposes. For example, high pathogenic levels in water are likely to trigger health and environmental risks while chemical composition (e.g., ammonia, calcium, magnesium, silica and iron) may cause corrosion of pipes and machinery, scale formation, foaming, etc. Besides, physical parameters such as suspended solids, sand and grit can lead to solids deposition, fouling and blockages, whereas excessive nutrients may result in slime formation and microbial growth (DEC 2006). Thus, it is indispensable to understand all kinds of water sources and their characteristics for fit-for-purpose treatment and applications. A detailed discussion on specific green technologies for different water resources is presented as follows. As readily-available surface, ground and rain water require only minimal treatment, they are not discussed in detail. Rainwater/stormwater. Rainwater generally has very good water quality even though it does contain some particulate matter from dust particles from the air.

Green technology opportunities

Surface water • Improve understanding of surface water-groundwater connectivity and hydrological modeling • Measure soil moisture in realtime for efficient water application in irrigation • Control water conveyance systems in real time • Intermittent water supply by physically cutting off the supply and limiting the consumers’ ability Groundwater • Ensure extraction is sustainable over time • Expand managed aquifer recharge, storage and reuse • Install low-energy high-efficiency pumping

Water resources collection and supply

p

p

p

p

p

p

p

p

Reduce waste & pollutant

p

Lower energy & resource demand p

p

p

p

p

p

Increase economic efficiency

p

p

p

p

Conserve natural assets p

Water sustainability indicator

Table 1.1. Green technology opportunities for different water resources collection and supply

(Continued)

Promote social cohesion



7

• Recover energy through miniand micro-hydroelectric generation • Install tanks in areas with suitable rainfall patterns • Consider monolayer-based evaporation mitigation systems for reservoirs • Improve climate and rainfall predictions and projections over multiple time scales • Harvest stormwater (online or offline) • Reduce leakage from water assets • Recycle wastewater when there is a positive business care • Deploy satellite and airborne sensors for early detection of water pollution

Green technology opportunities

p

Lower energy & resource demand p

p

p p

p

Reduce waste & pollutant

p p

p

p

Increase economic efficiency p

p

p

Conserve natural assets

Water sustainability indicator

Source: ATSE (2012); reproduced with permission from the Australian Academy of Technological Science and Engineering

Recycled water

Stormwater

Rainwater

Water resources collection and supply

Table 1.1. Green technology opportunities for different water resources collection and supply (Continued)

p

p

Promote social cohesion


8 GREEN TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

9



Table 1.2. Water quality of harvested rainwater from various surfaces

Sample

pH

Metal Roof Plumbing Cistern Tap Water Shingle Roof EWEB Range

5.97 6.89 8.91 7.32 5.94

Hardness Turbidity Conductivity (ppm (NTU) (μSiemens) CaCO3 ) 1.3 0.5 2.4 0.3 8.3

7.5–7.8 0.02–0.04

TSS Coliform (ppm) (CFU∕ mL)

12.4 17.1 735 77.1 455

0.5 6 10 24 41

3 6 9 2 6

100 >500 3 0 >500

45–65

18-25