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Process Process Skills and SkillsCompetency and Competency Tools Tools Process Skills and Competency Tools

WHAT EVERY EXTENSION WORKER SHOULD KNOW – CORE COMPETENCY HANDBOOK –

February 2016

http://csus.msu.edu/meas This book is available as a free download from the following websites: This book is is available available as as aa free free download download from http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material This book from the the following following websites: websites: http://csus.msu.edu/meas http://csus.msu.edu/meas http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training http://csus.msu.edu/meas http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training

By Murari Suvedi and Michael Kaplowitz, Michigan State University

MEAS Handbook

Suvedi is a professor of agricultural extension in the Department Community at MichiganinState Suvedi is a ofprofessor of Sustainability agricultural extension the Suvedi is aBefore professor oftoagricultural agricultural extension in the the professor of extension University. moving the United States, he in taught Department of Community Sustainability at Michigan State Community Sustainability at Michigan Michigan State Department of Community Sustainability at State undergraduate courses in agricultural extension andtaught rural University. Before moving to the United States, he moving to the United States, he taught University. Before moving to the United States, he taught development Nepal. in In agricultural addition to extension teaching university undergraduateincourses and rural courses in agricultural extension and rural undergraduate in and rural courses in program evaluation, he has provideduniversity program development incourses Nepal. In agricultural addition to extension teaching Nepal. In addition to teaching university development in Nepal. In addition to teaching university evaluation short courses and workshops for agricultural courses in program evaluation, he has provided program evaluation, he has hasCambodia, provided Ecuador, program courses in program evaluation, he provided program development professionals in Canada, evaluation short courses and workshops for agricultural courses and workshops for agricultural agricultural evaluation short courses and workshops for Guatemala, India, Mexico, Nepal and the United States. His development professionals in Canada, Cambodia, Ecuador, development professionals in Canada, Cambodia, Ecuador, professionals in Canada, Cambodia, Ecuador, work has been supported, in part, by the United States Guatemala, India, Mexico, Nepal and the United States. His Murari Suvedi Guatemala, India,supported, Mexico, Nepal and the United States. His Mexico,Development, Nepal andby thethe United States. His Agencyhas forbeen International the United States work in part, United States work has been supported, in part, by the United States supported, in part, by the United States Murari Suvedi Department of Education,Development, the United States of Agency for International theDepartment United States Murari Suvedi Agency for International the United International Development, theDepartment United States Agriculture and the W.K.Development, Kellogg His States work Department of Education, the UnitedFoundation. States of Department of Education, States of Education, the United StatesDepartment Department of focuses on building capacity of United local extension professionals Agriculture and the W.K.the Kellogg Foundation. His work Agriculture and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His work W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His work serving millions of smallholder farmers across the world. focuses on building capacity of local extension professionals focuses on building capacity extension capacity of of local local extension professionals serving millions of smallholder farmers across professionals the Kaplowitz, a professor of environmental andworld. natural serving millions of smallholder smallholder farmers farmers across across the theworld. world. resource lawaand policy and of theand Department Kaplowitz, professor ofchairperson environmental natural Kaplowitz, professor of environmental natural professor ofchairperson environmental and natural of Community Sustainability at MichiganofState University, resource lawaand policy and theand Department resource law and policy and chairperson of the Department policy and chairperson of the Department works in agricultural, natural resource and watershed of Community Sustainability at Michigan State University, of Community Sustainability at State Sustainability at Michigan Michigan State University, management, ecosystem services, agricultural extension works in agricultural, natural resource and University, watershed works in agricultural, natural resource and watershed agricultural, natural resource and watershed and program evaluation, and environmental policy. His management, ecosystem services, agricultural extension management, ecosystem services, agricultural extension ecosystem services, agricultural extension projects have taken him from America’s Great and program evaluation, andNorth environmental policy.Lakes His and program evaluation, and environmental policy. His evaluation, andNorth environmental policy. His region tohave Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, CambodiaGreat and Nepal. projects taken him from America’s Lakes projects have taken him from North America’s Great Lakes him from North America’s Great Lakes His work been Costa supported, part,Cambodia by the United States region tohas Mexico, Rica, in Cuba, and Nepal. region to Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cambodia and Nepal. region tohas Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cambodia and Nepal. Environmental Protection Agency, Oceanic His work been supported, in part,the by National the United States Michael Kaplowitz His work has been supported, in part, by the United States His work has been supported, in part, by the United States and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Department of Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic Michael Kaplowitz Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic Agriculture and the United States Agency for International and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Department of Michael Kaplowitz Kaplowitz Michael and the U.S. Department of and Atmospheric Atmospheric Administration, thewidely U.S.for Department of Development, he has beenAgency published in Agriculture and and theAdministration, United States International Agriculture and the United States Agency for International Agriculture and the United States International professional journals andhas several books. The goal of his Development, and he beenAgency widelyfor published in Development, been widely published in scholarship isjournals toand helphe improve local, regional, national Development, and he has been widelyThe published in professional andhas several books. goal ofand his professional journals and several books. The goal of his international decisions about agricultural, environmental professional journals and several books. The goal of his scholarship is to help improve local, regional, national and scholarship is to help national and ecosystem scholarship is decisions toresources. help improve improve local, regional, regional, national and and international about local, agricultural, environmental international decisions about agricultural, environmental international decisions about agricultural, environmental and ecosystem resources. and ecosystem resources. and from ecosystem resources. This book is available as a free download the following websites:

WHAT WEHAT VERY EVERY EXTENSION EXTENSION WORKER WORKER SHOULD SHOULD KNOW KNOW – CORE – CCORE OMPETENCY COMPETENCY HANDBOOK HANDBOOK – –

By Murari and Michael Kaplowitz, Michigan State University By Murari SuvediSuvedi and Michael Kaplowitz, Michigan State University

MEAS Handbook MEAS Handbook

February February 2016 2016

Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Process Skills and Competency Tools resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating VERY XTENSION ORKER HOULD NOW extension HAT personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.

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– CORE COMPETENCY HANDBOOK –

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Murari Suvedi, Ph.D. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Michael Kaplowitz, Ph.D. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Department of Community Sustainability that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

Michigan State University Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, East Lansing, Michigan, USA rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. i i

Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education © Murari Suvedi, Michael Kaplowitz, and MEAS Project. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Users are free: and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the • To share — to copy, distribute and transmit the work. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural • To remix — to adapt the work. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Under the following conditions: understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. • should be well‐versed in Attribution — Users must attribute the work to the authors They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, but not in any way that suggests that the authors endorse they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for the user or the user’s use of the work. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches • Technical editing by Leslie Johnson. Production by Kathryn Heinz and Andrea Bohn. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,

rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help This handbook was produced as part of the U.S. Agency for International create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Development (USAID) project Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS) www.meas‐extension.org. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Leader with Associates Cooperative Agreement No. AID‐OAA‐L‐10‐00003. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some The handbook was made possible by the generous support of the American people through of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of USAID. The contents are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be of USAID or the U.S. government. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. II

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Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Preface Preface

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. do so.

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Acknowledgements Preface The Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services project (MEAS), funded by the U.S. Agency for

International Development (USAID) recognized the need for a user‐friendly handbook of This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ extension core competencies for agriculture extension field workers and provided funding for to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and the development of this resource material. We are grateful to the MEAS project team for their evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The generous support and encouragement in developing this handbook. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Several people contributed to the preparation of this publication. Dr. Sejuti Das Gupta assisted extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice us in conducting the review of literature and taking notes from team meetings. Mr. Ramjee extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Ghimire and Ms. Hannah Livuza focused their graduate studies on core competencies of profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension workers in Nepal and Malawi, respectively, and contributed to developing useful extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education process skills and competency tools. Dr. Austen Moore and Andrea Bohn of USAID/MEAS project programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools provided useful comments. We received suggestions from Dr. Kailash Pyakuryal and Dr. Kristin of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Davis to improve this handbook. Ms. Leslie Johnson assisted in editing this handbook. We acknowledge all of their help and contributions in the development of this handbook. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Finally, it is important to point out that the extension worker processes, skills and tools in this and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. handbook are not our inventions. We consulted several sources of information to develop our Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the descriptions of the tools and in preparing the step‐by‐step how‐to guidelines. We have provided connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural references at the end of each chapter and with each tool described in this handbook to give credit development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that to the authors we have relied upon and for readers to learn more about the approaches and may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an methods described. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Authors They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. IV iv

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Preface

Table of Contents

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Preface ........................................................................................................................................ iii evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................iv intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice History of Extension Services ...................................................................................................... 3 extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ 2. Agricultural Development and the Role of Extension ................................................................ 7 profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Concept of Development: Who and Why ................................................................................... 7 programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Agriculture and Rural Development ........................................................................................... 9 of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. What is Agricultural Extension? ................................................................................................ 10 Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer

to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first 3. Working in the Community ....................................................................................................... 17 and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Understand Your Role Well in the Community ........................................................................ 17 Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural 4. The Extension Worker ............................................................................................................... 20 development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Role of the Extension Worker ................................................................................................... 20 may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an The Role of Extension Workers has Undergone a Transformation .......................................... 25 understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, 5. Core Competencies of Extension Workers ............................................................................... 29 they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Specialized Competence ........................................................................................................... 30 planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Characteristics of Effective Extension Workers ........................................................................ 30 that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. What Process Skills and Competencies Do Extension Workers Need? .................................... 32 Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, 6. Planning an Extension Program ................................................................................................ 34 rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Programworkers. Planning in Extension ................................................................................................. 34 extension This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Types of Extension Educational Programs ................................................................................ 35 goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Steps in Program Planning ........................................................................................................ 36 skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Participation is the Key ............................................................................................................. 40 approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Advice for Planning Extension Programs .................................................................................. 41 Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Good Practice Tools for Participatory Program Planning ......................................................... 43 handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Tool 1: Conduct Needs Assessments ........................................................................................ 43 easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Tool 2: Prioritize Needs and Problems...................................................................................... 48 of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Tool 3: Identify Stakeholders and Engage them in Extension Programs the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension .................................. staff members will 51 be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them Tool 4: Acquire and Allocate Resources (Resource Mobilization) ............................................ 55 do so. iii V vi

Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Tool 5: Conduct the Nominal Group Technique ....................................................................... 58 Tool 6: Conduct Community Forums ........................................................................................ 60 Preface Tool 7: Conduct Brainstorming Exercises ................................................................................. 62 This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools ...................................................................................... 65 for effective communication, program planning and Tool 8: Identify Market Opportunities evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Tool 9: Design Services Based on Gender Analysis ................................................................... 68 intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Tool 10: Develop a Work Plan ................................................................................................... 71 extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Tool 11: Develop a Grant Proposal ........................................................................................... 74 extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ 7. Program Implementation ......................................................................................................... 78 profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Promoting Pluralism.................................................................................................................. 79 programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Good Practice Tools for Program Implementation ................................................................... 81 of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Tool 12: Conduct Farm and Home Visits .................................................................................. 81 Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer

to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Tool 13: Conduct Demonstrations ............................................................................................ 83 and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Tool 14: Organize Farmer Field Schools .................................................................................... 87 Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Tool 15: Organize Field Days ..................................................................................................... 91 development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Tool 16: Establish a Model Village ............................................................................................ 95 may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Tool 17: Conduct Meetings Effectively ................................................................................... 100 understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Tool 18: Manage Conflict ........................................................................................................ 104 they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Tool 19: Manage Time ............................................................................................................ 107 planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork ............................................................................... 109 that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Tool 21: Understand Group Dynamics and/or Facilitate Groups ........................................... 113 Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Tool 22: Write Field Reports ................................................................................................... 118 rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field 8. Program Evaluation in Extension ............................................................................................ 121 extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Good Practice Tools for Program Evaluation .......................................................................... 127 goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Tool 23: Design Survey Instruments ....................................................................................... 127 skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Tool 24: Conduct Surveys and Personal Interviews ................................................................ 135 approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Tool 25: Conduct Participant Observations ............................................................................ 142 Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Tool 26: Conduct Rapid Rural Appraisals and Participatory Rural Appraisals ........................ 145 handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Tool 27: Conduct Focus Group Discussions ............................................................................ 149 easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Tool 28: Write Extension Evaluation Reports and Share Results and Impacts ....................... 156 of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of 9. Communication in Extension .................................................................................................. 158 the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them Good Practice Tools for Communication ................................................................................ 163 do so. vi VI

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Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Tool 29: Make Effective Presentations ................................................................................... 163 Tool 30: Communicate Effectively with Community Leaders ................................................. 166 Preface Tool 31: Organize Extension Campaigns ................................................................................. 168 This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Tool 32: Write for Newspapers or Mass Media ...................................................................... 171 evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Tool 33: Make Good Use of Information and Communication Technologies and Use Web‐based intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Resources ................................................................................................................................ 173 resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Core Competency Handbook

Introduction Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

1. Introduction

Preface

The global demand for food is increasing. World population will exceed 9.7 billion people by 2050, This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ an increase of 2 billion people over the current population. According to the Food and Agriculture to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, there is a need to increase agricultural and food evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The production by 60 percent to meet future food demand (Feed the Future, 2015). This increased intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural demand will be driven largely by population growth and increases in per capita income. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice We live in a world dominated by global forces—new scientific discoveries, changing extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ demographics, shifts in socioeconomic characteristics, rapidly changing consumption patterns, profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating and interdependence in global markets. Agriculture is subject to these changes and forces. New extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education technologies and practices originating in research institutions, adapted by peer farmers or programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools advanced by agribusiness organizations are changing the agricultural sector in countries of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. throughout the world. Such changes, when positive, could have a bigger impact if complemented Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer by effective extension services. A challenge for agricultural extension rests in unleashing the to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first creativity of millions of front‐line extension workers to disseminate improved technologies and and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. approaches in ways that benefit small farmers and agribusiness operators across the world. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the

connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural In the developing countries, the world’s largest population group is engaged in the agriculture development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that sector for two reasons ‐‐ food and employment. It has been established that feeding the world’s may differ from those they on learned school. Extension professionals must have and an growing population depends securing in and advancing the use of modern technology understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. approaches in developing countries. Numerous farmers in such countries, however, continue to They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, cultivate crops and raise livestock in the same ways that have been used in their communities for they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for generations. These farmers are often unfamiliar with new technologies and practices. Nor do planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are they appear to have access to inputs and markets. These farmers need education on the use of critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches these technologies as well as access to inputs, materials and markets – this is essentially the role that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. of agricultural extension. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them © M. Suvedi. Apple orchard and rice demonstration in Japan. do so.

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Global agricultural development data show that farmers in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America account for 87 percent of the world population and have no or limited Preface access to advanced technologies (OECD‐FAO, 2009). These developing countries are facing low This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ agricultural productivity and food insecurity. This gap needs to be bridged by an actor who can to‐day work. offers a set with of tools for effective and communication, program planning and intervene and It link farmers new technologies practices. That actor is agricultural evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The extension and advisory services. Agricultural extension and advisory services can interpret and intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural explain the language of modern technology to farmers, fishers and ranchers. Agricultural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension service workers must be able and willing to work with farmers to transform the extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice agriculture workers; sector positively and sustainably. The primary change non‐governmental agent within agricultural extension and field‐level agents, whether governmental, or for‐ extension services is the front‐line extension worker, who in other contexts is called “agricultural profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating advisor” or “extension educator.” extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education

programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Various forms of agricultural extension services exist throughout the world. Their primary of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. functions have been to facilitate learning and extend new knowledge and technologies in non‐

formal educational settings to improve agricultural productivity and increase farmers’ incomes. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first The nomenclature varies by country. The workers are known as agricultural extension workers, and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. agricultural extension officers, extension educators, livestock development officers, fishery Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the technicians, and community forestry and/or natural resources management officers. The term connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural “agricultural extension advisor” is gaining in popularity because it reflects the increasing role of development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that the extension workers in determining needs and program content. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Extension workers have some common roles: educating farmers and producers so that the understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. farmers/producers can help adult education principles. themselves; linking farmers/producers with research‐based They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill productivity, in participatory tools and information to improve agricultural production, processing and techniques marketing for of planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are agricultural goods and services. These extension workers can serve as information brokers, critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches community organizers, facilitators and change agents. Above all, they are the link between that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. agricultural policy, agricultural research, agricultural education and training, non‐governmental organizations (NGOs), farmer organizations and private sector stakeholders (Figure 1). Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Figure 1. Extension workers serve as the bridge between the community and agricultural expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them stakeholders. do so. 2

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Thousands of agricultural extension workers are taking development programs to remote rural Preface

villages all over the world. They work for governmental agencies, non‐governmental This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ organizations and private sector institutions. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Agricultural extension programs and services have seen some new trends emerging across the intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural world, such as privatization, decentralization, participation of beneficiaries in the extension resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental process and pluralism (i.e., multiple institutions and organizations delivering extension services). extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice The general shift from top‐down extension services to participatory and demand‐driven extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ programs is evolving. At the same time, there has been an increase in the need for broader and profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating deeper levels of knowledge and skills for successful extension professionals. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. History of Extension Services Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer The beginning of agricultural extension systems in Europe has been traced to the mid‐19th to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first century potato famine in Ireland, where agricultural advisors from the United Kingdom taught and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. farmers how to grow alternative food crops. A few years later, in 1867, Oxford and Cambridge Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Universities in England started sharing the practical knowledge generated by their faculty with connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural neighboring communities (Swanson and Claar, 1984). The European potato famine (1845‐51) development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that highlighted the need for institutionalizing agricultural extension. Elsewhere, Japan created the may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an first agricultural extension service in Asia in 1899 (Swanson and Rajalahti, 2010). understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, In the United States, the precursors of extension agencies were agricultural clubs and societies th they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for century. As early as 1819, a pioneer established after the American Revolution in the early 19 planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are agriculture journal entitled American Farmer encouraged farmers to report on their critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches achievements and their methods of solving problems. In 1862, the Morrill Act was passed by the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. U.S. Congress to provide for the establishment of agricultural colleges and to ensure government Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, funding for agricultural education to promote agricultural production and productivity. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field In the United States, This the handbook U.S. Congress the 1914 establishing the extension workers. was passed created to Smith‐Lever help meet Act the in need for a simple but Cooperative Extension Service. The Smith‐Lever Act was designed to develop practical comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our applications for farmers and homemakers of research conducted in the land‐grant universities goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the by providing instruction or demonstration of existing or improved practices. The Cooperative skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Extension Service was created as a partnership between local (county), state and federal create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. governments. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this The extension service's first big test in the United States came during World War I, when it helped handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are the nation meet its wartime needs by increasing wheat acreage significantly, from an average of equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are 47 million acres annually in 1913 to 74 million in 1919 (Suvedi, 2011). easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some During the Great Depression, land‐grant colleges worked on an agenda aimed at farms being of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of managed and their products marketed. Extension workers supported farm groups to organize the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be themselves into cooperatives for buying and selling agricultural products. These were years of expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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significant drought, and many in agriculture felt their very survival was threatened. Extension workers educated women in family nutrition, surplus food canning, home poultry production, Preface home nursing, and sewing to cope with the natural and economic calamities. Even through the This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ years of the Second World War, the extension service worked to ensure that crop yields to‐day work. It offers set of tools for effective communication, program planning and increased. In fact, food a production increased during this period such that, by 1944, U.S. food evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The production was 38 percent greater than the 1935‐1939 average (USDA‐NIFA, 2014). intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental 1950s onwards extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Since the 1950s, the number of farms in the United States has declined drastically while farm extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ production has risen dramatically. In 1950, one farmer supported the food needs of 15.5 people; profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating in 1997, one farmer supported the food needs of almost 140 people (USDA‐NIFA, 2014). extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education In Latin America and the Caribbean, extension services were Food self‐sufficiency and programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. institutionalized after World War II. Extension services throughout high productivity are the Asia were established after the 1950s, soon after nations received twin objectives of Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer their independence. In most African nations, extension services to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first agricultural extension. started in the 1960s and 1970s. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the The expansion of agricultural extension services has been accompanied by defined hierarchical connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural structures. To promote uniformity of activities, bureaucratic structures were introduced with the development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that “district” used as the common intermediary bureaucratic level between villages and may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an headquarters. With all instructions and funds flowing one way, organizations became understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. increasingly top‐heavy and increasingly used top‐down approaches. Managers of such They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, organizations tended to have loyalty toward the senior authorities, either the government or the they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for international funder, rather than the farming community. In the developing world, food planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are production was critical to upholding countries’ independence; as a result these countries critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. established ministries for agriculture or rural development. The evolution of various approaches is summarized in Figure 2. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 4

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Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Figure 2. Evolution of extension approaches. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Agricultural extension services adult education principles. have undergone a process of diversification. In developing They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, countries, food crop production remains focus, though tools organizations at various they must large‐scale possess adequate knowledge and skill in a participatory and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are administrative levels increasingly recognize the need to reach out to small and often resource‐ critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches poor farmers, who make up the majority of farmers worldwide. Various models of agricultural that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. extension and advisory services have been tried to educate farmers and agribusinesses. Technology transfer was the principal approach of extension services early on. Training and visit Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, extension, integrated rural development, market‐oriented extension (e.g., commodity‐focused) rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was field created to help meet the need for approaches a simple but and non‐formal education (e.g., farmer schools) increasingly dominated to comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our extension service. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the In the developed world, commercial farming faces two principal constraints: surplus production skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help and environmental degradation. Consequently, an objective of agricultural extension in those create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory countries has focused on how farmers can continue to maintain their income from their approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. resources while guarding against overproduction and further environmental harm. An often Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this suggested path for these farmers is the diversification of their production systems ‐‐ for example, handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are promotion of local food and livestock varieties. This approach includes an acknowledgement that equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are agricultural extension needs to include social dimensions to make it viable (Jones and Garforth, easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some 1997). It is generally agreed that successful and sustainable agricultural extension services of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of involve beneficiaries effectively the outset of their educational beginning with the tools. However, in the end, from educated and well‐trained extension mission, staff members will be needs identification. At the same time, developing countries are mobilizing both private and non‐ expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. government sectors in the delivery of extension services. Therefore, there has been a shift in the

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paradigm of extension services: from linear, technology transfer, top‐down and government‐ provided extension to participatory, demand‐driven and pluralistic extension (Rivera, Blum and Preface Sulaiman, 2009). The recent trend in extension has been toward helping address issues such as This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ climate change, food and nutrition security, linking farmers with markets, and gender integration. to‐day work. advocates It offers a the set needs of tools for effective communication, program planning and Davis (2015) for “New Extensionists” who possess both technical and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The functional competencies. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural A noticeable trend in pockets of commercial crop production is the privatization of extension resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental organizations, often as parastatal or quasi‐governmental agencies, with farmers required to pay extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ for extension services that they had previously received free of charge. This trend is strong in profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating countries such as the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Early signs of private service extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education providers having an impact on extension service provision can be seen in the developing world programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools as well. Some forms of extension privatization include cost recovery through forms of pay‐for‐ of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. service arrangements, outsourcing and contracting of extension services (Suvedi, 2011). Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer References to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Davis, K. (2015). The new extensionist: Core competencies for individuals. GFRAS Brief # 3. Lindau, Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Switzerland: Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Feed the Future. (2015). Feed the future 2015 results overview fact sheet. Accessed at: development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that http://feedthefuture.gov/resource/feed‐future‐2015‐results‐overview‐fact‐sheet may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Jones, G.E., and C. Garforth. (1997). The history, development, and future of agricultural They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, extension. In Improving Agricultural Extension: A Reference Manual. Rome, Italy: FAO. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Available at www.fao.org/docrep/w5830e/w5830e03.htm planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are OECD‐FAO. (2009). OECD‐FAO Agricultural outlook 2009‐2018. Accessed at: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches www.oecd.org/berlin/43042301.pdf that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Rivera, W., M. Blum and R. Sulaiman. (2009). Agricultural extension in transition worldwide: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Policies and strategies for reforms. Rome, Italy: FAO. Retrieved from rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field www.fao.org/nr/res/course1/file/intro/intro.html extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the module. MSU/UI/USAID‐MEAS. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Swanson, B.E., and J.B. Claar. (1984). The history and development of agricultural extension. In approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Agricultural extension: A reference manual. Rome, Italy: FAO. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Swanson, B.E., and R. Rajalahti. (2010). Strengthening agricultural extension and advisory handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are systems: Procedures for assessing, transforming, and evaluating extension systems. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Washington, D.C., USA: The World Bank. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of USDA‐NIFA. (2014). Cooperative extension history. Washington, D.C., USA: United States the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture. Accessed at: expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them http://nifa.usda.gov/cooperative‐extension‐history do so. 6

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The Role of Extension in Agriculture Development Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

2. Agricultural Development and the Role of Extension

Preface

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Concept of Development: Who and Why to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and “Development” has been a buzzword for the past seven decades. The end of World War II left evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The the world in a state of flux. Europe was recovering from two world wars. During this same period, intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural many countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America achieved freedom from colonialism. During resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice these early years, the notion of development arose in relation to the residents of old colonies extension and field‐level nations agents, in whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ that had workers; become independent the mid‐twentieth century. For most people, profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating “development” meant a reduction in poverty, unemployment and inequality. Some viewed extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education development as economic growth; others saw it as a process of social change. Our view is that programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools development entails bringing positive changes in the social and economic conditions of the of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. people. Therefore, the efforts undertaken by various professional workers – such as community Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer health workers, school teachers, agricultural extension workers and livestock field workers ‐‐ is to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first development work. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. In the mid‐1900s, or well‐being was to be the sole goal of Today’s agricultural economic extension growth and advisory services are understood being challenged to serve as the development. The path prescribed was to be that of the western countries, which had developed connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural following a linear path from agricultural to industrialized economy and society. The state was development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that entrusted with the role of transforming social structures. The market also had a critical role to may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an play in the economic transformation, with population moving out of the primary sector and understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, getting absorbed into secondary and tertiary sectors as national income shifted simultaneously. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for The tussle between who should be the driver is ongoing. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are © M. Suvedi. Vegetable production in Cambodia. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of For many development was considered synonymous with industrialization. Its the tools. years, However, in the end, educated and largely well‐trained extension staff members will be ultimate goal was fairly clear: to raise incomes. Freedom came to mean choice for poor people expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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to access the wide variety of goods and services then widespread in developed societies. It was, in short, about getting richer or more prosperous. Having won the great battle against colonial Preface masters, it was imperative for the new nations to achieve the capacity to manufacture finished This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ goods on a priority basis. So land and other natural resources were also mandated by the to‐day work. It offers a set of tools effective communication, program planning and secondary sector. This was required to for alter the terms of trade between the developed and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The developing world (Rapley, 2007). intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Almost six decades later, scholars have argued that both state and market were united by a resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental common goal: the attainment of development, albeit with varying means. The primary concern extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ of the phase of development was establishing external control over citizens’ lives and hence was profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating almost entirely top‐down. The new paradigm that was born to correct the problem of an absence extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education of input and consideration of beneficiaries’ preferences is that of participatory development. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools A critical feature of the new discourse and The global data show that women of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. people’s participation is bringing the poor, constitute 43 percent of the agricultural Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer women and youth into the forefront of workforce in developing countries (FAO, to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first development efforts. There is also evidence ‐‐ 2011). This is certainly not uniform ‐‐ and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. stronger for some countries, such as Brazil, women make up only 20 percent of the Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Peru, India, Nepal and the Philippines ‐‐ of a total agricultural workforce in Latin connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural feminization of smallholder production. With America, though a rise has been registered development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that male migration necessitated by poor economic may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an in the waged agricultural workforce in the returns from agriculture, the numbers of rural region's agro‐export sector (Deere, 2005). understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. women who are bearing adult education principles. the prime The figures are much higher in Asia and in They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for responsibility in agriculture have seen a steep Africa. The average figure in Asia is 40 to planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are rise. 50 percent; Malaysia and the Philippines critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches are showing a decline, and China has had The public awareness of the need, benefits and that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. demand for safe food is increasing. The public an increase to about 48 percent (FAO, Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, now demand that agricultural development be 2011). Africa, partly because of the impact rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field economically viable, socially desirable and of HIV/AIDs and conflict, has seen a rise in extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but environmental friendly. Similarly, the share of women in agriculture (FAO, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our environmental degradation due to industrial/ 2011). goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the agricultural waste and pollution, the felling of skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help trees to create space for cultivation, extensive use of agrochemicals to improve soil fertility and create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory increase crop and livestock production, and extraction of groundwater for surface irrigation have approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. become widely recognized and targeted for reduction and elimination. Furthermore, increasingly Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this it is recognized that promoting short‐term success may not yield long‐term benefits. The latest handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are wave in development discourse is “sustainability”, a parameter by which all innovations and new equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are agricultural practices should be measured. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some

of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Sustainable agriculture has been defined as an integrated system of plant and animal production the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be practices having a site‐specific application that will, over the long term, “(a) satisfy human food expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them and fiber needs; (b) enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which do so. 8

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the agriculture economy depends; (c) make the most efficient use of non‐renewable resources and on‐farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls; Preface (d) sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and (e) enhance the quality of life for This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ farmers and society as a whole” (U.S. Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act [FACTA], to‐day 1990). work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The By this definition, production will governmental be sustainable agriculture, if it is socially acceptable, intended audiences agricultural of this handbook include: fisheries, natural economically beneficial and environmentally sound. Sustainable agriculture production requires resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental dedicated work of a cadre of extension workers with a set of core competencies and skills to extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and typically field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ empower beneficiaries, rural people ‐‐ men, women and youth ‐‐ to make informed profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating choices with an eye on long‐term costs and benefits. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Agriculture and Rural Development of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. “Agriculture” encompasses many things ‐‐ cultivation of food crops such as rice, wheat, corn, Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer millets, pulses, fruits and vegetables; beekeeping; raising silkworms and producing silk; to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first cultivation of fiber crops such as cotton; and raising of livestock ‐‐ beef and dairy cattle, swine, and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s extension and animals advisory services are being challenged to serve as the poultry, agricultural sheep, goats and other used for meat and/or milk or fiber production. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Agriculture also entails technology and practices for growing, harvesting, processing, storing and development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that marketing these commodities. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Agricultural development is closely associated with rural development because the majority of understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. the rural population is engaged in some form of farming, and most agricultural production occurs They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, in the rural areas. Rural areas are less densely populated than urban areas, and the majority of they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for the population of developing countries lives in rural areas. Of course, the proportion of rural and planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are urban populations varies from nation to nation. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. It should be noted that many food and agricultural activities apart from cultivation of crops and Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rearing of livestock ‐‐ such as food processing, packaging and distribution ‐‐ are performed in rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field urban communities. However, more was than created 75 percent of the meet male the workforce in urban areas is extension workers. This handbook to help need for a simple but engaged in non‐agricultural activities. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Rural development is generally defined as those efforts promoting the overall improvement of skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help living conditions of people living in rural areas. “Living conditions” is a complex term that relates create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. to interrelated factors that include social, economic, environmental and political aspects. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this In any event, rural development supports the improved well‐being of rural people. Governments handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are and international development organizations dictated the first wave of organized development. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are In the past three decades, realization has grown that greater participation of development easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some beneficiaries in decision making leads to better results. This experience has given rise to of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of approaches that incorporate participatory planning in development efforts including decisive the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be roles for the target groups of beneficiaries. Today, preferred development approaches involve expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them the target/recipient communities in setting the development goals and priorities. To advance do so.

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such efforts and make them sustainable, development efforts include efforts to develop local people’s capacities; investment in basic infrastructure, facilities and social services; and efforts Preface to ensure local food security and social justice for rural populations, especially women and other This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ marginalized groups. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people ‐‐ poor rural women and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The men ‐‐ to gain for themselves and their children more of what they want and need (Chambers, intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural 1983). It involves helping the poorest among those who are seeking livelihoods. The intent is to resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental channel avenues to improved well‐being and livelihoods toward small‐scale farmers, tenant extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ farmers and the landless as well as empower these marginalized groups to produce (more) food profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating in sustainable ways. Therefore, poor people in the target areas should have a hand in directing extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education the agencies and actors pursuing rural development and other engagement aimed at positive programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools change in their settings. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Without doubt, agricultural extension services have been critical components of rural Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer development efforts. They have contributed to the reduction of hunger and poverty, increased to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first adoption of improved technologies, and increased productivity and capacity of their beneficiaries and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. (Swanson and Davis, 2014). Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that What is Agricultural Extension? may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Agricultural extension provides research‐based educational and informational programs typically understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. for populations. Historically, agricultural extension assisted farm people through They rural should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, educational procedures aimed at improving farming methods and techniques, increasing they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for production efficiency and income, and bettering standards of living. However, increasingly planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are extension serves serve both the rural and urban populations with a wide range of programs critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. aimed at helping to improve beneficiaries’ quality of life. According to Maunder (1972), “the role of extension is to help people to help themselves through educational means to improve their Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, level of living” (p. 5). rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but The definition of agricultural extension has been changing as its objectives and the models or comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our approaches followed have changed. For the purpose of this handbook, we like the definition goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the advanced by Christoplos (2010, p.3): skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Agricultural extension is a system that facilitates access of farmers or their organizations to new create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. knowledge, information and technologies and promotes interaction with research, education, agri‐business, and other relevant institutions to assist them in developing their own technical, Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this organizational and management skills and practices. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are

equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Types of agricultural extension services easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Many types, forms and structures of agricultural extension services are found across the world. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Suvedi (2011) analyzed various extension models and identified six prevailing models. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 10

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Technology transfer model: Most extension systems rely on technology and information that are either available or able to be derived so that farmers can use it. This form of extension Preface relies heavily on a linear concept of technology transfer: new technology and knowledge This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ generated by scientists/researchers/others are transmitted by extension agents to farmers to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and to increase production and income. This is the most common agricultural extension approach evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The followed by developing countries. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Training and visit extension model: Beginning in the late 1970s, the World Bank introduced resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental the “training and visit” approach in about 70 countries to speed the dissemination of Green extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or were for‐ Revolution technologies to farmers. This approach assumed that extension workers profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating poorly trained and not up‐to‐date on the subject matter, were poorly supervised and tended extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education not to visit farmers regularly. To address these problems, this approach introduced a system programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of regular training of extension staff members by subject matter specialists, regular visits by of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. extension workers to innovative farmers, and periodic interaction between farmers, extension workers and research scientists to facilitate the two‐way flow of communication. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Farmer training model: Agricultural extension programs in many countries initiated farmer and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. training centers where select “model farmers” from surrounding villages or districts could get Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the training in improved farming methods and techniques. It was assumed that, after the training, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural the model farmers would go back to their villages, adopt the new farm practices they had development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that the training, and meet others in the village to share must what they may learned differ during from those they learned in with school. Extension professionals have had an learned. These training programs would address two issues: the inadequate number of front‐ understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. line extension workers to serve a large number of farmers, and the education of youth and They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for inexperience of extension workers in the field. Farmer field schools are an adaptation of this planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are approach. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Participatory extension models: Evidence indicates that when rural people organize for their that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. own benefit, much can be achieved. Generally, participatory extension approaches assume Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, that local farmers have wisdom or indigenous knowledge regarding food and fiber production rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field on their land, but their productivity and livelihood could be improved by learning more of extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but what is known outside their locality or from applying scientific investigation techniques comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our through on‐farm trials. Farming systems research makes the same assumption regarding the goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the value of local knowledge and strives to create co‐learning opportunities among extension skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help workers, researchers and farmers. Most participatory extension models are supported by create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory international NGOs, and field activities are managed by local NGOs. Examples of this approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. approach are Community Forestry and the Small Farmer Development Program in Nepal. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Farmer‐based extension organizations: In more developed economies, farmers’ associations handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are or cooperatives have established and managed agricultural extension programs to serve the easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some needs of their members. Management structures and sources of financial support vary from of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of country to country. In general, members of the group or cooperative, not the government, the control the functioning of the extension system. A few examples are the farmers associations tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them of Japan, and members of farmer associations or commodity groups ‐‐ such as coffee, sugar, do so.

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cotton or rubber growers ‐‐ who pay annual dues or a small portion of their product sales to receive extension services. In other situations, participants pay part of the cost of extension Preface programs and government sources provide matching support. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ University‐based extension Many agricultural colleges program and universities to‐day work. It offers a set of model: tools for effective communication, planning offer and outreach or extension services that help local communities and also create an opportunity to evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The improve the quality and handbook relevance of their teaching and research functions. Agricultural intended audiences of this include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural universities have an assumed mandate to create and test technical knowledge so that it is resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental relevant and useful to farm people. Also, both teachers and students benefit greatly from extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ interaction with farmers. The U.S. land‐grant universities were developed to serve the people profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating in each state with three interrelated and complementary functions: teaching, research and extension personnel through in‐service by training continuing education extension. This concept is recognized many opportunities, agricultural colleges and universities programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools developed through USAID assistance, and these universities have organized extension of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. services in nearby communities. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer An in‐depth analysis of alternative extension approaches can be found in Guide on Alternative to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Extension Approaches (Axinn, 1988). and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Agricultural extension and advisory services across the world continue to change. For example, Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural the World Bank no longer supports the training and visit approach to extension. Today, many development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that donor organizations support participatory and demand‐driven extension services. It is fair to say may differ is from those dominant they learned in school. Extension must have that an that there no single agricultural extension system professionals today. New approaches understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. integrate elements of many extension models are evolving constantly. In most countries, the They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, central government provides an overall policy framework for extension, but a variety of actors ‐ they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for ‐ e.g., public organizations, civil societies and private firms ‐‐ provide a range of services to planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are farmers and agribusiness operators. This has resulted in the rise of pluralistic extension systems critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches in increasing numbers of countries. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Suvedi (2011, pp. 2‐3) summarized the key elements embraced by contemporary agricultural Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, extension services: rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Privatization: In the United Kingdom, public extension service has evolved over time into a comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our private consulting business. In the Netherlands, farmers provide the majority of the cost of goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the extension service. Other forms of privatization include cost recovery, outsourcing and skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help contracting out extension services. In Costa Rica, for example, the government “provides create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory farmers with extension vouchers, which can be used for getting advice from private approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. specialists”(Qamar, 2006). Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Pluralism: Contemporary extension services recognize the heterogeneity of the farming handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are community and the need for a diversity of extension service delivery systems. Pluralistic equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are extension encompasses a range of service providers, approaches, funding streams and easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some sources of information available to farmers and clients (INGENEAS, 2016). Thus, multiple of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the organizations, tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff Examples members include will be both public and non‐public, deliver extension services. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 12

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extension services delivered by local NGOs and private seed companies in Bangladesh, Malawi, Mali and Nepal.

Preface

Decentralization: The key element of this approach is to transfer the decision‐making This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ functions to the local levels. Local units of government take charge of managerial functions to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and including planning, implementation, and financing and accountability functions. Extension evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The services are planned and handbook implemented by district‐ or subdistrict‐level governments in the intended audiences of this include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Philippines, Tanzania and Indonesia. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Client participation: In the “old school” models of extension services, diffusion was extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ accomplished through transfer of technology; in “new school” models, diffusion is achieved profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating through active participation of farmers in the learning process. Extension programs and extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education services are managed by membership of user groups such as coffee growers’ associations and programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools vegetable cooperatives. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Women and youth focus: The number of women farmers is rising except in western nations Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer as rural farm youths move to white‐collar jobs in urban areas. This has resulted in the loss of to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first farm population and a need for reengaging rural youths in food and fiber production, and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. processing and marketing. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural “Demand‐driven agricultural extension” is the buzzword used today. It means that extension development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that systems respond to what farmers or clients ask for to satisfy their educational and informational may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an needs. The farm household is the central focus of the extension service. The hope is that clients understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. will value the educational input so much that they will be willing to invest their own resources They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, through some form of cost share to receive the service. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Today, the traditional agricultural extension approach ‐‐ top‐down, supply‐ and technology‐ critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches driven ‐‐ no longer appears to be an appropriate model. Although some countries continue to that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. follow a paternalistic and top‐down approach to service delivery, many have adopted a Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, participatory approach allowing farmers and agribusinesses to play a significant role in planning rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field and implementing extension services. More recently, many nations are promoting pluralistic extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but service delivery and a market‐driven or fee‐for‐service system. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Hence two paradigms seem to prevail ‐‐ in some countries, extension service providers persuade goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the farmers to implement specific, predetermined practices. In other countries, extension services skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help seek to educate farmers about technical options and management strategies and then let them create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory decide which option would work best for them. In some settings, both of these approaches co‐ approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. exist. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Please

handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Figure 3. Four paradigms of agricultural extension (adapted from McNamara, 2015). connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Based on the dichotomy of these two approaches, McNamara (2015) characterized four development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that paradigms of today’s agricultural extension services (Figure 3). may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Technology transfer paradigm (persuasive and paternalistic): It is a top‐down approach that They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, delivers specific recommendations to farmers about the practices they should adopt. This they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for was prevalent in colonial times and also was at the heart of the training and visit system. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Farmers are provided with prescriptive “technology packages” for specific, predefined critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches agricultural products ‐‐ e.g., maize, rice, goats, shrimp production. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Advisory services paradigm (persuasive and participatory): Through a persuasive but Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, demand‐driven service, the public extension staff members or the private consultants rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field provide advice in response to requests from the farmer but with predetermined packaged extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but solutions. More often, development projects managed by donor agencies and NGOs use such comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the advisory service to promote technology adoption. The provision of technical advice is often skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help linked to inputs—seed, fertilizer, demonstration of new technology or training support. The create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory cost of providing such advice is either covered by donor funding or embedded in the price approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. charged for the inputs. In other cases, farmers may pay directly to consultants for specific services, such as animal health and farm management services. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Human resource development paradigm (educational and paternalistic): The extension equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are services in Europe and North America are examples of this paradigm, by which agricultural easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some colleges or universities and vocational and technical training centers provide education and of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the training to the rural people based on perceived or assessed needs. Though teaching methods tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be are mostly top‐down, the learners are expected to make their own decisions about how to expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them use the knowledge they acquire. do so. 14

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Facilitation extension paradigm (educational and participatory): This is a participatory approach of “teaching people how to catch fish.” The intended beneficiaries participate in Preface the identification and prioritization of learning needs. There is some form of cost share to This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ receive the extension service. Many development projects employ extension staff members to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and or NGO workers to ascertain production gaps or identify local educational or informational evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The needs. Often, innovative or progressive farmers are utilized to demonstrate the application intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural of new technology to small/average farmers for higher profitably under similar conditions. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental To sum up, nations engage in agricultural extension work to inform farmers and their households extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ about innovations and improved practices. The overarching goal of agricultural extension is to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating improve rural livelihoods and ensure food security. These services remain largely the extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education responsibility of the public sector. However, there is no uniformity in organizational structure programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools and educational service delivery mechanisms. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer References to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Axinn, G.A. (1988). Guide on alternative extension approaches. Rome, Italy: FAO‐UN. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. New York, USA: Longman. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Christoplos, I. (2010). Mobilizing the potential of rural and agricultural extension. Rome, Italy: may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Food and Agricultural Organization. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Deere, C.D. (2005). The feminization of agriculture? Economic restructuring in rural Latin America. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (FACTA, 1990). Public Law 101‐624, Title critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches XVI, Subtitle A, Section 1603. Washington, D.C., USA: Government Printing Office. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. FAO. (2011). The state of food and agriculture 2010‐11: Women in agriculture—closing the Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, gender gap for development. Rome, Italy: FAO. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but McNamara, P. E. (2015). Implementing programs: Lessons learned from agricultural extension comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our best practices. PowerPoint presented in ECHO Conference, Oct. 8, Chiang Mai, Thailand. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Accessed at: skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/members.echocommunity.org/resource/collection/AFCAA26E create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory ‐20A5‐4977‐946A‐ approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. EE80F013FFDA/Lessons_Learned_for_Small_and_Medium_Scale_Extension_NGOs_and Please _Programs_Dr._Paul_McNamara.pdf note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Maunder, A. H. (1972). Agricultural extension: A reference manual. ED 075 628. Rome, Italy: Food equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Qamar, M.K. (2006). Agricultural extension in Asia and the Pacific: Time to revisit and reform. In the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be V. P. Sharma (ed.), Enhancement of extension system in agriculture. Tokyo, Japan: Asian expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them Productivity Organization. do so.

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Rapley, J. (2007). Understanding development: Theory and practice in the third world (third ed.). Boulder, Colorado, USA: Lynne Rienner.

Preface

Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day module. MSU/UI/USAID‐MEAS. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Swanson, B. E., and K. Davis. (2014). Status of agricultural extension and rural advisory services resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental worldwide summary report. Lindau, Switzerland: Global Forum for Rural Advisory extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Services (GFRAS). extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 16

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Working in the Community Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

3. Working in the Community

Preface

The purpose of community development work is mainly to facilitate positive changes in the social This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ and economic conditions of communities so that people can improve their living conditions. It is to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and also an attempt to support disadvantaged people, especially in poorer communities, to gain self‐ evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The sufficiency and self‐confidence in helping them solve their own needs, problems and issues. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental A community is a social system with distinct sociocultural, political, economic, environmental and extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice technological subsystems. These sociocultural distinctions manifest in daily lives and need to be extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ factored into work with a community. Bunch (1995) and Chambers (1983) offer practical tips to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating effectively work in the community. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Understand Your Role Well in the Community Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer KNOW a community is not homogeneous to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Local self‐government institutions across the developing world superimpose a kind of uniformity and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. upon societies that otherwise are layered with variations: differences of language, of customs, of Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the ascribed identity such as ethnicity, caste and tribe– and all affect development. Within the local connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural institutions, some exert power; others are politically powerless (Chaturvedi, 1985). Some families development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that send their children to school; some do not. Therefore, some children are educated while others may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an work in the field all day. Such heterogeneity can give rise to conflicts of interests. Therefore, understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. development workers such as adult education principles. agricultural extension workers have to be cognizant of the They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, characteristics of the community and adopt appropriate strategies or approaches as they work they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for in these communities. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. OBSERVE to adapt If the community sees you as an outsider with outside interests, its members may not believe the Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field messages you give them. The work you undertake in a community will be less effective if extension This was created to help meet the need for economic a simple and but community workers. members feel handbook that you do not understand their situation ‐‐ social, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our agroclimatic. So you must constantly observe and reflect upon the practices and behaviors of goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the communities and their members. For instance, if you are a woman development officer, dressing skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help appropriately is crucial to being accepted in a community. In many communities, women put create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory cloth on their heads. Respecting this tradition might help establish a good rapport with the local approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. people. For a male extension educator, adhering to a community’s social norms – such as how to Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this talk to women ‐‐ shows respect for their practices. Customs and local norms vary across cultural handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are groups. For example, women appear to have many more social restrictions in Muslim equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are communities, for instance, than they do in many tribal households. You need to observe and easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some notice how the communities are organized and how best to work with them. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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APPRECIATE the cultural specificities within a community A village community might have multiple religions, tribes or castes, each with different beliefs Preface and practices. Religion, social structures and traditions shape cultural practices. For example, a This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ tribal family is distinct from a Muslim family or a Hindu family. They will each have different food to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and habits, which affect what crops they can grow. There are auspicious days when women fast so evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The they cannot participate in farmer training programs or fieldwork. Generally, women avoid talking intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural in front of male members in Muslim households. This is also true in some Hindu families but not resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental in tribal households. In some cultures, women hesitate to attend meetings together with male extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice members in the community. Hence try to plan a separate meeting for women members or choose extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ a suitable location to include them. It may be wise to seek permission of male household profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating members so it is possible to have smooth dialogue. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education

programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Cultural values may be different in a tribal community than in religious Hindu or Muslim or of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Christian communities. For tribal people who worship nature, flora and fauna are integral to their

community. You must respect the local culture if you want to introduce change within the social Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first system (Bunch, 1995). and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Some communities depend heavily on outside employment. For example, members of many Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the communities work for a multinational company, live inside a plantation or work as factory connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural workers, so their availability in the village would be seasonal or otherwise limited. Learning about development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that the sociocultural specificities enables you to work with people effectively. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. WIN the people’s trust by spending time with them They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Give must sufficient time, make repeated visits and keep patience to tools build and trust techniques between the they possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory for community people and you. It takes commitment from the individual extension worker to win planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are over the reluctance that local people initially project. Often when an extension worker enters the critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. village, the reaction of the people is “Here comes an outsider.” They are hesitant to work with an extension worker or the advisor because he/she is unfamiliar and they are uncomfortable with Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, him/her, which has to be changed over time. They may also have a poor image of an extension rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field worker who served in the village prior to your arrival. Building rapport and trust is essential for extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but effective work in the community. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the CLEAR doubts about your roles skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Explain at the outset why you are in the community and/or village. Wrong expectations can spoil create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory a possibly good relationship, and other public services can be counterproductive to the work. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Always avoid promising things that you cannot provide or deliver. Always be punctual in your Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this work and meetings. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are

equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are TALK to resolve conflicts easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some A rural society can be highly divided and hierarchical. When you intend to work with poor of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of sections, farmers resist such a plan, thinking it will the will former the tools. resource‐rich However, in the end, might educated and well‐trained extension staff affect members be positively and thus decrease the power and authority of the rich. When planning, involve the expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 18

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resource‐rich farmers and assure them that whatever the innovation—irrigation technology, new seed variety, new vaccine for livestock, etc.—it will benefit all farmers.

Preface

Another crucial conflict can arise when choosing a location where new practices would be first This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ implemented and/or demonstrated. Be it a tube well or a high‐yielding seed, the leader of the to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and village is likely to suggest having it close to his/her landholdings. This may conflict with your evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intention to ensure that benefits reach include: the targeted groups. Such conflict has to be tackled intended audiences of this handbook governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural carefully. Leaders should be persuaded that they would receive more respect from the resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental community people if the demonstration can be planned at a central location where more families extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ could observe the and results. A community‐centered approach to technological change will profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating recognize the contribution of the leader and hence he/she would gain people’s support through extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education facilitating such an activity. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. To succeed  Do your homework on characteristics of and differences within a community before Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer assuming work in the field. Understand the local social structure and gender roles. Find to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first out where people buy or sell their farm products, where they borrow money to purchase and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s inputs, what collateral they use, and what interest rate they pay. Find out what channels agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural of communication are commonly used by the local people, who the opinion leaders are, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that and where people go to seek advice or solutions to their farming problems. may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Listen to people so their needs help focus possible solutions. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Resolve conflicts over questions such as site selection for a crop demonstration or timing They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, of the farm meeting before introducing a new technology or holding workshops/trainings. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Use greeting words in the local dialect to make local people comfortable. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Include women, youth and members from marginalized groups as beneficiaries. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches

that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. You must demonstrate that you care about the people you serve and you are an unbiased educator in the community. You should neither enter into controversial issues nor take sides Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, between political ideologies. You should not represent the private companies. Your work should rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension handbook was can created to help the need for a simple and but focus on workers. teaching This people how they benefit from meet research‐based information comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our technologies. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory References approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Bunch, R. (1995). Two ears of corn. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA: World Neighbors. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. New York, USA: Longman. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Chaturvedi, S. (ed.) (1985). Manual for field workers. Kathmandu, Nepal: UNICEF and UNFPA. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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The Extension Worker Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

4. The Extension Worker

Preface

Agricultural extension and advisory services are in transition. Historically, extension services were This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ funded mainly by public funds and extension workers played a technology transfer role ‐‐ linking to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and research stations with farmers. Today, the approach of extension services is changing. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Agricultural extension services have become more decentralized, demand‐driven, participatory intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural and pluralistic. With village‐level planning coming into practice alongside democratic resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental decentralization, extension work has undergone a change from being entirely top‐down to extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ becoming increasingly led in part by community demand. Farmer organizations and consumer profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating groups have increased participation in extension programming, and the private sector has extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education emerged as a strong partner to provide input supply and services. Further, there have been major programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools shifts in agricultural research systems with emphasis on locally driven and participatory research. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. This scenario explains the changing role of the extension educator and the heightened need to Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer focus on building pluralism in extension service. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Roles and Responsibilities of Extension Workers Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Extension workers serve as links between agricultural research and policy and farmers. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Disseminating new research‐based knowledge through training and demonstrations. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Developing networks with local organizations, ensuring coordination of services and may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. promoting collaboration with development partners. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Organizing producers into groups and associations. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Linking farmers to markets—identifying opportunities and conducting market analysis. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Facilitating access to credit and inputs supply. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Supporting market and value chain development for farm products.

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Convening innovation platforms to facilitate knowledge management. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Promoting gender equality and engaging various marginalized groups in extension extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but programs. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Supporting adaptation to climate change. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Organizing participatory, demand‐driven program planning for extension. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Implementing collaborative and pluralistic delivery of extension service. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Evaluating local extension programs to report progress and document impacts. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Role of the Extension Worker easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Extension is not merely about educating rural people to attain physical and economic prosperity the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be ‐‐ it involves a holistic development of the people in rural, suburban and urban areas. Extension expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them service today is not limited to providing information on crop or animal production. It involves do so. 20

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education and technical assistance to achieve local food security ‐‐ production, processing, marketing and distribution of safe and nutritious food for all consumers. It is an educational Preface service “from farm to fork.” This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the © M. Suvedi. Extension training at a farm in Cambodia. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an The list of specific roles and qualities of extension education can be long. It may not be possible understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. for all extension workers to develop all the competencies needed to perform all such roles. Some They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, of the competencies, such as market analysis and impact evaluation, may be developed at the they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for regional or national level. At the core of all endeavors of an extension worker, however, should planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches be helping the rural people attain economically and environmentally sustainable livelihoods. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Above all ‐‐ you are an educator, facilitator and development worker. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Apply Adult Learning Principles extension workers. This with handbook created to help meet need ‐‐ for a simple Extension works mainly adults. was Adults learn differently from the children they have to but be comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our taught and influenced to change their behavior. Adults possess considerable experience, and goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the they are interested to gain new knowledge and information that directly contributes toward skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help better l i v i n g . The following facts should guide in helping adults learn and change: create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Fact: Most adults have short attention spans. Their retention of information is also poor. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please Action: Keep lectures or presentations short ‐‐ about 15 to 20 minutes if possible. Start note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are with the most important facts, procedures or issues. Present information or skills to be equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are acquired in a logical manner with regular breaks to keep learners active. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Fact: Engaging all five senses in the learning process enhances learning and retention. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of

the tools. However, in the end, i neducated and what well‐trained extension members will be Action: Involve adults practicing they are expected staff to learn. Relate new expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them information and practices to their life experiences. As much as practicable, engage all do so.

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senses ‐‐ seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling and touching ‐‐ in the learning process. Remember the old proverb, “What I hear, I might forget; what I see, I remember; and Preface what I do, I know.” This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Fact: Adults bring to a learning situation a variety of experiences and circumstances. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Action: Understand that adults have significant life experience and that relating the new intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural information or skills to past experience enhances the learning process. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Fact: Adult learners seek knowledge to directly benefit their families and communities. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Action: Provide them information that will help solve problems and produce immediate profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating gains that are observable, measurable and profitable. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. How to Help Adults Learn Better Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer As an extension educator or development facilitator, you need to understand what motivates to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first adults to learn and change. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Goals: Clearly state the purpose and objectives of your lesson or workshop. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Orientation: Instruct through hands‐on learning so that instruction is task‐oriented instead of development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that memorization‐based. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Relevance: Focus on application ‐‐ content should have immediate relevance to the understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. participants' needs or personal lives. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Experience: The basis of learning should be what the learner has experienced. Moving from the planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are known to the new will allow quick connection. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Quality not quantity: Instruction should focus on the quality of a few experiences, not on the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. quantity of information. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Fact: Adults have a lot of wisdom, particularly about indigenous practices that they have been comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our using for years and even generations. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Action: Respect the rich experience of the adult learners and make them feel part of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help learning process. Let your adult learners reflect on their past farming practices and create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory identify their merits and demerits, and make their past experiences the foundation for approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. new learning. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Fact: Adults may have poor vision or hearing skills. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Action: Present information through lectures, discussion and demonstration. Use of flip easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some charts, PowerPoint presentations, pictures and audiovisual aids helps adults learn. Keep of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the writing on a chalkboard or flipchart short and crisp. Ensure that learners can see ll the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will abe visual aids. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 22

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Levine (2001) advocates six principles of adult learning, which have direct relevance to extension workers:

Preface

Tell adults what you're about to tell them. Give a quick summary of the topic and how it This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ could benefit them. Once they feel that the new information or skill is helpful, they will listen to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and more carefully and hence learn better. Share the learning objectives to set the framework. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Start with why the or innovations should be adopted to appeal to their intended audiences of new this knowledge handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural thinking selves. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Organize your material for presentation in a logical order. Make a list of the most interesting extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ things you intend to include in a class. Organize the content to hold the interest of the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating learners. So, structure your teaching in a way that it tells a story and its parts are logically extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education connected. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Resist the temptation to try to tell them everything. Begin by giving a bit of information on one subject rather than a long lecture on lots of things. Ask questions to find out what they Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer have understood. Ask what else they want to know. The intention is not to withhold to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first information but rather to ensure that what you provide is useful for the learners. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural services are challenged serve as the Understand what extension you want and the advisory adults to do with the being information you to are presenting. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Learning can occur at many levels ‐‐ knowing, understanding, using or sharing of information. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that And each level, like stairs on a staircase, builds on the previous one and leads the learner may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an progressively higher (Figure 4). understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, Know when to teach and adult education principles. when to learn. Helping adults learn should not be a one‐way they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for process where the teacher just keeps talking to the class. You must learn from the experience planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are of your adult learners. So, encourage the learners to pose questions, and write them down critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches and your thoughts on them next to each question. Try to involve as many individuals in the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. class in asking and answering questions. Let the participants provide some real‐life examples Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, as you teach them. It keeps their attention as they feel involved and makes them see the use rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field of what you are teaching and how it connects with what they already know. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Help the adults transfer the concepts to their own lives. Help your learners shift their comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our thinking from the classroom to the real‐life situations where they will apply the new goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the information that they have acquired. Provide tips on how they might use or apply the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help information in their home, farm or work environments. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Leagans (1961) developed a similar list of guidelines. Two of them are of particular relevance: handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Be willing to work at the people’s pace rather than exerting pressure for the acceptance equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of decisions. The former makes learning long‐term and useful. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Relate knowledge about innovation and technology to ideas that local people pose. Local the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be people’s views are shaped by their experience and interest. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Preface

Cogntive Mental Activity Process This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐

to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Generate, Plan, Create evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Produce, Develop intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Evaluate Check, Critique, Judge resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Differentiate, Organize, extension workers; Analyze and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Attribute, Compare profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel opportunities, continuing education Apply through in‐service training Execute, Implement, Operate programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Interpret, Exemplify, Classify, of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Understand Summarize, Infer, Compare, Explain Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Remember Recognize, Recall, List, Repeat to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Figure 4. Structure of cognitive process dimension (adapted from Krathwohl, 2002). connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an In most developing countries, the role of extension educator involves technology transfer. In understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. agriculture, these educators serve as a link between research stations and the local farming They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, community. They coordinate the input supply, teach farmers how to grow new crops or raise they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for livestock, and link farmers to market. Bunch (1995) offered five practical tips for agricultural planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are extension workers: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Know your limits. Do not promise what is not within your reach to provide, and know that you have to move out eventually, so act as a catalyst for long‐term change. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Respect the farmers’ ideas. Learning is integral to teaching. So respect what they already extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but know – after all, they are real practitioners ‐‐ instead of imposing your ideas on them. Try comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our to learn about the traditional practices: what they do to protect soil or farmyard manure goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the used as fertilizer. These are sustainable practices both environmentally and economically skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help ‐‐ build on them. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Dignity is above all. Farmers are the producers of food for the world. There is dignity in Please that significant work that should be respected and protected when you’re training them. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Practice what you preach. When you are in a village to provide extension services, do not equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are choose to go to the rich farmer’s house for comfort. It alienates the small farmers and easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some puts distance between you and them. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Be a moderator. At first people are slow to speak up. Some people always speak more expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them than others and tend to dominate the discussion. As a moderator, encourage those who do so. 24

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speak less to put forth their ideas and experiences. Assure them that they can ask without any hesitation and fear.

Preface

Above all, extension workers should be able to mesh indigenous knowledge and traditional This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ practices with new information and innovations to make a real difference. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural The Role of Extension Workers has Undergone a Transformation resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental In the early days of extension, training of extension workers focused more on developing extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice technical know‐how. Soon it was recognized that extension workers lacked practical skills to extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ teach farmers. Extension training in the 1970s started to emphasize “do‐how.” Agricultural profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating training centers and farmer field in‐service schools emphasized method and result demonstrations. extension personnel through training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Extension followed teaching principles such as “seeing is believing” and “learning by doing.” of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, rural and agricultural development professionals recognized that technical know‐how and do‐how were necessary but not sufficient for effective Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer teaching and learning in agriculture. Because social systems are complex and adoption of new to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first ideas and innovation constitutes a change in human behavior, it was recognized that extension and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s and advisory are being challenged to serve as and the workers agricultural would need extension to develop skills about services “human‐how” – how to help people learn connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural change. Understanding local culture, group dynamics, social power relations, gender roles, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that communication patterns and human motivations is essential to “human‐how” skills. Therefore, may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an to be effective, an extension educator must integrate technical skills with human‐how skills (also understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. referred to as soft skills or process skills). They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this © M. Suvedi. Leader farmers in Nepal show interest to adopt new bamboo variety. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Last but not least, “international‐how” has emerged as an essential competency of an extension easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some educator. With the spread of globalization, trade among nations has increased the of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of interdependence among them, which affects the agricultural trajectory within sovereign the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff across members be countries. Farmers’ organizations and commodity groups conduct business the will world. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them They frequently need information on markets, standards and other trade promotion matters. To do so.

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be competent to serve their stakeholders, extension workers themselves need to be educated so they understand the global dynamics of trade.

Preface

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ The don’ts for extension workers: Minimize biases to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and The goal is for extension workers to reach as many adults as possible, and to ensure that, you evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The need to include the poor and women farmers as well as farmers that may be atypical for the intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural region or your previous extension efforts. The purpose of this handbook is not only to help you resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental learn what an extension worker is expected to do but also to learn what you must work to avoid. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Any bias that prevents you and your colleagues from reaching the needy is taking us away from extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ the goal of extension work. Biases commonly arising include middleman bias, gender bias, profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating language bias, hospitality bias, innovator bias, seasonal bias and time bias (Sutherland, 1994; extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Chamber, 1983). It is important to be mindful of such biases, and to take steps to minimize and programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools avoid them. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Middleman bias: Using a middleman to reach out to local people can lead us to choose local Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer political heads or family heads. Middlemen commonly bring in progressive farmers who are to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first credit receivers and have access to irrigation. Local leaders by the sheer nature of politics and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the would want their own kin and interest groups to benefit. In the case of contacting only heads connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural of households, we may be missing our target audience ‐‐ the other family members who development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that probably perform the labor‐intensive work. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Gender bias: When an extension team is male‐dominated, it tends to choose male farmers understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. as spokespersons and key informants. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they Language must possess knowledge and do skill in speak participatory tools and techniques for bias: adequate Often extension workers not or understand the local language; planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are hence they end up choosing those farmers who are articulate in a language the extension critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches workers use. This bias tends to exclude women and tribal people who are conversant in the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. local language only. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Hospitality bias: When an extension worker or a team values hospitality highly, they tend to rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field spend time with This the handbook better‐off or resource‐rich who the can need provide food and extension workers. was created to farmers help meet for good a simple but comfort. This alienates the resource‐poor farmers who, for social and economic reasons, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our may not be welcome in their residences. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Innovator bias: Extension has a tendency to start working with innovators or progressive create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory farmers in anticipation that technology and innovative practices will trickle down quickly to approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. the rest. However, the trickle‐down theory may not always hold true, and the smallholder Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this farmers are left out. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Seasonal bias: Seasonal migration of people has a huge impact on farming. Small farmers equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are tend to visit nearby urban centers and industrial areas in search of off‐farm jobs during the easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some dry winter season when there is not much they can grow at their farms. If extension workers of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of visit these villages in the dry season to select program beneficiaries, they tend to choose the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be well‐off people and may miss real farmers. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 26

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Time bias: When extension workers visit villages only when the roads are open and during the daytime when most farmers are working in the field, they get an incomplete picture of Preface the village and its people, which changes significantly when night falls or the season changes. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ The other biases that Chambers (1983) found affecting rural development include: to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Spatial bias arises when better‐off households located near roads and service centers are intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural visited but those who are located in remote areas ‐‐ and who are often poorer ‐‐ are missed. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental People bias arises when information is gathered from either rural leaders or the educated extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice alone who represent only the elite. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Project bias arises when a particular model village or successful technology is repeatedly extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education presented to outsiders and development workers do not reflect on how other villages and programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools technologies are doing. It also affects extension work when development practitioners of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. choose a location because it is comfortable to work in—easy access, easy to find boarding Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer and food, etc. Such project bias prevents programs and hence innovations and technologies to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first from reaching the target communities. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Respect diversity connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Extension workers work with communities with people having different backgrounds (e.g., race, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that caste, ethnicity or tribe), different religions and different resources. To be effective, extension may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an workers should be able to: understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  should be well‐versed in Engage people from various socioeconomic groups in extension program development. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they possess adequate and skill participatory tools and techniques for  must Demonstrate sensitivity knowledge to the unique and in diverse needs of cultural groups in the planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are community. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Enhance participation of cultural groups in extension programs and services. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Effectively organize and offer programs that reflect laws and policies that support Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, diversity. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Ethical issues comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Understanding the core values of extension is essential for all professionals. The field workers goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the must maintain ethical standards of the profession. They must value the principles of honesty, skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help respect for the local culture, accountability, inclusion, transparency and integrity (Davis, 2015). create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

References Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Bunch, R. (1995). Two ears of corn. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA: World Neighbors. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. New York, New York, USA: easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Longman. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Davis, K. (2015). The new extensionist: Core competencies for individuals. GFRAS Brief # 3. Lindau, expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them Switzerland: Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). do so.

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Krathwohl, D.R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview. Theory into practice, 41(4), 212‐218.

Preface

Leagans, J.P. (1961). Extension teaching methods in Extension education in community This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day development. New Delhi, India: Directorate of Extension Education, Ministry of Food and work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Agriculture, Government of India. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Levine, J.S. (2001). The challenge of helping adults learn: Characteristics of adult learners and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental implications for teaching technical information. East Lansing, Michigan, USA: Michigan extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice State University. Accessed at: www.learnerassociates.net/workshop/adltlrn1.pdf extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Sutherland, A.J. (1994). Managing bias: Farmer selection. Pages 15‐35 in H.S. Feldstein and J. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Jiggins (eds.), Tools for the field: Methodologies handbook for gender analysis in extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education agriculture. West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: Kumarian Press. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 28

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Core Competencies of Extension Workers Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

5. Core Competencies of Extension Workers

Preface

Agricultural systems and practices are changing across the world, and producers’ needs are This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ changing, too. Farmers of the developing world are increasingly aware of new technologies and to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and improved practices. They are demanding credible information about the benefits of adopting evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The these improved practices. Specifically, they are demanding services such as quality seeds, timely intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural supply of inputs such as fertilizer, credit to buy needed inputs, and access to market information resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental and services. They expect these services to be responsive to customer‐expressed needs ‐‐ that is extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level whether on governmental, non‐governmental for‐ customer‐driven. These challenges agents, put pressure extension professionals to be or more profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating knowledgeable, skillful and able, not only in technical subject matter but also in process skills. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Extension workers should remain current with emerging technologies, be able to handle programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools challenges, tap opportunities and demonstrate competency in their services. They need to of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. possess a set of core competencies ‐‐ i.e., collective organizational skills upon which the Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer organization bases its primary operation or services. Athey and Orth (1999) defined core to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first competencies as a collection of observable dimensions ‐‐ individual skills, knowledge, attitudes, and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. behaviors, and collective processes and capabilities ‐‐ necessary for individual, organizational and Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the program success. McClelland (1973) argued that being knowledgeable and/or intelligent only connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural does not indicate that a person is an effective and efficient worker ‐‐ a worker’s performance is development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that a function of his/her knowledge plus skills and attitudes. Hence, extension professionals should may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an not be judged solely on how knowledgeable they are in their technical subject area of expertise understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, but on how skillful and able they are in delivering services to their clients. It should also be noted they must competency possess adequate and skill participatory tools contexts and techniques for that core needs knowledge are contextual, and in extension workers’ affect their planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are competency needs and competency levels. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches The roles and responsibilities of an extension educator may be classified into two broad that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. categories: process skills or functional competencies, and technical skills. Networking with local Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, organizations, facilitating group formation, resolving conflict and engaging stakeholders in rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field program planning are examples of process skills or functional competencies. On the other hand, extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but identifying the causal organism of maize disease, testing the soil pH and interpreting the results, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our and conducting a method demonstration on how to perform artificial insemination on dairy cattle goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the are examples of technical competencies. A good extension educator needs to possess both skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help process and technical skills. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Developing core competencies is fundamental to all extension staff training. Davis (2015), Davis and Sulaiman (2014), and Sulaiman and Davis (2012) articulate the need to develop functional Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are and technical capacities across three levels: individuals, organizations and enabling environment. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are They also emphasize capacity development as a long‐term investment for extension. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some The level of skills required may vary with the place, country and context. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Specialized Competence Preface Technical skills and competencies for extension field workers vary by specialization. For example, an extension worker working in the forestry sector needs to have basic technical knowledge and This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ skills that would differ a from of agricultural livestock extension workers. Similarly, to‐day work. It offers set those of tools for effective or communication, program planning and community health and nutrition extension field workers and community fishery technicians will evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural need different technical knowledge and include: skills. Of course, some level of technical skills and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental knowledge are equally needed and useful for a wide range of agricultural extension workers. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Examples of such technical skills include knowledge on crop varieties; diagnosis and treatment of extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether of a farm business plan governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ insects, other pests and diseases; and development based on market profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating analysis. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Characteristics of Effective Extension Workers of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Scholars and practitioners have proposed many areas of core competencies for agricultural to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first extension workers (Cooper and Graham, 2001; Scheer et al., 2006). It seems that nine areas of and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. professional core competencies adequately address the needs of demand‐driven, decentralized, Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the pluralistic and participatory extension systems, they are: connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Plan well: An extension worker needs to be able to plan a program meticulously. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Expanding participation not just in terms of numbers but also participation by different may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. groups within a village and publicizing the meeting or field experiment are essential. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, While planning an extension program, an extension worker should know who the they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory and techniques for beneficiaries and stakeholders are, what resources are tools available, what national planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are agricultural strategies are in place and where the emphasis of the government is. Doing a critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches needs assessment, especially involving the poor and female farmers and young people, that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. can fine‐tune a program to meet local needs. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Coordinate and collaborate to implement: Effective extension workers are able to rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field implement programs coordinating activities extension workers. extension This handbook was by created to help meet the and need collaborating for a simple with but development partners within their assigned area or communities by building teamwork, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our involving local stakeholders and negotiating when conflicts arise. Reaching and involving goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the members of marginalized groups ‐‐ such as women and members of minority groups ‐‐ in skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help innovations through the participatory method is another important skill that extension create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory workers should practice. Touch and feel never fail, so it is effective to allow local people approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please (farmers) to try their hands in the field so they feel confident to adopt new technologies note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this (equipment, inputs, etc.) when the extension worker is not around. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are

equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Be humble: Farmers already know a lot about their farming system, and you as an easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some extension worker need to respect this. You are in the field to serve farmers’ interests and of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of further their aspirations, so find out what they know and build on that. If you seem to be the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be a “know‐it‐all,” there is little chance that a farmer will express herself/himself. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 30

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

Communicate confidently: An extension worker has to be a good communicator so that he/she is able to persuade people to change their methods of cultivation or Preface adopt innovative practices or technologies. It is no simple task. An extension worker This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ should effectively listen to what his/her audience says and use language and content that to‐day members of the target groups can understand. Learn and practice well so all doubts are work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The taken care of before you reach the audience. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Build public relations: The next stage of good communication is public relations. You need resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice to be able to build good relationships and rapport with people so they are comfortable to extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ talk to you, ask questions and believe you. The stronger the relationship and feelings of profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating trust, the quicker the adoption of the recommended technology and practices. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Value the diversity: A village has multiple identity groups in terms of wealth, ethnicity, programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools caste, language, tribe, etc. An extension worker has to be sensitive toward these to ensure of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. that a program appeals to a wide audience containing many identities and does not Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer conflict with any religious/cultural belief or tradition. A Muslim farmer, for instance, to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first might resist rearing a pig for religious reasons; tribal farmers might resist adopting a new and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s crop variety because a traditional variety is being cultivated there. These points need to agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the be taken into consideration when planning and delivering extension services. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Acquire educational and informational technology: Information communication may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an technologies (ICTs) such as mobile phones, texting, conference calls, computer, Internet, understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. email, etc., are increasingly being used in extension services. The ICTs are effective in They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, reaching a large number of users in a short time (Aker, 2011). An extension worker should they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for acquire knowledge and spread these technologies and the knowledge to use them among planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are local people. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Evaluate to show results: Resources are limited, and there is always competition for

resources. The government and funders tend to give priority to those programs that can Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, show that they have succeeded in reaching and benefitting previously unreached groups. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but An extension worker has to become aware of the programs launched in his areas and comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our evaluate their success to avoid repeating others’ mistakes and learn what did work. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Update knowledge: What one communicates depends on what he/she knows, so an skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help extension educator should be aware of relevant research happening in various parts of create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory the country, or even around the world, to be able to address the farmers’ real needs. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Spending time on reading up on recent research can help you choose technologies and Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this practices that are well‐suited to the local environment and people, and sustainable over handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are the long term. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are

easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some As we explained earlier, extension educator competencies are generally classified into two of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of groups: technical skills and competencies such as knowledge and skills in pest management, soil the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be testing or fertilizing a field crop; and process skills and competencies that help extension workers expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them perform their tasks well. Process skills are also called soft skills. do so.

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What Process Skills and Competencies Do Extension Workers Preface Need? This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ A survey of extension professionals was conducted in Cambodia, India, Malawi and Nepal to help to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and determine the essential competencies for effective front‐line extension workers in those settings. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The We have grouped these competencies under four major extension programming functions. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural numbering corresponds to the numbering of each tool in the chapters that follows: resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Program planning extension and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ 1. workers; Conduct needs assessments profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating 2. Prioritize needs and problems extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education 3. Identify stakeholders and engage them in extension programs programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools 4. Acquire and allocate resources (resource mobilization) of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. 5. Conduct the nominal group technique Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer 6. Conduct community forums to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first 7. Conduct brainstorming exercises and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. 8. Identify market opportunities Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the 9. Design services based on gender analysis connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural 10. Develop a work plan development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that 11. Develop a grant proposal may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an

understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Program implementation They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, 12. Conduct farm and home visits they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for 13. Conduct method and results demonstrations planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are 14. Organize farmer field schools critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches 15. Organize field days that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. 16. Establish a model village Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, 17. Conduct meetings effectively rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field 18. workers. Manage conflict extension This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but 19. Manage time comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our 20. Manage groups and teamwork goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help 21. Understand group dynamics and/or facilitate groups create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory 22. Write field reports approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Program evaluation Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this 23. Design survey instruments handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are 24. Conduct surveys and personal interviews equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are 25. Conduct participant observations easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some 26. Conduct rapid rural appraisals (RRA) and participatory rural appraisals (PRA) of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of 27. However, Conduct focus group discussions the tools. in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them 28. Write extension evaluation reports and share results and impacts do so. 32

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Communication and informational technologies 29. Make effective presentations Preface 30. Communicate effectively with community leaders This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ 31. Organize extension campaigns to‐day 32. work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Write for newspapers or mass media evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The 33. Make good use of information and communication technologies (ICTs)/access and use intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural web‐based resources resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental It should be noted that some skills and competencies could be used for multiple programming extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ functions. For instance, a specific competency such as PRA/RRA or focus group discussion can be profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating used in both the planning and the evaluation stages. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education The remaining chapters discuss program planning, program implementation, communication and programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools effective use of ICTs, and program evaluation. Each chapter describes the domain and lists of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. specific process skills and competencies required to perform the extension task effectively. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. References Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Aker, J.C. (2011). Dial “A” for agriculture: A review of information and communication connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural technologies for agricultural extension in developing countries. Agricultural Economics, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an 42(6), 631‐647. doi: 10.1111/j.1574‐0862.2011.00545.x. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Athey, T.R., and M.S. Orth. (1999). Emerging competency methods for the future. Human They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Resource Management, 38(3), 215‐225. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Cooper, A.W., and D.L. Graham. (2001). Competencies needed to be successful county agents critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches and county supervisors. Journal of Extension, 39(1), 1‐11. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Davis, K. (2015). The new extensionist: Core competencies for individuals. GFRAS Brief # 3. Lindau, Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Switzerland: Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Davis, K., and R. Sulaiman. (2014). The extensionist: strengthen extension workers. This handbook was new created to help Roles meet and the capacities need for to a simple but extension and advisory services. Journal of International Agriculture and Extension comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Education, 21(3). doi:10.5191/jiaee.2014.21301. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help McClelland, D.C. (1973). Testing for competence rather than for "intelligence". American create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Psychologist, 28, 1‐14. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Scheer, note S.D., that T.M. Ferrari, J.J. description Connors. nor (2006). Preparing extension Please neither the G.W. length Earnest of each and tool’s its numeric order in this professionals: The Ohio State University's model of extension education. Journal of handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Extension, 44(4), 1‐12. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Sulaiman, R., and K. Davis. (2012). The “new extensionist”: Roles, strategies, and capacities to of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of strengthen extension and advisory services. Lindau, Switzerland: Global Forum for Rural the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Advisory Services (GFRAS). expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Planning an Extension Program Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

6. Planning an Extension Program

Preface

Before addressing the specific tools for extension undertakings, it seems appropriate to spend This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ some time on overall program planning. Therefore, this chapter focuses on extension program to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and development and the process to follow in developing a program plan for extension or community evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The development. Successful programs keep the people who are the beneficiaries at the center of intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural the process. They involve local institutions and stakeholders in all phases of program resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental development. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Planning is the bedrock for planned change. Front‐line extension workers are expected to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating develop extension programs to address local food production or community development needs. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Planning involves three things: studying the past, analyzing the present situation and forecasting of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. the future course of action. This is true when you plan a program for extension or rural development. Planning is a process to bring about a desirable outcome or result. A good Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer extension program provides a clear and concise written statement of what will be done, why, to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first when, with whom and where. To put it simply, it is a process for developing a blueprint of our and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the goals, methods, procedures, activities and expected results. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Program Planning in Extension may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. An extension program is more than a single activity or event. It consists of a set of activities that They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, are intended to bring about a sequence of outcomes among the members of the target audience, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for often referred to as clients. In an extension setting, program planning is the process by which planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are members of an organization or community envision its future and develop the processes and critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches operations necessary to achieve that future. The process is dynamic ‐‐ leaders or managers of the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. planning team/group continually review it and make adjustments to address changing contexts Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, such as socioeconomic, financial and community/client needs. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Elements of a Good Extension Program Plan goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Clear and measurable objectives. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  A focus on needs of the target audience. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  A list of activities relevant to achieving the stated objectives. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  An outline of inputs and resources (funding, staff, partners) required for equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are the program. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  A clear plan for implementation — when, where, how and to whom. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of

the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  A plan for evaluation. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 34

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Types of Extension Educational Programs Preface Planning is essential to find solutions for community problems or issues or to assess needs. Boyle (1981) described three types of educational programs: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Developmental Program evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The The goal is the empowerment of local people to define and solve their own problem, issues or intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural needs. Stakeholders and beneficiaries are involved in all phases of the program—planning, resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental implementation and evaluation. The extension educator works closely with the local people to extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and and support, field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or is for‐ identify resources implement the program and evaluate it. His/her role to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating facilitate the process of planned change. A rural or community development program with extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education genuine participation of beneficiaries in the program’s decision‐making process is an example of programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools an effective development program. Effectiveness is measured by positive change on selected of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. indicators resulting from delivery of the program to the intended audience. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches © M. Suvedi. Method demonstration on soil preparation before planting a fruit tree. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Institutional Program Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, An institutional program aims to further the growth and development of an individual’s basic rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but knowledge, skills and abilities. The program’s content is derived from the knowledge base of the comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our institution or discipline. As program developer, an extension educator assesses learning needs, goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the identifies instructional content areas, provides instruction and evaluates the program. Pre‐ and skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help in‐service training and certificate programs are examples of institutional programs. Effectiveness create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory is measured by learners’ perceptions of the quality of instruction and number of trainees approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. completing the training. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Informational Program handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are The primary goal in this sort of program is an exchange of information with the intended equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are audience. As a program planner, the extension educator identifies the information needs of easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some his/her audience; prepares information packages such as print information, radio or television of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of programs; and disseminates information through various media or channels. Effectiveness is the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be measured by the extent of distribution to and the use of information by the intended audience. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating © M. Suvedi. Farmers attending a result demonstration on vegetable production. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. As an extension educator, your overall aim is developmental – empowering the target audience Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer with knowledge and skills. To reach and teach your audience, you can make use of existing to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first institutions to build local capacity and use media and information and communication and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. technologies (ICTs). Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Qualities of an Extension Program Planner may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Understands the philosophy and mandate, history, traditions, related understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, legislation and organizational structure of agricultural extension or advisory they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for services in your country. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Ensures that the planning process is participatory and that members of critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches minority groups, women and dispersed audiences are engaged in the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. planning process. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Makes sure the local leaders, partners or supporters of your program rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field understand the reasons for and the importance and benefits of planning. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Understands how the planning process is structured and facilitated. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Reaches decisions about the nature and content of the overall program. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Stimulates farmers’ interest and desire to adopt a new idea or practice. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Steps in Program Planning handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Literature on program planning suggests a cycle involving multiple steps for program equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some development. Diehl and Galindo‐Gonzalez (2014) suggest an eight‐step process for planning or of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of refining an extension program. It should be noted, however, that extension programming is not the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be a linear process. A successful extension program follows a dynamic process with continual review expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 36

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of the situation, stakeholder consultation and resource mobilization. A summary of the major steps are shown in Figure 5, and the steps are described below.

Preface

Engage stakeholders in planning dialogue: Identify a diverse set of stakeholders such as This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ farmers, agribusiness operators, representatives of government agencies, community to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and leaders, etc. Talk with each individually and invite him/her to serve in the advisory and/or evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The planning committee representing community. Stakeholder engagement has natural many intended audiences of this handbook the include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, benefits ‐‐ you will get a variety of perspectives and opinions; and when done properly, it resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental establishes support and local ownership of the program. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Conduct a situation analysis: This is where program planning actually starts. You need to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating understand where the program is needed; who the program beneficiaries are; what extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats exist in the community; and what ancillary programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools factors are necessary for the program’s success. The situation analysis should deepen your of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. understanding of the various needs and issues facing the people in the community or your Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer intended audience. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first The situation analysis may involve consultation with key informants and experts and the and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. review of secondary data from census or previous reports. It involves needs assessment and Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural prioritization. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Once differ you develop a list they of priority share Extension them with professionals the stakeholders may from those learned needs, in school. must and have your an organizational representative ‐‐ district director, project manager or program director. Get their understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. inputs and feedback on the list of priority needs. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them Figure 5. Program development cycle. do so.

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Develop program goals and objectives: Now, together with the beneficiaries, you develop program goals and objectives describing how participants or beneficiaries will change as a result Preface of the program. Program goals are broad; objectives are more specific and targeted. Good This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ objectives are: to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Specific ‐‐ Be specific and clear about what will be achieved. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Measurable ‐‐ Can you measure whether the objective has been met, partially met or not resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental met? extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; ‐‐ and field‐level agents, whether governmental, or time for‐  Achievable Is the objective achievable given the funding, non‐governmental staff resources and profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating available? extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Relevant ‐‐ Is it clearly linked to the desired result? programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Time‐limited ‐‐ Does the objective contain a target date for achieving the desired result? Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Inventory resources: What resources are needed to make this program successful? Resources to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first may include: and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Human/social ‐‐ program advisors, support workers, volunteers, consultants. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Material ‐‐ new information and technologies; money and what it can buy ‐‐ e.g., vehicles, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that computers, copy machines, notebooks, staff travel. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Services ‐‐ facilities for holding meetings and workshops, office and storage space. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  must Instructional ‐‐ demonstration plots, improved seed, pesticides and other chemicals, planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are audiovisual equipment, printed materials. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Select educational methods and materials: Now it’s time to plan specific ways or methods by that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. which you can maximize the program’s impact given the human, material, services and Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, instructional resources you have for your program. Specifically, what kind of educational rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field activities and instructional resources would be appropriate for the content you plan to deliver to extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but your audience? Is a method demonstration an effective way to teach the audience? Should you comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our plan a tour of a research station where farmers could observe the benefits of adopting a new goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the maize variety? Should you show a documentary film or hold a group discussion? skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help

create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory You should consult with your local stakeholders ‐‐ seek advice from staff members of local approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. cooperatives, an agricultural research station or other organizations. Select the most combination of methods to reach and your audience while Please effective note that method neither or the length of each tool’s description nor teach its numeric order in this keeping the cost within your budget. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are An effective way to present the program plan is to develop a program logic model. Key elements easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the program logic model are shown in Figure 6 below. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 38

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Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Figure 6. Extension program planning logic model (adapted from the University of Wisconsin understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Extension, 2014). They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Implement program: Now you carry out the plan in the target communities. Remember that an critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches extension program consists of a set of activities designed to lead to desired changes among the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. members of the target audience. Effective implementation involves: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Promoting the program via interpersonal methods, ICTs and mass media as appropriate. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was to activity help meet the need for a simple but  Keeping an official record of the created program (e.g., program announcements, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our participant attendance or registration showing gender, ethnicity or tribe). goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Involving key people, specialists and advisors as much as possible. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Collecting end‐of‐activity feedback from participants or beneficiaries. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Evaluate and report results: Evaluation is a systematic investigation of the worth or merit of a Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this program. It provides information to help improve the program. Evaluation is not a separate handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are activity ‐‐ it is integrated into the program itself. Planning, implementation and evaluation are all equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are parts of a whole, and they work best when they work together. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Evaluations are of two types:

Preface Process (formative) evaluation is conducted during the program implementation to provide the program staff evaluative information useful in improving the program. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day Evaluation focuses on what is working, what needs to be improved and how it can be work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and improved. You may also be interested in knowing the gender mix of participants, the evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The suitability of language and instruction used, appropriateness of the timing of events, the intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural quality of support materials, the suitability of physical facilities, etc. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Summative evaluation is conducted toward the end of the program or project and made extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ public to provide program decision makers, stakeholders and potential consumers with profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating judgments about the program’s worth or merit in relation to stated goals and objectives. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Evaluation focuses on what results occurred, with whom, under what conditions, with programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools what activity/training and at what cost. The information is used to make decisions about of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. the program’s future. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Learn, modify and improve: Program development follows a cycle and is a continuous process. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. At the end of each program or project, lessons learned can be integrated to develop the next Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the program. Formative evaluation is conducted at the end of each step, and feedback is used to connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural improve the program and process. Evaluation provides useful information for planning the next development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that cycle of extension programs. Sharing of evaluation results with stakeholders and community may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an members is an opportunity for reflection, learning and program refinement. Therefore, use both understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. formative and summative evaluation information to improve your program and to report your They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, accomplishments. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Participation is the Key that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Educational programs are successful when all persons affected by the program are involved in Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, some way or participate in the program. There are various reasons for participation: rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  It promotes local ownership of the program. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  It promotes democratic values ‐‐ people affected by the program should have a say about goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the the program’s what, why, who, how and when. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  It reduces the cost of the program. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  It minimizes conflict among groups and members of the community because beneficiaries Please and stakeholders are informed of the programs and programs are need‐based note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  It increases the chances of the program’s success. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  It empowers local people by building their confidence in development work. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  It provides opportunity to learn together. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 40

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How can you maximize participation in program planning? Participation can either be direct (all persons involved) or representative (a few are selected to Preface

represent the others). Representative inputs are easier to manage. Representatives should be This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ identified and selected considering the community’s diversity and inclusiveness. A good to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and representative is one who understands and speaks for the opinions and perspectives of those evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The s/he represents. So, maximize the number of representatives and stakeholders in the planning intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural process and make sure all groups are represented. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Advice for Planning Extension Programs profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating It is essential that individuals planning extension programs be reflective and thoughtful. One way extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education to do this is to ask yourself this question: are you addressing the needs felt by the people and programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools recognized by extension workers, also known as expressed felt needs (Baker, 1984)? Often, needs of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. felt by the extension workers but not known to the people (or unfelt needs) are included in the Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer program. Further, are you addressing the root cause of the problem or working on symptoms of to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first the problem? You can ask yourself if the felt need is the same as the real need. For example, and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. farmers may articulate a need to increase income when the principal problem they face is one of Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the recurring costs of debt, which eat away at their income. So what they really may need is a way connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural to steer clear of debt or learn how to access lower interest bank loans. Teaching them to do loan development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that paperwork may be the answer to their issue/need. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Judge the readiness of people to accept change: If they are not yet ready to follow a They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, piece of advice, adopt a new technology, or change their way of doing things or getting they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for things done, find out what hinders the change. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Check for resources: The human resources, skills, materials and money required and that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. available to carry out the activities decided upon. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Choose an appropriate technology: Often planning is done by the national government. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Upon reaching a rural district or subdistrict, you’ll want to interact with local farmers to extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but find out what crops are grown and livestock raised, and what are the impediments to crop comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our and livestock production. Simple solutions such as appropriate use of compost or goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the farmyard manure or establishing produce collection centers with cold storage can skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help improve farmer income and be environmentally friendly. Rainwater harvesting, for create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory instance, has proved to be a life‐changing innovation in some rural communities. Helping approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. local people find appropriate solutions to their problems and needs is the first step Please toward sustainable development. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Plan an exit strategy: Self‐sufficiency is a goal of agricultural extension and advisory equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are services, along with increases in productivity and efficiency. Suppose you are working on easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of an extension program to promote adoption of high‐yielding maize varieties. Once you the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be achieve the targeted goal ‐‐ say, 50 percent adoption ‐‐ you may move to address the next expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them priority need. To maintain and continue to expand the benefits of the improved variety, do so.

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the local people have to be organized through some institution – such as a cooperative or other group ‐‐ own the innovation and spread it among the late adopters. At that point, Preface you can withdraw or discontinue the program because the beneficiaries are now This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ independent of the outsider (you, the extension worker). Therefore, as an educator or to‐day change agent, an important part of your role is to build local capacity ‐‐ individuals and work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The institutions such as producer groups and cooperatives. This is the path to sustainable intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural development. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ References profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Baker, H. (1984). The program process. Pages 50‐64 in Blackburn (ed.), education Extension extension personnel through planning in‐service training opportunities, continuing handbook. Ontario, Canada: University of Guelph. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Boyle, P.A. (1981). Planning better programs. New York, New York, USA: McGraw‐Hill. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Diehl, D.C., and Galindo‐Gonzalez, S. (2014). Planning or refining an extension program. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Gainesville, Florida, USA: University of Florida. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. University of Wisconsin. (2014). Logic model. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: Program Development Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the and Evaluation, University of Wisconsin. Accessed at: connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/evaluation/evallogicmodel.html development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 42

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Planning an Extension Program

Tool 1: Conduct Needs Assessments Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Good Practice Tools for Participatory Program Planning Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Tool 1: Conduct Needs Assessments evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Need is a audiences condition marked a lack of something that is considered a requisite. “Need” is intended of this by handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural different from “want” in that “want” indicates a desire for something. Fear (1988) advised that resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental asking clients what they want should not be confused with their needs. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; needs and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ When we conduct assessment, we identify the discrepancy or gap between where the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating community is now and where the community wants to be (Witkin and Altschuld, 1995). For extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education example, average maize yield of local farmers is 2,000 kilograms per hectare, but local research programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools and demonstration may show that farmers in the same setting may be able to achieve yields to of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. 4,000 kilograms per hectare by using improved maize production practices. So, in this case, the Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer yield gap between the present situation and the desired condition is 2,000 kilograms. The larger to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first the discrepancy between the current situation and the desired situation, the greater the need. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Needs can be of various kinds ‐‐ felt needs, ascribed needs and normative needs. Baker (1984) Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the divided felt needs into two categories: connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Needs felt by people and recognized by extension workers are called expressed felt may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an needs. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in Needs felt by people but unrecognized by extension workers are unexpressed felt needs. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Ascribed needs are those defined or identified by outsiders, and they may or may not be present planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are in the community. Donors or outside organizations, which often do not involve local critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches communities in needs identification and prioritization, may focus on ascribed needs. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Normative needs are those that experts or extension workers believe people’s needs to be. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Often, experts determine local needs on the basis of comparison with national trends, and these rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but are called relative needs. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our What are the major needs assessment methods? goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Depending on the type of information needed and group orientation, Fear (1988) suggested the create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory following needs assessment methods: approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Group dynamics methods are designed to facilitate group‐ or team‐based consideration of Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this needs. Examples are nominal group process and focus group interviews. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Social networking method brings “state of the field” information to the attention of the equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are extension educator who will assess needs. Examples are drawing information from easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some association network and conference presentations. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the Survey tools. However, in useful the end, and extension staff members will be method is in educated generating ad well‐trained hoc information about a population. Mail, expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them telephone and Internet surveys are popular in developed countries. Personal interviews, do so.

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group‐administered and key informant surveys are frequently used in the developing countries.

Preface

Social indicator method refers to the compilation and use of existing information (from This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ secondary sources) to measure needs. Use of census information, newspaper reports/polls to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and on community issues, and crime information data provided by service agencies are examples evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The of social indicators. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental In addition to the survey approach described by Fear (1988), Carter and Beaulieu (1992) suggest extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice four other needs assessment techniques: the key informant approach, the public forum extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ approach, the nominal group process technique, and the Delphi technique. Some of these profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating approaches/techniques are described later in the manual. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Why do a needs assessment? of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Most trainings are designed and implemented without seeking farmers’ input, and so at the end Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer of the training, the farmers ignore the recommendations given by the extension workers, which to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first are not relevant or useful to the farmers. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. What needs assessment does is identify a gap that is are relevant farmers and other as target Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services being to challenged to serve the audiences. It helps focus the extension workers on innovations and other programming that are connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural suitable and compatible with intended audiences/beneficiaries and can increase profitability for development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that the specific group. For instance, teaching water‐intensive technology to farmers who practice may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. rain‐fed agriculture is a mismatch because most of them cannot adopt the technology, which is They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, incompatible with their situation. Hence compatibility is a defining feature behind a successful they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for program. A thorough and well‐done needs assessment results in more appropriate trainings and planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are recommendations that offer solutions with greater potential benefit to the farmers. According critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches to Butler and Howell (1980), “A community needs assessment is an excellent means of involving that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. the public in problem solving and developing local goals” (p.3). Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, A successful extension educator considers these factors before s/he proceeds to conducting rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field community needs assessment. Involving volunteers in needs assessment can help keep the cost extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but down as well as provide extension workers with convenient interpreters of local contexts. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Involving stakeholders and/or their representatives will also help develop a sense of local goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the ownership of any program resulting from such needs assessment. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 44

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Basis for the Selection of Needs Assessment Method

Preface What is your agency’s development philosophy? How important is involving the

community in needs identification? Does the community have any definite This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ preferences? to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  How much time do you have to conduct the needs assessment? intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  How much money is available to complete the task? resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  What is the level of staff expertise to conduct the assessment? extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Are resource persons available to assist in the needs assessment? profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  What is the past experience in conducting needs assessment? programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  What are the political considerations and future plans? Are local leaders and decision makers open to conducting a community needs Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer assessment? Do they have commitments to address local needs and to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first problems? and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that What kind of information can be collected? may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an The second step in performing a needs assessment is to decide what you hope to learn about understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. your community and what kind of information you plan to collect. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Historical development information helps you understand how the community became what planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are it is today and provides insights into the kinds of information to collect. Conducting a critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches community forum with the community leaders and senior citizens is a good way to do this. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Demographic information includes the size of a population and the ages, races, castes and Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, genders of its members. The process of collecting this information helps in understanding the rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field demographic breakdown of the community and recording the changes over a period of time extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but in such areas as the community’s growth patterns and population distribution and migration. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Public records can be used for collecting demographic information. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Political and legal structure information helps you understand the community‐based create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory selection of leaders and key players in development. A survey would be useful in finding such approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. information.

Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Economic information helps identify your community’s economic base and resource handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are distribution. A survey would be useful because people would be uncomfortable speaking equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are about it in a public forum. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Social, cultural and educational institutions information will help you determine your the community’s values and social patterns. The method could be key informant interviews or tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them focus group discussion with key officials in these organizations. do so.

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Geography and infrastructure information includes roads, electricity, irrigation systems, total project area, etc. This information is important in learning how the infrastructural Preface development has occurred, how big the focus area is, what type of landscape it has, etc. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and How to conduct a needs assessment evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Although there is an array of ways to go about doing needs assessment, we believe that the intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural following five‐step approach is useful and appropriate for extension workers in most developing resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental country contexts. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Step 1. Identify a representative area extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ To conduct a needs assessment, sample a village that is representative of the section in profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating which a needs assessment is planned. Using secondary data can help in comparing crop or extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools livestock requirements with environmental factors of the area such as rainfall, soils, of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. topography, etc. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Step 2. Plan the assessment to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Carefully identify who will help with the survey (include farmers, researchers, extension and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. workers). Visit the field and talk with farmers to learn what farmers perceive as problems. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Visit farmers’ fields to diagnose problems. Ask them about issues that affect their farming connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural activities, such as production, inputs, postharvest, marketing and price issues. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Step 3. Analyze and prioritize problems may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Use field observations and input from the discussions with farmers to assess and prioritize They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, problems. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Step 4. Identify the causes of the problems planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Correct solutions depend on correctly identifying the root cause of the problem. For example, critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches a problem of field water could be a result of poor ridge alignment rather than water that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. availability. Work out the true cause of the problem together with the farmers before Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, recommending any solution to them. Actually involving the farmers in their fields and rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field discussing with them how poor ridge alignment results in water runoff would help address extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but the example given above. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our

goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Step 5. Develop possible solutions and recommendations with the farmers skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Make sure that farmers own and accept the solutions developed jointly with them. Carefully create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory discuss options with them and see how possible solutions might or might not be compatible approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. with their systems. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Some important questions to keep in mind and to ask multiple times during needs assessment: handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  How would you like to see change in your group in the next five years? equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Are there needs that are not being met at the moment by our programs and services? easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  Are changes taking place in your group that concern you? What are they? What might be of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of done about those changes? What programs do you know of that people are trying in other the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be places that we should try in your group? expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 46

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References

Preface Baker, H. (1984). The program planning process. Pages 50‐64 in D. Blackburn (ed.), Extension

handbook. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: University of Guelph. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day It offers a set of (1980). tools for effective program and Butler, work. L.M., and R.E. Howell. Coping with communication, growth: Community needs planning assessment. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Western Rural Development Center, Oregon State University. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Carter, K.A. and L.J. Beaulieu. (1992). Conducting a community needs assessment: Primary data resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental collection techniques. Gainesville, Florida, USA: University of Florida. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension and field‐level agents, whether A governmental, non‐governmental for‐ Fear, F.A. workers; (1988). Community needs assessment: crucial tool for adult educators. or Paper profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating presented at the MAACE Midwinter Conference, February 1988, Lansing, Michigan, USA. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Witkin, B.R., and J.W. Altschuld. (1995). Planning and conducting needs assessment: A practical programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools guide. Thousand Oaks, California, USA: Sage Publications. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 2: Prioritize Needs and Problems Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 2: Prioritize Needs and Problems Preface

Prioritizing is a process of ascribing value or importance to each item and then putting them in This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ descending or ascending order of importance. In that sense, it is a selection process. To begin, the to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and facilitator should determine if one sort or more than one sort is needed. An elimination process evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The might be required for long lists of more than 12 to 15 items. Prioritizing should be done by a group intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural of participants, not the facilitator only. Figure 7 displays four scenarios for priority setting and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental recommendations for practice. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating In setting priorities, you need to consider two factors (Sork, 1979): extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  The importance of the need: For instance, groundnut is grown as a cash crop by some programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools farmers, but maize is grown by all households and low yield has been an issue. That makes of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. increasing maize yield the higher need. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  The feasibility of meeting the need: Feasibility can involve factors such as season, funds to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and political will. Suppose the months when the project is ongoing are the monsoon and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s months, in which case constructing a road might be very difficult. So you might have to agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural choose building a well instead. Or the village leader might want a well more, so in terms development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that of feasibility, a well might be what you decide to make. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for High need, low High feasibility, planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are feasibiity high need critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches (Scope for (Priority that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. project proposal) program) Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our High feasibiity, goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Poor feasibility, low need skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help poor need (Adopt for create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory (Abandon) appeasement approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. reasons) Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Figure 7. Priority setting of needs. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 48

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The importance of a need can be determined by the following factors: Preface  Mission relatedness ‐‐ Is the need identified a good “fit” to the mandate of your This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day organization? work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Urgency ‐‐ Does the need identified call for immediate action? intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  The size of the gap ‐‐ Is the discrepancy between what is there now and where we want extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice to be large or small? extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  The number of people affected ‐‐ How many people have identified the need? Some profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating needs, if addressed well, may benefit training many people; others serve a limited number of extension personnel through in‐service opportunities, continuing education families. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. The feasibility of a need can be determined by the following factors (Oakley and Garforth, 1997): Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Acceptability ‐‐ The community’s willingness to make the changes needed to move from to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first the present state to the more valued or preferred state. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Resources required ‐‐ Time, money, staff and leadership expertise required to meet the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural need. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Forces of change ‐‐ What is the balance of forces working for and against the proposed may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. change? If strong opposition exists, it is prudent to wait until greater support comes They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, through. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Perception of feasibility ‐‐ How do community people and stakeholders view the planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are possibility of success? critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

Various methods for prioritizing:

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Casting straws or votes rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Each member gets five straws, representing five votes. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Each member is asked to distribute the straws (votes) among the items listed. One can comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the place all five straws on one item or distribute them among two or more items. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Each person indicates his/her vote by marking the item (usually listed on a flipchart, create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory blackboard or transparency) with a stroke or dot (whatever is directed). approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  The items receiving the top number of votes (symbolized by straws or strokes or dots) are Please selected as those with the highest priority. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Greatest hits equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Present the total list of items to each with the instruction to divide the list into three parts easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some ‐‐ those with highest priority (importance, urgency or value), moderate priority and low of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be priority. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Each person makes his or her selection by placing a number or colored sticky dot on the list. Preface  A tally is taken. The top third of the list—items chosen by most as highest priority ‐‐ is This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ identified and listed separately. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  A second discussion can follow to determine a cut‐off point. Should items with just a few evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The “highest priority” votes be included? How many items are sufficient? intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Secret ballot resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Number all items on the list. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Each participant indicates his/her preference by writing the number of his/her preferred extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education item secretly on a piece of paper. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Tabulate the results of the secret ballot. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. 

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first References and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension (1997). and advisory services are training being challenged to serve in as the Oakley, P., and C. Garforth. Guide to extension (originally printed 1985, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural reprinted in 1997). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Accessed at: www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/t0060e07.htm may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Sork, T.J. (1979). Development and validation of a normative process model for determining understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. priority of need in community adult education. Paper presented in the Adult Education They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Research Conference, (April 4‐6, 1979, in Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA: ERIC. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 50

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Tool 3: Stakeholder Identification and Engagement Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 3: Identify Stakeholders and Engage them in Extension Preface Programs

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Stakeholders are people or organizations who are directly or indirectly affected by the outcome to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The ‐‐ positively or negatively ‐‐ or those who can influence the outcome of a proposed intervention intended audiences of and this Narayan, handbook 1997). include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, (Rietbergen‐McCracken Agriculture development programs have natural many resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental important stakeholders ‐‐ farmers, input suppliers, credit agencies, education/training providers, extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice marketers, processors and distributors, agricultural research professionals and others. To extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ successfully provide education for local people, extension workers need to coordinate among profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating these stakeholders. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education According to FAO (1999), stakeholders can be classified as: programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Primary stakeholders: The people or groups that are directly affected, either positively

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer or negatively, by either the efforts or the actions of an agency, institution or organization. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Secondary stakeholders: The people or groups that are indirectly affected, either and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. or extension negatively, and by advisory the efforts or the are actions an agency, or Today’s positively agricultural services being of challenged to institution serve as the organization. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that As a first step, a successful extension educator identifies the stakeholder of her/his extension may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an program. What are the interests of these stakeholders? How will they be affected ‐‐ positively or understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. negatively ‐‐ by the program? Which are the primary stakeholders? How influential are the They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, various stakeholders in achieving the goal of the extension program? As an extension educator, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for you want to know what role each stakeholder can play, what resources each can bring to the planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are program and how each can contribute to the program’s sustainability. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are © M. Suvedi. Public and private sector stakeholders discuss extension strategy in Nepal. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Why identify and analyze stakeholders and their interests? Identifying stakeholders Preface

starts as you begin the program/project planning process. A participatory planning effort that involves representation of as many stakeholders as possible has This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ a number of advantages: to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Diverse ideas: Involving multiple groups brings out more and more diverse ideas than evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The developing an effort by working with a single organization or a small group of like‐minded intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural people. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Multiple perspectives: Including varied perspectives from all across groups provides a extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ holistic picture of how the project will affect the community and outline potential pitfalls profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating and assets. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Team building: Making all stakeholders an integral part of development process ‐‐ of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. planning, implementing and evaluating – builds widespread support for the project. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Credibility: Involving and attending to the concerns of all stakeholders establishes your to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first organization as fair, ethical and transparent, thus increasing its credibility. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the When to do the exercise connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural For all purposes, identifying stakeholders and their varied interests should be among the first development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that steps on your agenda and should be conducted at the planning stage. Their knowledge of the may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an community and understanding of its needs are invaluable to reach the right people, be inclusive understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. and reach the necessary people in the shortest time possible. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for How to conduct stakeholder analysis planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are For a detailed understanding of stakeholders and their role in any program’s various stages, critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Rietbergen‐McCracken and Narayan (1997) advise following a four‐step process to identify and that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. analyze stakeholders, their multiple interests, their influence and their participation in the Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, program. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Step 1: Identify key stakeholders comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Assess who stands to gain potentially. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Who might be adversely affected? skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Are there vulnerable groups? If so, identify them. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Divide stakeholders into two groups ‐‐ those who will support and those who will oppose approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. the program. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  How are these groups interrelated? Are they vertically organized, or are some equal in handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are power and resources while others are not? equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Step 2: Examine each stakeholder’s interest and the potential impact of the project on these easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some interests. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of What are the stakeholders’ expectations of the project? the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  What benefits are likely to accrue to each stakeholder group? expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 52

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What resources are the stakeholders able and willing to mobilize and invest? Do some of the interests harbored by a stakeholder conflict with project goals? Identify Preface those so you can consciously tackle them. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Step 3: Assess stakeholder influence and importance to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Each stakeholder will have some level of power, meaning the ability to influence others’ actions evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The and decisions. This can act as an advantage or a disadvantage agriculture, in any stage, be it planning, intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental fisheries, natural implementing or evaluating. The decisive group will try to gear the program toward their interest. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental To be able to build consensus and work for the common good, these influences need to be extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ minimized. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating For each stakeholder group, assess its: extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Power and status (political, social and economic). programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Degree of organization.  Control of strategic resources. For instance, ownership of land near the hill is decisive in Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer watershed development, or ownership of land near a highway plays a significant role in to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first connecting the village to market. So those who own these patches of land have to be and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s taken on board. agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Informal influence. For instance, within caste, clan and tribe groups, such personal development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that connections often prevail over formal discussion and decisions made. may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Power relations vis‐à‐vis other stakeholders. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Importance to the success of the project ‐‐ how crucial is it that a group benefits from a They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, project for the project to succeed? they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches High influence, Low influence, that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. high importance high importance Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, (need special (should be rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field attention in involved in all extension workers. This handbook was created to help phases) meet the need for a simple but inclusion) comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Low influence, High influence, create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory low importance low importance approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. (they will join a (may oppose the Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this program on their program, so handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are own, without keep informed equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are much effort) adequately) easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Figure 8. Four kinds of stakeholders, based on two parameters ‐‐ influence and expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them importance. do so.  

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Step 4: Outline a stakeholder participation strategy Plan stakeholder involvement according to:

Preface

 Each stakeholder’s interests, importance and influence. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  to‐day Make a particular effort to involve important stakeholders who lack influence ‐‐ they need work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and the benefits of the program. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Keep motivating the participants by appreciating them for participation throughout the intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural project cycle. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice How to keep stakeholders engaged? extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ As shown in Figure 8, stakeholders in the upper right‐hand quadrant of the figure are important. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Inviting them in the planning stage is only the first step. Listening to them is important but not extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education sufficient. Having them involved in all phases of program is essential. This helps in mobilizing local programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. resources (staff time, facilities or funding support) in program implementation and evaluation, which is key to a successful extension program. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. References Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural FAO. (1999). Livestock and environment toolbox: Stakeholder analysis. Livestock, Environment development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that and Development Initiative (LEAD), FAO. Accessed at: may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/lead/toolbox/Refer/STkHold.htm understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Rietbergen‐McCracken, J., and D. Narayan. (1997). Participatory tools and techniques: A They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for resource kit for participation and social assessment. Washington, D.C., USA: The World planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Bank. Accessed at: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/lead/toolbox/Refer/STkHold.htm that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 54

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Tool 4: Resource Mobilization Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 4: Acquire and Allocate Resources (Resource Mobilization) Preface

Resource mobilization refers to pooling resources from various sources and using them on the This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ programs and It beneficiaries that the most. Resource mobilization increasingly to‐day work. offers a set of need tools them for effective communication, program is planning and becoming relevant in agricultural extension services because of the growing competition for evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The resources, dwindling budgets and increasing demand for accountability. Resource mobilization is intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural even more important in developing countries that have been grappling with low agricultural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental productivity and low extension efficiency. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ According to Ferguson and Heinz (2014b), resources (or assets) are of five types: profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Capacities and skills of individuals (skills, training, influence, knowledge). extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Local public and private non‐governmental organizations and institutions. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Physical assets (land, buildings, equipment, vehicles, roads, irrigation canal, etc.).  Leadership skills and personal networks. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Support from outside donors (private and public). to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Developing a plan or strategy for resource mobilization can help tap resources from multiple Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the sources, efficiently allocate resources where they are most needed, and increase independence connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural and flexibility to implement programs. As an educator, you have to assess the local contexts well, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that establish contact and trust with various stakeholders, explore funding resources options and seek may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an funding, prepare a resource mobilization plan and utilize available resources in the most effective understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. way. should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, They they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Why to mobilize resources planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  It fosters coordination with stakeholders and helps establish trust with clients. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  It may lead to synergy, efficiency and effectiveness in programs, resulting in success and

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, sustainability. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  It provides a plan with a timeline, intended results, activities to be done and resource extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but partners, and outlines their share in the targeted program. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  It helps allocate resources where they are needed the most. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  It prevents a piecemeal approach, in‐house competition and resource duplication. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Resource mobilization is an integral part of program planning. The guiding principles for resource Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this mobilization are increasing efficiency and effectiveness, building synergy, fostering innovation handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are and strengthening capacity. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Common ways of funding extension services easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some

of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Rivera (2007, as cited in Rivera et al., 2009) summarized four ways commonly used to fund the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be agricultural extension services (Figure 9): expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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56

Public

Private

DELIVERY

Public funding and publicly provided services: The government is responsible for funding and providing services. Most developing countries follow this approach. Most social justice and Preface egalitarian policies and schemes are under the public sector, such as services for regulation, This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ research, poverty reduction, etc., which cater to the common good. However, relying on to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and government for every extension service is neither feasible nor sustainable. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Public funding, privately provided services: The government, which is the funder, provides intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources to private sector organizations or NGOs and asks them to deliver the extension resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental services. The government is expected to monitor the services provided by private and other extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ providers. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Public sector cost recovery: The government collects fees or taxes from producers or their extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education organizations. In return, the government provides services to farmers. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Private funding and privately provided services: This approach is one of commercialization, which shifts the responsibility of providing extension services from the public to the private Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer sector entirely. Commercial farmers are willing to pay for services, but smallholder farmers, to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first who constitute the largest share of most farming populations in developing countries, cannot and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. afford to pay for services and hence tend to get neglected. Some European countries are also Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural employing this approach. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that FUNDING may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Public Private understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Public sector funding and They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Public sector and cost recovery they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for delivery Producers/associations pay fee or tax planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are The government funds, and its to cover costs of extension services. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches extension agency provides that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. extension services. Public sector funding, external Private funding and service delivery Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, extension providers Commercialization ‐‐ private entities rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Government funds, but both fund and provide services. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our responsibility for service delivery goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the lies with private providers. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Figure 9. Funding scenarios for extension services. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. How to mobilize resources? As an extension educator, you should be mobilizing available resources to educate, facilitate and Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this empower farmers, and enable them to be active partners of extension services. Swanson and handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Rajalahti (2010) offered the following suggestions on extension resource mobilization: equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Stage 1: Preparation the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  Identify all major organizations that provide agricultural extension services and identify expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them their basic features. do so. 56 i

Planning an Extension Program 


Examine the clientele being served: farmers, lead farmers, their numbers, genders; the providers’ areas of expertise and the extension methods used.

Preface

 Prepare a human resources profile of your area: technicians and experts within your office This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day network, in research and educational centers ‐‐ their number, their expertise, gender and work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and time that each can devote to various tasks. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Determine the source, allocation and sustainability of financial resources. Determine how resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental much can be utilized for the program. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Assess organizational resources and support services: physical facilities, vehicles, ICTs. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Stage 2: Allocation extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Engage education and research teams from government departments or universities with programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools lead farmers to assess human resource requirements. They can contribute toward of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. training and demonstrations of new innovations. Seek their participation. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Find out who can contribute monetary resources and how much. Both human and and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. monetary resource contributions create feelings of ownership of the program, which have Today’s proved to be beneficial in the long term. agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Negotiate for more resources where required, and try to cover as much as possible of the development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that project cycle. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Factor in institutional development: the aim should be organizing farmers into groups ‐‐ They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, self‐help groups and cooperatives, etc. ‐‐ to build social capital that will work as an asset they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for for all. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Promote a participatory and pluralistic approach in extension services: engage yourself that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. and stakeholders in information, experience and knowledge sharing to promote the innovation. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Stage 3: Formalization extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Once an arrangement is made among the various stakeholders, write the details down. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the References skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Ferguson, O., and K. Heinz. (2014b). Mobilizing community assets. USAID‐MEAS. Accessed at: create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory www.meas‐extension.org/tip‐sheets/participatory‐methods approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Rivera, note W.M., M. neither Blum and R. Sulaiman. Module 4: nor Funding, cost recovery Please that the length of each (2009). tool’s description its numeric order in and this outsourcing. Rome, Italy: FAO. Accessed at: www.fao.org/nr/res/Course1/index.html. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Swanson, B.E., and R. Rajalahti. (2010). Procedures for assessing, transforming, and evaluating easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some extension systems: Agriculture and rural development discussion paper 45. Washington, of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of D.C., USA: The World Bank. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 5: Conduct the Nominal Group Technique Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 5: Conduct the Nominal Group Technique Preface

The nominal group process or technique (NGT) is a way to identify and prioritize ideas or issues. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ It is a structured variation of a small‐group discussion to reach a consensus (Sample, 1984). It is to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and very similar to brainstorming with two added advantages: NGT gathers information by allowing evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The individuals audiences to think silently then respond questions posed by a moderator, the intended of this and handbook include: to governmental agriculture, fisheries, and natural decision on choosing an idea is made by secret ballot. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice The process prevents the domination of the discussion by a single person, encourages all group extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ members to participate, and results in a set of prioritized solutions or recommendations that profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating represent the group’s preferences (Carter and Beaulieu, 1992). Its strength is based on the power extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education of a group to generate, explore and communicate ideas. NGT involves problem identification, programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools solution generation and decision making (Butler and Howell, 1980). of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer When to use nominal group technique to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  When there is concern about some members not participating. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  When some group members are much more vocal than others. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  When the group does not easily generate quantities of ideas. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an When all or some group members are new to the team. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  should be well‐versed in When the issue is controversial or there is heated conflict. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Step‐by‐step guide to nominal group technique planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Andrews and Vlasin (2000) describe a five‐step process: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Step 1: Form small groups Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Each group should consist of six to eight persons. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Encourage the mixing of people of and from a variety of roles or organizations. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Ask each group to select a leader and a recorder. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Step 2: Explain the procedure at the start goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Explain the subject/question for discussion and the time available. Clarify the create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory statement if everyone does not understand it. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Ask each group member to think silently about the topic and then write down as many Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this ideas as possible. Give 5 to 15 minutes for the process. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Step 3: Each member gets a turn equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  Each member in turn states aloud one idea. The team leader records it on the of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of flipchart. the tools. in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  However, No discussion is allowed, not even questions for clarification. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them  Ideas given do not need to be from the team members’ written lists only. do so. 58

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Tool 5: Conduct the Nominal Group Technique Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

A member may pass on his or her turn and then add an idea on a subsequent turn.

Step 4: Small groups present ideas to big group Preface  Within the small groups, ask each group to choose its top three to five items to This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a larger set of group. tools To for do effective communication, planning present to the this, each individual has program to vote on his/her and top evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The choices and tally with all others. intended of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  audiences Each group leader should present these top choices to the large group. The facilitator resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental should list these items on a flipchart or board so they are visible to all. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Encourage open discussion: it can clarify meanings, explain logic, and raise and answer extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ questions for better understanding, or state agreement or disagreement. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Continue to ask the groups until all members get a chance. You can set a time limit in extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education the beginning to know when to finish. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  To change the wording of an item, seek permission of the originator. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  To delete any idea from the list, all participants must agree. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Step 5: Final voting and debriefing to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Members vote again on their top choices of ideas by secret ballot, writing on the Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the board or responding verbally during a go‐around. Each person may be allowed one connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural vote only or more than one. The totals should be tallied and summarized. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Debrief the activity by asking participants to share their comments about the process, may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an their satisfaction with the results and/or their satisfaction with the process. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Under the round‐robin rule, each individual discusses only one idea at a time. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Discussion should be equally balanced among all ideas. The facilitator should not allow they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for discussion to turn into argument. The primary purpose of the discussion is planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are clarification. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Keep all ideas visible. When ideas overflow to additional flipchart pages, post previous pages around the room so all ideas are still visible to everyone. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but References comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Andrews, M.P., and R.D. Vlasin. (2000). Participatory extension management: Tools and skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help techniques to maximize participation in extension. East Lansing, Michigan, USA: Michigan create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory State University Extension. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Butler, note L.M., that and neither R.E. Howell. (1980). with description growth: Community needs order assessment. Please the length of Coping each tool’s nor its numeric in this Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Western Rural Development Center, Oregon State University. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are

equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Carter, K.A., and L.J. Beaulieu. (1992). Conducting a community needs assessment: Primary data easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some collection techniques. Gainesville, Florida, USA: University of Florida. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Sample, J.A. (1984). Nominal group technique: An alternative to brainstorming. Journal of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Extension, 22(2). Accessed at: www.joe.org/joe/1984march/iw2.php expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 6: Conduct Community Programs Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 6: Conduct Community Forums Preface

The community forum is used in identifying the specific needs of a community and for finding This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ ways to address those needs. A community forum fosters participatory democracy at a local level to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and (Khamis, 2000), which is a goal for development. It involves gathering community members to evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The deliberate issues and find solutions to the issues in a majority consensus manner. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental How to conduct a community forum extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice The role of the extension worker is to moderate and facilitate but not to participate. The steps extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ that a moderator should take in conducting a community forum are: profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Step 1 programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Employ a pre‐forum questionnaire and/or checklist to guide the moderator during of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. deliberations (optional). Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Devise strategic seating arrangements to separate members from the same cultural and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. groups or factions. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Welcome all participants. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Provide an overview of the discussion topic. (Note: forums work best when one specific may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an issue is given ‐‐ e.g., “diseases affecting kidney bean” rather than “legume diseases.”) understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in State the ground rules that all participants will have to abide by. Emphasize that the forum they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for is not for debate but rather for working toward a decision. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Step 2 critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Provide participants with facts on the issue that will set the stage for the deliberative process. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Ask participants to share experiences related to the issue. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Facilitate the deliberation process (guide the flow of conversation, ask questions). goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  State options that arise. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Keep track of time. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Step 3 Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Allow time for reflection. This allows participants an opportunity to look back on what handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are they have learned and how the process may have changed their thinking. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  Discuss all comments and ideas from the group. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be List steps that need to be taken next. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them  Fix a date and a venue for the next meeting. do so. 60

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Tool 6: Conduct Community Programs Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Employ a post‐forum questionnaire and/or checklist to revisit ideas and guide the moderator during the follow‐up forum (optional).

Preface

 Write a report of the discussion for documentation. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Common questions for community forums evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The The National Issues Forums Institute (2001) recommends the following questions for community intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural forums: resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  What does the community regard as valuable? (All participants’ opinions, including youth extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ opinions, should be considered.) profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Are there any costs or consequences associated with the options? extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  What are the conflicts in the issue that we have to work through? of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Can we find any shared sense of purpose or define how our interdependence is grounded Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer for action? to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first

and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Record and summarize all comments. Nothing is more frustrating than to be invited to Today’s share ideas and then never know how those ideas were used. Make a serious attempt to agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural lay out the next steps. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Embrace the views of others and work through conflicts that arise. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Carter and Beaulieu (1992) suggest the following questions for extension workers to use during They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, community forums: they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  What are the most important needs facing our community? critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Why are these important needs? that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  What have we done to help meet these needs in the past? Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Where have we failed in the past in our attempt to meet these needs? rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our References goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Carter, K.A., and L.J. Beaulieu. (1992). Conducting a community needs assessment: Primary data skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help collection techniques. Gainesville, Florida, USA: University of Florida. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Khamis, C. (2000). Establishing community forums that make a difference. Local Economy Please 15(3):264‐267. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are National Issues Forums Institute. (2001). National issues forums in the classroom: A high school equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are program on deliberative democracy. Dayton, Ohio, USA: National Issues Forums Institute. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 7: Conduct Brainstorming Exercises Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 7: Conduct Brainstorming Exercises Preface

Brainstorming is one of the techniques used in problem solving. It is a form of group interaction This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ that encourages and expects free communication, thinking (Andrews and Vlasin, 2000). to‐day work. It offers a set of creativity tools for and effective program planning and Brainstorming encourages active participation by group members and leads to generation, evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The presentation and critical evaluation of a wide range of perspectives (Ferguson and Heinz, 2014a). intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Brainstorming is considered a key to effective problem solving. It works best with a group of resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental people representing various interests and/or backgrounds. Even in specialist areas, outsiders can extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ bring fresh ideas that can inspire the experts. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education When to use brainstorming programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  When new ideas are required to generate a large variety of possibilities ‐‐ e.g., goals, causes, of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. concerns, resources, or approaches to address a problem or task. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  When there are multiple solutions to a problem. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  When information about a problem is confusing and held by several people. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Brainstorming is most effective with groups of eight to 12 people. It must take place in a connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural relaxed environment to generate creative ideas. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They The extension worker acts as facilitator and performs the following tasks: should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  possess Guide the session by stating the purpose and allowing wide participation. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Consider and list every idea ‐‐ every contribution is worthwhile. Ideas might seem critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches to be confusing or inconsequential, but they should be accepted. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Encourage participation of all stakeholders, particularly the quieter ones. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Do not interrupt anyone while he/she is talking, and avoid non‐verbal rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field communication to show disapproval. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Give group members ample time to think. Hurrying a process can be goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the counterproductive. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Write ideas down one by one. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Avoid showing favor to anyone ‐‐ it hampers honest participation. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this

handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 62

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How to conduct a brainstorming exercise

Preface Step 1: State the topic and ground rules of the brainstorming exercise Start by defining your problem or identifying the topic. The problem or topic definition should be This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and concise and to the point, and exclude extra information ‐‐ e.g., in what ways might we improve evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The bean production? How could we encourage more farmers to attend field days? intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Structure the setting: It is possible for the entire group either to brainstorm or to break up and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental work in smaller groups. If the total number of participants exceeds 12, it is often more efficient extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice to break up into smaller groups. They can discuss separately, then bring back their lists of extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ solutions to be pooled with those of other groups to form one set of results. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Give yourselves a time limit: Around 25 minutes for a group of 10 is recommended, but allow programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools for a buffer of 15 minutes. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Larger groups may need more time to get everyone's ideas out. Likewise, a complex topic might Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer take more time. Alternatively, a ceiling on the number of ideas to be entertained or an upper to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first limit on time could be fixed. Write the finish and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. time on agricultural top of the extension board or and flipchart for services are being challenged to serve as the Today’s advisory State the purpose clearly in the everyone to see. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural beginning. And from time to time, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Explain the purpose to the group: It is most remind participants of the purpose for may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an important for participants to understand the a fruitful discussion on the topic. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. purpose. This contributes to solving the They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Consider and list every idea ‐‐ every problem. Reminding the group of the they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for contribution is worthwhile. Even way‐ purpose during the process will help planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are out ideas should be accepted. participants stay focused. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Confusing ideas should be accepted. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Step 2: Consider all perspectives/ideas Even silly ideas should be accepted. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Ask for contributions/ideas: Participants rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field speak about solutions to the problem or ideas extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but on the topic while the facilitator writes them down for all to see. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Encourage people to take turns in giving ideas to expand participation. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Weed some out: Once the first round is up, ask the group to identify and combine like ideas create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory and remove duplications. The group may also agree to remove ideas with little support. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Are any extreme solutions evident? Any trends? Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Summarize: Ask two participants to summarize the results. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Step 3: Select the best ideas easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Agree to the criteria for choice: Before choosing the best ideas, agree to and write down about the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be five criteria for judging or prioritizing the ideas generated that best address your problem. Do expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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not forget to include cost. Cost is almost always an important parameter that should be introduced and considered.

Preface

Criteria should contain the word "should". For example: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and “It should be cost‐effective.” evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The "It should be legal.” intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural “It should be possible to complete within six months.” resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice “It should be sustainable by farmers.” extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Select the top five ideas: Try to ensure that everyone involved is in agreement. Ask participants profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education to give each idea a score between 0 and 5 points depending on how well it meets each programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools criterion. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Once everyone has scored all of the ideas for each criterion, add up the scores. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer The idea with the highest score should be the first one applied to address the problem or topic. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Keep a record of all of your best ideas and their scores in case your top‐rated idea turns out not Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the to be effective. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an References understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Andrews, M.P., and R.D. Vlasin. (2000). Participatory extension management: Tools and They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, techniques to maximize participation in extension. East Lansing, Michigan, USA: Michigan they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are State University Extension. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Ferguson, O., and K. Heinz. (2014a). Brainstorming. USAID‐MEAS. Accessed at: www.meas‐ that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. extension.org/tip‐sheets/participatory‐methods Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.


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Tool 8: Identify Market Opportunities Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 8: Identify Market Opportunities Preface

Markets are a driving force for change. They This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ determine the demand for and supply and of to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning commodities and services. Extension evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The programs are agriculture, effective when they link intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental fisheries, natural farmers to markets and help them resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental understand market opportunities. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Extension workers need to be aware of and profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating understand the risks that farmers are likely to extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education face so that farmers making farm programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools management decisions can reduce the of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. negative effects of the risks associated with Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer their decisions and farming practices. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first © M. Suvedi. Women displays the quality of her produce Understanding how markets operate allows and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. aimed for market. one to understand the main of risk Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to sources serve as the they face, typically production risk, marketing risk, financial risk, legal risk and human resources connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural risk. Some forces influencing these risks include climate change, price volatility and the global development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that financial crisis. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Farmers increasingly find themselves making decisions about the fundamental nature of their They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, farming activities. For many farmers ‐‐ especially small‐scale farmers ‐‐ farming has been about they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for producing food for their families. But now, as the world around them changes and inputs are planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are increasingly procured from the market, they are required to have cash. These farmers are faced critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches with the need to become more entrepreneurial and market‐oriented and run their farms as that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. businesses. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Market‐oriented farming is driven by making profits through selling farm products in the market rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field on a regular basis. Market‐oriented farms can still be strongly linked to farm households, but the extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but goals and decisions for the farm are less directly influenced by the goals and decisions of the farm comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the household. They are more influenced by markets, the prices for produce and the costs of farm skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help inputs. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Much of the new work that extension is expected to perform focuses on promoting farm approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. management (Kahan, 2013). Through this approach to extension, extension workers work to Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this enable farmers to make choices depending on the finance, labor and land resources and markets handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are available to them. The farmers may evolve from being small‐scale producers to being business equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are managers. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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The role of front‐line extension workers is undergoing a

change in the face of global forces that are affecting Preface

agriculture. Traditionally, most extension workers come This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ from backgrounds in agriculture, crops or livestock to‐day work. It but offers a role set of tools for effective communication, program planning and management, their has diversified to include evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The involvement in management and marketing tasks. It is no intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural longer sufficient to provide technical solutions to production resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental problems because that cannot make farmers more extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice independent. The ability to relate to a broader framework of extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ what farmers want and opportunities and limitations that © MEAS. Farmer taking produce to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating markets impose is as crucial as technical know‐how to bring market. education extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing about positive social change. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.

How to develop market‐driven extension

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Collection of data: Extension workers should collect data on what others in the project area to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first as well as in nearby areas are growing. Efforts should include observation for shifts in and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. cropping patterns. Extension workers also services need to are be being on top of information concerning Today’s agricultural extension and advisory challenged to serve as the market demand and supply to be able to properly support and assess decisions proposed by connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural the farmers. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that

may Information dissemination: The market information collected by extension workers should differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. be shared with farmers so they can make good management decisions. For instance, suppose They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, onion prices were high this year. That does not mean they will be high next year. In fact, high they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for prices one year often lead to overproduction the following year. When the supply exceeds planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are demand, the prices that farmers receive fall. An extension worker who understands such critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches trends can advise farmers about the risks of growing large areas of onions the following year that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. to protect them from low market prices. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Learn about all phases of the value chain: Farmers produce crops for markets that in many rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field ways are connected markets was that created feed people located far the away, even a different extension workers. This to handbook to help meet need for on a simple but continent. It is thus imperative to understand all parts of the food supply system. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Input supply: Use of new inputs such as seeds and pesticides is growing. In addition to skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help knowing what inputs are best, extension services providers need to be aware of the create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory impact of prices and encourage collaboration between farmers and input suppliers to approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. promote quality assurance. Please Production: note that neither the length of each the tool’s description nor and its numeric order in this In addition to knowing best technologies production systems, handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are extension service providers need to understand the concept of profitability and be alert equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are to opportunities for achieving economies of scale through growth strategies (i.e., capacity easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some expansion, replication and modernization). Working for big companies on contract has of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of also proved to be lucrative in some cases, and extension workers can help negotiate the the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be terms between farmer and company. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 66

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Marketing: Extension workers need to be alert to changes in the marketplace and Preface their impact on production systems and This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ postharvest operations. to‐day Profit: Extension service providers need to work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The be conscious of the factors that influence intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural the profitability of a farm business and alert resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental to opportunities to diversify, supply farm extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice produce at lower cost, expand the size of governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether the business, add value to the enterprise profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating and differentiate the product. extension personnel through in‐service training © MEAS. Linking farmers to market is key to opportunities, continuing education

successful extension service. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Provide advice before farmers make long‐term of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. technology investment decisions: Machines such as hullers and tractors are big investments that

might require a farmer to take out loans. An extension educator can serve as a source of Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first information and an unbiased sounding board for farmers making investment decisions. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Facilitating farmer entrepreneurship: This requires farmers to organize themselves into Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the producer groups or cooperatives (Kahan, 2013). A successful example is La Via Campesina, which connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural started in 1993 and brought forth farmers’ voices from four continents, and has been working development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that since as a lobby. Similar groups can help build capacity among small farmers, who can then use may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an various methods such as advocacy or lobbying to assert their position. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Reference planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Kahan, D. (2013). Market‐oriented farming: an overview. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Organization of the United Nations. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 9: Gender Analysis in Extension Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 9: Design Services Based on Gender Analysis Preface

Gender is a social construct that refers to relations between and among sexes, based on their This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ relative roles. Unlike sex, which is biologically determined, gender is socially constructed. It is to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and defined differently among societies around the world and tends to change over time. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Gender roles are social expectations of tasks, responsibilities and behaviors that are considered resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental appropriate for people of a particular sex. These, too, are context‐specific and could change over extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice time. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Gender relations are ways in which people of the same or different genders interact with one profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating another. This means, in some societies, come to be recognized as men and as women. In many extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education places, gender relations embody and justify unequal power relations (Manfre et al., 2012). programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.

How to Conduct Gender Analysis in the Context of Agricultural Extension

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Gender analysis is defined as ”the systematic and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. gathering and analysis of information on gender Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the differences and social relations to identify and connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural understand the different roles, divisions of labor, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that resources, and Extension professionals must have an may differ constraints, from those needs, they opportunities, learned in school. interests of various groups, including men and understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. women, girls and boys, and transgendered persons, They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, in a must given possess context” (Manfre knowledge et al., 2013). The in participatory tools and techniques for they adequate and skill objective of a gender analysis in the agricultural planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches extension context is to clarify how gender roles and that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. relations create opportunities for and/or obstacles to achieving development objectives. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Gender analysis can This potentially be was controversial. extension workers. handbook created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Visual tools have been found to be very effective in © M. Suvedi. Women do most farm work in Nepal. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the getting both men and women to focus on gender skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help without any sense of challenge or threat. The tool described below provides insights into how create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory access to and control of domestic and community resources vary according to gender. As the approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. community goes through the process, it raises the awareness of community members about how assets are owned and distributed within the community. The tool can be used in a discussion or Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are meeting where both men and women are present. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are The technique uses three large drawings of a man, a woman and a couple. A set of cards shows easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some various resources and possessions owned by people in the community, including: of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 68

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Currency Pump set Furniture Radio Preface Fruit trees Vegetable plot This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Bags of maize/wheat Chickens to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Trees Huts evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Cell/telephone intended Donkeys audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Bicycle Jewelry extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Horse and cart Water pots extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Land title Cow profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating TV set Harvesting machine extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Participants are shown each of the above items and asked to assign ownership of each item to of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. either man, woman or both. The question asked is not who uses them but who owns them. The Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer list we arrive at should show the pattern of ownership and whether men or women differ in to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first ownership. The results will show whether women have equal power in the society. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.

Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Forty‐three percent of the agricultural workforce is women, and it can go up to 70 percent in connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural certain regions (SOFA team and Doss, 2011). They control 2 percent of resources and contribute development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that more than 50 percent of global agricultural produce. They invest income in food or nutrition, may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an education of children and paying back debts, which together contribute to family welfare. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Likewise, another approach to learning about gender roles is asking about who does the following They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, tasks. Who do they do it with? they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  They prepare the fields. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  They plant crops. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  They transplant seedlings.  They weed fields. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  They harvest and irrigate. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  They select seeds. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  They process grains. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  They prepare food. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  They wash dishes and clothes. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  They clean the houses. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  They collect and carry water.  They gather firewood. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  They care for the elderly and the very handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are © MEAS. Women do most of the farm and household young. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are work.  They care for the animals. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  And many more… the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Useful Advice Women play a significant role in agricultural development, but their contribution is often Preface

overlooked (Maunder, 1972). As an extension educator, you must understand women’s special This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ needs and constraints. The following may be helpful. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  In organizing a meeting, consider at what time of the day women would be able to attend evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The it. They in all likelihood have regular times when they have to collect water, cook food, intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural and collect fodder and firewood. Considering their daily work and planning accordingly resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental can expand participation. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Women may be shy and uncomfortable to speak in a public forum. Making groups of 10 profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating to 12 persons can smooth the process. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Provide encouragement from the beginning and take a non‐judgmental position. Allow programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools plenty of time for women to speak ‐‐ women are often not used to articulating their of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. thoughts in public. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Make an all‐women group for group activities such as needs assessment and focus group to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. discussions. Males tend to dominate the discussion in mixed groups. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are all being challenged to serve as can the  Avoid spatial separation: choose a location where ethnic/tribe/religious groups connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural attend the meeting. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. References They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Manfre, C., D. Rubin, A. Allen, G. Summerfield, K. Colverson and M. Akeredolu. (2013). Reducing they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for the gender gap in agricultural extension and advisory services: how to find the best fit for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are men and women farmers. MEAS brief 2. Urbana‐Champaign, Illinois, USA: MEAS project. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Maunder, A.H. (1972). Agricultural extension: A reference manual. ED 075 628. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field SOFA team and C. Doss. (2011). ESA working Paper No. 11‐02. Rome, Italy: Agricultural extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Development Economics Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Nations. Accessed at: www.fao.org/docrep/013/am307e/am307e00.pdf goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 70

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Tool 10: Develop a Work Plan Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 10: Develop a Work Plan Preface

A work plan is a detailed outline of activities and processes and a timeline for extension workers This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to follow to attain the stipulated extension goals. The work plan presents various elements of a to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and project or program in a simple and logical manner. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Importance of a work plan resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Delineates activities (what), the methods (how), the person or organizations responsible extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice and the target groups (who), and the time (when) and place (where) that activities of the extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ program/project will be conducted. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Helps people keep track of their programs, activities and progress. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Helps determine the resources necessary for the programs. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Enables planning, allocating and transferring the program budget. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Increases accountability and transparency in extension work. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Motivates staff members and helps increase stakeholder participation. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Allows new staff members to follow the work plan and take on the tasks with ease. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Steps in writing a work plan They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, There are two principal methods of writing a work plan. First, if the work plan is part of the project they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for proposal, and the proposal has listed goals, objectives and methods in its main body, you may planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are not need a separate detailed work plan. Second, if the work plan is an independent document critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches and has to stand on its own, it needs to have following detail: that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Identify the purpose for the work plan or the purpose of the project/program and the Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, length of the project/program. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Write the introduction ‐‐ introduce the specific project and explain why it is needed. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  List the goal(s) and objectives. Goals depict the ultimate outcome of the work plan; goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the objectives are steps to meet goals, and they should be specific and tangible. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Follow the “SMART” principles while preparing the work plan ‐‐ objectives should be approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time‐bound (SMART). Specify what you Please will do for whom. Expected outputs and outcomes should be measurable. The objectives note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are should be attainable within the given time frame and resources. Objectives should be equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are relevant and needs‐based, and should serve the interests of the wider audience. Starting easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some and end date/time of the project should be spelled out. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of List However, resources. out the resources required to complete ‐‐ human, the tools. in Spell the end, educated and well‐trained extension the staff project members will be financial, physical, time, etc. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Identify possible constraints to successful completion. You may have to readjust your plan to address the constraints.

Preface

 Spell out who is accountable for completing each task. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Schedule responsibilities for at least each review period. The review period could be a evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The month, a quarter or a year. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Additional Tips to Prepare a Work Plan resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Discuss the project with team members, stakeholders and beneficiaries. Seek their input extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ to prepare the work plan. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  If the current project continues the work of a previous project or phase, discuss the past programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools work plan and progress to examine whether the project went as expected. If not, find out of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. why. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Discuss the problems faced in the past project and solicit solutions to those problems to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and/or suggestions from the participants and/or stakeholders. Keep in mind that the and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. proposed solution should be, “acceptable to farmers in the area, technically sound, tested Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the by research and experience elsewhere, consistent with national policy and with the local connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural activities of other agencies, feasible within the time and with the resources available to development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that farmers and those the extension service, within Extension the scope professionals of the agent's must ability have and job may differ from they learned in and school. an description” (Oakley and Garforth, 1997). understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Discuss and list the upcoming activities, prioritize them, and assign them to your team they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for members or staff members. Delegating the tasks saves time, helps serve more people, planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are fosters accountability and leads to effective teamwork. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Sample work plan Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Activities to be undertaken, time framework, location and persons responsible to accomplish the rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field activities have to be spelled in the work plan (Chaturvedi, 1985). A work plan with time bar extension workers. This handbook was start created help the need used for a in simple but showing when a particular activity will and to finish is meet also commonly extension comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our services. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 72

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Planning an Extension Program Activities

Preface


Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Identifying the This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ stakeholders to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Organizing farmers' groups evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Conducting training on resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental vegetable production extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Method demonstration on extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating nursery establishment extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Monitoring field activities programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Organizing farmers’ field days Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Training on harvesting, and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. grading, storage and Today’s agricultural extension are challenged to marketing and advisory services being serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Reviewing and sharing the development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they lessons learned learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, References they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Chaturvedi, S. (ed.) (1985). Manual for field workers. Kathmandu, Nepal: UNICEF and UNFPA. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Oakley, P., and C. Garforth. (1997). Guide to extension training (originally printed in 1985). that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Reprinted 1997. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Accessed at: rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/T0060E09.htm#7.%20The%20planning%20and%20evaluat extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but ion%20of%20extension%20programmes comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 11: Develop a Grant Proposal Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 11: Develop a Grant Proposal Preface A grant proposal is a document explaining a problem or local needs, the reasons for those This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and problems or needs, and how these can be addressed through a special project supported with evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The funding typically from outside your extension organization. The grant proposal includes a intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural detailed plan for addressing the local problem or need. It includes goals and objectives, methods resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental to achieve the objectives, work plan and the resources required. Usually, the needs assessment extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice or problem identification triggers the proposal design, and it is a critical component of a proposal. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Writing a successful grant proposal involves the following tasks: profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Before writing a proposal, take these steps. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Several non‐governmental agencies, foundations and corporations (e.g., United Nations, The of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. World Bank, Red Cross, USAID, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation) offer financial support to Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer national or regional projects directed toward food security or community development. The to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first agencies often target their funding to address predetermined problems, issues and/or and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. geographic areas. So, extension you must and understand funding agency challenged to approach funding to Today’s agricultural advisory which services are being to for serve as the address your problem or needs. The following points from Rinehart and Bouie‐Scott (2003) are connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural key for a persuasive grant proposal: development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may Eligibility: All grant‐making organizations have goals, objectives and an intended audience. differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Therefore, read the criteria of the various funding agencies and compare them with your They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, proposed project's goals, objectives and activities for compatibility. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Pre‐application process: Sometimes funding agencies have a pre‐application process or critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches require a concept note before requesting the full proposal. In some cases, agency personnel that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. might be willing to review your concept note via a meeting or oral presentation. This can be useful in making the proposal more responsive to what funders are looking for. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Decision makers: Identify the key individuals on the decision‐making panel, their work and extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but perspectives, to make sure the proposal is appealing to them. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Decision factors: A proposal applicant’s experiences, scholarship and stage of career are goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help critical in proposal selection. Review previous year's awards to understand who have been create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory considered favorably in earlier years. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Application process: Watch for the formal announcement of grant opportunities on the Please note that neither the and length of each tool’s description nor its numeric in this organizations’ websites in newspapers and other media, and obtain order the official handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are application. Make sure to follow the application format and guidelines. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 74

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A sample format to write a project proposal is provided below. Defining the problem Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Identify and analyze the problem that you have seen in your area. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  What general problem do you perceive in a village? For example: women have to struggle evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The to feed themselves and their children. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Analyze and identify the factors of the problems. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, Cause whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Problem profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Women have to struggle to feed Lack of sustainable sources of income for the extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education themselves and their children. household. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Men regularly migrate to cities in Lack of sustainable income opportunities in the search of work. area. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Further analyze the problems ‐‐ find cause‐and‐effect relationships. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Look for more than one cause – remember, there is often a chain of events that lead to a connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural certain problem. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Note down these events. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Identify possible solution(s) to the problem. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Problem Cause knowledge and Further Causes they must possess adequate skill in participatory Possible Solutions tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Women have to Lack of sustainable Women depend on Profitable critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches struggle to feed sources of income unprofitable microenterprises such as that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. themselves and for the household. microenterprises to chicken rearing can be Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, their children. feed their families. introduced for women. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Men workers. regularly This Lack handbook of sustainable Farming is not a the Make extension was created to help meet need for a agricultural simple but migrate to cities income sustainable production profitable by comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our in search of work. opportunities in the occupation because using improved goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help area. of crop losses, poor technology, crop create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory marketing linkages, diversification and approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. water scarcity, etc. improved access to market. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some

of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Sections of a grant proposal

Project description Preface

Synopsis of project objectives, procedures and evaluation. Put the essence of the project in This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ approximately 250 words. Remember: This may be the only part in the body of the proposal that to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and reviewers read. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Introduction resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Introduce the need for a project and explain why it is a necessity. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Mention the general theory upon which the project is based. If the project is unique (only extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ one of its kind), it should be asserted here. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  If new or uncommon terms are used in the proposal, explain their meaning here. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Mention the broad theoretical framework of the project. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools

of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Problem statement Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  State why this problem needs to be addressed, giving the context of time and place. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Provide references to research, statistics, previous projects or other documentation to and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. support the need for the project. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  To convince, write very carefully why the project is important. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Objectives may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  State the proposed goal and outcomes of the project in clear and measurable terms. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  should be well‐versed in Each objective is usually related to a need identified in the introduction section, activities They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, in the methodology section and activities in the evaluation section. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Keep it clear and brief. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Methodology that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Describe why the proposed method is more useful than others, and describe the chosen Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, method in detail. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Describe specific activities and action steps that will be used to achieve the objectives. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Monitoring and evaluation goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Provide details on how the organization and the funding source will determine whether skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help the project has accomplished its objectives. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  List the type of evaluation information to be collected, how it will be analyzed, and a plan Please for its dissemination and use. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Strengthen this section by providing evaluation criteria for each objective. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Since the 1990s, evaluation has become integral to a project, so incorporate it. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Sustainability of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Discuss how the project will be sustained beyond the project time period and benefit the the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them community over the long‐term. do so. 76

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Budget  State the proposed project costs in a table. Preface  Carefully document every item in detail. Divide them into stock and flow items. Stocks are This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ one‐time expenses; flow items are repeated and varying expenses. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Request as much money as you need to complete the project adequately (asking for too evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The little money can be as bad as asking for too much). intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Once you have developed the grant proposal, ask your peers to review and provide feedback. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Incorporate the comments and feedback and finalize the grant proposal. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Now you may want to prepare a cover page for your grant proposal. The cover page will need to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education have the proposal title and applicant information. The proposal may need to be submitted along programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools with a short cover letter. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Title page Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Include project title, name of applicant(s), name of agency submitted to, signature, typed to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first name(s) and title(s) of authorized person(s) approving submission and date of approval. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the A project title ought to be crisp and catchy! connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Cover letter development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that

may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an On organization letterhead, the cover letter should briefly: understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  State the need. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Provide a brief overview of the proposed project. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  List the organization's credibility and qualifications, particularly if a similar project has critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches been done before. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Include a persuasion statement ‐‐ a statement describing your project in a way to Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, convince the readers of its importance. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Reference goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Rinehart, E., and B. Bouie‐Scott. (2003). Proposal writing: The basic steps in planning and writing create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory a successful grant application. Chicago, Illinois, USA” Department of Commerce and approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Economic Opportunity. Accessed at: Please www.illinois.gov/dceo/smallbizassistance/beginhere/documents/proposalwriting2003.p note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are df equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Livuza, H.L. (2015). Agricultural extension: The how‐to‐guide to essential core competencies and easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some skills for an effective extension worker (Master thesis, Plan B). East Lansing, Michigan, of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of USA: Department of Community Sustainability, Michigan State University. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Program Implementation Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

7. Program Implementation

Preface

Planning is a necessary but not sufficient condition for successful extension programs. A demand‐ This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ driven, work. participatory extension program requires program smooth planning and careful to‐day It offers and a set pluralistic of tools for effective communication, and implementation. The first step in implementation is to determine what resources are needed to evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The make the extension program successful. What kind of educational programs and activities would intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural be appropriate for the message or content you plan to deliver to your audience? resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for © M. Suvedi. Development partners visit commercial horticulture plot in Cambodia. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. An extension program plan consists of a set of activities designed to lead to desired changes among the target audience. To ensure proper implementation, an extension educator should also Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, develop a calendar of work showing which activity will be implemented when, where and with rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field which partners. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Remember, effective implementation involves: goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Establishing strong linkages with agriculture research organizations. Research stations are the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help generators of new knowledge and technology. Extension and research services must work create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory together to address farmers’ problems. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Collaborating with local development partners. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Promoting the program via interpersonal methods, ICTs and media as appropriate. Make sure women, smallholder farmers and members of tribal communities are informed. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Ensuring that an official record of the program activity (e.g., program announcements, easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some participant attendance or registration showing gender, ethnicity or tribe) is kept. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  Involving key people, agricultural research scientists, subject‐matter specialists and extension expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them advisors as much as possible. do so. 78

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Core Competency Handbook  


Organizing an extension program, event or activity at a convenient time and location. Collecting end‐of‐activity feedback from participants or beneficiaries.

Preface

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Promoting Pluralism to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The All districts or communities have local agencies and organizations supporting agriculture, intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural livestock, health and nutrition, education, roads and irrigation. Many communities may have the resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental presence of some non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) such as World Vision, CARE extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice International, Plan International, etc. Some communities have farmer organizations, extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ cooperatives or women’s groups. Further, the private sector is active in input supply and profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating marketing of products. All these organizations need to work together to achieve complex extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education development goals. A good extension educator strives to promote teamwork and collaboration programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools among these local agencies, development partners and the private sector during program of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. implementation (Sulaiman and Davis, 2012). The stronger the collaboration, the more effective Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer is the extension program. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Brown and Reed (2000) offer a comparative analysis of four popular interagency connecting and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the mechanisms from networking to collaboration (as cited in MSU, 2007). Figure 10 illustrates the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural use of each strategy. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. should be well‐versed in Networking Coordinating Cooperating Collaborating They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate Altering knowledge and skill in participatory Enhancing capacity of tools and techniques for Exchanging Sharing planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are information for activities for resources for each agency for mutual Purpose critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches mututal mututal benefit mututal benefit benefit and common that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. benefit purpose Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Improve Avoid Divide up new Develop integrated rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field relationship duplication resources, service system: extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but share resources ‐ Joint decision making comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Agenda ‐ Common forms goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the ‐ Common training skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory across agencies approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Attend Coordinating Making staff and Pooling resources, Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor designating a lead its numeric order in this meeting, show times for home vehicles Example handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are and tell visit, training available to agency, joint equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are events other agency responsibility easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Figure 10. Stages of working together (adapted from Brown and Reed, 2000). of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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A network is a loose association of people or organizations. Members could join the network or leave it as they wish. Being part of the network shows commitment or willingness to work Preface together to achieve a specific development goal. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Partnership organized formal, aiming to accomplish a specific task or project. to‐day work. is It more offers a set of and tools for effective communication, program planning and Membership is limited to a few organizations or groups, and they enter into the partnership with evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The clear lines of responsibility among the partners. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Collaboration stands for long‐term organizational commitment to pursuing a complex extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice development initiative. Organizations usually have written agreements that bind the members extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ together. Members share resources and responsibilities and follow joint decision‐making profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating practices on major project activities or initiatives. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Mechanisms to promote pluralism of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  National policy on agricultural development should require collaboration among Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer agricultural research, agricultural education and training, agricultural extension and to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first private sector organizations. Joint planning of annual work and activities, including a and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. coordinated approach to public resource allocation, will ensure collaboration. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Biannual or quarterly meetings of agency representatives ensure good communication. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Joint trainings or workshops for research, extension, education and private sector staff development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that members help generate synergy for tackling common programs. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  A system of recognition and reward for promoting pluralism motivates people to seek understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. teamwork and collaboration. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Communication is the knowledge key. It can and be done networking, such for as they must possess adequate skill through in participatory tools publications and techniques newsletters or media. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Extension field workers make use of a variety of methods and techniques in implementing that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. extension programs and activities. Often, they organize method and result demonstrations, Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, farmer field schools, field days and group meetings. In some countries, they set up a model farm rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field or village to demonstrate the benefits of adopting improved farming and homemaking practices. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but The next sections in this chapter describe good practice tools for program implementation. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help References create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Michigan State University. (2007). Community‐based research and service‐learning. East approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University. Accessed at: Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this https://outreach.msu.edu/documents/presentations/JACKSON_HBCU_PRESENTATION_i handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are .pdf equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are

easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Sulaiman, R., and K. Davis. (2012). The “new extensionist”: Roles, strategies, and capacities to of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of strengthen extension and advisory services. Lindau, Switzerland: Global Forum for Rural the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Advisory Services (GFRAS). expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 80

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Program Implementation

Tool 12: Conduct Farm and Home Visits Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Good Practice Tools for Program Implementation Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Tool 12: Conduct Farm and Home Visits to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The A farm and home visit is exactly what it sounds like: the extension educator visiting the farmer’s intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural farm and/or home. It allows for two‐way communication between the farmer and the extension resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental educator. It provides a chance for them to interact on a one‐to‐one basis and enables them to exchange extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice information. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Maunder (1972) explains the goal of farm and home visit. He asserts that the home visit serves profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating as “a means of personal communication between the farm family and the extension worker in extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools an environment where they can discuss matters of common interest in privacy and without the of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. distractions and interruptions commonly experienced in group extension activities” (p. 151). Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Farm and home visits are useful for: to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Individualized teaching of skills in a comfortable environment free from distractions. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Building relationships and rapport with the farmers in the community. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Stimulating in farmers interest and desire to adopt a new idea or practice. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Helping people analyze their problems and find solutions. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Acquiring firsthand knowledge of the farmer’s farm and home conditions. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Purposes of farm and home visits critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Murry (1974) provides a framework of five extension‐related purposes for which farm and that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. home visits are conducted: Public relations visits Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, When the visit is to get acquainted and rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field explain the basics of extension service. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Service visits goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the When the visit is meant to respond to skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help some need expressed by a farm family ‐‐ create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory e.g., a farmer complains about a pest approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. infestation and asks for help. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Teaching visits handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are When the educator, as part of an © MEAS. Demonstrating benefits of adopting easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some extension program, visits to teach a new improved seed. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of practice or a skill ‐‐ e. g., the use of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be integrated pest management (IPM) techniques to minimize insect damage in vegetable expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them crops. do so.

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Tool 12: Conduct Farm and Home Visits Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Organizational visits Preface

Visits geared toward program planning or implementing an extension activity ‐‐ e.g., This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ farm visits for conducting needs assessment, assessing soil conditions or determining to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and prevailing water use practices in a village. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Informational visits resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental When the visit is meant to gather some information ‐‐ e.g., surveys on water use, extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice sanitation, migration, gender roles, etc. It can also be for learning how well an extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ innovation has been accepted or which innovation is facing resistance. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education The use of home and farm visits demands substantial amounts of time from the extension worker programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools who has to reach out to numerous individual farmers/farm families. Therefore, there may be a of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. limit on the number of farm visits he/she can make. A common problem in reaching poor farmers is that the extension worker might be biased toward visiting more conveniently located farms Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer and their households. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural References development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Maunder, A.H. (1972). Agricultural extension: A reference manual. ED 075 628. Rome, Italy: Food may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Murry, S. (1974). Farm and home visits: A guide for extension and village workers. Washington, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for D.C., USA: U.S. Agency for International Development. Accessed at: planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED099548.pdf critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 82

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Tool 13: Conduct Demonstrations Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 13: Conduct Demonstrations Preface

A demonstration is an effective method of This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ teaching. This It teaching is especially to‐day work. offers a method set of tools for effective communication, program planning and appropriate for less‐educated audiences. It is evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The powerful because participants can observe side intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural by side the benefits of adopting a new practice or resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental technology as compared with traditional ones. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Some demonstrations compare the agents, benefits of extension workers; and field‐level whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ adopting a single new practice; others may profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through new in‐service training opportunities, continuing education compare benefits of multiple practices. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools These programs validate and/or demonstrate of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. new technologies and practices in farmers’ fields under farmers’ conditions (Bell and Rickman, © M. Suvedi. Method demonstration on nursery bed Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer preparation. 2013). Generally, the simpler the demonstration, to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first the greater the effect. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Demonstrations are of two types ‐‐ method and result demonstrations. Sometimes a connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural demonstration can include elements of both result and method demonstrations. For example, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that farmers could learn how to test the soil and use soil test results to adjust fertilizer doses by doing may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an it on test plots. They could then return later to see and compare the results in plots with and understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. without fertilizer planted side by side. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Method demonstration planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Method demonstration is about teaching critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches farmers a skill or method or to show step by step that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. how to carry out a practice or an activity (Oakley Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, and Garforth, 1997). The method rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field demonstration can demonstrate in a was convincing extension workers. This handbook created to help meet the need for a simple but manner how an improved practice can be comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our adopted and used — for example, how to goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help operate a sprayer or repair and maintain farm create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory equipment. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Advantages Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Reaches out and teaches simple © M. Suvedi. Home gardens are getting popular in handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are farming skills to a large number of Cambodia. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are people. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  Follows “seeing is believing” and “learning by doing” principles of learning. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Limitations  May not be appropriate for a very large group because only a few of them will get Preface hands‐on experience by being involved in the demonstration. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  work. Requires competent and skillful extension workers to perform the demonstration. to‐day It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Result demonstration intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Result demonstration is an educational tool that extension workers use to show benefits of resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental adopting a new practice, proven technology or product to farmers and other end users. Usually, extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers hold result demonstration at harvest time, when results can clearly be seen. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Advantages personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education extension  Farmers can directly see the benefits of programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools new technology (seeing is believing) of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. compared with traditional practice. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  It provides proof that a new technology to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first fits the local conditions. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  It helps to establish farmer confidence Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the in scientific farming methods and connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural increase farmers' confidence in ideas development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that originating from research stations. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Limitations They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, If the new practice or technology does they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for © DAES Malawi. Farmers observe a groundnut demonstration in Malawi. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are not yield expected results, farmers may critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches perceive the practice or technology very that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. negatively. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Basic Principles for Demonstrations rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Participation: Conduct demonstrations on local farms and let farmers participate in the extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but demonstrations. If possible, avoid using an extension plot or research station for comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our demonstration. The stronger the participation of beneficiaries, the greater will be their goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the self‐confidence and readiness to learn and change. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Simplicity: Simple, clear‐cut demonstrations of a single practice or new idea will be far create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. more effective than ambitious and overly complex demonstrations. Learning: The demonstration should be conducive to learning in terms of space, time, Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this equipment and the teaching method. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Preparation: A demonstration needs careful planning. A hastily given demonstration equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are could have disastrous consequences. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 84

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Stages

Preface Planning the demonstration Take into account the objective of the demonstration, the suitability of the method and This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day the usefulness of the new idea to be demonstrated, a convenient time/date for farmers work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The to learn about the new idea and an appropriate venue/location for demonstration. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Preparing the demonstration resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Seek help of local people. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Prepare a plan spelling out the activities, resources needed, who contributes what and profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating the persons responsible to do the activities. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Learn about the new idea to be demonstrated and remain ready to answer farmers’ programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools questions on it. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Make sure all the logistics are ready (e.g., audiovisual aids).  Select farmers who will take part in the demonstration and explain to them the outline Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first of events. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Ensure that the local farmers know the date, time and place of the demonstration. Today’s extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  agricultural Visit the demonstration site in advance and make sure that everything needed for the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural demonstration is there. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Supervising the demonstration understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. The extension educator should facilitate and at the same time supervise the demonstration They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, but allow the demonstrator farmers to play the primary role. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Conducting the demonstration critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Welcome the participants. Make them feel comfortable. Assure the participants that you that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. and your team have finished the preparation for the demonstration, and you are excited to conduct it soon. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Explain the purpose of the demonstration together with the objectives and the processes extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but and/or stages. Provide participants with a poster, pamphlets, etc., that they can read to comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our learn more about the demonstration. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Conduct the demonstration either by yourself or by mobilizing a demonstrator farmer. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Maintain a pace that farmers can follow. Answer questions that participants may have. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Emphasize key points and explain in simple words. Present information in a logical approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. sequence. Please note that neither the of to each tool’s the description nor its numeric order this  Provide opportunity to length farmers practice method being demonstrated. In in result handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are demonstrations, make sure that all participants see and understand what the equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are demonstration is showing. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  Summarize the main points and encourage participants to ask questions. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  Conclude the demonstration by thanking all who helped organize it. Do not forget to the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be thank participants for their keen participation. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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To follow up on the demonstration and evaluate its effectiveness, solicit feedback from some participants. Preface  Prepare a report and share it with stakeholders and peers. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The References intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Bell, M.A., and J.F. Rickman. (2013). Field demonstrations: Fact sheet. Davis, California, USA: resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental University of California, Davis. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Oakley, P., and C. Garforth. (1997). Guide to extension training (originally printed in 1985). profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Reprinted 1997. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Accessed at: www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/t0060e07.htm programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. 

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 86

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Tool 14: Organize Farmer Field Schools Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 14: Organize Farmer Field Schools Preface

Farmer field schools (FFS) are a traditional adult education approach — a method to assist This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ farmers to learn in an informal setting within their own environment (FAO, 2008). FFSs operate to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and on the principle of “learning by doing” ‐‐ the basic agricultural and management skills are taught evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The to farmers with the expectation that they develop the expertise to use them. The biggest benefit intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural that FFSs offer is the self‐sufficiency that farmers attain by becoming teachers themselves. This resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental also speeds dissemination among and adoption of technologies by farmers. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, © DAES Malawi. Farmer field school participants in Malawi. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but The Approach of FFS comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our The FFS approach includes the concept of the ecosystem ‐‐ all the living and nonliving things goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the found in the environment of a local area. Knowing the ecosystem helps in identifying the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help functions of the organisms in the ecosystem and how they interact with one another. With this create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory knowledge, local resources can be utilized for better agricultural production that, in the long approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. term, will be sustainable. The essence of the FFS approach is discovery‐based learning in which a Please that neither the length of each tool’s description its as numeric in and this learner note understands the method by asking questions. Questions nor such “What order is this?” handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are “What is that?” help an extension educator to guide farmers to critically analyze what they see equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are in the field’s ecosystem. That, in turn, helps them make better decisions in farm practices and easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some technology adoption. For success, FFSs have to be held at regular intervals. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of The number of participants in FFSs should be limited to 20 to 25 farmers who share a common the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be interest. The field acts as the teacher; the role of the extension worker is that of facilitator. A expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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technically competent person such as an agricultural university graduate or a farmer field school graduate could also assume the role of facilitator. He/she provides most of the training materials Preface and other inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, plants, pesticides, etc. The site is provided by the This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ community where the school is held. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Steps in conducting farmer field schools intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Step 1. Identify the topic, site and participants resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Identify the problems. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Identify the new practices and technology to be taught and/or usual practices applied by extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ farmers. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Identify field school participants. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Identify the field school site. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Step 2. Train the facilitators Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Typical subjects covered in the training: to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Crop/animal production. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Today’s Protection technologies. agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Message delivery mechanisms using formal education methods. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Participatory training approaches. may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Group dynamics. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Communication skills, problem solving, leadership and discussion methods. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in Special topics related to the subjects under study. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Step 3. Establish and run the FFS critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Jointly, farmers and facilitator identify that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. the enterprise for which the FFS is Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, being established. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Follow the seasonal cycle of the extension practice being investigated ‐‐ e.g., land workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our preparation, livestock feeds. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Implement the enterprise. If the focus skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help is crop production, plant the crop as create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory agreed by the group following options approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. from both indigenous knowledge and Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this formal science. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Conduct agroecosystem analysis and © DAES Malawi. Farmers discuss how to adopt new technology. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are morphology, and collect data at every easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some stage of the enterprise. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  Present observations by farmers. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  Discuss using group dynamics approaches. Organize field days at various stages of the expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them enterprise as agreed by the group. do so. 88

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Program Implementation Program Implementation

Tool 14: Organize Farmer Field Schools Tool 14: Organize Farmer Field Schools Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Step 4. Evaluate the enterprise Step 4. Evaluate the enterprise  Analyze the collected data. Analyze the collected data. Preface  Interpret the data. Interpret the data. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Conduct an economic analysis. Conduct an economic analysis. to‐day It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  work. Present results to the group. Present results to the group. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Step 5. Graduation Step 5. Graduation intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Marks the end of the season‐long FFS. Marks the end of the season‐long FFS. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Should be organized jointly by farmers and facilitators. Should be organized jointly by farmers and facilitators. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Farmers should be awarded certificates in the presence of a special guest to make the Farmers should be awarded certificates in the presence of a special guest to make the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating event memorable. event memorable. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Step 6. Farmers run their own FFSs Step 6. Farmers run their own FFSs programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  The FFS graduates may now have the knowledge and confidence to run their own FFSs. The FFS graduates may now have the knowledge and confidence to run their own FFSs. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. This is the beginning of decentralization and self‐sufficiency. This is the beginning of decentralization and self‐sufficiency. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Step 7. Follow‐up by facilitators Step 7. Follow‐up by facilitators and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Extension Extension officers officers should should visit visit the the farmer‐run farmer‐run FFSs FFSs to to check check on on the the progress progress and and Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the challenges faced. This ensures continuity. challenges faced. This ensures continuity. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an The farmer field school has acquired a positive reputation in the past two decades. The The farmer field school has acquired a positive reputation in the past two decades. The understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. approach was first used as part of an FAO project in Southeast Asia that was attempting to approach was first used as part of an FAO project in Southeast Asia that was attempting to They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, support small‐scale rice farmers to investigate and learn for themselves on their paddy fields. support small‐scale rice farmers to investigate and learn for themselves on their paddy fields. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for It was triggered by farmers facing a devastating insecticide‐induced outbreak of brown It was triggered by farmers facing a devastating insecticide‐induced outbreak of brown planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are planthoppers in central Java in 1986, which destroyed approximately 20,000 hectares of rice. planthoppers in central Java in 1986, which destroyed approximately 20,000 hectares of rice. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches The government of Indonesia responded by launching an emergency training project to train The government of Indonesia responded by launching an emergency training project to train that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. 120,000 farmers in integrated pest management (IPM). In 1989, the training was established 120,000 farmers in integrated pest management (IPM). In 1989, the training was established Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, under the FAO‐assisted National IPM Program. The term “farmer field school” comes from under the FAO‐assisted National IPM Program. The term “farmer field school” comes from rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field the Indonesian words “sekolah lampangan,” meaning simply “field school” where farmers the Indonesian words “sekolah lampangan,” meaning simply “field school” where farmers extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but are teaching themselves. Why farmer field schools? are teaching themselves. Why farmer field schools? comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the They sharpen the farmers’ ability to make critical and informed decisions. They sharpen the farmers’ ability to make critical and informed decisions. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help They empower farmers with knowledge and skills. They empower farmers with knowledge and skills. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory They build farmers’ skills in new ways of thinking and problem solving. They build farmers’ skills in new ways of thinking and problem solving. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. They help farmers learn how to organize themselves and their communities. They help farmers learn how to organize themselves and their communities. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this They are inclusive ‐‐ even illiterate farmers can prepare simple diagrams to illustrate the They are inclusive ‐‐ even illiterate farmers can prepare simple diagrams to illustrate the handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are points they want to make. points they want to make. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Success Story Farmer field schools (FFS) gained momentum and were introduced in various parts of Africa in Preface

1990s (Braun and Duveskog (2011). For instance, in Mozambique, funding from the International This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Fund for Agricultural Development supported a program with the objective of improving food to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and security and thereby increasing rural income. The program adopted the FFS methodology. As part evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The of the methodology, a communal plot is used to teach farmers proven agricultural practices that intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural they can apply on their farms to increase their yield and production and protect their crops. Once resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental the farmers master the techniques, they can also teach other farmers, thus multiplying the extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice positive effects of the methodology. A total of 1,200 FFSs have been established on the island, extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating which benefited a total of 22,124 households, among whom 61 percent were women. In addition, extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education another 12,954 households participated in the program's activities informally (without joining a programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools farmers' group) or learned through interaction with trained farmers (IFAD, 2012). of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer References to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Braun, A., and D. Duveskog. (2011). The Farmer field school approach–History, global assessment Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the and success stories, Background paper for the IFAD Rural Poverty Report 2010. Italy, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Rome: International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an FAO. (2008). Farmer field schools on land and water management in Africa. Proceedings of an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. international workshop in Jinja, Uganda, April 24‐29, 2006. Rome, Italy: Food and They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed at: www.fao.org/3/a‐i0383e.pdf they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for IFAD. (2012). Stories from the field: Empowering small farmers through farmers’ field schools. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Rome, Italy: The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). Accessed at: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches http://operations.ifad.org/web/ifad/operations/country/voices/tags/tanzania that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 90

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Tool 15: Organize Field Days Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 15: Organize Field Days Preface

A farmers’ field day is usually a daylong event where farmers showcase new agricultural This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ technologies, practices and products they have adopted, and they share information and their to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and experiences with other participant farmers. Farmers’ field days’ main goal is fostering discussions evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The among participants so that they learn from one another. Farmers get an opportunity for face‐to‐ intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural face interactions, which help them understand the agricultural technology and practices. Studies resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental show that farmers learn more from fellow farmers than they do from others (Van den Ban and extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Hawkins, 2002). A field day is particularly effective in educating people who cannot read or write. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Usually, field days are informal and loosely structured. Commonly, field days are organized on extension personnel through in‐service training continuing education demonstrator farmers’ farms; in rare cases, they take opportunities, place at experimental stations. As an programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools extension educator, you are responsible for planning, organizing and evaluating the field day. You of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. need to support the demonstrator farmer and train him/her for the demonstration. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this © M. Suvedi. Field day organized by Cambodia/HARVEST project. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some How to organize field days of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Field days are important methods to communicate farmers and other agricultural stakeholders the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be of the improved technology and practices. Hagiwara (2011) and Oakley and Garforth (1997) expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them suggest following tips to organize field days. do so.

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Plan:  Focus on five basics ‐‐ program, price, place, people and promotion ‐‐ when you plan the Preface field day. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Make sure that the technology and/or practices that farmers showcase match the visitor to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and farmers’ needs and interests (program). evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Have an adequate budget (price) to organize the program, and plan your field day within resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental the given budget. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Select appropriate participants and guests (people). profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Ensure that the layout of field‐day activities allows easy access to and movement in the extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education field (place). Put signposts to help guide participants to the demonstrations. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  If possible, organize the field day when results of comparative trials are available. This allows participants to observe beforehand the results of the two trails—traditional variety Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first or practice and new variety or practice. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Make sure that demonstrator farmers services are prepared and challenged are confident to showcase Today’s agricultural extension and advisory are being to serve as the something new. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  It takes about 3 to 5 weeks to organize and complete a field day, so start early. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. First week They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in Decide the field day date at least 3 to 5 weeks in advance. Identify invitees/farmers. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Inviting a guest who local people respect and would like to listen to can attract wider planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are participation. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Limit the number of invitee farmers to the capacity of the field so that everyone can easily Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, see the demonstration. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Publicize the field day. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Second week goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Collect the required materials. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Allocate duties among staff members and volunteers. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Rehearse for the field day. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Make sure that you print or buy the educational materials — leaflets, pamphlets, equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are audiovisuals, etc. ‐‐ that you will distribute or use on the field day. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Third week the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Conduct the field day. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them  A typical field day program includes the following elements: do so. 92

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o Participants (farmers) arrive and register.

Preface o

Welcome the participants and the guests.

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ o Explain clearly the purpose and importance of the field day. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and o Distribute educational materials and make sure they are readily available to the evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The participants. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental o Thank all the people — participants, guests, staff members, sponsors (if any) ‐‐ extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice who helped make the field day a success. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating o Inform participants of the follow‐up plan or other similar programs and/or field extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education day events, if any, in the near future. Request audiences to contact you or other programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools extension staff members or demonstrator farmers if they have any questions or of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. plans they want to share in the future. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer o Offer refreshments (if it is in the plan) and wrap up the field day. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Fourth week: Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Conduct a follow‐up evaluation of the field day. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Prepare a report, and share results with staff members and stakeholders. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Tips for Organizing a Field Day they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Effectively publicize the field day. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Use tools that suit local contexts ‐‐ postcards, newsletters, press releases, e‐news, that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. social media, websites, pamphlets, social mobilizers, women’s groups, etc.  Give a catchy title and subtitle to the program. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Include the date, time, place, venue, directions or a map to the program site, extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but information about registration fee (if applicable), your contact details, etc., in the field comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our day promotional materials. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Let demonstrator farmers demonstrate the technology and/or practices. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Let demonstrator farmers be in charge of their demonstration. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Facilitate the field day program and make sure that it is interesting and well‐ presented, and that the field day location is safe and comfortable for participants. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this

 Wrap up the field day by reviewing the day's proceedings and the main items seen handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are and discussed, and inform visitors of upcoming events. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be the tools. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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References

Preface Hagiwara, T. (2011). Farmer field school implementation guide. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed at: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2561e/i2561e.pdf work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Livuza, H.L. (2015). Agricultural extension: The how‐to‐guide to essential core competencies and intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural skills for an effective extension worker (Master thesis, Plan B). East Lansing, Michigan, resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental USA: Department of Community Sustainability, Michigan State University. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Oakley, P., and C. Garforth. (1997). Guide to extension training (originally printed in 1985). extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Rome, Italy: FAO. Reprinted 1997. Accessed at: extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/t0060e07.htm programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Van den Ban, A.W., and H.S. Hawkins. (2002). Agricultural extension (second ed.) (originally of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. printed in 1996). New Delhi, India: CBS Publishers and Distributors. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 94

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Tool 16: Establish a Model Village Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 16: Establish a Model Village Preface

A model village is one in which people live improved lives ‐‐ psychologically, socially, physically, This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ culturally and economically – as a result of integrated interventions. It has been a popular tool in to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and the development sector in the past decade or so to set examples for other villages to follow. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Agricultural extension in Malawi include: has adopted this strategy to disseminate improved intended audiences of service this handbook governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural technology and practices to smallholder farmers (DAES, 2007; Livuza, 2015). resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Economic self‐sufficiency and social justice are essential features of a modern village. It all begins extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ with a plan. According to Drishtee (2012), “A Model Village is a sustainable rural community that profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating is able to generate and maintain the resources necessary to improve its level of well‐being and extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education happiness without depleting economic, social and environmental values.” A model village plan programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools that envisions the sustainability of a village community with three pillars ‐‐ livelihood, of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. infrastructure and services ‐‐ is the prerequisite to establish a model village (Drishtee, 2012). Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our © Ramjee Ghimire. Farming system followed in a Nepalese village. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the An equally important component is the commitment to work, which villagers have to pledge skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help among themselves and with various organizations and institutions. These institutions possess create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. well‐defined development structures and are receptive to harmonized, integrated development interventions for improving rural livelihoods. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this

handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Steps in identification of a model village of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Livuza (2015) and DAES (2007) recommend several steps in establishing a model village which the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be are summarized below: expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Step 1: Making stakeholders, leaders and community members aware of the program (sensitization) Preface  Stakeholders within the vicinity of the identified village are informed about the model This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ village formation plan and mobilize resources from multiple stakeholders. Other to‐day development partners should be queried about their mandates and any projects that they work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The might want to carry out within the model village. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  These stakeholders are commonly non‐governmental organizations (NGOs), religious resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental organizations, government ministries and departments, private organizations and extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ farmers’ organizations. The local leaders of the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  The last partner to be involved is the community. identified village will be key extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Members have to be informed of and buy into the players. They may be programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools intended plan, what will change and what they can traditional leaders (tribal or of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. contribute, such as labor. This sensitization of the caste leaders), political leaders Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer community needs to be extended to all genders and (elected representatives) and to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first other categories in a community, such as youth, the farmers’ organization leaders. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. elderly and the physically disadvantaged. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  For example, constructing a warehouse to preserve Sensitize leaders of all local‐ development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that vegetables in a village requires money; cement, level development committees may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an so that they understand and stone and bricks; engineering expertise; land where understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. the warehouse will be constructed; and labor. With feel a sense of ownership of They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. the model village as a the consent and cooperation of multiple Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for stakeholders, all these inputs can be mobilized to development approach. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are benefit all. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Step 2: Identifying target villages  Local leaders and extension workers in an area should arrive at a consensus on which Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, village to start with. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  A target village should possess some of the following characteristics: comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Receptiveness to development efforts. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Relative poverty (food‐insecure, low‐income). skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Poor health conditions, such as high malnutrition or incidence of HIV/AIDS. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Poor market linkage. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Low or no availability of year‐round water. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Inadequate utilization of the various types of foods. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Low literacy levels. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some

of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  Few and poor sanitary facilities. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Poor infrastructure. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them  Few natural resources and poor management. do so. 96

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Program Implementation 

Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Tool 16: Establish a Model Village

Few or no farmer‐based organizations.

Preface  Inadequate crop diversification.

 Inadequate food diversification. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Few community members implementing technologies for soil and water conservation and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The fertility improvement. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Target village identification should be followed with secondary data collection. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Step 3: Understanding the situation through relevant data profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Data is widely available from public records and the Internet and can be collected from local extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education leaders and other development partners working in the area. Collecting data through surveys is programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools possible but time‐consuming. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. The types of data to be collected include: Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Livestock population of various species, number of households by gender of household to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. heads, types of crops (field and horticultural crops). Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Physical infrastructure available, such as roads, schools, health units, markets, water connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural points and forests. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that

may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals have an Availability of a village development committee, subcommittees and must a village action understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. plan. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Availability of banking and credit facilities, existence of farmer organizations. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Common crop and livestock pests and diseases; control measures used, if any. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Common human diseases.

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Common income‐generating activities. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Number of clans. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our As a village development plan is being prepared, an important component is a local resource goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the map. Created by the locals, it will show the natural and physical resources existing and available skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help at the village level. This should help the community to realize its assets and then work forward create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory from there. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Conducting needs assessment with of stakeholders partners nor (see 5) order can provide Please note a that neither the length each tool’s and description its Chapter numeric in this baseline data. Using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools will ensure that members of the handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are village community own the process and the information collected. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Step 4: Institution building of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Assist the village to self‐discover the need for other development subcommittees ‐‐ e.g., the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be livestock and watershed committees ‐‐ which will be facilitating the implementation of expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. various interventions on behalf of the village.

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Community members should choose the types of subcommittees they want, which will serve the kind of developmental interventions they desire.

Preface

 All subcommittees and other institutions should be sensitized on their roles and This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day responsibilities in relation to other institutions in the village. work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Step 5: Implementation of action plans intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental fisheries, natural  Facilitate timely implementation of village action agriculture, plans in conjunction with resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental subcommittees. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and and collaborate field‐level agents, whether governmental, or for‐  Coordinate with stakeholders and partners non‐governmental in the implementation of profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating action plans. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Implement plans step by step with time in between steps so there is opportunity for programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools revision. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Community participation is a must at all stages. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Make sure that action plans have clear monitoring indicators and evaluation tools. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Step 6: Capacity building connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Provide regular training sessions to fill knowledge and practice gaps among members of development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that the village development institutions to develop their capacity to lead the community well, may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an remain focused on their development goals and evolve into much stronger institutions. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  should be well‐versed in The overall aim should be to make the village community self‐sufficient. Self‐help groups They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for or cooperatives can be entrusted with that responsibility. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Step 7: Participatory monitoring and evaluation (PME) critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Monitoring is crucial to correct and learn from an experience. External stakeholders and partners who come in to conduct evaluation can be valuable in determining the impact Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, of interventions and whether new practices are sustainable. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Common methods for monitoring progress are joint supervisory field visits, review comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our meetings, progress reports, surveys and participatory appraisal. These tools are described goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the in Chapter 8. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory In summary, a model village has been considered a good way to set an example for other villages approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. to follow and thus spread good practices in a region. Funding agencies have been encouraging in their support. Infrastructure the tool’s funding agency — nor e.g., or foreign Please note that neither the comes length from of each description its government numeric order in this funders ‐‐ or the village itself. Livelihood improvement is a key factor because that is where local handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are people gain from the effort, both financially and in terms of dignified existence. External workers easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some provide the village with knowledge of new technologies and innovations and how to adopt them. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of But what is required most is a good and motivated leader from the community who can work the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be toward the goal. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 98

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Preface Reference This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Department of Agricultural Extension Services [DAES]. (2007). Model village approach guidelines. to‐day Lilongwe, Malawi. work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Drishtee. audiences (2012). Drishtee’s model village plan ‐‐ 2012. Uttar Pradesh, fisheries, India: Drishtee intended of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, natural Development and Communication Ltd. Accessed at: www.drishtee.com/wp/site/wp‐ resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental content/uploads/2012/03/Drishtees‐Model‐Village‐Plan‐2012.pdf extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Livuza, H.L.(2015). Agricultural extension: The how‐to‐guide to essential core competencies and profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating skills for an effective extension worker (Master thesis, Plan B). East Lansing, Michigan, extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education USA: Department of Community Sustainability, Michigan State University. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 17: Conduct Meetings Effectively Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 17: Conduct Meetings Effectively Preface

Meetings provide space for face‐to‐face interaction between people. Meetings are common This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ places for sharing problems, exploring solutions, planning programs, and acquiring information to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and and knowledge. Extension workers and other development workers spend much time conducting evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The and/or attending meetings, yet outcomes of the meetings are limited. Meetings be intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, can natural productive and helpful in attaining program goals if they are properly planned and conducted resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental (Books and Gamon, 2000). Meetings foster feelings of cohesiveness and safety. Extension extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ workers should be able to conduct meetings effectively to ensure wide stakeholder participation profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating in extension programs and to achieve extension goals. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Phases of meeting management of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Planning: Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Decide on the goals and desired outcomes of the meeting. Is it an information meeting ‐‐ to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first e.g., for communicating something new and important; or a decision‐making meeting ‐‐ and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s e.g., for finalizing a project or plan? agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Haynes (1988) suggests preparing the agenda, spelling out the topics of development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that discussion listed in proper sequence, meeting adjournment time and break may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an time. Haynes offers additional tips to planning an effective meeting as understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. follows: They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate and The skill in participatory tools guides and techniques for o Identify the knowledge participants. meeting’s purpose who should planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are participate. Usually, participants should have some knowledge of the topics to critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches be discussed, have time to participate, and be willing to express facts, feelings that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. and opinions. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, o Choose an appropriate meeting time. Take into account your availability, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field participants’ availability, the facility’s availability and time required to prepare extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but for the meeting. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the o Choose a meeting venue in a centrally located place. The meeting room should skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help be comfortable for participants and large enough to accommodate the create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory participants and the use of aids such as audiovisuals. It should have adequate approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. lighting and ventilation, be free from noise and other distractions, and be Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this appropriately furnished. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Arrange for audiovisuals, flipchart, white board, blackboard, handouts, notebooks, equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are pencils, sign‐in sheet, etc. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some

of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  Decide whether you will need to assign someone to be time keeper or note taker. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 100

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Decide a meeting evaluation method ‐‐ by yourself, an outside evaluator and/or the participants.

Preface

Setting up the meeting: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Invite participants. Provide them the agenda. Usually, participants should be notified at to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The least one week in advance. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Arrive early. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Set up tables and chairs so that everybody can hear and see every other person. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Make sure that audiovisuals, lights, thermostat and windows work. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Allocate some pre‐ and post‐meeting time for participants to socialize and interact. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  If you expect to conduct several meetings until the project winds up, conduct them in a regular cycle ‐‐ on a fixed date and time (e.g., 7 p.m. on the first Monday of the month). Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer

to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Running the meeting: and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  The meeting leader or chair take into account three components of meetings: Today’s agricultural extension and should advisory services are being challenged to serve as the content, interaction and structure. Content refers to the information, knowledge, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural experience, etc., that participants will learn or share; interaction is how participants are development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that involved in discussion and take part in activities with one another in the meeting; and the may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an structure is the way participants and information are organized to attain the meeting understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. goals. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for The following items explain how meetings are conducted: planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Follow the time line ‐‐ start and end on time. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Ask people to sign in. Seek each participant’s name, organization, address and phone Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, number when he/she arrives. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Introduce yourself and your roles, and ask everyone to introduce him/herself. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  When there's a special speaker or guest, introduce him/her, too. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Use an icebreaker exercise to help participants get acquainted and interacting. An skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory icebreaker is a short exercise held at the beginning to help people get to know one approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. another or dig out some important piece of information in a fun or interesting way. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Remind participants of the meeting agenda and ask if there is anything to change or add handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are to the agenda. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Explain the meeting ground rules. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  Ask participants to turn off cell phones or other devices that may distract or disturb the the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be meeting. You may establish a policy to disallow these devices during the meeting. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Keep the discussion on track, and do not let participants go off the agenda or speak too long.

Preface

 Keep an eye on the time. If needed, assign someone the job of time keeper. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers reaches a set of its tools for effective communication, program planning  If the meeting intended ending time but additional time is needed and for evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The discussion, seek out agreement from all members to continue. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Wrap up each agenda item by summarizing the conclusions, if any, with the participants. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Encourage participation by all members. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Designate a note taker to record the minutes. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  At the end, summarize the points discussed/raised in the meeting. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Go over any tasks that the participants decided to accomplish ‐‐ what each task is, who will do it, how it will be done, when it will be done ‐‐ so that everyone is clear on his/her Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first role. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Thank the participants, speaker, guests and staff who made the meeting Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are members being challenged to serve as the happen. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural

development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Following up: may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Prepare the minutes and distribute them to the participants and other concerned parties. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in Seek feedback from the participants about how the meeting went and what can be done they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for to do better next time. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Remember to follow up on the decisions made at the meeting. You may have to call or critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches write to the parties responsible for doing the tasks. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Handling difficult members rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Interventions: comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Let the group decide how to deal with the disrupters. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Follow the agenda and ground rules if some participant repeatedly goes off the agenda. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Use humor to calm the participants in case of tension in the room. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Accept, deal with or defer issues being discussed ‐‐ do not remain undecided. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Use appropriate body language. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  Take a break if you feel that you need to talk to the disruptive person separately to know of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of and/or address his/her concerns. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 102

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Preventions:  Listen carefully to what participants say, try to understand what they mean, and address Preface their concerns or issues in a timely fashion. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Stay in your role. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Don't be defensive. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice References extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Brooks, J.R., and J.A. Gamon. (2000). Effective meetings. In P. Calvert (ed.), The communicator’s extension personnel through in‐service training (fourth opportunities, continuing education handbook: Tools, techniques and technology ed.). Gainesville, Florida, USA: programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Maupin House. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Haynes, M.E. (1988). Effective meeting skills: A practical guide for more productive meetings. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Menlo Park, California, USA: Crisp Publications. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 18: Manage Conflict Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 18: Manage Conflict Preface

Conflict on a large scale has afflicted millions around the world. Various explanations have been This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ offered describing the a causes conflict. A widely communication, accepted thesis program is that of “horizontal to‐day work. It offers set of of tools for effective planning and inequalities” (Stewart, 2008). Inequality exists between culturally defined groups having several evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The dimensions, such as economic, political and social. These groups may be defined on the basis of intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural geographical affiliation, gender, religion, class, caste, language or other characteristics. Unlike resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental vertical inequality, which operates between individuals, horizontal inequality operates between extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; to and this field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ groups. According view, imbalanced development that involves sharp horizontal profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating inequalities (group differences) is an important cause of conflict, which is found commonly in extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education developing countries (Malik, 2009). programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Another common cause is the fight over natural resources. Some natural resources are being of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. depleted, and control over them is crucial for the livelihoods of the community members. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Scholars in the developing world have found competition over natural resources escalating to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first conflicts. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the In the context of a village, both group inequality and disagreement over natural resources are connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural bound to exist. Agriculture depends on access to land and other natural resources, so it’s a development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that natural focus for tensions among people. When you enter a village to start a project or to address may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an a meeting, it is imperative to identify where conflict lies and what led to the conflict. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. In groups, conflict develops when participants seem to be confident in what they know and say They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, and try to possess push/pass their knowledge agendas. According to participatory Haynes (1988), arises when they must adequate and skill in tools conflict and techniques for communication is lacking, participants hold different perceptions and different values related planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are to issues being discussed, and participants’ preferred outcomes are different. As a change agent, critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. you have to be able to address conflict so that it does not hinder the extension program plan and its implementation. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,

rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Steps to resolve conflicts extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Step 1: Acknowledge that conflict exists goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Address the conflict immediately. Otherwise, it becomes an obstacle to the community’s skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help success. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Step 2: Identify the real issue Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this This step often requires systematic and sustained work. Conflicts arise both from core issues handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are and from emotional issues. In every conflict, there is interplay between these two issues. The equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are core conflict relates to the functions of the community. The emotional issues, on the other easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some hand, relate to threats to self‐esteem or jealousy. They can intensify the conflict. The core of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the issues must be resolved first to resolve the conflict. tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be

expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 104

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Step 3: Use one or more ways to resolve conflict Dunn (2000) has provided multiple approaches to address conflict:

Preface

Listen to the other: When differences in opinion occur, the first step is to listen. Step back This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ for a moment and listen objectively to the other person and to yourself. Tune into what the to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and other person is feeling. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Let it pass: It takes two hands to clap, so if you can avoid confrontation, then you can avoid resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental the conflict. Do this either by conceding to the other person’s views or simply not extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice commenting. Especially if the other person is angry, choosing another time to express your extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ opinion might be wise. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Reflect: personnel Think on the point the other person made to make sure continuing you have understood extension through in‐service training opportunities, education him/her correctly. (Some term this active or reflective thinking.) Once you are sure, say it programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. aloud to the other person to make sure you understand. Remember: 85 percent of conflict is caused by miscommunication, so clarifying what has been said will resolve many issues. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer

to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Venting emotions: Let both parties express themselves enough to bring out the reason and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. behind the disagreement. Approach the one who seems upset, ask, “Is something bothering Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the you?” to show empathy and give that person space to express his/her feelings. Simply connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural acknowledging the person’s feelings may help him/her to calm down, after which the development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that dialogue can continue. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Compromise: Compromise is an essential element in conflict management. Compromise is They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, not easy when both parties are fuming over their disagreement; in fact, in moments of anger they must knowledge and skill members in participatory tools and techniques we tend possess to say adequate unfavorable things. Facilitate to find some common points for for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are agreement. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Directly confront feelings: Bottling up feelings can lead to disaster. One person cannot that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. know what is going on within another unless he/she expresses his/her feelings. The aim is Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, not to confront or attack but rather say, “This is how I feel” about behaviors and incidents. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Generalizations can implicate more people than are actually at fault. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Argue productively: Bring out the issue and thrash it out. Make sure the discussion focuses goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the on the issue and does not become a personal attack. If two individuals are particularly skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help unhappy, perhaps they could sort out the issue separately without taking the time of the create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory whole group. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Figure 11 offers more insights into dealing with conflicts. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Figure 11. Conflict resolution strategies (adopted from Haynes, 1988). Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Extension workers have to observe members’ behaviors and use appropriate approaches for and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. dealing with conflict. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Advice to extension workers: Getting personal in arguments can make things worse. So, avoid development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that speaking when angry to avoid long‐term harm to a relationship. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, References they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Dunn. D. (2000). How to motivate people in groups: Handle conflict creatively? Tucson, Arizona, planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are USA: University of Arizona Cooperative Extension Service. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Haynes, M.E. (1988). Effective meeting skills: A practical guide for more productive meetings. Menlo Park, California, USA: Crisp Publications. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Malik, S.M. (2009). Horizontal inequalities and violent conflict in Pakistan: Is there a link? extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Economic and Political Weekly, 44(34), 21‐24. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Stewart, F. (ed.). (2008). Horizontal inequalities and conflict: Understanding group violence in goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the multiethnic societies. New York, New York, USA: Palgrave Macmillan. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 106

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Tool 19: Manage Time Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 19: Manage Time Preface

Time management is a competency in planning and spending time to maximize productivity. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ People who manage their time well are successful in their careers; they usually focus on results to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and rather than on activities. Good time management helps improve professional status, gives evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The personal satisfaction, reduces work stress, enhances opportunities for career advancement and intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural helps achieve career goals. Extension workers work with many stakeholders and conduct various resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension activities. Efficient time management helps them be highly productive in providing extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ extension services. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education How to manage time programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools There are five stages in time management: plan, assess, organize, prioritize and schedule of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. (University of Oregon, 2015). University of Oregon (2015) and Vellasco (2011) offer the following suggestions for effective time management: Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Plan and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Set realistic, believable and achievable goals for your extension work. Today’s  agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  This helps you manage your time and guides you toward your destination by connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural stimulating you to work on set activities. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  It also helps manage your priorities and resources. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Assess They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Continually examine how you are spending your time. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Prioritize your tasks. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Keep a to‐do list handy. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Break big or complex tasks into smaller, specific, doable ones.  Keep a log of how you are spending your time. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Review personal goals and determine whether the revisited activities fit with your rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field goals. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but extension workers. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Review the log every three days and seek answers to the following questions: skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Were there any surprises? create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Would you judge this to be a typical week? approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  What patterns could you identify in your time wasters? Interruptions?  What part of the week would you consider most productive? Least productive? Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  What time of the day do you feel was most productive? Least productive? handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  What activities would you like to eliminate totally? What would be the cost of equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some doing so? What is the cost of not eliminating them? of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  Which activities during the week do you deem most rewarding? Would you like the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be to spend more time doing them in the future? What is your plan for doing so? expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 19: Manage Time Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Schedule  Schedule your activities. Preface  Reserve time for breaks and other important activities. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Effectively schedule your tasks. Schedule important work during the part of the week to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and and the part of the day that you determined are your times of peak productivity. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Additional tips on time management intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Minimize distractions and concentrate on your tasks. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Learn to improve your concentration. extension and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  workers; Give each task a short time each day to avoid procrastination. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Do not take on more tasks than you can manage. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Say no to people or requests when needed. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Delegate tasks to fellow staff members or others. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Keep time for teamwork, meetings and consultations. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Try to slow down, and learn to manage your time better. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Take breaks when needed. Short and on‐time breaks enhance creativity. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Maintain some flexibility in your work schedule. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that References may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an University of Oregon. (2015). Time management. Eugene, Oregon, USA: Holden Leadership understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Center, University of Oregon. Accessed at: They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, http://leadership.uoregon.edu/resources/exercises_tips/skills/effective_time_manage they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for ment planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Vellasco, M.S. (2011). Time use efficiency in the graduate labor market: Requirements of the critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches workplace and the role of universities. Pages 1‐39 in P. Varga (ed.), Time management. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. New York, New York, USA: Nova. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.


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Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork Preface

Teamwork refers to team members working collectively on an undertaking that is designed to This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ deliver work. a product or service customers. Teamwork improves quality, productivity and to‐day It offers a set to of the tools for effective communication, program planning and service through shared responsibility. It allows extension workers to focus on customers’ needs evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The and interests. It reduces operating costs include: and the governmental need for a long hierarchical staff structure, intended audiences of this handbook agriculture, fisheries, natural leading to efficiency. Finally, it attracts and retains the best people within organizations. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,

© DAES Malawi. Farmers’ group working with potato crop. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Extension work involves working with various clientele groups and stakeholders ‐‐ i.e., farmers, goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the researchers, agribusiness operators, youth organizations, educational organizations, schools and skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help colleges, and industry representatives. Teamwork can be used to effectively deliver services. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Teamwork does not happen instantly. It takes time and planning to develop teamwork.

Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Facilitators such as extension workers have to be cognizant of the status of the teams and their handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are members and be able to use various strategies to nurture and strengthen the teamwork within equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are their organizations. Commitment to a common goal, mutual trust, communication with team easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some members, members’ involvement and process orientation are the key factors in nurturing of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of teamwork (Wellins et al., 1991). the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Characteristics of an Effective Team Characteristics of an Effective Team

Preface Clear purpose: The vision, mission, and goal or task of the team has been defined. Clear purpose: The vision, mission, and goal or task of the team has been defined.

Members know team goals and their roles, and they have feeling of ownership. Members know team goals and their roles, and they have feeling of ownership. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Open communication: Team members feel free to express their feelings on the task Open communication: Team members feel free to express their feelings on the task evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The as well as on the group’s operation. as well as on the group’s operation. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Shared leadership: Though the team has a formal leader(s), leadership function shifts Shared leadership: Though the team has a formal leader(s), leadership function shifts resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental from time to time depending on the needs and the skills of the team members. from time to time depending on the needs and the skills of the team members. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Participation: Everyone is encouraged to participate in team work – planning, Participation: Everyone is encouraged to participate in team work – planning, profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating implementing, evaluating and communicating with stakeholders. implementing, evaluating and communicating with stakeholders. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Informality: The working environment is informal and comfortable. Informality: The working environment is informal and comfortable. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Consensus decisions: For important decisions, seek consensus, if possible, or Consensus decisions: For important decisions, seek consensus, if possible, or Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer substantial agreement through open discussion of ideas. Common methods for substantial agreement through open discussion of ideas. Common methods for to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first monitoring progress are joint supervisory field visits, review meetings, progress monitoring progress are joint supervisory field visits, review meetings, progress and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. reports, surveys and participatory appraisal. (These were discussed in Chapter 8.) reports, surveys and participatory appraisal. (These were discussed in Chapter 8.) Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that How to foster teamwork How to foster teamwork may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Parker (2006) offers guidelines to foster teamwork: Parker (2006) offers guidelines to foster teamwork: understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Start with with team team goals goals and and specific, specific, measurable, measurable, attainable, attainable, realistic realistic and and time‐bound time‐bound they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for (SMART) objectives. (SMART) objectives. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Prepare Prepare an an inventory inventory of of your your team team talent talent — — members’ members’ past past work work experiences, experiences, their their that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. operational skills, specialized knowledge and education. operational skills, specialized knowledge and education. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Empower the team to plan, budget and implement their plan. Empowered teams can take Empower the team to plan, budget and implement their plan. Empowered teams can take rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field on complex tasks. on complex tasks. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Appreciate style differences. Teams may have people with different leadership styles ‐‐ Appreciate style differences. Teams may have people with different leadership styles ‐‐ goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the contributor, collaborator, communicator and challenger. Give them the space to use their contributor, collaborator, communicator and challenger. Give them the space to use their skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help expertise or skills whenever you deem appropriate. expertise or skills whenever you deem appropriate. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Establish ground rules about how team will function and what roles members will have. Establish ground rules about how team will function and what roles members will have. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Prepare a project plan as well as a work plan. Prepare a project plan as well as a work plan. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Regularly conduct project reviews and check whether tasks are done as planned. Regularly conduct project reviews and check whether tasks are done as planned. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 110

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Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

 Hold team meetings regularly and Hold team meetings regularly and effectively.

Preface

 Build external networks. networks. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Teamwork is not only an internal Teamwork is not only an internal to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and or team phenomenon ‐‐ external or team phenomenon ‐‐ external evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The factors also affect teamwork. factors also affect teamwork. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  A team needs information, information, extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice resources, support and and budget. budget. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Ensure that your team team has has all all profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating these elements. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Minimize conflict by creating creating a a of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. climate of trust within the team. climate of trust within the team. © M. Suvedi. Professionals working as team in Cambodia. © M. Suvedi. Professionals working as team in Cambodia. Freely share your knowledge and Freely share your knowledge and Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer expertise with team members. Stand with the team when the team is in difficulty. expertise with team members. Stand with the team when the team is in difficulty. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Communicate, communicate, communicate — communication between and among team Communicate, communicate, communicate — communication between and among team Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the members and information to and from the team are key. members and information to and from the team are key. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Get everyone committed to team goals. Get everyone committed to team goals. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Make decisions by factoring in members’ opinions. Make decisions by factoring in members’ opinions. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Assess team performance. Monitor individual and team progress; ask team members to Assess team performance. Monitor individual and team progress; ask team members to they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for evaluate their own contributions and the team’s overall performance. evaluate their own contributions and the team’s overall performance. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Reward team results. Reward team members for their contributions to the teamwork. Reward team results. Reward team members for their contributions to the teamwork. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Celebrate the team’s accomplishments. Celebrate the team’s accomplishments. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but According to Melbourne Law School (2015), a team may fail when: According to Melbourne Law School (2015), a team may fail when: comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Leadership is weak or lacking.  Leadership is weak or lacking. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Team goals and objectives are unclear. Team goals and objectives are unclear. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Members’ roles are not defined. Members’ roles are not defined. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Members lack trust and collaboration.  Members lack trust and collaboration. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Members’ voices are ignored. Members’ voices are ignored. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  A few members dominate the team ‐‐ e.g., in decision making. A few members dominate the team ‐‐ e.g., in decision making. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Work plan and deadline are not followed.  However, Work plan and deadline are not followed. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 20: Manage Groups and Teamwork Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

References

Preface Melbourne Law School. (2015). Tips for effective teamwork. Legal academic skills center: Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne Law School. Accessed at: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day www.law.unimelb.edu.au/lasc/professional‐skills/tips‐for‐effective‐teamwork work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Parker, G.M. (2009). Teamwork: 20 Steps to Success. Amherst, Massachusetts, USA: HRD Press. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Wellins, R.S., W.C. Byham and J.M. Wilson. (1991). Empowered teams: Creating self‐directed resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental work groups that improve quality, productivity, and participation. San Francisco, extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice California, USA: Jossey‐Bass Publishers. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 112

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Tool 21: Understand Group Dynamics and/or Facilitate Groups Tool 21: Understand Group Dynamics and/or Facilitate Groups Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 21: Understand Group Dynamics and/or Facilitate Groups Tool 21: Understand Group Dynamics and/or Facilitate Groups Preface

A group is a social entity comprising two or more individuals who work together for common A group is a social entity comprising two or more individuals who work together for common This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ purpose. Group method is an effective extension method based on the principle that individuals purpose. Group method is an effective extension method based on the principle that individuals to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and who come together and work as a group can achieve more than their individual achievements who come together and work as a group can achieve more than their individual achievements evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The combined (synergism). Further, working in a group fosters participation and democratization. It combined (synergism). Further, working in a group fosters participation and democratization. It intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural strengthens the capacities of communities to identify opportunities, set priorities and nurtures strengthens the capacities of communities to identify opportunities, set priorities and nurtures resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental assets such as social capital. assets such as social capital. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Extension workers play crucial roles in forming and developing well‐functioning farmers’ groups. Extension workers play crucial roles in forming and developing well‐functioning farmers’ groups. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Described below are the types and characteristics of groups, stages of group development and Described below are the types and characteristics of groups, stages of group development and extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education skills required for facilitating the groups, which all extension workers should be familiar with. skills required for facilitating the groups, which all extension workers should be familiar with. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Type of Groups Type of Groups Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Primary groups: People who are very close to one another, who need each other for Primary groups: People who are very close to one another, who need each other for to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first various reasons and who frequently meet. There is interpersonal relationship among the various reasons and who frequently meet. There is interpersonal relationship among the and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. members of such primary groups. Members value the society and its norms, which members of such primary groups. Members value the society and its norms, which Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the influence their attitudes, values and orientations. influence their attitudes, values and orientations. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Secondary groups: Secondary groups usually have large numbers of members who Secondary groups: Secondary groups usually have large numbers of members who development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that seldom meet and communicate with one another. There is impersonal relationship may seldom meet and communicate with one another. There is impersonal relationship differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an among the group members. For example, trade unions, national cooperative societies, among the group members. For example, trade unions, national cooperative societies, understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. etc. etc. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Planned groups: Planned groups are formed for some specific purpose, either by Planned groups: Planned groups are formed for some specific purpose, either by planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are community members themselves or by some project or organization. For example, an off‐ community members themselves or by some project or organization. For example, an off‐ critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches season vegetable production project may have planned to work with women farmers’ season vegetable production project may have planned to work with women farmers’ that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. groups. Project people or local mobilizers visit local communities, organize women groups. Project people or local mobilizers visit local communities, organize women Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, farmers into groups and work with them while they conduct their project activities. farmers into groups and work with them while they conduct their project activities. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Emergent groups: These groups are formed without any prior preparation. People come Emergent groups: These groups are formed without any prior preparation. People come extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but together and start developing into groups. Some incident or development ‐‐ for example, together and start developing into groups. Some incident or development ‐‐ for example, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our natural disaster or educational projects conducting a training campaign ‐‐ may trigger the natural disaster or educational projects conducting a training campaign ‐‐ may trigger the goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the formation of these groups. formation of these groups. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

Characteristics of a group Characteristics of a group Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this

There are a few characteristics that connote a group: There are a few characteristics that connote a group: handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Group interaction: This refers to the way in which people engage with and influence one Group interaction: This refers to the way in which people engage with and influence one easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some another. Task interaction is about the group’s work; relationship interaction is the socio‐ another. Task interaction is about the group’s work; relationship interaction is the socio‐ of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of emotional interactions between and among members. emotional interactions between and among members. the tools. However, in the end, This educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Group Group interdependence: interdependence: This is is how how group group members members depend depend on on and and influence influence one one expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them another. another. do so.

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Tool 21: Understand Group Dynamics and/or Facilitate Groups Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Group structure: Group size, norms, roles and stable patterns of relationship among the members of the group explain the group structure (Forsyth, 2006). Preface Group size: The number of members in a group affects how they participate in group This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ activities. For example, in small groups, members will have relatively more chance to be to‐day involved and communicate than members in larger groups. work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Group norms: Norms guide how group members should behave in groups. Smith (2008) intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural prescribed “norm” to be not what is likely to happen but rather what ought to occur. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Group norms keeps a group together and help groups function well. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Roles: The expectations and agents, attributes related to a social position form roles (Smith, extension workers; and field‐level whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ 2008). Defining roles is important so that every member knows what and how he/she can profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating contribute to the group and/or the group’s goals. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Group goals: Group goals envision the future and tell what the group and its members programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools want to achieve. Group goals keep groups and group members united and active. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Group cohesion: Groups survive because there is cohesion and trust among members. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Members believe in one another and are committed to work together. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first

and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Stages of group development Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Groups mainly go through five stages of development: forming, storming, norming and connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural performing (Tuckman and Jensen, 1977) (Figure 12); adjourning is the fifth stage in the group life development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that cycle. Understanding these stages can help determine what is happening within a group and how may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an to manage the group. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Adjourning planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Performing critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Norming Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Storming rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Forming extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Figure 12. Stages of group development. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Forming: Members start to contact one another, express interest in teaming up with one another approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. to achieve individual (e.g., leadership) or collective goals (e.g., marketing agricultural products, Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this organizing farmer training). Members want the group to accept them. Group leaders are handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are expected to guide the members. There is no agreement on the group’s goals and objectives at equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are this stage, and members are also not clear about their roles in the group. Personal relations are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some characterized by dependence. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 114

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Storming: Once a group is formed, members express desires for certain roles and positions; there could be arguments and conflicts among members over leadership, power and authority. Preface Members reveal their personal agendas and vie for positions in the group. Competition and This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ conflict may color personal relationships, too. This stage culminates in mutually agreed upon role to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and definitions. To progress to the next stage, group members must move from a testing and proving evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The mentality to a problem‐solving mentality. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Norming: Group members form norms that govern the group, and cohesion and cooperation extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice develop among members. Members are willing to change their preconceived ideas and resolve extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ interpersonal conflicts. They are also open to one another and share feelings and ideas, solicit profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating and give feedback to one another, and explore actions related to the tasks at hand. They extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education participate in decision making and are committed to work to achieve group goals and objectives. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Members respect their leaders and vice versa. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Performing: Members work together to do tasks and achieve agreed upon goals. Members work to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first together to enhance group productivity. Members exhibit true interdependence ‐‐ they are and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. unified, loyal and supportive; they focus their efforts on problem solving and task completion. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the There is a shared vision among members. Members take on the roles the group has assigned to connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural them. Issues or conflicts that come up while the group moves on are resolved through dialogue. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Groups may function on their own at this stage and beyond. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Adjourning: Once goals are accomplished, a group may be dissolved, a group may no longer They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, function, and/or members dissociate themselves from the group. However, some groups may they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are continue to function even after they accomplish their predetermined goals. Some groups may critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches even advance to yet another stage, becoming and functioning as independent institutions ‐‐ for that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. example, cooperatives, non‐governmental organizations, etc. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Skills required for facilitating group formation rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but The following are adapted from Eastern Washington University (2015): comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Forming: Extension workers should promote inclusiveness, encourage people to be connected to skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help one another, find diverse members’ talents, and facilitate members finding common purposes create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory and targets for change. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Storming: Extension workers should be able to accept differing ideas, discuss those ideas in the Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this groups, amicably handle the conflict that may arise, and examine and address biases if they are handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are hindering participation. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are

easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Norming: Extension workers should be able to demonstrate that the group processes are free of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of and fair and that members feel welcomed, informed and involved; and engage members in the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be collaboration and teamwork. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Performing: Extension workers’ role should be to encourage group members, celebrate group success, and empower members to learn new skills and think about new plans.

Preface

Adjourning: Extension workers should facilitate the smooth transition of a group to either This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ dissolve or move to a more advanced stage, depending on how members want the group go. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Once a group accomplishes its predetermined tasks, members may come up with new needs and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The demands. Extension workers should be able to provide proper guidance so that members know intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural what their next destination is and how to reach it. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Additional Tips on Forming Groups extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Socioeconomic and cultural differences persist in societies (Bunch, 1995). Be familiar with profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating the geography, economy, education, cultures and farming systems of the communities extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools you plan to work with. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Select members who agree to work on a common agenda and who live close by. People with similar backgrounds form an effective group to work with. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  To know the society and its issues better, visit members at their homes and/or farms and and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. get firsthand information. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Meet people as many times as you can. The more you meet and listen to them, the more connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural they trust you. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Participate in local cultures ‐‐ language, food and other customs to get closer to the may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. people and establish trust with them. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in Understand the strengths and interests of local people. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Demonstrate that you are accountable and responsible to the group and the local people. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Let all members speak. Encourage women and members from minority ethnic groups to critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches speak, too. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

 Nurture the group by explaining to group members the benefits of being and working in Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, groups. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Facilitate group processes such as selecting leaders, engaging in dialogue about and comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our deciding on goals and objectives, and formulating an action plan. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Encourage members to meet regularly. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Encourage the group to make its work transparent and keep records of its work. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Guide group members in avoiding interpersonal conflicts and personal allegiances. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Learn negotiation skills to use when conflict occurs in the group. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Communities have members with many interests, needs and degrees of power, which may lead easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some to conflict and confrontation within a group. As an extension educator, you should be able to of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of help tools. groups and their negotiate and defuse the extension conflict. According to Fitzgerald the However, in members the end, to educated and well‐trained staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them (2012), negotiation is a conferring of two or more individuals or groups to reach an agreement, do so. 116

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generally by exchanging promises and/or concessions. Fitzgerald adds that negotiations could be distributive or integrative and explains their differences. The former is competitive, and there is Preface zero‐sum gain – that is, one party’s gain would mean the other party’s loss. In integrative This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ negotiation, the parties cooperate as partners to maximize benefits by combining interests into to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and an agreement. Integrative negotiation is based on information sharing and bargaining as well as evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The a collective search for options, alternatives and solutions. Successful extension workers are able intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural to promote integrative negotiations. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice References extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Bunch, R. (1995). Two ears of corn. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA: World Neighbors. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Eastern Washington University. (2015). Group formation. Accessed at: of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. http://web.ewu.edu/groups/studentlife/Group_Formation.pdf Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Fitzgerald, M.A. (2012). If I had a water buffalo: Microfinance as a means to sustainability. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Traverse City, Michigan, USA: CGS Publishing. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Forsyth, D.R. (2006) Group dynamics (International Student Edition). Belmont, California, USA: Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Thomson Wadsworth Publishing. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Smith, M.K. (2008). What is a group? The encyclopedia of informal education. Accessed at: may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an www.infed.org/mobi/what‐is‐a‐group/ understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Tuckman, B.W., and M.A. Jensen. (1977). Stages in small group development revisited. Group They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for and Organization Studies, 2, 419‐427. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 22: Write Field Reports Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 22: Write Field Reports Preface

A field report is a document written by extension workers reporting their activities to their This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ supervisors other a stakeholders. report helps to keep the government or to‐day work. and It offers set of tools A for field effective communication, program planning and supervisors/line managers informed of field activities. Furthermore, field reports document for evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The the extension professional important information and records pertaining to an undertaking or intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural set of undertakings in the community. A report helps in tracking tasks accomplished and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental documenting the progress and challenges faced. It helps build institutional memory, which is extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ useful for planning the next stages of a project or replicating it in other regions. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education What is needed to write a good field report? programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools An extension fieldworker should maintain a diary where s/he notes key tasks and activities of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. completed on a daily basis. Record details such as how many households were visited, who were the people helped and what the attendance was. A report might be written at the end of a month Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer or a quarter. Letting the report go much longer will mean that a lot of details will be lost. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Common ways to gather data as suggested by University of South California (2015) are: Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Note taking: Taking notes is the most common method of recording observations across connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural disciplines such as social work, anthropology, etc. To save time in the field, it is useful to development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may develop shorthand symbols beforehand so that recording basic and repeated actions can be differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. made simple. Keep a note of who is the person you are referring to, even if the activity is They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, being repeated. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Video and audio recordings: Video or audio recording your observations has the positive planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are effect of giving you an unfiltered record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches analysis of your observations. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Illustrations/drawings: The need is to record details ‐‐ for example, to draw a map of the Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, observed setting, a village map to remember the location of the main amenities or illustrate rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but objects to document people's behavior. This can also take the form of rough tables to list comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our those activities that were observed frequently. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help How to write a report? create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory You have the information, but how to present is always a question. These steps can help organize approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. items in a logical manner. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Step 1: Brain write handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Like brainstorming, this is a process of thinking about the subject of the report in its length equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are and breadth. Unlike brainstorming, the process takes place in the individual’s head. Make a easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some note of all the basic points that will go into the report (Greenhall, 2010). of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 118

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Step 2: Develop the content Work on the content and structure separately. Put down all content on paper, and assess the Preface

content and decide what ought to be included. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Then, consider how the information will be organized and structured in the report. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Step 3: Structure the content intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Write the report in the following structure. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice The first part introduces the purpose of the report, stating why the report is being written. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ The second part is the main substance. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Describe the process of how people were brought into the program. Here list out which programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools methods were used and which one(s) worked well in establishing rapport ‐‐ e.g., dialogue, of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. home visits, demonstration. A comparative analysis among methods might be useful. Did Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer women show interest in joining in? What was the rate of adoption? to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Make a separate section on challenges. What acted as a hindrance ‐‐ e.g., language, Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the credit, resource access, dependability? connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that The third part has concluding remarks which contain reflection from the writer on what could may have been improved. differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Additional tips They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for A report that is concise and well‐structured is reader‐friendly. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Check over the report. Ensure that the final version is clear and free of grammatical errors. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Include a field map which you can prepare by consulting local people. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Keep it precise! This is an age of information when people want to know about many topics rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field but in brief. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Format for monthly field report for extension workers

Preface Top of the report:  Name of the state This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Give the period  Name of the district to‐day work. It offers a set tools for effective communication, program planning and (e.g., 1 August 2014  of Name of the reporting officer evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The to 31 August 2015)  Names of the blocks and villages visited intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Number of working hours resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Plan for the month Section I: extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Plan of the month  Work assigned by the district collector, chief or the supervisor extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐

profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Section II:  Include the plans. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  List the tasks that are partially completed. Tasks accomplished programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  List completed tasks. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Section III:  How do people interact in meetings? Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Observations  Which innovation received wide acceptance? to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Why was it more liked than others? Cost‐effective, better and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension yield, higher availability? and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Who were most keen to adopt? connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Section IV: Issues  In the field: those faced with the community may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an and challenges  Administrative: those faced with funding agency, understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. government, non‐governmental organizations, etc. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Section V: Analysis  knowledge Include tasks done, who were early adopters and why, which planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are farmers were resisting adoption and why. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  List other observations from the field. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  What did you do that you could improve on? For instance, you Section VI: Self‐ Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, might have convinced 11 local people to adopt a new variety introspection rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field of vegetable but only one is a woman. So you realize that your extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but effort needs to be more directed toward including women. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Section VII: Planning  Plan the tasks for next month (this becomes Section I for the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help next month). create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

References Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Greenhall, M. (2010). Report writing skills training course ‐ How to write a report and executive equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are summary and plan. Lancashire, United Kingdom: Universe of Learning Ltd. Accessed at: easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some www.uolearn.com/reportwriting/reportwritingworkbookuolearn.pdf of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of University of South California. (2015). Organizing your social sciences research paper: Writing a the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them field report. Accessed at: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/fieldreport do so. 120

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Program Evaluation Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

8. Program Evaluation in Extension

Preface

Evaluation is an essential part of an extension program. It is a management tool that involves This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ measuring and reporting to‐day work. It offers a on the results and impacts of extension programs and projects. It serves set of tools for effective communication, program planning and the accountability function. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the operation and/or the outcomes of a program or resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental policy. USAID (2011) defines evaluation as a systematic collection and analysis of information extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice about the characteristics and outcomes of a program or project as a basis of judgment to improve extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ its effectiveness and/or to inform decisions about current or future programming. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Program evaluation is an in‐service essential training extension personnel through opportunities, continuing education Accountability Questions Asked by Funding programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools competency for extension workers. They Entities of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. need to possess skills in systematically  Should the government and donors gathering and analyzing evidence about the Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer continue to fund extension programs? usefulness and impact of extension to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Are the extension programs effective? Who programs. Evaluation should serve as a and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. benefitted and what impacts were made? Today’s agricultural extension and advisory management tool ‐‐ for accountability and services are being challenged to serve as the  How would you improve or terminate connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural organizational learning and development. ineffective extension programs? development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an When do we conduct evaluations?  What new programs should be understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Evaluation should be planned at the time of implemented to meet the needs of farmers They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, planning the program itself. or to address changing needs of the rural they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for agricultural clients you intend to serve? Evaluation has several usages ‐‐ program planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are planning, program improvement, critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches accountability and marketing. Accordingly, evaluation data can be collected at various stages of that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. a program or project. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field The design stage: A needs assessment evaluation helps you to know the target audience, extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but local needs and conditions, program priorities and their desired outcomes. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our The start‐up stage: This establishes a baseline to which changes resulting from the extension goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the program can be compared later. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory While the program or project is in progress: A formative evaluation is conducted while the approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. program is being implemented. Collecting information during a program or project helps managers determine whether the project is going as planned and whether adjustments are Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this needed in the project. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are After the program wraps up: A summative evaluation is conducted toward the end of a easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some program to help decision makers determine a program’s impact and its future. The focus is of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the on determining program results and effectiveness. Extension managers can use summative tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be evaluation findings to make major decisions about programs – continuation, expansion or expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them reduction, and funding. do so.

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Long after the program finishes: follow‐up: This stage of evaluation looks at the long‐term benefits of a program.

Preface

Evaluation can involve quantitative, qualitative or mixed method. As explained above, the This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ purpose and motive guide the choice of method. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Quantitative methods measure a finite number of predetermined outcomes and are intended audiences of this effects, handbook include: cause, governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural appropriate for judging attributing comparing or ranking, classifying and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental generalizing results. Quantitative methods are suitable for large‐scale projects; useful for extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice judging cause and effect; accepted as more credible by those who are oriented toward extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ numbers; and applicable for generalizing to a larger population. Examples of quantitative profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating methods are census data and surveys. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Qualitative methods involve rich descriptions of people, places, conversations and behavior. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. These methods are good for understanding the context in which a program takes place; understanding complex problems and process issues; clarifying relationships between Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer program objectives and implementation; identifying unintended consequences of a program; to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first understanding operations and effects of programs; and conducting in‐depth analyses of and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. program impacts. Focus group discussion, in‐depth interviews and participant observation Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural are examples of qualitative methods. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Mixed methods combine qualitative and quantitative methods within one evaluation study. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an This combination can be used to offset biases, and they complement each other by understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. contributing the strengths adult education principles. of the varied methods. Multiple methods are appropriate for They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, understanding complex social phenomena, allowing plurality of viewpoints and interests. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Does evaluation involve research? critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches The goal of research is generation of new knowledge. Research could be basic or applied. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Evaluation falls more under applied research. It uses a wide array of research methods ranging Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, from observation to experimental research. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but A good extension program identifies specific outcomes and impacts that can be measured by comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our collecting and analyzing data about the program. Evaluators typically try to identify cause‐and‐ goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the effect relationships between an activity designed to induce change (such as a farmer field school) skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help and a particular desired outcome (such as increased knowledge about improved farming create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory practices among participants). approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Evaluations make use of various kinds of data collection tools. Figure 13 displays common tools Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this and techniques for various evaluation stages. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 122

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Core Competency Handbook Program stage

Preface

Types of studies

Program Evaluation Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Typical questions answered

Examples of evaluation tools and techniques

What are the felt and unfelt Surveys This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Needs needs of the audience? to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and assessment Focus groups evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Can extension address Observation intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Planning these needs? Do they fit resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Feasibility Content analysis (e.g., of stage with extension’s mission? extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice study office records) extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Is the program or project Economic analysis (e.g., profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating socially, economically, extension personnel through environmentally feasible? in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Baseline study benefit/cost analysis) programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Annual monitoring reports of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Is the program meeting its (e.g., staff time and activity Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer reports, crop yield, seed cost) objectives of intended to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Formative outcomes? Adoption patterns for new and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. evaluation technology Today’s advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Imple‐ agricultural extension and Is the audience satisfied connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural mentation with the program? Evaluative studies of development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that knowledge, attitude and stage Program may differ from those they Are the media delivering learned in school. Extension professionals must have an behavior change monitoring program messages? understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Customer satisfaction surveys They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Content analysis of news planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are releases critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Has the program addressed Pre‐ and post‐project data that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. the needs or gaps analysis Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Impact identified? Cohort studies rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field assessment Concluding Is the program achieving extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Panel studies or results comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our desired outcomes? Surveys (e.g., personal stage goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Summative Is the program cost‐ interviews, telephone surveys, skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help evaluation effective? mail surveys, online surveys) create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Economic analysis Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Figure 13. Evaluation tools and techniques by program stage (Suvedi and Vander Stoep, 2014). equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Are monitoring and evaluation related? of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Monitoring helps to ensure that programs are implemented in accordance with their design and the tools. However, in the end, questions educated such and as well‐trained extension staff Monitoring members will be objectives, and it helps answer “Are we doing it right?” usually expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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tracks resources (e.g., funds, personnel and supplies) and processes (e.g., occurrence of meetings, number of participants, demonstrations and publications).

Preface

Evaluations are used to provide evidence about whether specific extension programs are good This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ investments or achieving the intended goals and Examples of Questions for Monitoring to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and objectives. They are based on the comparison of evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Are farmers receiving agronomic observed changes in the project target outcomes intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural information in a timely manner? (e.g., changes in a target population’s quality of resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental life—satisfaction with services, production levels, extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Are extension meetings attracting a economic gains) from before and after the launch extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ sufficient number of farmers for of the project/program or implementation of a profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating successful implementation of a new policy. They may utilize quantitative analysis, extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education program or project? using a counterfactual (i.e., control group) to programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools estimate the extent to which changes can be  Are demonstrations conducted as of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. planned? attributed to the project intervention. Usually, Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer impact assessments use an experimental or quasi‐ to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Are farmers adopting new practices? experimental design. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.

Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services evaluation are being are challenged to serve as the Monitoring of a program’s performance and impact related, but they require connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural different methods and levels of rigor. Monitoring tracks key indicators of progress over the development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that course of a program. Evaluation looks at the value or worth of the program and its activities. It may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an looks at impacts ‐‐ lasting or long‐term effects of understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. the program or project. What difference did the They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, extension program or project make in the lives of they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for the people? Did it improve food availability or planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are food utilization? Did it increase local use of local critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches foods and reduce incidents of illness? Did it that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. increase household income? Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Similar to monitoring, operation evaluation seeks rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to understand whether implementation of a to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our program has unfolded as planned. The aim is to goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the compare what was planned with what was skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help actually delivered to determine if gaps exist create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory between planned and realized outputs (Khandker © M. Suvedi. Monitoring commercial horticulture approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. gardens in Cambodia. et al., 2010). Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Extension impacts and evidence hierarchy handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Evaluations can look at the short‐term, medium‐term and long‐term impacts of a program or easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some policy. Knowledge or awareness creation can be a short‐term impact of extension programs. For of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of example, farmers gain knowledge of an improved practice through participation in a method the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be demonstration. Behavior change or adoption of new farming technique may take some time, so expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them behavior change could be a medium‐term impact. Improvement in living conditions, food do so. 124

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security and nutrition could take even longer to realize and thus are long‐term impacts of a program or policy.

Preface

Extension programs have many objectives — such as informing people about a technology, This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ changing people’s knowledge or skills to use the technology, or promoting the adoption of new to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and technology in the community. There is a relationship between program objectives and outcomes evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The at different levels. Figure 14 handbook illustrates include: the difference in information gathered for different intended audiences of this governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural objectives. That is, there are different levels of evidence required for different levels of programs resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental being evaluated. Note that the higher the level of evidence, the longer time it takes to realize the extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension outcomes. workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Figure 14. Hierarchy of program evaluation (adapted from Bennett, 1979 and Suvedi, 2011). goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Challenges in evaluation of agricultural extension programs create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Agricultural extension organizations are complex. The structures of extension organizations, their approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. goals and objectives, methods of information delivery and accountability requirements are not Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this uniform. Local farming systems and contexts vary. In most countries, the goal of agricultural handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are extension has been the transfer of technology or improved farming practices. In some countries, equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are extension focuses on non‐formal education for farmers. Therefore, it is not possible to offer a easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some recipe for best practices on monitoring and evaluation. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Suvedi and Vander Stoep (2014) outlined three major challenges in evaluating extension programs:

Preface

 Extension services frequently use a descriptive, one‐shot case study for impact This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ evaluation. We lack the use of most rigorous and direct assessments of cause‐and‐effect to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and outcomes of extension programs and services. Extension needs to establish a scientific evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The knowledge base. For example, do farmers who attend extension meetings adopt hybrid intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural corn varieties earlier than those who do not? Do farmers who attend extension meetings resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental generate a higher net income per hectare than those who do not? extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  In the context of public agricultural extension and advisory service evaluation, it is difficult profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating to establish a control or comparison group, maintain uniform treatments and measure extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education long‐term impacts. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Most evaluations are managed from national headquarters or by development partners. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. They lack baseline data on impact indicators. Monitoring data are lacking. Frequently, Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer expatriate evaluators visit the project site for a short time period to assess impacts. They to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first do not examine the ripple effect – i.e., assess how direct impacts of an extension program and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. or projects may, over time and geography, spread indirectly to others, thus resulting in Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the expanded impacts over time. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Extension workers require competencies in planning and conducting evaluations. The may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an traditional role of an evaluator was more of an expert or objective observer. Today, evaluators understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. are educators, facilitators, interpreters, mediators and/or change agents. Extension workers They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, should be able to conceptualize and design an appropriate evaluation plan, use qualitative and they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for quantitative tools in data collection and analysis, and write a simple evaluation report. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

References

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Bennett, C.F. (1979). Analyzing impacts of extension programs. Washington, D.C., USA: U.S. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Department of Agriculture. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Khandker, S., G.B. Koolwal and H.A. Samad. (2010). Handbook on impact evaluation: quantitative goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the methods and practices. Washington, D.C., USA: World Bank. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Suvedi, M., and G. Vander Stoep. (2014). Improving the monitoring and evaluation of agricultural create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory extension services. Discussion paper. East Lansing, Michigan, USA: Department of approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Community Sustainability, Michigan State University. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are manual. USAID/MEAS/MSU. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of USAID. (2011). Evaluation policy. Washington, D.C., USA: Bureau for Policy and Planning. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 126

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Tool 23: Design Survey Instruments Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Good Practice Tools for Program Evaluation Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Tool 23: Design Survey Instruments to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Survey instruments play vital roles in extension data collection, research, monitoring and intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural evaluation. Monitoring and evaluation of extension programs and/or services are more effective resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental if they are systematic and they use well‐articulated instruments. Well‐designed survey extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice instruments help generate valid and reliable data that help effectively assess extension services extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ and draw trustworthy conclusions. Therefore, it is essential that extension workers are familiar profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating with the art and craft of designing survey instruments. This section, like the others on various extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education tools, is a quick overview that cannot substitute for a course, seminar or text on the subject programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools matter. The following notes are adapted from Dillman et al. (2009) and Suvedi (2011) to present of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. key elements in the proper design of survey instruments for evaluation and study of extension Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer services. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Survey instruments are complex tools that are designed to look simple and welcoming to and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the potential respondents. Their design requires diligence, knowledge and skill. When people look at connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural a survey, they may think that it is easy to design one. But they may better understand the survey development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that questionnaire’s depth and complexity once they actually involve themselves in taking the survey may differ from those they learned in needs school. professionals must have an or when designing a survey. Survey design to Extension be planned early because it often takes understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. considerable time. Designing a survey instrument in such a way that respondents find it easy to They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, answer, that the survey yields valid and reliable data, and that data are easy to code and enter they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for for analysis is no simple task. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches This section on survey design lists the characteristics of a survey instrument and ways to that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. overcome common wording problems, and then briefly discusses measures to attain high validity and reliability. Some guidelines for designing survey questionnaires follow. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Characteristics of well‐designed instruments extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Appealing: Respondents would be willing to respond. This minimizes non‐response error. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Clear questions: Respondents provide accurate responses. This reduces measurement skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help error. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Simple and easy to respond: Respondents need find the survey easy to understand and Please quick to complete. This increases the response rate. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this

handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Respect the respondents: Keep cost of responding (time and effort) low, and maximize equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are the benefit (utility of findings, sense of contribution, etc.). easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Validity and reliability of survey instruments the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Validity and reliability are two very important aspects of survey instruments and survey research. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them Validity hinges on these questions: Does your instrument measure what you intend to measure? do so.

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Does the instrument capture accurate measures of the concept of interest? There are three types of validity: criterion, construct and content validity.

Preface

Criterion validity is divided into concurrent validity ‐‐ the instrument relates well (correlates) with This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ another established measure of tools the same concept communication, administered at program the same planning time ‐‐ and and to‐day work. It offers a set of for effective predictive validity ‐‐ the instrument relates well to some phenomenon in the future. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended of this the handbook include: governmental Construct audiences validity concerns theoretical argument and basis agriculture, of concepts fisheries, measured natural in the resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental evaluation/research. Content validity concerns whether the range of items included in the extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice instrument are relevant to the task and context. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Reliability tests should reveal whether your instrument consistently measures what it is supposed profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating to measure. Statistical tools are available to check reliability. However, you are advised to consult extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education and seek advice and input from experts, academics and peers on instruments you develop. Such programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. peer review is vital to designing valid and reliable survey instruments. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Guidelines for developing effective questionnaires: to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Make a list of variables, with key words or phrases, that the questionnaire is intended to and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s collect data on. agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Draft items (i.e., survey questions) for each variable of interest. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Assemble draft they items learned into a questionnaire. Combine professionals questions that can be joined may  differ from the those in school. Extension must have an together and weed out redundant questions. Organize questions into a logical order with understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, a flow. Start with easier items. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Refine question items and analyze each item for potential flaws. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Field‐test/pretest the questionnaire. Have colleagues or a small sample of respondents that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. complete the questionnaire. Revise items on the basis of their feedback and on the basis of preliminary analysis of pretest data. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Writing questions extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but The questions used in a questionnaire are the basic components that determine the comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the effectiveness of your survey. Writing good questions is not easy and usually takes more than skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help one try. Consider what information to include, how to structure the questions and whether create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory people can answer the questions accurately. Good survey questions are focused, clear and to approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. the point. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Every question should focus on a single, specific issue or topic. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Poor: Which brand do you like best? equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Better: Which of these brands are you most likely to buy? of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of The objective of these questions is to measure consumer preference. The first question lacks focus; the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be consumers may like a particular brand but may not buy it because of its high price. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 128

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The meaning of the question must be completely clear to all respondents. Clarity ensures that everyone interprets the question the same.

Preface

Poor: When was the last time you went to the doctor for a physical examination on your own This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ or because you had to? to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Better: How many months ago was your last physical examination? intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural The first question could be interpreted in weeks, months or years, or by date. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Keep questions as short as possible. Short questions are easier to answer and less subject to extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ error by interviewers and respondents. Long questions are more likely to lack focus and clarity. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Poor: Can you tell me how many children you have, whether they’re boys or girls, and how extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education old they are? programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Better: What is the age and sex of each of your children? Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer A respondent may answer the first question ambiguously. For example, “I have two boys and a to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first girl. They are 5, 7, and 10 years old.” It is not possible to determine the ages of each child from this and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. response. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Questions should be written to avoid bias. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Poor: Is it true that our extension agents always work long hours? may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Better: On average, how many hours do extension agents work in their job? understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, How to avoid poorly worded questions/survey items they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Do not use: planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Loaded or emotionally charged words that are likely to prejudice the responses. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Example: Do you agree with federal support of imperialistic international Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, corporations? rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Double‐barreled questions extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Example: Did you take chemistry 101 and work in chemistry lab? comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Esoteric or technical words goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Example: Do you practice the principles of andragogy in teaching English to skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help immigrants? create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Negatively worded questions approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Example: Are you not boycotting GMO food products? Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Designing open‐ended questions equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Open‐ended questions seek responses that may be numerical but they may also be descriptive easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some or elaborative. Respondents provide answers in their own words. Provide adequate spaces for of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of answers. Provide unit labels with the answer spaces. Questions seeking description should the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be provide extra motivation to respond (Dillman et al., 2009). The following example is self‐ expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them illustrative. do so.

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A poorly constructed question: Why did you choose the new variety of rice? Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and A revision that provides extra motivation to respond: evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: for governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Your answer to this question is very important understanding what motivates farmers to resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental adopt the new rice variety. Why did you choose the new variety of rice? extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Assembling the questionnaire extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Make it easy to read and keep it as short as possible, but not so short that you fail to of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. collect the data that you need. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Introduce the instrument with a cover letter, cover page and/or opening section. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Organize the content in some logical order (from respondents’ perspective). and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Leave sufficient space between questions so that it is easy to read the questions. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Clearly indicate branching or which questions are next for respondents’ attention. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Reduce the chance of misreading. Use boldface for key words. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, How to overcome common wording problems in a questionnaire they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Be specific and keep sentences short. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Use commonly understood words and avoid vague words. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Avoid talking down to respondents. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Avoid being overly specific if the question does not require such specificity. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Specificity: Each question should focus on a single, specific issue. Avoid double‐barreled skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help questions. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Meaning: The meaning of each question should be completely clear to all respondents. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Length: Keep questions short and simple. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Bias: Questions should be written to avoid bias. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 130

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Designing a mail survey ‐‐ some suggestions: Preface Front cover This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Choose a good title that is clear, to the point and catchy. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Use graphic design or illustration that adds interest. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Put name(s) of sponsor(s) and return address. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Format using 12‐point elite type fonts and print the booklet on off‐white bond paper. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Back cover profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Invite respondent to make comments if any. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Offer blank spaces for comments. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Thank respondent for his/her time and participation. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Between covers and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  agricultural Provide sample/example if needed. Today’s extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  The first two questions are very important to draw respondents’ attention and interest development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that on the issues, so these questions should be especially appealing. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Order questions so that the most interesting and topic‐related ones come first. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Put questions seeking knowledge personal details toward the end ‐‐ e.g., about age, they must possess adequate and skill in participatory tools questions and techniques for income, etc. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Questionnaire design that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Individual page design: Remember that the questionnaire is for the respondent. So make it easy Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, for the respondents to understand, follow instructions and answer. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Put blank space between questions. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Maintain vertical flow. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Provide adequate instructions for each question at the right place. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Use numbers rather than boxes or fill‐in‐the‐blank lines. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  note For skip questions, provide clear directions or arrows. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Avoid having questions continue over to another page. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Pretesting of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Pretest the questionnaire: the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  Get comments from experts on the subject. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Pretest with people who are similar to the people in the target population.

Preface Pretesting is done to find out:  Do you get the information you intend to get? This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  work. Are all the words understood? evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Are questions answered correctly? intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Are skip patterns followed correctly? extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Is there any bias on your part? profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Revise the questionnaire on the basis of the input received from pretesting. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Telephone questionnaires ‐‐ things to keep in mind of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  You are writing for the ear, so questions must sound professional rather than look Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer professional. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Keep questions short and simple. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Introduce yourself appropriately. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Starting questions should be short, easy and interesting. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Make smooth transitions from one section to the next. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Web questionnaires ‐‐ things to keep in mind they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Assess whether members of the survey population are able to access the Internet and planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are use the web survey. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Create appealing opening and closing pages. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Be consistent in page layout throughout. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was help and meet the need for and a simple but  Use software programs that are created easy to to access simple to use, that allow comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our exporting data in various data analysis software. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Test the survey for time required to fill out the survey and difficulty to answer questions, skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help and also assess the reliability and validity of the items. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 132

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Guide to Writing Questions and Designing a Questionnaire (Suvedi, 2011)

Preface  The title and accompanying graphic of the questionnaire should appeal to the respondents. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  The type used should be large and easy to read. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  The questionnaire should appear professional and easy to answer. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  The introduction should identify the audience, describe the purpose of the survey extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice and give directions about how to complete the questionnaire. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Questions should not appear crowded. Each question should be numbered, and sub‐ extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education parts of a question should be lettered. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Questions should be arranged in a logical order, with general questions preceding of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. more specific ones. Easy‐to‐answer questions come first, followed by increasingly Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer complex, thought‐provoking or sensitive questions. Personal or potentially to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first threatening questions should be placed at the end. A request for demographic and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. information should be included near the end of the questionnaire. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the

connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Sufficient space should be left for answering open‐ended questions. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Clearly indicate where branching occurs and where general questions resume. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Key words should be boldfaced to minimize the possibility that they are misread. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for The questionnaire should end with a “Thank you.” planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Closed‐ and Open‐ended Questions

Preface Examples of closed‐ended questions: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ 1. Have you or members of your family attended IPM training at the Extension Center this to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective year? ___Yes ___ No communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The 2. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the new land tax policy? Circle one: intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Strongly disagree Disagree Neither Agree Strongly agree extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice 3. Approximately how much did you spend on fertilizer during 2015? extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating ___None ___$1 ‐100 ___$101‐200 ____$201 and more extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Examples of open‐ended questions: programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. 1. How do you plan to use the information acquired during this training? Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the 2. What do you think should be done to improve the IPM training program? connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for 3. How much did you spend on fertilizer in 2014? ________ planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

References

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Dillman, D.A., J.D. Smyth and L.M. Christian. (2009). Internet, mail and mixed‐mode surveys: The rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field tailored designed method (third ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley and Sons. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the manual. USAID/MEAS/MSU. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 134

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Tool 24: Conduct Surveys and Personal Interviews Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 24: Conduct Surveys and Personal Interviews Preface

Surveys are tools used to collect data related to participants’ knowledge, attitudes, skills and This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ aspirations as It well as their adoption of for practices. Program benefits and impacts can also and be to‐day work. offers a set of tools effective communication, program planning measured using questionnaires. By asking properly selected people, surveys help study evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The characteristics of target populations. Survey questionnaires may be administered through mail, intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural online/Internet, telephone and in person. In‐person or face‐to‐face surveys came into use in the resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental 1960s. Now, extension workers use all forms of surveys ‐‐ mail, in‐person, telephone and web‐ extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ based. Web‐based surveys are getting popular among agricultural stakeholders who have access profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating to the Internet. Survey questionnaires have two parts ‐‐ sets of questions and sets of answers; extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education and answers can be closed‐ended or open‐ended (Frechtling et al., 2002). programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our © MSU. Conducting personal interview in Nepal. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Surveys usually generate quantitative data, but there is an increase in use of open‐ended approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. questions in surveys that seek out data for quantitative and qualitative analyses. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this As an extension educator, you need to understand how to design and administer surveys as well handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are as make sure to follow and maintain ethical standards for research/study. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Why to use surveys of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  They permit collection of data concerning complex questions. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  They allow for anonymity of respondents. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.  They are cost‐effective to administer.

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They may be well‐suited for reaching a large number of people and getting their input, feedback and data. This is particularly useful when the target population is widely Preface dispersed. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Limitations of surveys to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  They do not easily ascertain cause‐and‐effect relationships. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  They often require a fairly literate population. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Identifying appropriate samples of potential respondents may be a challenge. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Mail surveys profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Following are the strengths/advantages of mail surveys. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Mail surveys can be used in a large and widely distributed population could not easily programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools be reached by in‐person or telephone surveys. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  They are often cost‐effective. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  They provide a sense of privacy to respondents when answering survey questions. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  They are less sensitive to biases introduced by interviewers/enumerators. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Questions can be made appealing by using visual aids. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Mail surveys are effective when: development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Members of the target population are educated and literate. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Local or national postal/mail service is efficient and reliable. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. The subject matter is appealing to respondents. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Incentives are provided. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  The survey is pretested to make sure that respondents understand the questions. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  The questionnaire is short and simple. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. The basic steps in implementing a mail survey from Suvedi (2011) illustrate the process to Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, conduct a mail survey. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. 


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Basic Steps in Implementing a Mail Survey (Suvedi, 2011)

Preface Step 1. Prepare survey material. Design a written questionnaire. Put an identification number on each questionnaire to track returns. The appearance of a mailed This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ questionnaire affects response. The questionnaire must “sell” itself to the to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and respondent to be returned. Therefore, considerable care should be taken in evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended designing the format of the questionnaire. audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  A simple booklet can be constructed by folding an 8 ½ by 11‐inch paper in half. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Make questions fit the page so that the respondent does not need to turn the extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating page to answer a question. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Provide easy‐to‐follow directions on how to answer the questions. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Arrange questions and answers in a vertical flow. Put answer choices under, of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. rather than beside, the questions. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Step 2. Pretest the instrument to assure validity and reliability. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Step 3. agricultural Select the survey population, develop a sampling frame and determine sample. Today’s extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Step 4. Develop a mailing schedule. Two weeks before mailing the survey, send an advance development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that letter. Mail the questionnaire, including a cover letter and a stamped, self‐addressed may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an envelope. Send a postcard a week or so later, thanking those who responded and understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. reminding those who did not to return their surveys. Three weeks after mailing the They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, first questionnaire, send a follow‐up letter stating that a response has not been they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for received; include a replacement questionnaire and a stamped, self‐addressed planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches envelope. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. How to increase the response rate in a mail survey Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Using social exchange theory, maximize the perceived benefits of participating in the survey and extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but minimize the cost and effort to complete and return survey. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Personalize contacts to respondents: Respondents will likely answer a mail survey if the survey package they receive has a cover letter printed on a letterhead, contains the original skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help signature of the sender and is addressed to the respondent in his/her name. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Include a token of appreciation with the survey request: Token incentives such as a store coupon, a tea bag or a phone card motivate people to participate in the survey. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Use multiple contacts— notice letter, questionnaire mailing, a reminder, a replacement equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are questionnaire ‐‐ help improve survey response rate. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Make the mailing package look professional so that it is not mistaken for junk mail and people the read it and respond to it. Using registered and express mailing service may help to get quicker tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be responses and a higher response rate. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Organize the elements inside the mailing package well and make them appealing to receivers.

Preface In‐person (face‐to‐face) survey The interviewer or enumerator meets each interviewee/respondent separately and in‐person. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of questions tools for aloud effective communication, program and Typically, the enumerator reads to potential respondents and planning records their evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The answers to the survey questions. This method is common in the developing countries where intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural people cannot respond to mail surveys because of low literacy levels and/or unreliable postal resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental service. It is also commonly used when it is important to screen potential respondents so that extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice only the target population participates in the survey. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ In‐person interviews typically cost more than mail surveys for each completed questionnaire. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Face‐to‐face surveys require a trained and skillful interviewer and require close supervision of extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education field data collection. Further, interviewer bias is a major challenge of in‐person surveys. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Therefore, the training of interviewers before data collection and close supervision during fieldwork is required to minimize interviewer‐related bias. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Initiating contact instructions for interviewer/enumerator: and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s Introduce yourself; show your identification/ID or credentials. agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Explain the purpose of the survey. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Follow informed consent protocol. Typically, this involves assuring potential respondents that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an their participation is voluntary and that their answers will remain confidential. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Explain how respondents were chosen for the survey. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Explain how long the survey will take, how results will be used, incentives, and potential planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are benefits to the respondent or the community. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Guidelines for face‐to‐face survey interview: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Select a mutually convenient time for the interview, and be punctual. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Express appreciation for the respondent’s responses and willingness to participate. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Read questions exactly as they are in the questionnaire and record answers accurately. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Do not express your opinions ‐‐ that may affect/influence the respondent’s answer. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Use neutral prompts (e.g.,” I see,” “Tell me more,” ”So how would you like to respond?,” “I approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. am writing that down,” etc.). Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  If an answer to an open‐ended question is incomplete or appears irrelevant, probe to get a handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are clearer response (again using neutral prompts). equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  If a respondent refuses to answer, acknowledge and respect his/her decision. Stop easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some interviewing when respondents ask you to stop. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of

the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 138

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Telephone survey One by one, interviewers read aloud questions from a written questionnaire to respondents using Preface

a telephone. Respondents’ answers are recorded by the interviewer in answer sheets or digitally. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Advantages: Telephone surveys can produce results quickly. It is easy to deal with questions to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and that may arise. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Limitations: Members of handbook the target population may not have access to telephones. Some resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental questions may not be suitable for telephone surveys. Trained and experienced interviewers extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice reduce the chance of errors. For example, interviewers may not read questions word for word extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ as written in the survey or may use inappropriate languages, e.g., “That’s great,” “You are profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating lucky,” etc. (Chen and Huang, 2006). extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Chen and Huang (2006) suggest the following steps in conducting a telephone survey: of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Design and pretest the questionnaire. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Recruit interviewers and train them. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Conduct a pilot test. Revise the questionnaire and survey procedures. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Finalize the questionnaire with response forms. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Conduct the phone survey. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Provide on‐site, taped monitoring or supervision. may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Assemble results. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  must Report findings. they possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Evaluate results and costs. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Online and web‐based surveys  They can be relatively inexpensive and fast (e.g., provide ready‐ to‐use data). Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  They are flexible. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  They can be designed using color, animation, sound, video, dropdown menus, etc. The comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our design makes surveys attractive and appealing to respondents. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  They can be administered using several online survey programs: Survey Monkey, create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Qualtrics, Zoomerang, Vovici, 123‐survey, etc. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Respondents can reply whenever they have time and deem appropriate. They also get Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this privacy while they answer the questions. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  There is no interviewer bias. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  They provide ready‐to‐use data that can be directly downloaded from the survey program of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of for analysis. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  Some web surveys even allow doing preliminary analysis and preparing reports. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Making web surveys more effective:  Personalize all contacts to respondents. Sending a personalized (Dear [First Name, Last Preface Name]) email results in higher response than impersonalized (Dear Student) emails. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Use multiple contacts with varying messages. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Distribute the emails at the right time. Avoid festive seasons and times of the year when intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural people are busy with other work. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Keep email message short and to the point. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Explain clearly how to access the survey. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Reducing survey errors extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Coverage error programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. “When not all members of the population have a known, non‐zero chance of being selected in the sample for the survey and when those excluded are different from those who Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer participated in the survey coverage, error occurs” (Dillman et al., 2009). It occurs when not to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first all people selected have access to or are familiar with the tools used to collect data, or the and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. population itself excludes certain group of people. For example, the Internet. Some people Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the have access to it and others may not. Those without internet will be excluded from the study. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that To minimize this error, redraw the list from which the sample is drawn to include all elements may of the population. differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Sampling error They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Sampling error occurs when a subset or sample of participatory all people in tools the population is studied they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in and techniques for instead of doing a census. To reduce this error, increase the size of the sample, use random planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are sampling and remove duplicate observations. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Non‐response error Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Non‐response error occurs when not everybody in the sample fills out the survey and those rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field who responded are different from those who did not respond. Motivate the respondents to extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but respond to the survey, for example, by sending reminders and including some gift vouchers. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Compare early to late respondents. If no difference is apparent, results may be generalizable goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the to the larger population. Contact about 10 percent of non‐respondents and gather data from skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help them. Compare these data with data from the respondents. If no difference is apparent, create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory results can be generalized to the larger population. Compare respondents to non‐ approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. respondents on known characteristics. If no difference is apparent, the results can be Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this generalized to the larger population. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Measurement error easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Inaccurate answers to survey questions lead to measurement error. It could be the result of of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the unclear questions, unclear wording of the questions and/or user‐unfriendly survey design. tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Since an interviewer is not present when respondents fill out the survey, the way respondents expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them interpret the questions may be different from what survey designers intended. To minimize do so. 140

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this error, take extra care in writing clear, unambiguous questions that people can and want to answer, train your interviewers carefully, use valid and reliable instruments, seek experts' Preface input on questionnaires and pretest carefully. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Make responding to your Survey a positive experience for respondents evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Consider the following suggestions from Dillman et al. (2009) to increase the benefit and intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural decrease the cost of participation in surveys: resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Provide essential information about the survey: its objectives, how to answer the extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice questions, etc. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Show positive regard to respondents. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Say thank you. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Give tangible rewards ‐‐ for example, gift vouchers, ice cream coupons, etc. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Make the questionnaire interesting. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Make the survey convenient to respond to. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Avoid talking down to respondents. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Make the questionnaire short and simple and easy to complete. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Put personal and sensitive information toward the end of the survey. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Note: Respondents participate in the survey when the perceived cost of the survey is less than They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, the perceived benefit. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches References that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Chen, P.Y., and Y. Huang. (2006). Conducting telephone surveys. Pages 210‐226 in F.T.L. Leong Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, and J.T. Austin (eds.), The psychology research handbook: A guide for graduate students rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but and research assistants (second ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, USA: Sage Publications. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Dillman, D.A., J.D. Smyth and L.M. Christian. (2009). Internet, mail, and mixed‐mode surveys: The goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the tailored design method (third ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley and Sons. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Frechtling, J., H. Frierson, S. Hood, G. Hughes and C. Katzenmeyer. (2002). The user friendly approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. handbook for project evaluation. Washington, D.C., USA: National Science Foundation. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are manual. USAID/MEAS/MSU. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 25: Conduct Participant Observations Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 25: Conduct Participant Observations Preface

Participant observation entails gathering information about behavioral actions and reactions This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ through work. direct It observation, interviews key informants and participation in planning the activities to‐day offers a set of tools with for effective communication, program and educator or evaluator being evaluated. As used in evaluation and needs assessment, the evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The immerses him or herself in the setting being studied with the intent of understanding the world intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural through the eyes of stakeholders (Butler and Howell, 1980; Suvedi et al., 1999). Participant resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental observation is useful in determining community conflicts or misunderstandings, assessing extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension and field‐level agents, whether means governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ community workers; needs and problems, and/or identifying to involve local people in problem profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating solving. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Participant observations are mainly of two types — direct and indirect, though you can also use programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools a combination of the two. It could be overt or direct, such as walking through a village to observe of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. what is going on, working with participants and being part of the participant community; or it Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer could be indirect ‐‐ e.g., naturalistic observation, case studies and content analysis. As an to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first evaluator, you need to judge possible pros and cons and decide which approach is likely to work and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. best. However, it will be hard to justify the observation when observers conceal their identity Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the and participants who or whose activities are being observed are not aware that they are being connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural observed. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Advantages understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Observation takes place in its natural setting. It is unstructured and flexible. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  It can be readily combined with other methods. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  It is useful for small units such as a neighborhood, a classroom or a group. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  It’s useful in assessing long‐term effects of programs or practices on local residents.

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  It may uncover behavioral patterns, social processes or problematic issues that participants rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field are not aware of. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Disadvantages goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  It rarely provides enough information for an evaluation and must usually be combined with skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help other methods, such as interviewing. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  It requires an evaluator with well‐developed observational skills. The evaluator has little to approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. no control over the situation. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  The presence of an evaluator may change the behavior of the group being observed. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Observations may not be generalizable. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  The observer may lose objectivity as a result of being a participant. Time is often a limiting of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of factor. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  It may not be suitable for large and/or heterogeneous groups. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 142

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How to conduct participant observation Participant observation follows a four‐stage process: preparation, entering the venue and Preface

building rapport with participants, beginning the observation and exiting the venue (Suvedi, This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ 2011). to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Entering the Beginning the Exiting the intended audiences of this handbook venue and include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Preparation observation location resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental building rapport extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Figure 15. Participant observation process. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Step 1: Preparation programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Have your conceptual framework ready with preliminary issues and the possible relationships of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. between them defined before conducting the observation. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Identify sources of information related to the study issue(s). to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Using informal sampling technique, select the observation site. Selecting two or more sites Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being should challenged to serve as the allows for comparative analysis of data. The site selected represent the type of connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural program or organization being observed. Make sure that the organization accepts the development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that observation evaluator. When to enter the observation site is crucial for one‐time activities, may seasonal events or those with a daily routine. differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Assemble tools for observation: notebook, pen, camera, tape recorder, etc. How data is They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, recorded depends on the situation. You may want to take notes on the spot and expand them they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for later, or you may want to make notes after finishing your observations. Photographs and tape planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches recorders assist in recording, but in some instances they may be intrusive and influence the that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. situation being observed. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Step 2: Entering the venue and building rapport with participants rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension Inform workers. participants the study was objectives, its benefits and for costs, and their This of handbook created methods, to help meet the need a simple but voluntary participation in the study. Seek participants’ consent to observe before starting comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our observation. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Building rapport and establishing trust with participants is very important. First, to ensure create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory that participants accept you and let you do your activity. Second, to enable participants to approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. act naturally as they would do if you were not present. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Step 3: Beginning the observation handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Focus only on those aspects of the activity pertinent to the topic being studied. The following equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are questions may help guide your observations: easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of  What is the setting of the scene you observe? the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  Where are you in relation to the scene you observe? expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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What is the situation when you engage in observation – e.g. time of day; approximate number of participants; participants’ ages, genders, ethnicities and classes, and relationships (if any) Preface among participants. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Are you a participant in the activity? If so, how did your participation affect your observation? to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  What does the scene you are observing make you think about? What puzzles you? What do evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural you think you understand? resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Is the activity similar to or different from other types of activities you have observed in similar extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice settings? extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Take notes of what you observe. You may write major points while at the observation venue and extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education elaborate those points later after you come out of the venue. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Step 4: Exiting the location of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Before leaving the venue, recheck the informed consent protocols; check the data and make sure Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer they are complete and organized, and that you have a back‐up copy. Acknowledge all for the help to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first they have provided, and save the contact details of participants. You may need to contact them and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. in the future. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an References understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Butler, L.M., and R.E. Howell. adult education principles. (1980). Coping with growth: Community needs assessment. They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Western Rural Development Center, Oregon State University. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches manual. USAID/MEAS/MSU. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Suvedi, M., K. Heinze and D. Ruonavaara. (1999). How to conduct evaluation of extension rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field programs. East Lansing, Michigan, USA: Michigan State University. Accessed at: extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but https://www.msu.edu/~suvedi/Resources/Documents/4_1_Evaulation%20manual%202 comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our 000.pdf goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. 


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Tool 26: Conduct RRA and PRAs Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 26: Conduct Rapid Rural Appraisals and Participatory Preface Rural Appraisals

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The An assessment approach that involves multiple data collection techniques that are quick, flexible, intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural and adaptive is Rapid Rural Appraisal. The approach aims to incorporate the knowledge and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental opinions of rural people in the planning and management of development projects and extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice programs. Usually, a multidisciplinary team of experts visits a community to learn about local extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ people’s situations, experiences, and problems from a local perspective. The team may use key profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating informant interviews, or check training lists, focus group interviews, a nominal group extension personnel observations through in‐service opportunities, continuing education technique, and/or other group methods to solicit ideas, opinions and perspectives of the local programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. people. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the © MEAS. Team conducting a rapid appraisal in Bangladesh. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Advantages create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  It is low‐cost. Requires little time.  Please Can encourage local participation. Can decrease outsider bias. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Can encourage participation of frequently overlooked groups. Offers flexibility in method handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are selection. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Disadvantages of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Seasonal bias. Accessibility bias. Elite bias. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them  Hypothesis confirming ‐‐ selective attentiveness. do so.

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 Concreteness bias ‐‐ confusing specificity with generality.  Consistency bias ‐‐ premature formation of coherence in data. Preface  May not be generalizable. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ The RRA team can capture more in‐depth information than surveys. For example, RRA can be to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and used to gather comprehensive information about farming conditions such as the following: evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Crops grown (by season) resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Land use intensity (e.g., cropping system, inter‐cropping) extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Farming system (e.g., crop‐livestock, use of agro‐forestry) profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Soil types and soil conditions (e.g., degree of salinity, water‐logging, drought) extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Land ownership pattern of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Number of plots owned, distances from farmstead to home or between plots Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Crop yields to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Agricultural practices such as land preparation, fertilizer use, weeding, irrigation, drainage, Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the transportation and marketing connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that RRA Methods Tool Box may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Existing information Visualization techniques understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Individual interviews Activity mapping They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Key informants Time series maps (e.g., crop calendar) planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Oral histories Resource mapping critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Group interviews Social organizational mapping Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Focus groups Ranking games (e.g., wealth ranking) rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Steps to Rapid Rural Appraisal goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Step 1: Identify goals of RRA and develop questions to ask. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Step 2: Form a multidisciplinary team and a visit schedule. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Step 3: Identify possible sources of information. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Step 4: Review existing documentation. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Step 5: Identify, adapt, and/or create data collection and recording methods. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Step 6: Adjust questions, sources of information, and approaches, as needed. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the Step 7: Plan when and where to visit, and whom to contact. tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them Step 8: Begin data collection while remaining flexible to the local situation. do so. 146

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Step 9: Record data, as collected, in a systematic fashion. Step 10: Continually analyze data by verifying responses, deepening understanding, and Preface

making distinctions and connections between responses. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural methodology for interacting with the resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental target beneficiaries, understanding extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice their needs and interest and learning extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ from them. It’s a “handing over the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating stick to the personnel insider” in through methods and extension in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools action (Sasidhar, n. d.). The outsider’s of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. role is that of a catalyst or a facilitator.

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer PRA is a means of collecting different to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first types of data, identifying and and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. mobilizing intended beneficiary Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the groups and evoking their participation connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural in decision making, design, execution development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that and evaluation of a program / project. in an may differ from those they learned in © M. Suvedi. Team learning about Rapid Rural Appraisal school. Extension professionals must have Cambodia. PRA emphasizes local participation but understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. the process is rapid or quick. The They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for advantages of PRA include: planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Extensive involvement of people by learning about their perceptions, experiences and critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches capabilities. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Information generation, collection of data for immediate or future use. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,

rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Learning about the impacts of earlier or on‐going policies and programs and to frame new extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but ones. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Estimating trends and ascertaining conditions of the issues at hand. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Validation or cross checking of data collected from other resources. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Training of different categories of people involved in the development process, and approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Research studies on use of PRA and to suggest improvements in its methodology. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are RRA vs PRA equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are RRA and PRA look similar, but the main difference is the composition of team members. RRA easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some tends to engage more experts or people from outside the community than PRA. In PRA, it is the of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of expert team which leads but in PRA it is the stakeholders who lead and the researcher/extension the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be worker just facilitates. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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The major differences between RRA and PRA are summarized below (Chambers, 1994).

Preface Category

RRA

PRA

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ It is a systematic, semi‐ It is a way of enabling local (rural Meaning to‐day work. It offers structured activity conducted a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and and urban) people to analyze their evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The on‐site by a multidisciplinary living conditions, to share the intended audiences of team with the aim of quickly this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural outcomes and to plan their resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental and efficiently acquiring new activities. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice information and hypotheses extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ about rural life and rural profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating resources. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Developed in Late 1970’s/1980’s Late 1980’s/1990’s programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Key resource Local people’s knowledge Local people’s Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer (analytical) capabilities to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Main innovations Combination of methods Change of behavior and attitudes and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Mode agricultural extension Extractive Today’s and advisory services are Facilitating being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Mode of Verbal (interview, discussion) Visual (participatory diagramming) development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that instruments may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Learning from insiders by Ideal objectives Empowerment of local people understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. outsiders They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Outsider’s role Investigator Initiator and facilitator planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Insider’s role Respondent Presenter, analyst and planner critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. A model for Participatory intervention For interaction Who demands? Donor organization Insider (ideally) Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but References comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: Putting the last first. New York, New York, USA: skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Longman. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Sasidhar, PVK (n. d.). Notes on “participatory program planning methods,” New Delhi, India: approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Indira Gandhi National Open University. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 148

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Tool 27: Conduct Focus Group Discussions Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 27: Conduct Focus Group Discussions Preface

Focus groups are made up of a group of people often with some common background, interests, This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ and goals. The facilitated discussion among these people focusing on an issue, product, or service to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and and seeks group members’ opinions, thoughts, and perceptions ‐‐ focus group discussions. Use evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The of focus group discussions began in the 1950s in the for‐profit (private) sector and were adopted intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural by academicians in the 1980s. Focus groups provide comfortable, safe, respectful environments resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental so that participants feel comfortable expressing their real opinions. Focus group discussion yields extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice more valid and significant data that would be difficult to generate from an interview (Kaplowitz extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ and Hoehn, 2001). Ideally, a group should consist of five to 10 people, but the size can range from profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating four to 12 people if needed (Kruger and Casey, 2009). Through the process, qualitative data are extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education generated that researchers subsequently analyze to draw study conclusions. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.

Why focus group discussion

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Focus group discussions are employed in both exploratory and confirmatory research. The former to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first helps dig out issues or topics that an investigator can use in research. The latter helps validate and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. the results drawn from use of other methods. Kruger and Casey (2009) and Suvedi (2011) Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the outlined other usages of focus group discussions: help in product or program development; connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural provide insight into organizational concerns and issues such as customer satisfaction, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that organizational development, needs assessment; policymaking and testing; and planning and goal may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an setting. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, When to use a focus group they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  When you are considering introduction of a new program or service, a focus group can give planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are a sense of what people are looking for and hence a way to modulate the program to help the critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches community. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  When questions to be asked are such that they cannot be replied to in a written questionnaire Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field because they may not have one simple, clear answer but rather multiple, complex answers. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  To supplement the information gathered though written surveys. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  When the need is to examine people’s attitudes toward various issues. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  When input has to be collected from people who might not be able to write or reach you in create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory other ways. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  To obtain alternative ideas about how to reach certain audiences or promote a particular Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this product. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  To learn ahead of time how people might react to a program, policy or product. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  To determine potential factors influencing satisfaction or impact of a practice, program or of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of change. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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How to conduct focus group discussion The following steps for focus group discussion are adapted from Kruger and Casey (2009) and Preface

Suvedi (2011). While there is no magic number of focus groups that need to be conducted, there This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ is a useful rule of thumb. One should conduct enough focus groups so that during the last one, to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and nothing new was learned. Another rule of thumb worth keeping in mind is that typically at least evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The three focus groups are expected in order to draw valid study conclusions. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Step 1: Preparation extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Determine the purpose. Why conduct focus group interviews? Who will use this profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating information? Why do they want the information? extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Develop a plan — number of meetings, time line, resources needed. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Identify the discussion questions — opening, introductory, transition, key and ending Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer questions. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Find a meeting venue that is convenient, preferably neutral and easy to reach. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Identify the participants ‐‐ include those who are with and have the greatest Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are familiar being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural amount of insight on the topic. Participants should have some common characteristics. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Invite them in advance ‐‐ explain to them why the meeting is organized and how they can may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an contribute. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in Invite a few more people than you expect to attend — not everyone who is invited will they must possess adequate skill them in participatory tools and techniques for attend. Reconfirm their knowledge availability. and Remind of the date, venue and time for the planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are meeting a day before the meeting. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Identify an interview moderator and an assistant. The moderator should be respectful to that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. participants, understand the purpose of the study, be good at communication and be able Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, to collect useful information. The assistant will keep notes and assist the moderator to rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field summarize the discussion. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Step 2: Conducting the FGD comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Arrive early and arrange the meeting room to minimize outside distractions and provide goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the adequate space and light. Arrange seats so that participants can see and listen to the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help moderator and to one another. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  The moderator should begin by explaining the purpose and the ground rules — rules

Please participants note that neither length of interview each tool’s nor its numeric in this follow the during the ‐‐ description and get written consent to order participate. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Participants need to be assured that their participation is completely voluntary, and that, equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are though the session will be recorded, their responses will be kept confidential. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  Guide the discussion. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. the end, takes educated and notes well‐trained be The However, assistant in moderator detailed of the extension discussion staff as it members happens. will Notes expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them should include who said what and who did not participate. do so. 150

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Step 3: Prepare an analysis  The moderator and assistant moderator meet immediately after the meeting, share their Preface experiences and perceptions of the meeting, and review the audio together before they This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ conduct the next focus group. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Transcribe the audio, summarize the information, identify and analyze emergent themes. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  If you recorded manually, make a written summary. In some cases, you can devise and resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental use a coding system to "score" the data and count the number of times a particular theme extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice was expressed. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Prepare an analysis. What do the findings mean to you? Are the findings valuable to the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating stakeholders? What recommendations can be made out of this information? extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Prepare a report and share the findings with your stakeholders. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Some other arrangements to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Find a good moderator and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the The moderator should be someone outside your organization, someone who specializes in connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural facilitating these kinds of groups. He/she should: development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Have experience in facilitating groups. may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Know something about the topic They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  must Be able to relate well to the focus group participants. they possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Find and keep a recorder critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches This is an important point that is often neglected. You want to make sure people's ideas are that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. recorded. Someone should be writing down what is said in the same way as taking minutes Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, at a meeting. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Decide on and declare the incentives extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Some people may come to the discussion for help or to learn something, or just for a new goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the experience. Maybe the novelty of the experience itself will be a motivator. Monetary skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help incentives, the chance to learn a new skill or lunch can also serve as welcoming factors. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Prepare your questions approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Go in prepared ‐‐ write out in advance a list of topics to cover and questions you want to ask. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are This check‐list will serve as your guide. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Preface Useful Advice The following are general questions one can ask when dealing with groups discussing a This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ current program or service. They can be adjusted for planned programs as well as for groups to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and dealing with other concerns. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  audiences "What are some of your thoughts about what's going on now?" resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  "Would you say you are satisfied with the current situation, with the way things are extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice going on?" “Or what is your view on the current situation, with the way things are extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ going on?” profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  (If so or if satisfied) "What are you satisfied about? Why is that?" (Or, "What's going extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education well...?") programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  "Are there things you are dissatisfied with, that you would like to see changed?" (Or, "What's not going well...?") Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  (If so) "What are they? Why is that? How should they change? What kinds of things to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. would you like to see happen?" Today’s  agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the "Some people have said that one way to improve X is to do Y.” “Do you agree with connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural this?” (Or, "How do you feel about that?") development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  "Are there other recommendations that you have, or suggestions you would like to may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an make?" understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  "Are there other things you would like to say before we wind up?" They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Some probes or follow‐ups designed to get more information on a given question: planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  "Can you say more about that?" critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  "Can you give an example?" that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  "Jane says X. How about others of you? What do you think?" Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  "How about you, Joe. [Or, "You folks in the corner over there...."] Do you have some rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field thoughts on this?" extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  "Does anyone else have some thoughts on that?" goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 152

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Sample focus group discussion invitation letter Preface

Letterhead This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day Date: work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Name intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Address extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Dear extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Thank you for accepting our invitation to attend the discussion at (time) on (date) at (location‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education ‐city, address, etc.). We will be discussing the general situation of the fishery in Tonle Sap programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools region and the strategies for its future management. This is a study conducted by the of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Department of Agriculture. Over the past few years, farmers, consumers, people working for fishery development and fishery researchers have raised concerns about the fishery in Tonle Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Sap Lake. We want and need your opinions on fishery management on Tonle Sap Lake so that to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. we could make specific suggestions and recommendations to the Department of Agriculture Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the that it can follow to improve and sustain the fishery in the region in the future. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural The discussion will last about 1 1/2 hours and will consist of about six to seven people like development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that yourself. Refreshments will be available. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. I will be leading the discussion. If you have further questions, feel free to call me at (phone They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, number) or email me at (email ID). they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Thank you for your cooperation. I hope you participate. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches Sincerely, that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. ____________________________ Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Moderator’s name and signature rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Sample focus group questions goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Welcome! My name is [moderator’s name], and I am affiliated with [office or department]. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Assisting me is [name of assistant moderator.] create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Today’s discussion will be about fishery management in Tonle Sap region. The objectives of the Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this discussion are to assess the general situation of the fishery in Tonle Sap region of Cambodia and handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are identify strategies for its future management. There are no right or wrong answers, only differing equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are points of view. Therefore, feel free to say what you think even if it differs from what was already easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some said. We will be recording our discussion to be sure that we do not miss any comments. No names of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of will be attached to any reports we develop based on this focus group. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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We will be on a first‐name basis, so let us go around the table and get to know one another. Please tell us your first name and whether you are involved in fish farming, and, if yes, share, in Preface brief, your experience with fish farming. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ 1. Can you natural fish communication, catch in your village 10 years ago? And to‐day work. It describe offers a the set situation of tools of for effective program planning and compare it with the current situation? For example: evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The a. Peak fishing period. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural b. Average catch per day. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental c. Size of fish caught and species. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice d. Fish price. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ e. Fishing regulation. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension f.personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Number of fishers (increase or decrease). programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools g. Livelihood of fishers. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. h. Other (please specify). Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer 2. From your experience/perspective, why does the natural fish stock keep declining? What to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first are the major factors contributing to this? and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. a. Illegal fishing? Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the b. Overfishing? connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural c. Loss of fish habitat? development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that d. Other (please specify). may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. 3. What kinds of activities do you observe in the Tonle Sap for curbing all fishery‐ destructive They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, activities? Who are involved with those activities? Which activities are most successful? they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Why? Which are not working well? Why? planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are 4. What do you think about the Community Fishery program? Do you think this entity plays critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. a significant role in natural fish conservation? Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, 5. What do you want to see in the future Tonle Sap fishery? What is your dream about the rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field future Tonle Sap fishery? extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but 6. How to achieve your dream? comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the 7. What are alternative ways to ensure a sufficient fish supply in the future to meet the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help demands of fish consumption? Do you think homestead pond aquaculture is the way to create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory increase the fish supply to meet future demand? Why or why not? approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. 8. Did we miss anything? Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are [Moderator presents a summary of the discussion.] equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Thank you very much for your participation and input. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 154

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Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Tool 27: Conduct Focus Group Discussions

References

Preface

Kaplowitz, M.D., and J.P. Hoehn. (2001). Do focus groups and individual interviews reveal the This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day same information for natural resource valuation? Ecological Economics, 36(2), 237‐247. work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The doi:10.1016/S0921‐8009(00)00226‐3. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Kruger, R.A., and M.N. Casey. (2009). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research (fifth extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, USA: Sage Publications. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS manual. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Michigan State University and the USAID. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 28: Write Extension Evaluation Reports and Share Results Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 28: Write Extension Evaluation Reports and Share Results Preface and Impacts

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Evaluations are worthwhile when end users and stakeholders understand the results and take to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The timely actions on recommendations. Utilization of well‐crafted reports will increase if they are intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural easy for stakeholders to understand. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental A good evaluation report has all the details about the what, when, where, who, why and how of extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice evaluation. It has four major sections: extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Introduction section provides the background. It includes information about the development extension personnel through in‐service and training opportunities, continuing problem being addressed, the stakeholders, the project’s goals, objectives, and education expected programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools outcomes or impacts. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Methods section contains the study design, its population, the sampling technique used, and Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer data collection and analysis methods. You need to explain why you followed the methods you to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first used and list any limitations. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory are or being challenged to the serve as with the Results section includes findings, with tables services and charts quotes depicting data, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural interpretation. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Conclusions and recommendations are very important to the readers. Many stakeholders do not may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an have time to read the full report. They tend to read the executive summary and conclusions and understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. recommendations. If they find the findings interesting, they may go to the full report. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Frechtling et al. (2002) offered the following tips on how to write an effective evaluation report: planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Think about the goals for writing evaluation reports, such as communicating the results critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches with the beneficiaries, development partners and/or funding agency. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Reports should be clear, candid and appealing to Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, Avoid putting in the summary readers, especially the intended readers. Therefore, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field or abstract highlighting think about who the audiences are, their knowledge extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but of the topic, and the time that they are likely to procedure, major findings, comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our conclusions and spend reading reports. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the recommendations. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Use active rather than passive voice as much as Include a description of the create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory possible. program, its purpose and approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Organize the report in easy‐to‐find sections, and procedures, a justification of Please label the sections with informational headings. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this the conclusions and handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Write an extension evaluation report as quickly as recommendations. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are possible after data collection, and inform easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some If readers find something stakeholders of the results. Timely reporting is of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of interesting in the summary or important to in ensure that educated the information remains extension staff members will be the tools. However, the end, and well‐trained abstract, they may proceed to relevant and concerned parties can act in a timely expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them read the main contents. do so. manner. 156

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Tool 28: Write Extension Evaluation Reports and Share Results Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Evaluation results can be presented in many formats and forms. You can report key evaluation findings well before you finish writing a comprehensive evaluation report. You Preface can use PowerPoint presentations, public meetings, newsletters, poster sessions, This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ question‐and‐answer periods, bulletins, brochures and websites to report findings. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  If the evaluation reveals negative findings ‐‐ for example, if very few farmers participated evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The in vegetable demonstrations and demonstrations were not effectively presented ‐‐ you intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural can describe likely reasons why the program did not or could not succeed, such as limited resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental budget, untrained staff members and unsuitable timing for farmers. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Present negative findings in a way that promotes learning and improvement rather than profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating feelings of failure. You write for the stakeholders. Think from their perspectives and be extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education sensitive to their feelings. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Present positive findings first. Use positive terms, such as “accomplishments”. Help of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. stakeholders think of themselves as problem solvers. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  It’s always a good idea to ask your peers to comment or provide feedback on your report, to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and to proofread the final version before sharing it with stakeholders. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Duncan (2000) offers the following tips for effective writing: development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Know your audience. may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Write for easy reading. Use short and familiar words. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Write short sentences. Avoid using eight words where one will do. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  Keep short paragraphs. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for  Keep information in order. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Avoid common grammatical pitfalls. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Check what you have written; better yet, have someone else look it over. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Use active voice. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Read about writing. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Practice! extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our References goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Duncan, A. (2000). The art of good writing. In P. Calvert. (ed.), The Communicator’s handbook: create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Tools, techniques and technology. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Maupin House. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Frechtling, J., H. Frierson, S. Hood, G. Hughes and C. Katzenmeyer. (2002). The user‐friendly Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook for project evaluation. Washington, D.C., USA: National Science Foundation. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Suvedi, M. (2011). Evaluation of agricultural extension and advisory services: A MEAS training equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some manual. USAID/MEAS/MSU. Accessed at: www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐ of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of offers/training/evaluatingextensionprograms the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 

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Communication in Extension Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

9. Communication in Extension

Preface

Communication is the process by which we share information with one another to reach a mutual This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ understanding. The communication process involves four key elements: a source or sender sends to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and a message through some channels to a receiver (Maunder, 1972; Oakley and Garforth, 1997). evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of out, this the handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural As Axinn (1997) points essential role of agricultural extension services is to promote resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental innovations to farmers or end users through education. An innovation could be a new idea, a extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice practice, an object or a technology, such as improved seed, chemical fertilizer, use of irrigation, extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ or adoption of various postharvest technologies such as storage, processing, packaging and profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating marketing. Effective communication requires carefully examining the credible source of the extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education information, identifying the right message and selecting the most appropriate information programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools channel to reach the target audience ‐‐ farmers, in the case of agricultural extension. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Communication research suggests that diffusion of innovation and its adoption vary depending Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer on the sociocultural context of the community, characteristics of the decision‐making unit or the to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first target audience, and perceived attributes of the innovation (Rogers, 2003). In general, most and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the people hesitate to adopt a new idea or practice even if they are aware of it because of: connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Uncertainty about possible benefits or unwillingness to take risk. may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Inadequate knowledge about the new practice or innovation. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  Concern about the trustworthiness or credibility of the information source. They adult education principles.  should be well‐versed in Lack of resources to acquire the inputs required Besides sound technical knowledge, for adoption of the new idea or they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for innovation. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Lack of a market in which to sell new products. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Social norms, values and beliefs that do not support adoption of the new idea or that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. innovation. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field To effectively promote an innovation to intended users, the extension educator must understand extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but the theory of communication and the innovation decision process ‐‐ how an innovation or new comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our product is spread within a social system, and how communication about it gains momentum. The goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the innovation decision process involves several steps: an individual passes from first knowledge of skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help an innovation to forming an attitude toward the innovation to a decision to adopt or reject it create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory (Maunder, 1972; Rogers, 2003). If the decision is to accept it, the next step is implementation of approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. the new idea, and then confirmation of this decision. An innovation decision process modified Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this after Rogers (2003) is shown in Figure 16. This model consists of four main stages: handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Knowledge — a person (or decision‐making unit) becomes aware of an innovation and gains equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are some understanding of how it functions. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Persuasion — a person (or decision‐making unit) forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be toward the innovation. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 158

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Communication in Extension Communication in Extension Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Decision — a person (or decision‐making unit) chooses to adopt or reject the innovation. Decision — a person (or decision‐making unit) chooses to adopt or reject the innovation. Confirmation — a person (or decision‐making Confirmation — a person (or decision‐making unit) evaluates the results of an innovation unit) evaluates the results of an innovation Preface

decision already made. decision already made. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.

Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Figure 16. Model of innovation decision process (adapted after Rogers, 2003). Figure 16. Model of innovation decision process (adapted after Rogers, 2003). They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Socioeconomic characteristics, personality traits and communication behavior of the members Socioeconomic characteristics, personality traits and communication behavior of the members they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are of a social system may influence the knowledge of a new idea or innovation. Generally, those of a social system may influence the knowledge of a new idea or innovation. Generally, those critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches who are first to learn about a new idea or innovation are better educated; have traveled outside who are first to learn about a new idea or innovation are better educated; have traveled outside that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. their communities; use mass media such as radio, TV or Internet for information; and have higher their communities; use mass media such as radio, TV or Internet for information; and have higher social status and wider social networks than those who hear about it later. social status and wider social networks than those who hear about it later. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Persuasion is the second stage of the innovation decision process. After becoming aware of or Persuasion is the second stage of the innovation decision process. After becoming aware of or extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but knowledgeable about a new idea or innovation, people become psychologically involved with the knowledgeable about a new idea or innovation, people become psychologically involved with the comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our innovation and seek additional information about its attributes, such as: innovation and seek additional information about its attributes, such as: goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Relative Relative advantage: advantage: What What are are the the cost cost and and economic economic return return of of adopting adopting the the innovation, innovation, create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory compared with current practice? compared with current practice? approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Compatibility: Is the innovation compatible with existing practice or culture? Compatibility: Is the innovation compatible with existing practice or culture? handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Complexity: How complex is the innovation? Simple practices are adopted more quickly than Complexity: How complex is the innovation? Simple practices are adopted more quickly than easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some complex ones. complex ones. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the Trialability: Can the innovation or technology be tried out or experimented with or adopted tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Trialability: Can the innovation or technology be tried out or experimented with or adopted expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them on a limited basis before its full adoption? on a limited basis before its full adoption? do so.

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Observability: Can people observe the results or benefits of adopting the innovation? The degree to which the results can be visible is important for its adoption.

Preface

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ The third stage is the decision stage, when, on the basis of personal assessment of the various to‐day work. It offers a set tools for a effective communication, attributes of the new idea or of innovation, person decides whether program to adopt planning or reject and the evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The innovation or new technology. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural The last stage in the innovation decision process is confirmation. If the new idea or innovation is resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental adopted and felt to be beneficial, adoption could be continued. Otherwise, it could be extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice discontinued. Similarly, if the decision was not to adopt the new idea or innovation the first time, extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ the person may adopt it at a later time after observing results at a neighbor’s farm, or s/he could profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education continue to reject it. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Extension workers should recognize that adoption of new ideas and technologies happens in of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. stages. Some people adopt the new idea or technology early, some adopt late, and others do not Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer adopt it at all. In general, a few people will try the innovation at first, then ‐‐ if it seems to have to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first benefits ‐‐ a larger number will try it, though a few may never accept the n e w i dea. Depending and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. on when (how early/late) people adopt a new technology, diffusion and adoption scholars such as Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Maunder (1972) and Rogers (2003) have classified adopters into five categories: connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Innovators: Those who are first to try out a new technology are called innovators. They are may the risk takers and adventurous, eager to try new ideas and, therefore, the first to adopt an differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. innovation. Innovators represent about 2.5 percent of a total population. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess The adequate knowledge and technology skill in participatory tools adopters. and techniques for Early adopters: next to adopt a new are called early They are planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are considered the opinion leaders and those who have earned great respect within the critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches community. They represent the next 10 percent to 15 percent of the population. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Early majority: These people adopt new ideas only after intense thought and deliberation. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field They represent about one third of the total population, and they take the overall adoption extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but rate up to around 50 percent. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Late majority: Skeptical in nature, they adopt new ideas on the basis of either economic skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help necessity or social pressure. They represent about another third of the total population. They create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory bring the overall adoption rate to around 85 percent. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Laggards: Those who join last are called laggards. They are the traditionalists, rooted in the Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are old practices, and they base their decisions on what was done previously. They are always equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are suspicious of new ideas, innovators and change agents. Laggards make up about 15 percent easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the population. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in and the earlier end, educated well‐trained extension staff members be In general, innovators adopters and have more formal education, higher social will status expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them (larger farms, higher income), greater exposure to mass media, greater exposure to interpersonal do so. 160

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channels of communication, greater extension agent contact, greater social participation (e.g., community leader, farmer association leader) and contact with persons outside their community Preface than later adopters. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ It should be noted that an adoption process is situated within a social system, so social factors to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and such as culture, taboos, norms and values influence the adoption rate. Innovations that are evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The complex and require of significant investment for governmental adoption tend to be adopted slowly. The intended audiences this handbook include: agriculture, fisheries, natural presence of innovative opinion leaders whom others look to for direction also affects the resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental adoption rate. So, for an extension worker, working with opinion leaders in a village enhances extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or and for‐ the possible scope of adoption. Each adopter category possesses unique characteristics profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating requires different strategies to influence. It is important that extension workers recognize extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education individuals in each of these adopter categories to achieve successful adoption of innovations. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Communication channels play an important role in the innovation decision process. Channels are of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. interpersonal, group or mass media. Interpersonal channels (e.g., face‐to‐face meetings, Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer telephone conversations) require a long time or many staff members to reach a large audience. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Group channels such as farmers’ training classes, study tours and farmer field schools can reach and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. more people more quickly, but they may not reach all the members of the social system. Mass Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the media channels ‐‐ radio, television, newspapers – can reach a large audience with the same connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural message in a relatively short time period. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ certain from communication those they learned in are school. Extension professionals have an Note that channels effective at different stages of must the innovation understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. decision process. Mass media are useful in creating awareness about an innovation (knowledge They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, stage). Interpersonal channels are relatively more important at the persuasion or decision stage they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for of the innovation decision process (Rogers, 2003). planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Many extension services and development projects use the rate of adoption ‐‐ i.e., the speed at critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. which target beneficiaries adopt an innovation ‐‐ as a criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of agricultural extension. It should be noted, however, that the rate of adoption varies with the Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, attributes of the innovation or technology being disseminated. Achieving 100 percent adoption rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field may not be a realistic goal. Our experience suggests percent to 40 for percent adoption extension workers. This handbook was created to that help 30 meet the need a simple but signals that it’s time to move out of a village or move on to the next innovation/technology comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our because the new idea or innovation will then spread itself through peer pressure or social goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help networks. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Lessons for extension workers approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. When you work with an extension program for technology transfer: Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this

handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Use mass media for raising awareness of the innovation or new technology. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  During the persuasion stage, interpersonal channels are effective, so maintain as much easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some personal contact with farmers as possible. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Find out if your district or village has innovator farmers (early adopters, opinion leaders) the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be and work with them to disseminate the innovation or new technology. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Set up method and result demonstrations of new practices at innovators’ and early adopters’ farms. Preface  Meet with early adopters on a regular basis. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Hold meetings with farmers’ groups, women’s groups and youths. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Work with local organizations (e.g., farmer associations, mothers’ groups, etc.). evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Always be professional – tell the truth, demonstrate what you want the farmers to do, document intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural what changes are taking place and report what you accomplish. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating References extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Axinn, G. (1997). Challenges to agricultural extension in the twenty‐first century. In V. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Scarborough, S. Killough, D.A. Johnson, and J. Farrington (eds.), Farmer‐led extension: of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Concepts and practices. London, United Kingdom: Intermediate Technology Publications Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Ltd. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Maunder, A.H. (1972). Agricultural extension: A reference manual. ED 075 628. Rome, Italy: Food Today’s and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Oakley, P., and C. Garforth. (1997). Guide to extension training (originally printed in 1985). Rome, development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Italy: FAO. Reprinted 1997. Accessed at: www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/t0060e07.htm may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Rogers, E.M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (fifth edition). New York, New York, USA: Free Press. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. 

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 162

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Communication in Extension

Tool 29: Make Effective Presentations Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Good Practice Tools for Communication Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Tool 29: Make Effective Presentations to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Communication is a human activity ‐‐ it begins and ends with people. Communication is effective intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural when the message sent by a source or sender reaches the receiver and they reach a mutual resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental understanding. Communication is ineffective if the message is unclear or misunderstood. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Effective presentations minimize the potential for miscommunication between the sender and extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating the receiver. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Elements of Effective Presentations of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Major elements of presentations such as public speaking include the following (Morgan, 2000): Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Determine your audience: Who are your audience? What are they interested to hear? What is to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first their background? Whom do they represent? What is their educational level? How long have and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. most of the members been with this group? This knowledge about the members of your audience Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the will allow you to modify the presentation according to their needs or interests. For example, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural progressive farmers react differently than traditional farmers when adopting new varieties or development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that improved inputs. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Preparation is essential: Decide on your presentation topic. What is your message? How can you They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, convey it clearly and simply? Write down your thoughts and read them carefully. Make bullet they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for points; include related success stories to inspire your audience. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are What is the medium? Are you speaking to individuals, an organized group or a large mixed critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches audience? Are you presenting messages at a mall, fair, trade show, conference or professional that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. meeting? Are you writing for a newspaper or magazine? Your message must suit the medium. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, This tool focuses on how to make effective presentations in a group setting. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but How to prepare a presentation comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our A presentation consists of three parts: opening, body and conclusion (Bell and Shire, 2012). goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help Opening create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Welcome everyone and ask if everyone can hear you well. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.

 Grab the audience’s attention and get them focused on the topic of the presentation by Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this asking a question, citing a relevant quote from a well‐known person, telling a short story handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are or using visual aids. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some  Provide an overview of the presentation. Clearly state the purpose of your presentation of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of and why the presentation or the topic is important. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Body: During the presentation, you need to:

Preface

 Create an informal atmosphere. Provide for and encourage audience participation. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and  Establish your credibility early. Know the topic; write down the main points. Prepare an evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The outline, if possible. Prepare PowerPoint slides or other audiovisual materials to support intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural your content. Make sure visuals are clear and accurate. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Organize your material in a logical sequence for easy comprehension. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Identify the stories, data and/or illustrations to support each point. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Use eye contact to establish rapport. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Avoid using technical jargon as much as possible. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Summarize every point before moving to the next point. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Conclusion and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Stay focused on points you want people to carry away with them: Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Review the key messages you covered and spell out their relevance. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an End the presentation with a positive summary: finish with the benefit of the innovation, understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. why change is necessary and how your audience can be the agents of change. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for DOs and DON’Ts of a good presenter: planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Present clearly: Key points make your message easy to follow. A long, rambling speech will critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches be hard for the audience to follow, and learning will be weak. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Use eye contact: This makes the audience attentive and enables the presenter to see if the Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, audience is losing interest, at which point you bring in an anecdote or maybe stop to ask a rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field question. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Stand erect, walk around and move your hands: If you slouch and look tired, the audience’s goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the interest drops. If you look alert and excited about your topic, the audience is likely to respond skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help in the same way. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Speak enthusiastically and clearly: To deliver a “loud and clear” presentation, project your approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. voice so everyone can hear, and pause briefly at the end of every sentence. Mumbling will Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this cause the audience to lose interest and miss the key points. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Use appropriate anecdotes and humor: A long speech gets monotonous and is easy for easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some listeners to tune out of. Using real‐world examples and funny stories keeps the audience of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of listening because they can relate better to real situations than to abstract concepts. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 164

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Present logically: Organize the points you want to make in a logical manner and present them so that it’s clear how the various points connect as part of an overall theme. This keeps the Preface presentation focused and the audience attentive. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Use work. visual It aids: Easy clear to for read effective aids help the audience follow the planning presentation to‐day offers a and set of tools communication, program and and clarifies important points and concepts. In PowerPoint visuals, use large font sizes (sizes evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The 28 to 32). intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Dress appropriately: Wear bright and clean clothes to support the impression of extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice professionalism and energy that you want to convey. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education References programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Bell, M.A., and D. Shires. (2012). Presentation skills. Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services. Davis, California, USA: University of California at Davis. Accessed at: Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first http://agrilinks.org/sites/default/files/resource/files/Tips%20and%20Facts%20‐ and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. %20Presentation%20Skills.pdf Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Morgan, M.V. (2000). Public speaking. In P. Calvert (ed.), The Communicator’s handbook: Tools, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural techniques and technology (fourth ed.). Gainesville, Florida, USA: Maupin House. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 30: Communicate Effectively with Community Leaders Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 30: Communicate Effectively with Community Leaders Preface

Community leaders, whether formal or informal, are key stakeholders of an extension program. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Strong and effective communities and communication, organizations to program succeed planning and develop to‐day work. It offers leaders a set help of tools for effective and (Lansdale, 2000; Scheffert, 2007). They have the ability to: evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Interact and build rapport with village people and establish good relationships with them. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Understand the felt needs of the community. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Motivate and organize people for the common good and promote participation in your extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating program. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools An important role of an extension educator is to develop community leaders who go on to of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. become teachers for the other people in the community. With education, these local leaders acquire the attitude, ability and skills to be able to carry out the extension education and related Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer communication responsibilities. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Useful advice Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Instilling confidence in the use of new technology among local leaders is critical to the success of connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural the extension program. The aim of your communications and interactions should be to enable development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may from communicators those they learned Extension professionals must have an them differ to be good about in the school. program. Provide them the background of your understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. program and demonstrate the value of the new technology or practice, and show them how it They should be well‐versed in Besides sound technical knowledge, works. They can then pass on adult education principles. the message effectively with community people during local they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for meetings and functions. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches According to Barrick (2012), extension workers should consider the following that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. strategies while communicating with local leaders: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Make brief, to‐the‐point presentations on on‐going extension programs rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field and activities. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Use a variety of instructional techniques to communicate the extension comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our message. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Demonstrate the use of technology to communicate your ideas. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Encourage them to ask questions. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Relate the innovation or new technology to existing practices. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Demonstrate how the new technology has immediate applications and handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are benefits. When leaders see that, they are quick to adopt the idea or equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are practice and share the benefits with their followers. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 166

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Tool 30: Communicate Effectively with Community Leaders Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

References

Preface Barrick, K. (ed.). (2012). Methods and techniques for effective teaching in extension and advisory

services: A MEAS training module. Urbana, Illinois, USA: University of Illinois. Accessed at: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ www.meas‐extension.org/meas‐offers/training/methods‐and‐techniques‐for‐effective‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and teaching‐in‐extension‐and‐advisory‐services evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended of Cultivating this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Lansdale, audiences B.M. (2000). inspired leaders: Making participatory management work. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: Kumarian Press. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Scheffert, D.R. (2007). Community leadership: What does it take to see results? Journal of extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Leadership Education, 6 (1), 175. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 31: Organize Extension Campaigns Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 31: Organize Extension Campaigns Preface

An extension campaign is a strategically planned and problem‐solving program aimed at This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ increasing the awareness/knowledge level of a group of target beneficiaries, and changing their to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and attitudes and/or behavior toward favorable adoption of a given idea, technology, product or evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The practice (Adhikarya, 1994). The extension campaign requires field‐tested messages, a variety of intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural media to disseminate information, trained personnel and communication intervention on resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental selected topic(s). extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Advantages profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Is usually need‐based and helps solve problems. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education  Reaches and informs a large number of people. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Employs cost‐effective multimedia materials. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Promotes a participatory planning approach. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Limitations and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Two‐way communication between an extension educator and his/her audiences is usually Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the lacking. A campaign requires very careful planning and experts’ advice and supervision. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. Steps to conduct an extension campaign They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, The following steps are adapted from Nehiley (2001) and Adhikarya (1994). they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Step 1. Identify the problem and assess the information and educational needs of the clients planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches  Conduct strength, weakness, opportunity and threat (SWOT) analysis with lead farmers that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. and key informants. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Prioritize the problems and solutions, define and finalize the goals and objectives. rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Identify and This analyze the clientele and categorize (segment) intended if extension workers. handbook was created to help meet the need for a recipients, simple but needed. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the If you plan to educate and inform farmers in a village about vegetable production, farmers who skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help are less educated may have different educational needs and media preferences, so you may need create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. to use a variety of campaign strategies to educate this diverse group of clients. The farmers’ field day or demonstration may be suitable for less‐educated farmers, but mass media (e.g., Internet, Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this television, radio, newspapers, etc.) would work for educated farmers. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are

equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are  Prepare a clientele inventory: audience members’ educational levels, farming practices, easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some cultures, languages, ethnicities, and the best season of the year and best day and time for of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of a campaign to reach them, etc. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them  Develop a strategy for the campaign, including the information to be provided. do so. 168

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Step 2. Design message(s) to send out Preface Rodekohr (2000) offers the following tips: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Messages should be appealing to the clientele, distinct or eye‐catching and memorable, to‐day focused and of appropriate length. work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Message should be simple and easy to articulate. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural  Pretest a message with a small group before taking it to the larger audience. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Produce message materials. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice  Select media to be used in the campaign. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Train staff members to conduct campaigns. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  The persons who deliver the message should be confident and articulate and understand extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education the focus of the campaign well. programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Mass media: They are good for informing and creating awareness among broad audience Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer groups. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Interviews: Media interview guarantees coverage. You or the person who delivers messages Today’s needs to develop interview skills. agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural Press conference: It works well if the topic is of high public importance and interest. It can development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that draw media representatives, who can help propagate the message quickly. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Direct mail: It helps messages reach targeted audiences. Examples of direct mail are understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. newsletters, publications, flyers, letters and postcards. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Promotional tools: Billboards, posters, stickers, etc., are used as promotional tools. They help planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are messages reach the targeted audience. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Step 3. Launch the campaign Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Begin with something dramatic and interesting that attracts a large number of people rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field and draws audiences’ attention Hansra, 2000). For example, involve a extension workers. This handbook was (Kumar created and to help meet the need for a simple but celebrity, political leader, leader of civil society, college and/or university dean or faculty comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our member in launching your campaign. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Document everything: what you do, who participates and how members of the target create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory audience respond to the campaign. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Also ask for feedback on the campaign from your staff members and peers.  note Combine these and prepare a report. Please that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Share the report results with your staff members, peers and stakeholders. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some A poorly planned campaign will confuse the audience, drain your staff and your resources of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of (Rodekohr, 2000). Therefore: the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  Plan wisely. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them  Identify the audiences you want to reach. do so.

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 Discuss what message they want and/or what you want them to do with the message.  Select media that the target audiences have access to. Preface  Select and/design the message(s) that suit your audiences. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Evaluate the campaign outcome. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural References resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Adhikarya, R. (1994). Strategic extension campaign ‐‐ A participatory‐oriented method of extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ agricultural extension. Rome, Italy: Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Division, FAO. Accessed at: www.fao.org/docrep/u8955e/u8955e00.htm#Contents extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Kumar, B., and B.S. Hansra. (2000). Extension education for human resource development. New of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Delhi, India: Concept Publishing Company. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Nehiley, J.M. (2001). Developing a simple four‐step marketing plan for extension programs. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Journal of Extension, 39(2). Accessed at: www.joe.org/joe/2001april/iw3.php and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Rodekohr, J. (2000). Campaign communications: Public information. In P. Calvert (ed.), The Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the communicator’s handbook: Tools, techniques and technology (fourth ed.). Gainesville, connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Florida, USA: Maupin House. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 170

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Tool 32: Write for Newspapers or Mass Media Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 32: Write for Newspapers or Mass Media Preface As you work in the field, you’ll want to share best practices and also publicize an experiment that led to outstanding results, a new tool that was developed, or a local success story about This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ overcoming some obstacle or hindrance beyond the limits of the village or district. Newspapers to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and offer an opportunity to widely disseminate such knowledge or information. It is a space where evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The you can share facts or experiences, and it reaches thousands, both on paper and through the intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental Internet. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Newspapers commonly carry two kinds of stories: news and features stories. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating News articles: These stories report the basic facts about an event in the order of their extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education importance, from most important to least important. They focus on the who, what, when, where, programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools why and how of an event (the five Ws and the H) (Marks, 2000). of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Feature articles: These are generally longer and more in‐depth than news articles, and they often Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer present multiple perspectives on one subject. They provide the writer more creative options than to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first the standard news story. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Writing for newspapers and magazines is essential for communicating with the general public. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the McCabe (2000) and Marks (2000) offer the following tips for effective communication through connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that mass media publications. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Components of a News Article understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Headline The bold letters you see at the top of a story. It gives the basic information they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for about a story. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Headlines should have only a few words and no unusual abbreviations. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches A headline is more than a label – it actually says something about the story. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Subheadline A phrase below the headline that gives more details about the report. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field Byline Writer’s name. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Dateline Gives the date and the location where the events in the story took place. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Lead The first sentence in a news story summarizes the most important skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help information. It may address any of the "five Ws and the H" ‐‐ who, what, create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory where, when, why and how. The rest of the story expands on the approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. information in the lead. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Who is it Name the people involved and identify them by occupation, place of handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are about? residence or other role in the story. e.g., the farmers who cooperated in a equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are new extension program with support from a local leader, and the staff easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some members who worked with them. of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Tool 32: Write for Newspapers or Mass Media Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff Where did The village or district. If a demonstration of new seed varieties led to it occur? adoption by others in another village, both deserve mention. A Preface demographic profile is helpful to understand the village, if you are writing a feature story. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ What work. It If you introduced a drought‐resistant crop in a drought‐afflicted area, to‐day offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and happened? contrast then and now to show what has changed. evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural Why did it Here give the details. Why was the village chosen as a site? How long did it resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental happen? take to see the results? Was the program for a single purpose or part of a extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice series of development initiatives with an even broader goal? extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating How did it How did people decide to participate? How many people gained? Who led extension through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education happen? personnel the process? Are evaluation results available? (Note: the answer to any of programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools these questions could be the lead, depending on what aspect of the of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. project you wish to focus on.) Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. According to McCabe (2000) a newspaper article generally contains three sections: Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the The first paragraph is referred to as the lead (pronounced “leed”). It is made up of one or two connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that sentences that summarize the main facts of the article. It may tell one, some or most of the five may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an Ws (who, what, when, where and why) and the H (how). The first paragraph is what makes a understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. reader read the rest of the article. Make it “catchy” by putting the most exciting or interesting They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, facts here. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for The second paragraph or section contains details about the topic or the incident, often including planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are quotes from beneficiaries and description of the process.  Use simple language. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. The third paragraph or final section includes less  Be objective, and stick to facts. important information. Remember, this section could be  Write concisely and to the point. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field trimmed by the editor to fit the newspaper page space.  Keep emotions and opinions out extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but unless they’re in direct quotes. This is why the most important information appears first. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help References create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Marks, J. (2000). Writing skills short course for news and feature stories. In P. Calvert (ed.), The approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Communicator’s handbook: Tools, techniques and technology. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Maupin House. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are

equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are McCabe, C. (2000). Writing for newspapers and magazines. In P. Calvert (ed.), The easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Communicator’s handbook: Tools, techniques and technology. Gainesville, Florida, USA: of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of Maupin House. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 172

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Tool 33: Using ICT in Extension Core Competency Handbook for Extension Staff

Tool 33: Make Good Use of Information and Communication Preface Technologies and Use Web‐based Resources

This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are technologies that help people access or to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The provide information. In recent years, ICTs such as mobile phones, Internet, radio and television intended of this handbook include: of governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural have been audiences popular. They reach a large number people in a short time. ICTs are becoming resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental credible, relevant, reliable, timely and cost‐effective sources of information (Anderson and Feder, extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice 2007; USAID, 2012). extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ There are several advantages and uses of ICTs in extension. Aker (2011) and MEAS (2011) list the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating following: personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education extension programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Advantages of using ICTs in extension of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Improve the quality of extension services Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer by providing timely information on new Bell (2015) suggests that extension workers to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first should consider following three factors technology, input supply and markets. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. (called “AID”) while selecting social media  Increase of and information Today’s agricultural speed extension advisory services are being challenged to serve as the in extension work: dissemination and services delivery. connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Help store information for future use. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Awareness: Do people know about your Help people and institutions to network may  differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an information. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. with one another. Interested: Do people want to learn more? They adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge,  should be well‐versed in Useful tools that trainers can use in they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for Doable: Can people easily try it? training. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Effective for follow‐up on extension critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches programs. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.

Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, How to use ICTs rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  Identify the clients and understand their demographics, including their sociopolitical extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but contexts, farming systems and diversity. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Identify clients’ information and communication needs. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Select appropriate ICT tool(s). skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Train yourself or your staff members to use select ICTs. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  Design and test the message. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Deliver the message. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this  Evaluate the outcome and/or impact. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Improve and update the message and the programs. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some As an extension educator, you need to understand: of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of The local ICT policy. the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be  The status of the rural connectivity of ICTs. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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 User fee, if any.  Existing communication channels and knowledge sources. Preface  Lessons from previous information dissemination and networking efforts involving ICTs This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ (Rudgard et al., 2011). to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Innovation forums where extension workers, farmers and other stakeholders interact and foster intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural partnership and collaboration benefit from ICTs, and, therefore, improve extension services. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Types of ICTs extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Cell phones, radio, television, videos, computers, smart devices and the Internet are the common profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating ICTs currently in use. Your audience may use one or many of these devices to access information. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education You should know which devices would work the best where and why to effectively carry out your programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools extension tasks. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Cell phones to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Cell phones are getting extremely popular among people of all walks of life, including farmers and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. and extension workers. Cell phones are mainly of two types: basic and smart phones. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Cell phones can be used for: voice to voice ‐‐ call and seek information about market prices, input connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural availability, advice to control and/or treat plant diseases and pests, etc.; voice messaging; texting; development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that video messaging; and accessing the internet. Most extension workers and farmers in developing may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an countries use voice‐to‐voice services only. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, Cell phones are relatively cheap to use. Consumers do not need any advanced training to use they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for them. However, poor network connections and power shortages to charge cell phones limit their planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are usage. critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. MEAS (2011) offers following tips on how to effectively use cell phones in extension: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education,  Keep farmers’ input suppliers’ and experts’ cell numbers handy. Remember that not all rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field farmers have cell phones. You may have to reach them using other media. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but  Provide your cell number to farmers and stakeholders. comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our  Respond as soon as you can to the calls you receive. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Be polite and receptive to others when you talk to them. skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help  Thank people who call you or who receive your call. create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory  If you are sending texts or voice messages, follow the principles of effective approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. communication ‐‐ i.e., use simple and clear language, remain focused on the issues, seek Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this feedback, etc. handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are

equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are Radio easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Radio is a mass communication tool of one‐way communication mainly used to create public of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of awareness (King, 2000). Radio is popular in rural villages. Messages can be programmed in local the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be languages. This makes radio an effective tool to cater to the educational and information needs expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them of the local people. Most nations broadcast agricultural programs over AM and FM stations. do so. 174

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Radio programs air at set times, so there is no flexibility in time to listen to messages (Oakley and Garforth, 1997). It is dominantly a one‐way communication medium, but in recent years some Preface radio stations have initiated question‐answer forums. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and How to Use Radio evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The Follow these five principles suggested in MEAS (2011) to use radio as a communication tool: intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Focus: Understand your farmers/audiences. Messages should be appealing, relevant extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension and helpful to address farmers’ problems. workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Content and clarity: Focus on the messages you want to convey. Clearly present the profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension key points. Messages should be simple and in languages that target audiences can personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education clearly understand. Repeating the main points and providing context‐specific programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools examples augment the learning. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Catch: The first few seconds of the message are very important to draw the Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer audience’s attention. So, design and present the message in such a way that to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first audiences are attracted to it and listen to it. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Pretest: Pretesting the message with a section of the audience helps you understand Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the whether the message offers the intended information and, if not, provides feedback connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural to improve it. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Evaluation: Find out how useful the radio message was and whether the information understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. was appealing and educational. You can also ask fellow extension workers to listen They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, and seek their feedback on the messages. they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches In general, radio messages last 3 minutes or less. Listeners will lose attention if the message is that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. longer. If possible, invite farmers to speak who have tried out or successfully adopted the new Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, technology being promoted. Farmers generally believe their fellow farmers — they can speak rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field their language and can relate to local conditions. extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but

comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our Social media goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Social media such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube are very powerful communication tools skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help covering a large swath of the population, especially the younger generation (MEAS, 2011). Social create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory media users share and inform of almost all their activities ‐‐ their work, achievements, life events, approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. feelings, emotions, plans, hobbies — using a variety of message forms — pictures, drawings, Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this audio, video, text, messages, etc. Social media are becoming increasingly popular among training handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are and educational institutions, marketing firms, sellers, buyers, input suppliers, civil society, and equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are sociopolitical and cultural groups. Because social media are emerging as powerful easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some communication tools, extension workers should be able to use them for extension work. They of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of are quick, they can use photos other and message forms, and they are interactive. all the tools. However, in the end, and educated well‐trained extension staff members Not will be messages in social media come from reliable sources, however. expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Here are some tips from MEAS (2011) on how to use social media:  Identify the audience: Social media may not be appropriate to communicate with older Preface audiences. This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐  Coverage: Social media are useful to communicate with a large number of clients, useful to‐day as an announcement platform and useful for open dialogue. work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The  Frequency: You have to use social media regularly and frequently to get the most out of intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural them. resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental  Simplicity: Keep messages short and simple. Filter out information that you deem extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice inappropriate to your audience. Block links with bad contents. extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐  Build trust: Respond in a timely manner ‐‐ this will help build trust. profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating  Think positive: Respect other members’ idea and opinions. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education

programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Video and TV of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Videos and televisions are popular tools for information dissemination and to promote learning. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer Limited access of farmers to TV, fixed times for broadcasting information and one‐way to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first communication are some limitations. MEAS (2011) offers the following tips for extension workers and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. to consider while using TV and videos in communicating with farmers: Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the

connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural  Understand the audience and learn about their educational and information needs. Know development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that their age group, sociocultural backgrounds, educational level, farming system, etc. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Develop a simple and clear, usually 1‐ to 3‐minute message. understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve.  should be well‐versed in Produce video clips by adult education principles. yourself or seek the help Besides sound technical knowledge, of professional videographers and They they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for communication specialists. planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are  Pretest the message with some members of the target audience and improve the clip as critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches they advise. that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work.  Focus on your target audience and ensure that not only the message but also the music or other background that builds the message suits the target audience. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field  When you or your staff members are in the field, take pictures and video the farmers’ extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but activities, behaviors and practices that you deem stand out and are worth scaling up or comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our offer some lessons. goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the  Document each tape or footage or pictures set with speakers, places, dates, etc., so that skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help people who developed the footage can be acknowledged and original sources can be create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory identified. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades.  Seek out the advice of peers, staff members and potential participants on the best time Please to broadcast TV messages. note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are  Evaluate the message and its contents by asking peers and real audience equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are members/farmers for feedback. easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 176

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Computer and Internet Computer and Internet communication helps generate, store, update and distribute educational Preface information in various forms ‐‐ audio, video, texts, graphics, etc. ‐‐ and can reach a large number This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ of consumers. to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and Major limitations of these ICTs include: only a few farmers in developing countries have access evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The to computers and the farmers include: cannot physically see a agriculture, technology; fisheries, and most natural of the intended audiences of Internet; this handbook governmental information available on the Internet is produced in the developed countries and is in languages resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental that farmers in developing countries do not understand. extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ You may follow the tips suggested by MEAS (2011) on how to use computers and the Internet to profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating communicate your message effectively: extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools  Know your audiences and identify their information needs. of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them.  Keep messages simple, short and clear. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer  Ensure that the message comes from a credible source ‐‐ e.g., research station. to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first  Train yourself or your staff to design and upload messages to the Internet. and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.  Train farmers how and where to access information on the Internet. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the  Ensure that Internet links in other forms of communication works. Make sure the Internet connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural access is available in your area. development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that  Seek feedback and improve the message as new issues and information unfold. may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an  Think of and act early on how you will sustain the use of the Internet as a communication understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. tool. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for The “Rice Knowledge Bank,” launched by the International Rice Research Institute, the planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Philippines (ADB, 2010), is an example of the use of the Internet at the regional level to teach rice critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. farmers of developing countries about improved rice technologies. More information on Rice Knowledge Bank can be found at www.knowledgebank.irri.org. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but References comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Aker, J.C. (2011). Dial “A” for agriculture: a review of information and communication skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help technologies for agricultural extension in developing countries. Agricultural create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Economics, 42(6), 631‐647. approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Anderson, J. R., and G. Feder. (2007). Agricultural extension (Chapter 44). Pages 2343‐2378 in R. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this Evenson and P. Pingali (eds.), Handbook of agricultural economics. Amsterdam, handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Netherlands: Elsevier. equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are

easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2010). Information and communication technology for of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of development: ADB experiences. Manilla, Philippines: ADB. Accessed at: the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27469/ict‐adb‐experiences.pdf expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so.

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Bell, M. (2015). Information and communication technologies for agricultural extension and advisory services ICT – Powering behavior change for a brighter agricultural future. Preface MEAS discussion paper. USAID/UCDAVIS/MEAS. Accessed at: www.meas‐ extension.org/meas‐offers/best‐practice This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and King, D. (2000). Radio. In P. Calvert (ed.), The Communicator’s handbook: Tools, techniques and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The technology. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Maupin House. intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural MEAS. (2011). ICT options‐ Do’s and don’ts. USAID‐MEAS. Accessed at: resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice http://measict.weebly.com . extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ Oakley, P., and C. Garforth. (1997). Guide to extension training (originally printed in 1985, profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating reprinted in 1997). Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education Accessed at: www.fao.org/docrep/t0060e/t0060e07.htm programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Rudgard et al. (2011). Module 6—ICTs as enablers of agricultural innovation system. In ICT in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington, D.C., USA: The World Bank. Accessed at: Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer http://www‐ to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2012/08/03/000386 and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s 194_20120803011835/Rendered/PDF/646050ESW0P1180lture0e0Sourcebook12.pdf agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural USAID. (2012). Final report: Expert consultation on the G8 new alliance for food security and development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that nutrition ICT in extension challenge (Oct. 11‐12, 2012). Washington, may differ from those they learned in consultation school. Extension professionals must have D.C., an USA: USAID‐MEAS. 3. Accessed at: understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. http://feedthefuture.gov/sites/default/files/resource/files/report_expert_consultation_ They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, on_the_G8_ict_extension_challenge.pdf they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 178

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Important Contact Numbers:


Name:

Preface

Telephone: This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐

to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and

Email: evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The

intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice Name: extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating Telephone: extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools Email: of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer

to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first Name:

and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers.

Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the Telephone:

connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural

development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that Email:

may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, They should be well‐versed in Name: they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Telephone: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Email: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Name: comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Telephone: skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Email: approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Name: equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Telephone: of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Email: expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 179i



Name:

Preface










may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, They should be well‐versed in Name: they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Telephone: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Email: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Name: comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Telephone: skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Email: approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Name: equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Telephone: of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Email: expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 180

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Name:

Preface










may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, They should be well‐versed in Name: they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are Telephone: critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Email: Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but Name: comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the Telephone: skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory Email: approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are Name: equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some Telephone: of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be Email: expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 181i

Personal Notes


Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 182

i

Personal Notes


Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 183i

Personal Notes


Preface This handbook is designed as a reference manual for front‐line extension staff to use in their day‐ to‐day work. It offers a set of tools for effective communication, program planning and evaluation. It is meant to support and educate agricultural extension workers worldwide. The intended audiences of this handbook include: governmental agriculture, fisheries, natural resources and community development ministry officials; governmental and non‐governmental extension district/regional managers; extension‐related faculty and their students—preservice extension workers; and field‐level agents, whether governmental, non‐governmental or for‐ profit. We hope that this handbook will help advance efforts to empower and continue educating extension personnel through in‐service training opportunities, continuing education programming and “train‐the‐trainer” programs. Such efforts may include targeting specific tools of interest to audiences and inviting scholars/practitioners to teach participants about them. Agricultural extension and advisory services are transitioning from a focus on technology transfer to a focus on facilitating a range of interventions in complex contexts. No longer is extension first and foremost a conduit of innovations coming from research and passing them on to farmers. Today’s agricultural extension and advisory services are being challenged to serve as the connecting actor in complex agricultural innovation systems. The role of extension in agricultural development is continuously evolving, and effective front‐line staff members need skill sets that may differ from those they learned in school. Extension professionals must have an understanding of the communities they work in and have compassion for the people they serve. They should be well‐versed in adult education principles. Besides sound technical knowledge, they must possess adequate knowledge and skill in participatory tools and techniques for planning, implementation and evaluation of extension programs. Good communication skills are critical in all aspects of their work. This handbook attempts to provide some tools and approaches that can help front‐line extension staff do their important work. Most of the process skills or tools in this handbook are grounded in communication, education, rural sociology and applied development science. These tools are valuable for the trainers of field extension workers. This handbook was created to help meet the need for a simple but comprehensive guide for extension workers that focuses on process skills and competencies. Our goal was to create a concise yet complete, easy to read, user‐friendly explanation of some of the skills that extension workers need to help farmers improve agricultural productivity and to help create a sustainable and inclusive agriculture system through demand‐driven and participatory approaches that have gained prominence in the past two decades. Please note that neither the length of each tool’s description nor its numeric order in this handbook is meant to convey the tool’s importance, complexity or usefulness. Not all tools are equally useful in particular circumstances. Furthermore, some complex and powerful tools are easier to describe than others. We present a brief overview at the end of this handbook of some of the ways for extension personnel to evaluate the potential usefulness and appropriateness of the tools. However, in the end, educated and well‐trained extension staff members will be expected to use their best judgment on how best to proceed. We hope this handbook helps them do so. 184

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About the Authors About the Authors About About the Authors

Process Process Skills and SkillsCompetency and Competency Tools Tools Process Skills and Competency Tools

WHAT EVERY EXTENSION WORKER SHOULD KNOW – CORE COMPETENCY HANDBOOK –

February 2016

http://csus.msu.edu/meas This book is available as a free download from the following websites: This book is is available available as as aa free free download download from http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material This book from the the following following websites: websites: http://csus.msu.edu/meas http://csus.msu.edu/meas http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training http://csus.msu.edu/meas http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training http://meas.illinois.edu/training-material http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training http://www.meas-extension.org/meas-offers/training

By Murari Suvedi and Michael Kaplowitz, Michigan State University

MEAS Handbook

Suvedi is a professor of agricultural extension in the Department Community at MichiganinState Suvedi is a ofprofessor of Sustainability agricultural extension the Suvedi is aBefore professor oftoagricultural agricultural extension in the the professor of extension University. moving the United States, he in taught Department of Community Sustainability at Michigan State Community Sustainability at Michigan Michigan State Department of Community Sustainability at State undergraduate courses in agricultural extension andtaught rural University. Before moving to the United States, he moving to the United States, he taught University. Before moving to the United States, he taught development Nepal. in In agricultural addition to extension teaching university undergraduateincourses and rural courses in agricultural extension and rural undergraduate in and rural courses in program evaluation, he has provideduniversity program development incourses Nepal. In agricultural addition to extension teaching Nepal. In addition to teaching university development in Nepal. In addition to teaching university evaluation short courses and workshops for agricultural courses in program evaluation, he has provided program evaluation, he has hasCambodia, provided Ecuador, program courses in program evaluation, he provided program development professionals in Canada, evaluation short courses and workshops for agricultural courses and workshops for agricultural agricultural evaluation short courses and workshops for Guatemala, India, Mexico, Nepal and the United States. His development professionals in Canada, Cambodia, Ecuador, development professionals in Canada, Cambodia, Ecuador, professionals in Canada, Cambodia, Ecuador, work has been supported, in part, by the United States Guatemala, India, Mexico, Nepal and the United States. His Murari Suvedi Guatemala, India,supported, Mexico, Nepal and the United States. His Mexico,Development, Nepal andby thethe United States. His Agencyhas forbeen International the United States work in part, United States work has been supported, in part, by the United States supported, in part, by the United States Murari Suvedi Department of Education,Development, the United States of Agency for International theDepartment United States Murari Suvedi Agency for International the United International Development, theDepartment United States Agriculture and the W.K.Development, Kellogg His States work Department of Education, the UnitedFoundation. States of Department of Education, States of Education, the United StatesDepartment Department of focuses on building capacity of United local extension professionals Agriculture and the W.K.the Kellogg Foundation. His work Agriculture and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His work W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His work serving millions of smallholder farmers across the world. focuses on building capacity of local extension professionals focuses on building capacity extension capacity of of local local extension professionals serving millions of smallholder farmers across professionals the Kaplowitz, a professor of environmental andworld. natural serving millions of smallholder smallholder farmers farmers across across the theworld. world. resource lawaand policy and of theand Department Kaplowitz, professor ofchairperson environmental natural Kaplowitz, professor of environmental natural professor ofchairperson environmental and natural of Community Sustainability at MichiganofState University, resource lawaand policy and theand Department resource law and policy and chairperson of the Department policy and chairperson of the Department works in agricultural, natural resource and watershed of Community Sustainability at Michigan State University, of Community Sustainability at State Sustainability at Michigan Michigan State University, management, ecosystem services, agricultural extension works in agricultural, natural resource and University, watershed works in agricultural, natural resource and watershed agricultural, natural resource and watershed and program evaluation, and environmental policy. His management, ecosystem services, agricultural extension management, ecosystem services, agricultural extension ecosystem services, agricultural extension projects have taken him from America’s Great and program evaluation, andNorth environmental policy.Lakes His and program evaluation, and environmental policy. His evaluation, andNorth environmental policy. His region tohave Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, CambodiaGreat and Nepal. projects taken him from America’s Lakes projects have taken him from North America’s Great Lakes him from North America’s Great Lakes His work been Costa supported, part,Cambodia by the United States region tohas Mexico, Rica, in Cuba, and Nepal. region to Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cambodia and Nepal. region tohas Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cambodia and Nepal. Environmental Protection Agency, Oceanic His work been supported, in part,the by National the United States Michael Kaplowitz His work has been supported, in part, by the United States His work has been supported, in part, by the United States and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Department of Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic Michael Kaplowitz Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic Agriculture and the United States Agency for International and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Department of Michael Kaplowitz Kaplowitz Michael and the U.S. Department of and Atmospheric Atmospheric Administration, thewidely U.S.for Department of Development, he has beenAgency published in Agriculture and and theAdministration, United States International Agriculture and the United States Agency for International Agriculture and the United States International professional journals andhas several books. The goal of his Development, and he beenAgency widelyfor published in Development, been widely published in scholarship isjournals toand helphe improve local, regional, national Development, and he has been widelyThe published in professional andhas several books. goal ofand his professional journals and several books. The goal of his international decisions about agricultural, environmental professional journals and several books. The goal of his scholarship is to help improve local, regional, national and scholarship is to help national and ecosystem scholarship is decisions toresources. help improve improve local, regional, regional, national and and international about local, agricultural, environmental international decisions about agricultural, environmental international decisions about agricultural, environmental and ecosystem resources. and ecosystem resources. and from ecosystem resources. This book is available as a free download the following websites:

WHAT WEHAT VERY EVERY EXTENSION EXTENSION WORKER WORKER SHOULD SHOULD KNOW KNOW – CORE – CCORE OMPETENCY COMPETENCY HANDBOOK HANDBOOK – –

By Murari and Michael Kaplowitz, Michigan State University By Murari SuvediSuvedi and Michael Kaplowitz, Michigan State University

MEAS Handbook MEAS Handbook

February February 2016 2016