Identity (Re)evaluation in Cyberspace

Hales, et al.

Identity (Re)evaluation in Cyberspace

ICIA 2010 Conference Papers Paper No. xx, pp. xxx-xxx

Conference Paper (Will be set by ICIA Committee)

Identity (Re)evaluation in Cyberspace Kayla D. Hales The Pennsylvania State University [email protected]

Lynette Kvasny The Pennsylvania State University [email protected]

(Received xxx 2009, accepted xxx 2010, will be set by the editor)

Abstract. This article explores ways the Internet is used to scrutinize personal and social offline identities in dispersed societal groups. Through a discussion forum narrative and textual analysis, we demonstrate how the Internet affords marginalized groups (specifically individuals of African ancestry) the ability to strengthen their identity. Through online communication with group members, of varying perspectives all across the globe, individuals are able to work through the tensions of “who I am” versus “who society says I am”. Keywords: Communication Technologies, Diaspora, Digital Divide, Identity, Internet

INTRODUCTION “[New Communication Technologies (NCTs)] enable new communication formats – new modes of selecting, organizing, and presenting information. In turn, these new formats reshape social activity; they modify or dismantle current practices, and spur or shape new ones. In this way, NCTs create new environments for self-development and identification; they present new opportunities for collective affiliation and mobilization” (Cerulo, 1997). Perspectives on the consequences of NCTs are often ambiguous and paradoxical. However, the commonality of these perspectives is the belief that NCTs allow individuals to do things never before possible and to do old things in new ways (Johnson, 2004). As a result the digital divide has often been viewed negatively; it limits opportunities to experience new developments and perpetuates inequities. The digital divide was initially defined as a lack of physical access to computing devices necessary to obtain internet access (Internet Access National Telecommunications and Information Agency, 1995) and later extended to include concerns related to disparities in information literacy and skills necessary to function proficiently on the Internet (Mossberger, Tolbert, and Stansbury, 2003), disparities in the content, connectivity, capability and context that shape Internet use (Kvasny, Kranich, and Schement, 2006), and a “global divide” that separates wired countries from those with little access to the network (Norris, 2001). The prominent digital divide theme in the current literature tends to revolve around underserved communities and developing countries being viewed as lacking access and the relevant skills to use NCTs to their advantage. However, with the growing number of digital inclusion projects these gaps have begun to narrow.

International Conference on ICT for Africa 2010 25-28th March, Yaoundé, Cameroon

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As historically underserved populations gain access to NCTs, it is increasingly important that scholars empirically examine how these nontraditional users are appropriating these technologies to meet their needs. This paper aims to address this matter while challenging the notion that historically underserved populations remain on the “wrong” side of the divide. From an interpretive epistemology, we reference identity theory and examine how identity is (re)evaluated online in a community of indigenous and diasporic Africans. We explore this phenomenon at the individual and group level, using textual analysis of Internet discussion forum posts, to address the following guiding research question: How are individuals utilizing Internet discussion forums to evaluate their personal and social identities? In the following section, we provide background information on NCTs and identity theory as a means of understanding the issues related to identity portrayal online. Next we provide an empirical example of identity dialogues occurring online. We conclude with a brief summary of the papers content and purpose.

NCTS AND IDENTITY Every individual has a number of hierarchically arranged identities based on social, physical, behavioral, and personal characteristics (e.g. religion, class, ethnicity, personality, gender and race). This set of traits is often used to distinguish individuals who are members of a particular group (i.e. in-groups) from those who are not (i.e. out-groups). Therefore, these shared traits are used to draw individuals together while simultaneously excluding others (Woodward, 1997). This ‘in-group, out-group’ mentality is a result of social identity, which “derives from people’s presentation of identity as part of group membership or the taking on of a social role within the interaction” (Yates, 1997). Social identity can be differentiated from personal identity, which is “a person’s complex understanding of themselves as an individual” (Yates, 1997). Identity theory posits that individuals’ behaviors are a function of the extent to which the behavioral choices are related to a personally relevant or salient role-identity. This paper focuses on the terms that diasporic Africans use to describe their choice of preferred labels, and how they explain the meaning of these labels. Although widely used NCTs such as email, discussion forms, and blogs are primarily text based and reduce the amount of social cues available, this does not mean identity plays less of a role. Meyrowitz (1985), one of the first scholars to explore the link between NCTs and identity, argues that the places afforded by NCTs enable the public/private selves to be meshed, new identities to be performed, new collectives to emerge, and offline/online boundaries to be reconfigured. NCTs that support computermediated social interactions have made this notion of identity even more complex; now individuals have the option of having a digital or virtual identity. This concept is two-fold as individuals can use NCTs to express their true selves, or they can use NCTs to express an alternate self or fake identity. There is significant research that discusses how individuals use NCTs to change their identity through their representation of themselves online (i.e. as a way to portray themselves as they want to be, as they can never be, or simply as they are not). However, the manner in which individuals use NCTs to find or strengthen their identities (i.e. their real/actual self) requires additional exploration. Turkle (1995) argued that the ability to create multiple personalities online would be so emotionally engaging that it would fracture identity. However, research shows that diasporas use NCTs as a “cultural location” to enact identity positions online that are grounded in real life (Mitra, 2001). If scholars engage in critical and interpretive studies that start from the perspective of marginalized groups, we can uncover how these groups use the NCTs in ways that are culturally meaningful to their identity. We assert that NCTs offer virtual places where real world social and personal identity can be (re)negotiated. Diasporic people can use these virtual places to (re)evaluate their real world social identity International Conference on ICT for Africa 2010 25-28th March, Yaoundé, Cameroon

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by contesting the identities that have been forced upon them by the dominating societal groups. Marginalized groups can define themselves in their own terms, challenge dominant viewpoints that perpetuate their subjugation, and reach a global audience. Diasporic people who have similar interests or backgrounds can form alliances in cyberspace that allow them to build a sense of belonging and commonality that was previously unavailable because of geographic separation (Mitra, 2001). Therefore, while diasporic people have been disconnected by geography and colonial history, NCTs provide virtual places to foster solidarity and understanding. Members of diasporas use these virtual places as a way to not only heal, but remember and define their social and personal identities; they recognize the added value that virtual places can offer to their lives through cultural, social, and political connections to their home countries (Parham, 2004). The Internet, the foundation for many contemporary NCTs, provides a number of features that take identity (re)evaluation to a different level. First and foremost, the Internet can be used to break down the geographic and social barriers imposed by society, thereby uniting people all across the globe. Second, it eliminates the physical restraints of time and location, which affords a psychologically feeling of closeness and allows individuals to stay socially connected at all times (O'Sullivan, Hunt and Lippert, 2004). Third, the Internet creates a buffer or protective mechanism that allows individuals to be open and freely express themselves (O'Sullivan, 2000). This diminished inhibition results from the anonymous nature of online communication, as well as, in some cases, the absence of visual and audio feedback (Boase and Wellman, 2004). The dominating text based nature of the Internet overcomes barriers to personal expression prevalent in mediums where social cues (e.g. gender, age, skin color) are present. This affordance allows individuals, who might normally be discriminated against, to have an input. For example, in discussion forums, participants are less constrained by social expectations because they have the option of remaining anonymous; if people remain anonymous they cannot be identified, which makes it impossible for them to be held accountable (Davenport, 2000). Therefore, online environments allow individuals to present themselves and express their identities in ways that might not be comfortable (or possible) for them in face-to-face settings – sometimes due to fear of repercussions. This ability to communicate their identity in this uninhibited manner could assist individuals in strengthening their actual offline identity. In other words, the Internet provides the opportunity for individuals to rethink their identity and rediscover themselves.

RETHINKING RACIAL IDENTITY ONLINE Racial identity reflects understanding shared by members of the group of what it means to be Black. Stereotypes and other perceived trait differences are the symbols and shared perceptions used as the basis of racial self-identification. Hecht, Jackson and Ribeau (2003) argue that identities have semantic properties that are expressed in these core symbols, meanings, and labels. There is, however, currently great diversity it what it means to be Black and there is no single set of attitudes or behaviors definitive of African Americans. Thus, to understand racial identity, researchers must uncover how African Americans, and other people of African ancestry, define themselves and the qualitative meanings that they ascribe to membership in that racial group. According to Smith (1992), changes in identity labels reflect strategies of redefinition by Blacks to improve their social standing in a world that historically rendered them inferior. Thus, the search for self-affirming identity labels is also a search for group pride, existential meaning, history, and shared culture. In this section, we examine how identity is enacted through the discussion of labels (i.e. Negro, Black, and African American).


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Methodology Manual textual analysis (a standard methodology in the social sciences) was the method of data analysis used for this study. A discussion forum thread, on a Ghanaian website populated by dispersed people of primarily African ancestry, was examined for emerging identity labels and identity claims. Community members of the forum responded to an initial post that questioned the meaning of a set of identity labels. A total of 141 usable responses to this initial post were included in our analysis. Excluded from our analysis were posts that were blank or off topic, and portions of posts that directly quoted previous posts. There were various themes that emerged during the analysis of this discussion forum. In order to understand the preferences expressed by community members regarding identity labels, a four category schema (inquiry, terminology, foundation, and perspective) was selected. For the purposes of this analysis the overall content of the posting was used to determine the dominating meaning of the quote in order to categorize it. The schema was determined by the first researcher, who also coded the forum data. The second researcher was responsible for confirming the appropriateness and accuracy of the grouped postings. It may also be worth noting that both researchers are of African American heritage. However, it is not believed that this fact had any significant influences on the interpretations of the analyzed data. Neither researchers actively engaged in the forums and were, therefore, able to detach themselves. In the findings enumerated below, all representative quotes are verbatim from the discussion forum. However, discussant names were replaced for privacy protection.

Findings The Inquiry category refers to instances in the discussion forum where individuals questioned identity labels; where they came from, what they mean, why they exist, and preferences for use. Although this category had the lowest number of comments, it is important because questioning is what allows the process of (re)evaluating identity to occur. A single posting of inquiry, if the question is of value to the community members, could result in a thread that remains active for years. In this case, the original posting (titled “Black American not African American”) was an inquiry as follow: Haven't you people ever heard of the word Negro? Your race is Negro if you are a Black person, whether you are from Africa or America. If you were born in Africa, then your Nationality is African. If you were born in the US, then your Nationality is American. So, Blacks born in the US are American, not AfricanAmerican. A person can not have 2 nationalities. Get it? Born in Asia =Asian, born in Germany = German, Born in China = Chinese, Born in France = French, etc. Table 1 offers examples of representative postings within this thread that were also of an inquiring nature regarding the “African American” identity label. Discussant1: how exactly is being referred to as a "Black American" any better from being referred to as an "African American"? Both, if taken 100% literally, are inaccurate. Discussant2: Are you telling me, and other Black Americans, that we are to ignore the fact that we are descendants of Europeans, as well, and claim only that African side? [i.e. be called African American] Discussant3: Why do you think it is necessary that only Black Americans have a description of the nationality of their distant relatives attached to their nationality when white Americans are not required to do the same? Table 1. Inquiry Forum Quotes

The second largest category, Terminology, encompasses portions of the discussion where participants chose to define or clarify what a particular label means or how the labels relate to one another. This is a International Conference on ICT for Africa 2010 25-28th March, Yaoundé, Cameroon

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significant category because if participants are to (re)evaluate their identity they must first be able to understand what the current identity labels signify. Table 2 lists a few of the descriptions forum participants gave for the identity labels under scrutiny. Discussant4: Negro- Nigger- is an African brought over on a ship as a slave to america. so in which no matter how u want to put it Black or not born in the U.S also are called African American because they ancestors were brought to america on a slave ship..in whish they had babies in america thats why they call them AFRIICAN AMERICAN ! Discussant5: Black is a race! Afro-american is a CULTURAL designation for the descendents of American slaves that formed an ethnic group! Discussant6: The term African/Black American refers to a group of people of Black people from North America, who have a specific history and culture tied to that land. Table 2. Terminology Forum Quotes

The Foundation category contains posts which discuss the origins of an identity label or why that label is used to identify this particular group of people. This category also has strong implications for the way discussants will (re)evaluate their personal and social identity; the way and reason a label was derived influences the attitudes and beliefs that individuals will have about that particular label. Should the history of the label or the manner in which it is used be unfavorable, the label may very well be rejected. This category had the third largest input. Table 3 lists some of the thoughts that discussants had to share regarding the foundation of identity labels used to define their group. Discussant7: The "Negro" is also a fantasy character created by Europeans to meet their needs, to justify their subjugation, colonialism, slave trade and murdering of Afrikan people. Because it was indeed the Europeans who created the "Negro". "Negroes" were described as having no history, being primitive, having no sense of self and being in need of somebody to lead and rule them. Discussant1: "Black" and "Negro" are INACCURATE slang terms popularized by some Europeans. Discussant8: during the time the word "Black" was popular it did not depend on skin shade. There is no one phenotype that describes a Black African person. Black stood for a state of mind, an allegiance. Not it is used as a ethnic classification and even a race which is wrong. Table 3. Foundation Forum Quotes

The final category, Perspective, includes commentary from participants who are trying to take a stance regarding identity labels, convince the overall discussants of which label is most appropriate and acceptable, or persuade individuals to change their mind regarding their preference for a particular identity label. With the most commentary from discussants, this category is of utmost significance as it demonstrates the (re)evaluation process. It is within these comments that one can see if an individual’s views of the identity labels have been swayed, or how determined other individuals are about trying to influence the community. Table 4 enumerates some of these efforts. Discussant9: Somewhere along this social continuum, people of African ancestry must demand their respect and this includes you, my friend. When you call me African-American or refer to me as African-American you are according me the respect I am due....first as one of African ancestry and secondly as an American. To call me or refer to me by any other descriptive social terminology is not according me respect. I do not believe that Africans or their descendants should be required to accept the definition of themselves others have provided, viz., the Europeans. I truly believe that all people of African ancestry should accept their own social description of themselves and not the one (s) provided by Europeans or the descendants of Europeans. Please understand that "Negro" is not a rerspectful term.


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Discussant10: It is time to put "Black" as a term to describe ourselves to bed; it has outlived its usefulness now that we are in the twenty-first century. It is time to see things clearly when viewing ourselves, in as much as we want to be respected for who we are and the many contribution we offer the world (and have offered the world) and nothing more. We have disrespected jourselves far too long and we have alowed others to do the same as well. Discussant11: If you're BLACK, then you're AFRICAN, it's that simple. All of this tired 'you're-not-Africanbecause-you-were-born-in-America rhetoric is just asinine. Black people are not indigenous to the Americas, we all come from Africa, it is OUR homeland, collectively, as a RACE. All this type of labelling (or un-labelling in this case) does is divide us even further. Table 4. Perspective Forum Quotes

Imagine that you are a member of this online Ghanaian community exploring this particular forum. Table 5 and Table 6 present an assembled thread of quotes that provide a picture of what an identity evaluation might look like. These particular examples, stemming from a single point of inquiry, demonstrate opposing views with Table 5 being more supportive of the identity label “negro” and Table 6 challenging this identity label. Both tables illustrate the potential influence discussants could have on the (re)construction process of an identity label, though there is no concrete way to determine the actual outcome. Inquiry (Discussant12): why should we refer to ourselves with a word [negro] that was created out of ignorance and was used, at one point, to degrade us Terminology (Discussant13): the word Negro refers to a race of people with distinguishing characteristics, and was never intended to be a negative word. … Negroes are a race of people characterized by dark skin, full lips and very curly hair, usually originating from the sub-saharan region of Africa. Foundation (Discussant14): the "N" prefix in many African languages (and suprisingly in Asian languages that are of prehistoric African origins) denotes a name of importance. The original use of the word that began with the letter "N" was to say the name of God. That name was "N-G-R" or "Ned-ger" "Net-cher," and so on. This is the ancient Egyptian word for 'God," and it is a sacred word. Perspective (Discussant13): Black people have been here [in the United States] almost as long as whites, therefore deserve to be just plain "Americans". We definately are not Africans. As far as who told us to refer to ourselves as African Americans, I believe it was Jesse Jackson. Before that we were called Negros, which I, personally prefer. Table 5. “negro” Identity Label Support Inquiry (Discussant12): why should we refer to ourselves with a word [negro] that was created out of ignorance and was used, at one point, to degrade us Terminology (Discussant9): the term "Negro" was employed by Europeans to describe the physical appearance of Africans. It was neither a term of endeament nor one of respect. Secondly, the term does NOT offer a place of origin of the so-called "Negro", or "Black" Foundation (Discussant7): Reference books tell us that the word "Negro" comes from the Latin word "niger", meaning Black. But does the word "niger" only mean Black? According to Latin dictionaries, the word "niger" means Black in the sense of darkness, hopelessness, horrifying, something that brings misery and belong to the underworld. "Negro" also has a connection to the Latin word "necro" (meaning dead). Perspective (Discussant15): The word "Negro" on the other hand as I have already shown is a racist and derogatory term. In Africa, we do not call ourselves Negroes because we know we are not that. We are African's, thats the term we have agreed to and you better accept it. You think you can go around and define everyone they way you se fit, well you are wrong. We have defined ourselves as African, PERIOD!!


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Table 6. “negro” Identity Label Opposition

IMPLICATIONS Our study has two implications for the research of identity and NCTs. First, consistent with the postmodern identity school of thought that seeks to deconstruct essentialist categories, such as race and ethnicity, variation within the identity category (i.e. Colored, African American, Black, Negro) is as important as the variation between identity categories. For instance, Discussant16 posted the following: “I am an American Black.We are a people unto ourselves.We are distinct from other people in the world.I can tell an African from an Ethnic American Black over 90% of the time and it has nothing to do with color.You Africans are none of our people”. Through such public discourse on an Internet discussion forum, individuals expose the complex and often contradictory nature of collective existence. In doing so, this discourse exposes the dangers of approaching racial collectives as homogeneous entities. Similarly, our study illustrates how collectives create distinctions, hierarchies, and (re)negotiate boundaries and rules of inclusion. Unlike Discussant16, Discussant17 believes that “you cannot separate a people who are linked by blood and infer (and make sense) that the two have no association. Our differences are soley cultural and most definitely not our blood, and least of all, our common origin”. So, for this individual, a common blood line should be a means for automatic inclusion. However, as discussant Discussant18 argues the reason for this “us and them” mentality is “simply that those of us who have been born outside of Africa have adopted an individualistic perspective on the world which is espoused by the Western world through acculturation and adaptation, whilst on the other hand, those of our people who were born in Africa have been presented a collective perspective or ethos as to how to best address the world”. Even still, we have demonstrated that it is far more complex than that. Our second implication revolves around the notion that scholars have indicated that a complex range of relationships exist between offline and online identities; Kendall (1999) argues that online lives are lived in the context of offline lives - some online communities are not created for playful anonymous identity exploration. In the discussion forum in our study, participants showed very few signs of anonymous identity experimentation. Nearly all of the posts took on a confessional tone whereby individuals offered details about their nationality, ethnicity, country of origin, and personal life history. Discussants vigorously debated issues of existential significance, sought to educate one another, apologized for perceived transgressions, and refused to accept the labels that others in the group placed upon them. Perhaps what we are finding in this discourse is that, even though people provide rich details about themselves that suggest that they are not being anonymous, they are still feeling anonymous. “[B]eing and feeling are locked together in a way that limits exploration of the significant differences between them and what these differences might reveal about the simultaneously public and private character of the internet” (Kennedy, 2006). There is no consensus on the manner in which anonymity influences identity performance in cyberspace. For instance, a pioneering study by Turkle (1995) portrayed virtual identities as fluid, fragmented reconfigurations of real life subjectivities. Anonymity allows individuals to mask aspects of identity such as gender and race which might lead to discrimination. In online venues, markers of difference such as mannerisms and attire are more difficult to detect, and new identities can be explored. Virtual places are, consequently, seen as potentially empowering and equalized because individuals can escape the judgments of others. However, scholars (such as Kennedy, 2006) find that online identities are often stable and continuous with offline selves. Identity makers such as nationality, social class and educational International Conference on ICT for Africa 2010 25-28th March, Yaoundé, Cameroon

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attainment are evidenced in language and are not easily masked by anonymity afforded by NCTs. In this way, NCTs are not neutral tools; they reveal aspects of the real world self. Our study reveals how virtual communities have the potential to link geographically dispersed people interested in evaluating, negotiating, or constructing the shared understanding of racial identity. However, it also demonstrates that this linkage is not always a positive and smooth interaction. Joining a discussion forum for a topic of interest could actually result in the development or discovery of deeper complexities – complexities that an individual may not have experienced or understood on his/her own. This new level of consciousness could have serious implications for an individual’s personal identity and viewpoints regarding the social identity of the group.

CONCLUSION NCTs are tools that can be used to enable and advance the interests of people who have historically been marginalized. These tools afford diasporic people the opportunity to (re)evaluate, (re)negotiate and (re)construct their identities while developing a better understanding of who they are. Our study demonstrates the important role Internet discussion forums, a text-based NCT, play in supporting the creation and dissemination of culturally salient content for and by marginalized groups. Internet discussion forums provide an emerging public sphere where these groups can define themselves in their own terms, challenge dominant viewpoints, and reach a global audience. Through the analysis of the discussion that evolved in this space, our study demonstrates that there is no single shared diasporic identity among people of African descent; some individuals emphasized their belief that there is a blended heritage present that combines African ancestry and nationality, while others disassociated themselves from this connection and assumed alternate labels (e.g. Black, Negro). One finding that stood out as fairly consistent was the notion that, regardless of the varying identity labels and their meaning, unification is essential for the survival and success of this diasporic group. This unification is something that could be afforded by the global reach of the Internet. However, individuals must first see the social benefit in utilizing the Internet in this fashion. If individuals are unable to identify the benefits of using the Internet they will not adopt it (Selwyn, Gorard, Furlong and Madden, 2003). Therefore, Internet access and the availability of culturally salient content/opportunities for social engagement become important factors in shaping Internet use (Kvasny and Warren, 2006). If scholars engage in critical and interpretive studies that start from the perspective of marginalized groups, we can uncover how these groups use the Internet in ways that are culturally meaningful.

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