in Indonesia

Proceding International Conference International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) And Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University Surakarta, Indonesia, 27-28 April 2016

eXploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation

in Indonesia Chief Editor: Sariyatun, Johan Richard Weintré, et.al

eXploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation

in Indonesia

ISBN 978-602-70417-6-9

International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) And Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University

Pramudita Press [email protected]

PROCEDING INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Exploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation in Indonesia

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Sanksi Pelanggaran Pasal 72 Undang-undang Nomor 19 Tahun 2002 Perubahan atas Undang-undang Nomor 7 Tahun 1987 Perubahan atas Undang-undang Nomor 6 Tahun 1982 Tentang Hak Cipta 1. Barang siapa dengan sengaja dan tanpa hak melakukan perbuatan sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 2 ayat (1) atau Pasal 49 ayat (1) dan ayat (2) dipidana dengan pidana penjara masing-masing paling singkat 1 (satu) bulan dan/atau denda paling sedikit Rp. 1.000.000,00 (satu juta rupiah), atau pidana penjara paling lama 7 (tujuh) tahun dan/atau denda paling banyak Rp. 5.000.000.000,00 (lima miliar rupiah). 2. Barang siapa dengan sengaja menyiarkan, memamerkan, mengedarkan atau menjual kepada umum suatu ciptaan atau barang hasil pelanggaran Hak Cipta atau Hak Terkait sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (1), dipidana dengan pidana penjara paling lama 5 (lima) tahun dan/atau denda paling banyak Rp. 500.000.000,00 (lima ratus juta rupiah).

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SARIYATUN, JOHAN RICHARD WEINTRÉ, et. al

PROCEDING INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

Exploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation in Indonesia

Proceding International Conference International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) And Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University iii

Surakarta, Indonesia, 27-28 April 2016 Exploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation in Indonesia Sariyatun, Johan Richard Weintré, et. al

Issues By: CV. Pramudita Press Goresan Rt.2 Rw.8 Demakan, Mojolaban, Sukoharjo, Indonesia www.pramudita.wordpress.com email: [email protected]

Chief Editor Desain and Layout

: Sariyatun, Johan Richard Weintré, et. al : Riyadi

Cetakan I, April 2016

ISBN: 978-602-70417-6-9 518 hal + xv

Hak cipta dilindungi Undang-undang Dilarang memperbanyak karya ini dalam bentuk dan dengan cara apapun tanpa izin dari penerbit. @ All right reserved Exploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation in Indonesia The 2016 International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) Conference in collaboration with SebelasMaret University (UNS) iv

FOREWORD

A

flourishing society has a starting point in the freedom and autonomy of the individual to advance the community. By flourishing is meant to the instinct to live and progress with adequate sustenance, shelter, the comfort of feeling safe, and a satisfactory level of social relationships for psychological well-being and physical health. The elements of attentiveness, decision making capability, and emotional capacity are found in human beings perhaps just as much as across many of the branches of the evolutionary tree. This suggests advancing a tolerance to the diverse individual moral and social spheres within a community. It is perceived that it is the individual who will initially flourish or perhaps suffer on occasions, not necessarily a particular group, race, gender, tribal group, or state. Challenging but worthy proven ideas or behaviour from an individual, might become the basis for other individuals or group to follow. Cooperation starts therefore at a personal level and the drive to progress in a community is part of the human essence. The freedom to pursue the fulfilment of that essence is a natural universal drive which enhances community building. Individual cooperation goes beyond the colour of the skin, gender, association in intimate relationships, or spheres of religious or political affiliation, to create merited capacity in a broad inclusive society. Individuals are social, who are first and foremost a person within social groups, and therefore cooperation ought to start at a personal level before cooperation can be explored at an effective collective level. Viewing the world in separate geographical regions with a rational eye suggests that cooperation is best conducted without preconceived sentiments across borders. History has shown that alienation among groups or nations has usually only temporarily halted the capacity of cooperation or decreased the opportunity to flourish as individuals, or in the community, for perhaps the length of one or only several generations. An example of this would be how armed foes from the past have later become cooperative partners in social and economic development. When it is decided to leave the past behind and turn old animosities into new opportunities of cooperation, we possess the social skills, intelligence and reasoning capacity which can bring about closer cooperation and sustainable prosperity. The gathering at this international conference, Exploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation in Indonesia, at SebelasMaret University in Solo has brought together scholars from as far away as Japan, Taiwan, North America, India, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Australia. They represented different professional backgrounds from academic to government, and included also the interests of community groups. The academic partnership of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate Program at the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education of SebelasMaret University (UNS) can be seen as efforts to build bridges between community and government, and to become part of a diverse global community.

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We thank the presenters, speakers, organisers, including volunteer students, and S. Prof. Dr.JokoNurkamto, M.Pd., Dean of the Teacher Training and Education Faculty, for the generous use of the campus and fine facilities that were provided for this IIFAS conference. These contributions assured the success of the Second IIFAS Conference in Surakarta. May all delegates and participants have treasured the interaction derived from this academic endeavour. Johan Richard Weintré, M Ed, PhD, Chair of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies Professor Dr. Sariyatun, M Ed, Head of the Post Graduate History Study Program, Sebelas Maret University

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Content

Foreword………………………………………………………………………………..

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Content…………………………………………………………………………………. Parallel Session………………………………………………………………………..

vii xi

The Metapsychology of Fitrah……………………………………………………… Sulaiman Dufford

1

Aspects of Social Impact of Migration: Analysis of Native Societies…………….. Balraj Singh

7

Wayang Diplomacy as Early Prevention of Terrorism in South-East Asia ……... Andrik Purwasito

13

From A Colonialto A National Company: The Nationalization of Western Private Plantation in Indonesia ....................... Wasino

19

Improving Democratic Consciousness Using Diversity-Based Historical Learning……………………………………………………………………………. Sariyatun

25

Social Skill Learning Using Local Wisdom-Based Audiovisual Media of Surakarta Community in Social Science Learning……………………….. Hermanu Joebagio

33

Improving Teacher Professionalism Using Scientific Work………………. Bambang Sumardjoko

43

Policy Analysis of Indonesian Food and Nutrition Policy 2006-2010............... Tasnim

51

The Origins of Dalang Ruwat in Ruwatan Ceremony...................................... Agus Efendi, Andrik Purwasito, Bani Sudardi, Wakit Abdullah

63

The History of Indonesian Towards International Language…………………….. Andayani

73

Moslem as a Hook for Beggars…………………………………………………….. Apdelmi

79

The Dwindled Existence of Pituahin Pasemah Ethnic Bengkulu: An Analysis from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics............. Een Syaputra, Muhammad Rozi The Origin of Food According to Javanese Tradition..................................... Murtini, Bani Sudardi The Importance of Student’s Reading Strategies Awareness tothe Success of Reading Comprehension Achievement………………………………………….. Asti Gumartifa, Indawan Syahri ENACT and Multiculturalism as Approach in Learning History......................... Bachtiar Akob

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101

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Javanese Batik Power in Cultural Diplomacy................................................. Bani Sudardi

117

Thomas Stamford Raffles in Melaka: a Diplomat or a Spy?........................... Daya Negri Wijaya

123

Measuring the Effectiveness of Forestry Management in Indonesia A Case Study on Forest Fire and its Effect on Biodiversity........................... Dewi Gunawati

135

Indonesian Maritime Diplomacy towards China: An Effort to achieve the agenda of World Maritime Axis................................ Diah Ayu Intan Sari, Martin Purnama Chandra, Hasrah Juri Harahap

145

Tengaran People’s Struggle in Defending the Independence of The Republic of Indonesian During 1947-1949.................................................................... Dimas Anggoro

157

Colonial Education and Subjectivity in Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Condition and Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s This Earth of Mankind....................... Dono Sunardi

165

Multiculturalism in the Ritual of Ancestors Tribute As the Cultural Expression in Gunung Kawi................................................................................................. Dwi Sulistyorini

179

Public Participation in Potential Development of Cultural Tourism Village in Baluwarti Surakarta Indonesia........................................................................ Fauzi Rachman

185

Training in the Emergency Situation of Disaster Evacuation in the Informal Sector.......................................................................................................... Haris Setyawan, Ipop Sjarifah

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The Useof Local Culturesto Increasethe Students’ Thematic Learning Outcomes in Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Islamiyah (Islamic Elementary School) Of Karang Pakel Boyolali, Central Java................................................................... Suwardi

199

Text Concretization “Thauqul-Chamāmah Fil-Ilfah Wal-Ullāf” Work of Ibnu Chazm Al-Andalusy..................................................................... Eva Farhah, Nur Hidayah, Moh. Yunus Anis, Abdul Malik

209

The Discourse of Friday Sermon in Indonesia: A Socio-Cultural Aspects and Language Function Studies.............................. Kundharu Saddhono, Yusuf Muflikh Raharjo, Rio Devilito

225

235 The Concept of Gnosis And The Function Of Syattariyah Text........................ Istadiyantha Application of Learning Model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in Learning IPS for Improving Motivation and Learning Achievement Student Class V Madrasah Ibtidaiyah PSM Bendo Barat......................................................... Syaiful Jazil Maftukhan Puppet Golek Cepak Tegalan in the Shaping of Nation Personality................. Kresna Hendrawan

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The Historical Study of Relationship Between the Design and Media.............. Lalita Gilang

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Developing Teachers’ Professional Competence in Designing Teaching Material Through Collaborative Study Group (CSG)........................................ Lanjar Utami

273

Improving Junior High School Students’ Character Through The Colestvia Learning Model............................................................................................ Leo Agung S.

287

Co-Modification of Pracimayasa Building in Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta.... Sunarmi

297

Transformation and Preservation of Cultural Values Through Filmzation of Indonesian Child Story.............................................................................. Karkono, Bani Sudardi

309

Culture of Cooperation: IWAYO, Kebaya, PKBI. The Dynamic Interaction between NGOs Working for Well Being/Empowerment of the Waria................ Megawati Irawan

317

The Empowerment of Arabic Javanese Translation Toward Globalization Era... Muhammad Yunus Anis, Abdul Malik, Arifuddin, Afnan Arummi, Tri Yanti Nurul Hidayati

333

The Influenced of Chinese Mythology in Creating Batik Lasem........................ Nanang Rizali, Bani Sudardi

343

The Discourse of Leaders and Leadership in local-traditional Javanese society: A Study of Serat Rama and Asthabrata .......................................................... Nur Fatah Abidin, Hermanu Joebagio, Sariyatun

349

Women’s Revolutioner Agency And The Politcs of Indonesia.......................... Brigida Intan Printina

357

Profesional Development of Primary School Teachers Through Scientific Work Writing: A Case Study of Primary School Teachers In Karanganyar District................................................................................................................. Sukarno

367

Gender Perspective in Social Science Learning in Elementary School.............. Suswandari

375

Co-Modification Of Pracimayasa Building In Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta............................................................................................................. Sunarmi

399

Intellectual Development In Asean: Enhancing The Asean University Network (Aun) Through The Asean Economic Community (Aec) ..................................... Rizki Rahmadini Nurika, Ridha Amaliyah

413

Perspectives in Traditional Capitalism: Economical Activity at Coffee and Rubber plantations in Palembang in the Begining of Twentieth Century..... Yudi Pratama

423

The Effectiveness of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

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(AATHP) in Tackling the Indonesia’s Forest Fires 2015.................................... Rizki Rahmadini Nurika, Septian Nur Yekti

435

Social relations between the Cement Company and Local Community Life (Case Study in the village of Mliwang, District Jehu, Turban Regency)............. Rustinsyah

449

Bedhaya Silikon Dance Work: A Critique on Female Beauty Esthetics (A Feministic Study)...................................................................................... Sawitri, Bani Sudardi, Wachid Abdullah, I Nyoman Chaye

457

Newsroom: From Firewall To Ice Wall ................................................................ Erwin Kartinawati, Andrik Purwasita, Bani Sudardi

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Anti-Drugs Message Based on Youth Informations’ Need About Drugs: Efforts to Fight Drug Abuse Among Teens..................................................... Sumarwati, Atikah Anindyarini

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Ethnopedagogy Through Pencak Silat Martial Art........................................... Suryo Ediyono

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Jemblung Banyumasan as a Resistance to State Hegemony........................... Trubus Semiaji, Bani Sudardi

497

Children in Manggarai Culture: Understanding the Root of Violence Against Children in Manggarai.................. Yohanes Servatius Boy Lon

505

Speaking Strategies Applied by Students at “Kampung Inggris” in Pare Kediri... Yudi Setyaningsih

517

Coal Exploration And Mining in Seblimbingan District, Afdeeling Tanah Bumbu & Pulau Laut of South Borneo, in 1900-1930.................................................. Herry Porda Nugroho Putro

529

Collaborative Learning Model Tour Visits as Efforts for Submission Heroic Values Central Java to Students High School.............................................. Darwati

537

The Assessment of Open-Ended Question Performance in Social Science Learning............................................................................................................ Nursyamsinar Nursiti

545

Cultural Development and Human Resources: A review of Psychology and Humanistic Approach ............................................. Roemintoyo

555

Strengthening Of Character Education Student in SLTA Education In The Era of Global .............................................................................................................. Suyahman

561

The Improvement Of Teacher Competency Through Integrated Social Science Training ………………………………………………………………………………… Akhmad Arif Musadad

575

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The Comprehension of Local History with the use of Mobile Electronic Devices: The Establishmentof the Islamic era and the Banjar Sultanate in South Kalimantan……………………………………………………………………… Muhammad Azmi, Hermanu Joebagio, Nunuk Suryani

585

Interpretation of Serat Wedhatama in Mangkunegaran, Surakarta ……………... Renny Pujiartati, Hermanu Joebagio, Sariyatun

591

Culture of Democracy in Gorontalo: From Traditional Kingdom Until Hegemony Dutch Colonialism……………………………………………………………………. Andris K. Malae Discussion...........................................................................................................

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Exploring Inter-Regional and International Cooperation in Indonesia www.iifas.info

Central Java, Indonesia, 27-28 April 2016

The Metapsychology of Fitrah Adjunct Professor Sulaiman Dufford

“M

eta” is a prefix that denotes values or cultural assumptions lurking hidden behind any ideology or intellectual system. For example, although Muslims frequently use “English as a Second Language” (ESL) materials such as Oxford, Cambridge, or other language-training texts originating in the West, in fact neither English nor any other (soft) discipline (especially, for example, psychology taught from western-written textbooks) can be taught without subliminally conveying the social and religious beliefs implicit to the culture of the authors. We need to learn to recognize and compensate for such “meta-values”, as long as we use training materials originating from outside our own cultures. One example long familiar to western minds is the term “metaphysics”, referring to an assumption of scientific rigor behind various occult or mystical phenomena. The adjective “metaphysical” is sometimes applied to studies of unverifiable knowledge without challenging the illogical, imaginary, or even fantastical assumptions behind it. “Jinn” studies is a common example in Muslim cultures, since the knowledge of the Unseen is often not replicable, in the normal scientific tradition, such as for example, when a traditional healer, bomoh (Malaysia), or dukun (Indonesia) performs a ceremony on you and asserts that suchand-such a jinn has left your body or is making you sick, etc., without your own perception of any reality behind such claims, and certainly without any technological verification of these processes going on inside your body. Formerly, some Indonesian hospitals, failing to find any organic origins for various physical or

psychological symptoms or dysfunction, will refer to a diagnosis of “invasion or death by magic” (“ilmusihir”). More recently, the Indonesian government has passed a law criminalizing any proven recourse to traditional magic to interfere in someone else’s life. In order to protect ourselves from subliminal contamination of young Muslim minds, we need to understand the meta-psychology behind the Islamic concept of “Fitrah”. Before we can do this, however, we need a great deal of exploration in scholarship and social research to define exactly what is meant by this “Fitrah”, usually translated from Al Qur’an as a pristine human nature that precedes the growth of the small baby (who is considered spiritually pure in the beginning) into one or another mistaken religion and the material world of passions (Arabic “nafs”) and material ambitions. Aside from “human nature” as a generality, we must delineate the Male and Female Fitrahs upon which the entire human society is based. This is mentioned in Buddhism as the “Yin and Yang” of life, the more modern“Polarity Therapy”, and various other ideologies that recognize the male/female dichotomy as fundamental to the functioning of the life of conscious and sentient beings. As it happens, recent psychometrics measuring religiosity factors have found that village life seems to evoke traditional male/female spiritual roles more clearly than urban life (see the Universiti Putra Malaysia religiosity scale and subsequent sociological applications, as carried out by Professor Abdul Lateef and others there). “Religiosity”, however, is only one dynamic defining the Fitrah operating in human activities, whereas we are suggesting a more pointed exploration of

Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 1



the “Fitrah” model (which Muslims consider a Divine Revelation) to all ages of psychological development into adulthood. We are not contradicting the considerable body of well-known literature in Developmental Psychology, Rather, we are suggesting that “Fitrah” studies are or should be the metapsychology behind them. Yet Muslims themselves have not clarified the meaning of the male and female fitrahs which lately seem to be changing with the onset of higher education and modern life, in the guise of “feminine liberation”, “equal opportunities”, divorce rights for women, the suitability of marriage during the years of higher education when hormonal pressures are at maximum level for both men and women, and many other such issues that really cannot, in our opinion, be discussed without reference to the concept of Islamic Fitrah, which itself cannot operate contrary to medical realities such as the peaking of sexual hormones at ages nineteen or twenty for young people in a social environment that cannot facilitate marriage between them. Is the Qur’anic advice to “fast and pray” really a sufficient defense to protect the virginity of our young brides during these modern developments? If we had a “Fitrah Think Tank”, it maybe useful to direct its attention to various specific issues subsumed under the concept of Fitrah itself. First: there is a specifically American campaign that attacks our understanding of Fitrah directly and which threatens to undermine the entire edifice of human civilization based on Allah’s creation of Adam and Eve as the source of all subsequent human life on the planet. This campaign is known in the USA as “unisex”. When I was a young man, I took to writing on gender issues and invented my own term “unisex” to refer to aspects of male-female differences that fascinated me at the time, that is, those aspects that were unique to either gender and absent in the

other. I was unknowingly close to the Islamic concept of “Fitrah”, and so experienced chagrin when the Americans a generation later took to using the same word to denote the opposite meaning, aspects of male-female identity that were all similar and equal. The concept has since changed entire traditional businesses and services, such as the “barber shop”, which became extinct when superseded by the “Unisex Salon”, where both genders underwent cosmetic treatments together. Gymnasiums and aerobic programs as well became completely mixed-gender. Women entered combat in the military. One of my acquaintances simply refused to participate in her military training activity known as “combat football”, out of fear of physical or reproductive damage (the military camp management had to accede to her personal request.) Male-only clubs were outlawed. Children were taught that there was only one difference between men and women, that is, women could reproduce with babies and men could not. Even on some college campuses, mixed-gender student dormitories, including toilet facilities, were offered. Upon challenge that Muslims could never accept the danger of such facilities for the college youth, a certain American Embassy official replied, “I’m sure they have been brought up well enough to stay out of troubling relationships.” Compare such thinking with the Muslim mosque regulation that while a man may correct the Imam if he makes a mistake in hisQur’anic recitation, if a woman hears such a mistake, she may only clap her hands, since a woman’s voice would be too disturbing in the middle of prayers. One so-called “liberal” American Muslim group notoriously tried Friday prayers with a woman Imam and the praying rows completely mixed in gender. These people were not able to secure any Muslim facility for such a congregational prayer, and ended up in a Christian chapel at a local university, of course – since such




free mixing of genders is only standard in the Christian religion. Then, of course, the logical further development of the American “unisex” philosophy has been that homosexual and heterosexual relationships and families must receive equal community recognition and tolerance. A recent American vicepresident praised his lesbian daughter for going out to find a man to impregnate her so that she and her live-in girlfriend could have a family-with-child. This heretical vice-president replied that, “Everyone has a right to a family.” Other “unisex” beliefs stand in direct contradiction with the Holy Books of almost all of the world’s great religions, so that another logical development of the “unisex” philosophy is the deletion of Religious Revelation (called by Muslims “wahy” or “wahyu”) from the credibility of the younger generations. Surveying young, back-packing couples, we have found that virtually none of them are married, although traveling the earth in sexual consort. Upon being questioned, they usually reply that there is no need for marriage unless a child is conceived. Therefore, respect for all the Prophets of human history and their surviving teachings, has been discarded. These teachings become the modern consumer-culture equivalent of, let us say, “satisfaction guaranteed or your money back.” Divorce in California is available by telephone, in which multiple-choice forms are mailed to the divorce petitioner and his or her divorce becomes legal after one month of filing these forms, again by mail. Elementary school teachers are allowed to be homosexual provided they never actually touch the children. And what is the meta-philosophy of such homosexuals? Who is to protect the children from their philosophies? So far, we have been discussing the SOCIAL consequences of only one fitrahphobic movement in the world, headed by the Americans. Secondly, let us consider consequencesto their Fitrahswhen women are given carte blanche in choosing

employment possibilities outside the home. A Javanese Ustaz put it very simply. The secret of prosperity and happiness in the human family, he said, was best guaranteed by a simple formula, i.e., that the man had to follow his best employment options, while his wife supported his strength to sustain such options before going out to work on her own. It is unarguable that the world job market, with nearly nine billion human beings on the planet, will not provide salaries for all the husbands and fathers sufficient to pay all the household expenses. With such former male salary levels, the wives could choose to remain at home and care for the children and her husband’s peace-of-mind, as is now practiced only in very rich Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia. What happens to the human Fitrah when the global economies plunge their dependents ever further into poverty and despair? So we see a 95% Muslim country such as Indonesia, where the poorly educated (often illiterate) women are sent abroad to work as servants and baby-sitters, leaving their husbands at home “on the farm” with little sexual satisfaction or hope for the future. We also know that out of fear and insecurity, some of these women take second local husbands. Is this not the opposite of what our descent from Adam and Eve promised for us? That Eve was to alleviate Adam’s loneliness and the weakness of his solitude? Both the Bible and the Holy Qur’an imply as much. How have we come to this pass? Granted, the economic institutions of the 1950’s, designed for a world population of around 2.5 million, have not been re-designed for present-day numbers. However, the Problem for our Fitrah is also clear on both genders. Men are meant to go out and look for provision. Women are meant to prefer homemaking (as “queen of the household”), although even in Islam they are perfectly free to be active in community social or economic life, PROVIDED these activities do not directly interfere with their husbands’ focus and concentration on full-time work.




This is why Muslims give husbands and fathers the “veto power” over their wives’ choice of work outside the home, in the event they interfere with their own primary economic duties. Nevertheless, a worldwide change is occurring in the women’s willingness to stay at home. Going out to work every day, whether out of economic necessity or not, tends to accustom the women to a more varied and interesting environment than perhaps their own homes. So our grandmothers or mothers may have welcomed sufficient economic strength on the part of their husbands to allow them full-time management of their home lives (not the least important of which was that they were at home when the children returned from school). However, more modern women, highly educated and accumulating work-experience for whatever reason, begin to prefer going out every day. Is this a change in Fitrah? Or is this a pollution of the female’s original, God-givennature (Jungian psychologists might say “archetype”)? With evidence (especially from the Americans) that women and their brains are indeed capable of doing almost everything as well as men, including, among other things, piloting space shuttles and operating national banks, how can we expect them to provide non-stop childcare and becoming dissatisfied, when they have more sophisticated professional capabilities? The third issue to consider is bringing our understanding of “Fitrah” into line with modern medical knowledge. The first and most difficult medical reality is that the testosterone/estrogen cycles PEAK at ages nineteen and twenty in young men and women. The only Qur’anic guidance we have for these youth to extend their single status, whether for educational or economic reasons, is to “fast and pray” until they can marry good women. It may be that some young Muslims can over-ride their young hormonal sexual urgings, however the number of those who cannot do so continues to rise.

This reality is not popular with parents or educational administrators, since they have no idea what to do about it. They are often in a “state of denial” on the matter. Modern life seems to require postponement of marriage to later and later ages, which for a certain number of young people is a sure formula for the sexual over-ride of religious teachings. If this medical aspect of the human Fitrah were accepted at face value, a number of consequences would follow. For example, the Islamic Universities in Malaysia or elsewhere would have to provide living facilities for married students. Lesser educated parents would have to stop insisting that their children graduate before marrying. They would have to be given economic support for their young marriages, in order for them to become those “better students” the western statistics indicate. These statistics from the West indicate quite clearly that married students make better marks, and even the Rector of Malaysia’s Islamic University was discussing privately with this writer the possibility of providing marriage counseling andeconomic advantages to their Muslim students as part of the normal undergraduate programs. Let’s look at the alternative for a moment, free of the “denial” factor. We have mentioned one such alternative in the provision of co-educational dormitories for some university students in the West. Here in Asia, this writer has been approached time and time again by well-dressed, sincere Muslim students who were in tears because they had given their virginity to their boy or girlfriends, with the enthusiastic encouragement of their own close friends, all of whom “were doing it”. We can call this “guilt management”, we can invent “post-virginloss” counseling for both men and women, and we can decry that so many of these students come to a stranger because they cannot even discuss their problems with their own families, teachers, Imams, or mosque-going friends. Yet we who defend the primacy of the human Fitrah must do




something, whatever it may be. As one young Malay woman put it, it’s not that she wanted to marry at age nineteen. It was that she wanted to have sex at that age. And we cannot fault her for succumbing to her natural Fitrah at that age. Unless we can succeed in inculcating a culture of universal fasting and praying for our college-age children, many of them are going to be losing their virginity before marriage -- or resorting to what we might call “functional homosexuality”, also known in certain Muslim countries as “social masturbation”, i.e., same-sex relief for the high-stress pressures of modern college educations. Precisely because this and other Fitrah difficulties are so difficult to solve, we must concentrate our studies in this direction and come up with remedies, for the good of the future of the human race. The fourth issue we might raise is the

plank of the infamous “Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion”, whether real or counterfeit, that enshrines “using the media to make sin seem normal and acceptable”, as one of the strategies for Jewish-Zionist domination of the human race. This policy has often been ascribed to the secular lifestyle and ideology (with America being the chief villain), although its true intent and purpose may be political as in the “Protocols” (which can be read under that title on Internet). Original secular governance was never intended to replace religion. It was originally intended to keep religion and personal worship free of governmental or royal dictatorship.Indeed, such a policy appears in many of the Muslim constitutions now in place. It therefore may be that the vilification term “secular” might better be replaced by “breakdown in Fitrah”.







Aspects of Social Impact of Migration: Analysis of Native Societies Dr. Balraj Singh Dr. Balraj Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Punjabi University, Patiala (Punjab), INDIA, [email protected] he present paper is rooted in the assumption that although movement and migration have become the abiding themes of postglobalization understanding of human life; yet, most of the times the terms are misconstrued. Popular understandings of the two highly overused words suffer from unrefined homogenization. More often than not movement and migration are understood as recent phenomenon. Such an approach very openly and seriously cloaks the historicity of migratory experience. The migration of large populations from Europe to America, the exodus of the Jews, the large scale migration of the Parsis to India after the downfall of the Persian Empire and the setting up of British Imperialism are just a few examples of the multifarious ways in which peoples have moved over the earth for reasons as different as escape from political conquests and repression and expansion of trade in capitalist regimes. To look at all forms of migration as migrations from the East to the West and, then, to promulgate them as methods of achieving economic freedom and lasting economic growth seriously undermines the complexities behind movement and migration in the contemporary world. The paper tries to assert the even today movement and migration are very heterogeneous phenomena. Secondly, the different forms of movement and migration are rooted in social-economic realities of different places and cultures. In the present day context migration from the East to the West primarily constitutes movement of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labour from less prosperous and economically backward areas of the world

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to the economically developed centres in search of economic stability and professional relevance. Moreover, in the contemporary context migration is best understood by reading it in the framework of modernity. If, among other things, modernity is equated with the desire for economic progress and aspirations of material growth we can say that more than ever before migration today is seen as a way of realizing the aspirations of modernity. In popular imagination migration is a vehicle that acts as a link between spatial and social mobility. However, there is need to study the highly complicated relationship between processes of economic development and migration. It is important to assess the nature, scale and scope of economic well being that is guaranteed by migratory initiatives. It is equally important to dwell on the imbalances that characterize the patterns of economic progress and growth among places that receive immigrants and those that send them. It has to be conceded that most of the processes of migration involve movement of labour in line with the requirements of reorganized capital. It is equally important to study the level and extent of assimilation of those who migrate in the cultures where they end up as immigrants. The interface of peoples and cultures in the larger context of economic realities has not obviated the need to address issues such as racism, cultural discrimination and alienation. The present paper is based on three case studies. By coming to terms with the major implications of the three case studies the paper aims to form an understanding of the impact of migration on native culture, the




economic status of émigrés as well as the level and nature of impact on long term economic realities. During the last decade large scale migration has taken place from India to the Gulf countries. India helps to meet the labour requirements of the Gulf countries as a major contributor to its work force. In 1996 1.4 million workers in the Gulf countries were from India. These workers were mainly from Kerela and the remittances from the Gulf between 19901997 amounted to 15 Billion dollar. It can be said that migration to other countries is integral to the economy and culture of Kerala and it can be taken as an important site of migration for economic betterment and growth. An important feature of the migration pattern that takes place from Kerala is that it is non-permanent and short term as the work is contractual in nature. This creates an ideal case of migration leading to a reasonable level socioeconomic change in the native society. Studies have indicated that a part of remittances are utilized towards social mobility and identity fashioning. However, most of the money received from abroad is spent on “daily household consumption, construction and repair of buildings, acquisition of land, and repayment of debts, life-cycle rituals and education”. Hefty consumption patterns to satisfy immediate needs are counterbalanced by lack of interest in long term productive investments. The obvious result is overdependence on a volatile international market. The only important and prominent implication for an economic sector is that the increased consumption has led to a corresponding boom in the services sector. There is evidence of growing inequality also as the uneven distribution of wealth is also in evidence as the material benefits gets concentrated in the hands of the families of the migrants. However, in one of its significant implications the economic rise and acquisition of wealth does lead to elevation of social status and identity reformulation/re-adjustment. This is of great importance in a caste-based orthodox

society like India. In one of the important studies Filippo Osella and Caroline Osella have studied the pattern of social change among the beneficiaries of migration in Valiyagramam in Kerala and shown how low caste Izhavas have asserted their right to mainstream rituals and religious activities. This becomes an important means of staking claim to social prestige through religious self-assertion and participation in elite rituals. This trend also gets manifested in the urge for access to temples. With the passage of time migration becomes a central social concern Filippo and Carolina Osella also note how post 1970s “ there has been proliferation of temples (and churches) and rituals which specialize in assisting Gulf Migrations and promoting financial success, as well as offering solutions to the problems created by migration itself (like) failure to receive remittances and get migration loan repaid; excessive alcohol consumption by Gulf returnees; marital infidelity of migrants and their stay-behind spouses…”. Apart from this the migrant returnees invest large sums of money in becoming patrons of religious activities and transforming wealth into political power and social status. In another important study related to the implications of migration pertains to Mirpur in Pakistan. The extent of man power export from Pakistan can be assessed from the fact that in the 1980s ten percent of the entire adult male labour force was working overseas. The favorite destination of Pakistani emigrants has always been the Middle East. In the last few decades large number of Pakistanis migrated to the Gulf countries in search of opportunities. In the 1990s Western Europe and North America emerged as the new and more preferred destinations in addition to the Gulf region. Two dimensions of the process of migration for Pakistan to the Gulf that hold salience today are that first with the influx of migrants from Bangladesh, Thailand and Indonesia the competition has increased manifold. This has led to a decline in wage rate making the migrations less lucrative.




Secondly, the preference for the Gulf on grounds of religious affinities does not get translated in economic security and prosperity. The unskilled segments of the migrant population have not experienced open and unrestricted assimilation in the social set up. The consciousness of Arabnon-Arab distinctions has worked against the perception of Muslim religious affinity. Among the temptations that exist in spite the increased competition and a feeling of alienation are lack of opportunities in native places for less skilled and unskilled workers and the rapid proliferation of travel agents who operate through highly complex networks of legal and illegal channels. Travel agencies do not merely facilitate migration but also work towards creating a favourable perception about migration to other countries. Migration is often presented as a viable alternative and the shortest means of addressing economic distress.

important observation about the availability of capital in the form of foreign remittances in Mirpur, Roger Ballard writes: “…there has been little sign of real and sustainable economic growth, (as) the bulk of the capital inflow has been invested in real estate: either in buying land, in building houses …or in the construction of commercial property” One of the negative consequences of this trend has been the artificial rise in the rates of property.

Mirpur which has sent a large number of people as migrants to the Gulf and other Western countries has witnessed reasonably good levels of modernization. Amidst lack of industry and agricultural self-sufficiency there is a visible growth of metropolitan culture. There is widespread construction of buildings, malls and plazas. The large scale inflow of cash from foreign destinations is evident from the fact that during the 1970s Mirpur became one of the most over-banked areas in Pakistan.

In another important study of Pakhtun migrants from Pakistan to the Gulf countries by Francis Watkins an attempt has been made to analyze the impact of migration of the socio-economic and cultural reality in the native villages. The Pakhtunis of Koheri started migrating to the Gulf in 1970s. In a rather subjective analysis of the migrations Watkins first takes note of the hardships faced by migrants. These hardships are linked to the compulsions of living alone in a distant country along with the rigors of hard work, loneliness and treatment as second class citizen can be quite painful Watkins narrates several stories of painful isolation and agony. He writes that the abiding theme of the stories get reiterated in the responses of those who chose to migrate. Watkins writes “men repeatedly emphasized that they worked abroad not to earn money for themselves but to save it for their families. “

However, as the paper has tried to establish through the case of Kerala in India, remittances from migrants especial from the third world may not lead to consistent and lasting economic growth. This is corroborated by the fact that after the recession in the early 1990s particularly in the textile and heavy industry the inflow of remittances has declined considerably. The crisis of shrinking employment opportunities in the West left the migrants with no alternative but to look for temporary and stray employment opportunities like working as taxi drivers and delivery men. After the 1980s the volume of capital inflows has been subject to fluctuations. Making an

It is brought out in Watkins study that due to a strong sense of rootedness and belonging the Kohery Pakhtuns the world is divided into here and there. ‘Here’ is homeland and ‘there’ is the alien land where the Pakhtuns go to work. Pakhtun migration is completely devoid of ludic elements as they associate migration with hard work and toil. The extent of migration to the Gulf and Saudi Arabia can be measured from the fact that in the 1990s almost every family of Kohery Pakhtuns had a member working in the Gulf or in Saudi Arabia. Most of the remittance money was spent on day to day expenses. The most important reflection of the newly earned wealth can be seen in the newly




built houses of the families of migrants. There was almost complete dependence on the money and resources received from abroad. Watkin observes “The spending of the money by a khrooskoo household was characterized as falling into a recognizable pattern: in the first two years all of the money would go into supporting the household and building a new house; when the sons and daughters of the household began to grow up, there then came the costs of weddings which again used up years of savings; as the sons married and the household grew, it cost more and more to support, and so ate increasingly more resources.” This pattern is also indicative of the importance given to families and to the vital wider relationships which in turn supported families. A remarkable expenditure pattern was money by individuals could be described as

feature of the that “spending of and households uncalculated and

uncontrolled” and “everybody claimed to have spent all they had” There is again evidence of staking claim to social prestige through religious self-assertion and participation in socially important religious ceremony. Watkins records how in the season when migrants visit their native villages there are numerous religious functions like Kheyrat. Kheyrats or religious feasts were large and costly events that are organized in the name resourceful people. The organization of Kheyrats by the migrants is suggestive of their desire for social prestige. Besides, Kheyrats are given less for personal power and more as a demonstration of generosity and faith. Thus, in the case of Kohery Pakhtuns the economic advantages of migration are to be understood in the context of family responsibilities and relationships.

WORKS CITED Addleton, J. (1992). Undermining the centre: The Gulf migration and Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. Ahmed, A.S. (1976). Millennium and charisma among Pathans: A critical essay in social anthropology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Allchin, B., and R. Allchin. (1982). The rise of civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Appleyard, R.T., ed. (1988). International migration today. Vol. 1: Trends and prospects. Paris: UNESCO. Attock District Gazetteer . (1907). Punjab District Gazetteers, Vol. 29. Lahore: Military and Civil Gazette. Ballard, R. (1983). Overseas migration and its consequences: The case of Pakistan. In H. Alavi and J. Hariss, eds., The sociology of developing societies: South Asia, pp. 112-20. London: Macmillan. Barth, F. (1959). Political leadership among Swat Pathans. London: Athlone Press. Carrier, J. and J. Heyman. (1997). Consumption and political economy. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 3, 2: 355-372. Chiriyankandath, J. (1998). Bounded nationalism: Kerala and the social and regional limits of Hindutva. In T.B. Hansen and C. Jaffrelot, eds., The BJP and the compulsions of politics in India, pp. 202-227. Delhi: Oxford University Press. De Neve, G. (2000). Patronage and ‘community’: The role of a Tamil ‘village’ festival in the integration of a town. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 6, 3: 501-519. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 10



Dichter, D. (1967). The North West Frontier of West Pakistan. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Dumont, L. (1986). A south Indian subcaste: Social organization and religion of the Pramalai Kallar. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Gell, A. (1986). Newcomers to the world of goods: Consumption among the Muria Gonds. In A. Appadurai, ed., The social life of things: Commodities in cultural perspective, pp. 110-140. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gulati, L. (1983). Male migration to Middle East and the impact on the family. Economic and political weekly 18, 52 & 53: 2217-2226. Hussein, A. (2000). Émigré journeys. London: Serpent’s Tail. Joseph, K.V. (1988). Migration and economic development in Kerala. Delhi: Mittal Publications. Lindholm, C. (1982). Generosity and jealousy: The Swat Pukhtun of Northern Pakistan. New York: Columbia University Press. Osella, F. and C. Osella. (1999). From transience to immanence: Consumption, life cycle and social mobility in Kerala, south India. Modern Asian Studies 33, 4: 989-1020. Miller, R.E. (1992) (1976). Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A study in Islamic trends. Madras: Orient Longman. Nair, P.R.G. (1989). Incidence, impact and implications of migration to the Middle East from Kerala (India). In R. Amjad, ed., To the Gulf and back, pp. 343-364. New Delhi: International Labour Organization. Osella, F., and Gardner, K. (2004 ed.). Migration, modernity and social transformation in South Asia. London. Saifullah Khan, V. (1977). The Pakistanis: Mirpuri villagers at home and in Bradford. In J. Watson, ed., Between two cultures: Migrants and minorities in Britain, pp. 5789. Oxford: Blackwell.




Wayang Diplomacy as Early Prevention of Terrorism in South-East Asia Andrik Purwasito Professor of International Relations Department, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, SebelasMaret University, Email: [email protected].

ABSTRACT Abstract: In the latest political developments and diplomacy shows significant changes, especially using of terror and violence in the city center. Now, The location of war, changes. Not only in conflict areas, but also in big cities. It is growing and beginning to spread to all over world, include to the region thatdetermined as a peaceful region. I presume that is like a «honeycomb», as a metaphor locus of war and conflict, seems to have damage of the system.The destruction caused the «bees» seek new locus, look for the new targets. If this assumption was correct, the problem, «how the countries of Southeast Asia are able to work together anticipating the terror and the violence? Is it possible to make plans early prevention of the movement and spread of terror through cultural diplomacy? What a kind of cultural diplomacy can be shared to the people of the ASEAN countries?, are issues that will be discussed in this paper. The discussion start the importance of the role of cultural diplomacy and the threat of terrorism at the level of ASEAN. The second, we will discuss the concept of wayang diplomacy based on the spirit of peaceful coexistence. Third, we will discuss the implementation of wayang diplomacy by the people (non-state actors).The result will we get is model of wayang diplomacy as cultural diplomacy packets. So hopefully this paper useful. Keywords: cultural diplomacy, peacefull coexistence, terrorism,wayang, preventing against terrorism INTRODUCTION errorism now is very dangerous activity, because of the capabilities to destruct human civilization. Terrorism normally is political context. May be it is not related with the civilization. The activities are more emotional, its objective are psycological effects to get physical results. After the cold war era, terrorism has grown as “new threats” including nuclear proliferation, weapons of mass destruction, and organized crime.1 Historically, the word “terrorism” has different meaning for different people. Alex Schmid and Albert Jongman from Leiden

T

1

University collected 109 academic and official definitions of terrorism. They found that the violonce be the dominant element of terrorism (83,5%), 65% political goal, 51% others emphasized to the element of inflicting fear and terror. Only 21% about arbitration and indiscriminate targeting, 17,5% included the victimization of civilians, noncombatants, neutrals or outsiders.2 The dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki viewed as fitting the definition of terrorism. In the South East Asia, the mayority of people are muslims but they are tolerant and moderate. But more and more, the influence the Middle East is willing to use political violence,event terrorism to create Islamic states. To day, the propaganda of

Gerard Chaliande and Arnau d Blin, The History of Terroris, From Antiquity to Al Aqeda, (ed), 2 Ibid, p. 12-14 University of California, Los Angeles, 2007, p. 1-6 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 13



the Islamic States from a few hundred Islamist, terrorist group and guerrilla campaigning for the enforcement of Islamic law. The respond of this arise are global, regional and domestic. Public diplomacy is one of the prevent to terrorism in South East Asia.3 The conclusion is clear, that the governments of ASEAN have no option but work with a range of public and private sector partners in the fight against terrorism. We noted that impact of the trouble caused by terrorism was affectingall domain of life, even politically, economically, social and culturally. All the people of the countries in the Southeast Asia,have taken concerted efforts to combat this destructive movement.On ASEAN plan, “terrorism is a kind of transnational crime,the same kind of illicit drug trafficking, arms smuggling, money laundering, traffic in person and piracy”4 Based on the explanation above, we must take the best position to prevent the ideology of terrorist growing. The engagement of all people is very important element. It is very important for all people to supervise the group of people, normallyhas a certain objective, but more it has no an final objective, but making fear and terror in the society. They grow up from the dis-illussioned youth, supervised and recruited by the charismatic leader, who has a global networking all over the world. For the preaparation to be a terrorist, normally it has a boot of camp preparation to educate the youth become a soldier of Jihad. The preparation to be soldier of Jihad is very hard, not only physically but morally and ideologically. After all they are ready, the leader preparesfor all excecutions. How to prevent and counter to terrorism, Alex P. Schmid,5presented the tactic: 3

Ibid, p. 430-432

4

Document of ASEAN Plan of Action to Combat Transnational Crime. 5 Director TRI & former Officerin-Charge of UN Terrorism Prevention Branch.

First, trying to address the underlying conflict issues exploited by the terrorists and work towards a peaceful solution while not making substantive concessions to the terrorists themselves.Second, preventing radical individuals and groups from becoming terrorist extremists by confronting them with a mix of 'carrot and stick' –tactics and search for effective counter-motivation measures. Three, stimulate and encourage defection and conversion of free and imprisoned terrorists and find ways to reduce the support of aggrieved constituencies for terrorist organizations; Four, deny terrorists access to arms, explosives, false identification documents, safe communication, safe travel and sanctuaries; disrupt and incapacitate their preparations and operations through infiltration, communication intercept, espionage and by limiting their criminaland other fund-raising capabilities.Five, reduce low-risk/high-gain opportunities for terrorists to strike by enhancing communications-, energyand transportation-security, by hardening critical infrastructures and potential sites where mass casualties could occur and apply principles of situational crime prevention to the prevention of terrorism.Six, keep in mind that terrorists seek publicity and exploit the media and the Internet to propagate their cause, glorify their attacks, win recruits, solicit donations, gather intelligence, disseminate terrorist know-how and communicate with their target audiences. Try to devise communication strategies to counter them in each of these areas. Sevent, prepare forcrisis- and consequence-management for both 'regular' and ‘catastrophic'acts of terrorism in coordinated simulation exercises and educate first responders and the public on how to cope with terrorism. Eight, establish an early detection and early warning intelligence system against terrorism and other violent crimes on the interface between organized crime and political conflict.




Nine, strengthen coordination of efforts against terrorism both within and between states; enhance international police and intelligence cooperation, and offer technical assistance to those countries lacking the know-how and means to upgrade their counter-terrorism instruments. Ten, show solidarity with, and offer support to, victims of terrorism at home and abroad. Eleven, maintain the moral high-ground in the struggle with terrorists by defending and strengthening the rule of law, good governance, democracy and social justice and by matching your deeds with your words.Tweleve, last but not least: counter the ideologies, indoctrination and propaganda of secular and non-secular terrorists and try to get the upper hand in the war of ideas – the battle for the hearts and minds of those terrorists claim to speak and fight for.6 Based on explanation above, the state actors must be working sinergy with all of institutions and society. Education and advocacy for supporting the social solidarity are also needed. The question is, «how the countries of Southeast Asia were able to work together to anticipate the terror and the violence? Is it possible to make plans early prevention of the movement and spread of terror through cultural diplomacy? What a kind of cultural diplomacy can implemented, are issues that will be discussed in this paper. METHOD The study used ethnographic methods, or rather autoetnografi. Autoetnografiis an application form of ethnography that the essentially same as the ethnographic method itself. The distinguismentis the data in the study thate result of researchersmemory based on the experience of researchers about certain things (Ellis, 2004: xvii). This method gives space and 6

Source: http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/ar ticle/view/schmid-12-rules-for-preventingterrorism/html

opportunity for the writer or researcher to use voice and personal experiences to understand the environment better or the cultural situation in the surrounding areas (Chang, 2008; Wall, 2008). In short, autoetnografi departing from the author's experience regarding a phenomenon. DISCUSSION 1. The Cultural Diplomacyand Partners The role and influence of mass media and the trend of development of technology on information and communication, the influence of the mobility of people and resources across national borders, more and more has become increasingly pervasive, diversified and organized.Globalization created cultural homogenization. All people of the world have the same a life style. Mass media and cultural production like television and the news paper, inform and socialize the cultural way of life, ideology and capitalism. In the same time, the dehumanization and terrorism grow globally. The globalization also created the generation of LBGT and the violence. The competition and the cooperation in international arena more and more created regional conflict and global misunderstanding. When we see the concept of diplomacy,we know that it is not only done by the official government (the state actors), but it is the "means" and the "instrument" of foreign policy.7In the modern international relations, diplomacy is also done by the people (non-state actors). In other words, all members of the state can do the diplomacy.8Based on the explanation above, cultural diplomacy done by the people, is implemented in several countries in Eastern Europe by the writer, supported and costed by the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture, initiated since 2014. 7 Berridge, et.al, Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelli to Kissinger, Palgrave, Macmillan, New York.2001, p. 3-4o 8 Walter et al., Handbook of InternationalRelations, the Indonesian version, Publisher Nusa Media, Bandung, 2013, p. 551




There was three countries, Moldova, Rumania and Bulgarian of the month of October to December 2015. For two months cultural diplomacy presented the wayang diplomacy run a series of activities in Eastern Europe, such as workshop, teaching, presentations and puppet performances at big universities in Bulgaria, like New Bulgarian University, National Academy for Theater and Film Art (NATFIZ), and Sofia University. In may 2016, wayang diplomacy presented in University of Russia and also in the Embassy of the Republic Indonesia in Moscow. The cultural diplomacy not only introduced by wayang but also conducted a series of talks with various leaders of the university, facilitated by the Embassy of Bulgaria, Mr. Ambassador Bunyan Saptomo, MA and the Embassy in Romania, Mr. Ambassador DiarNurbintoro, Mr. M. Wahid Supriyadi Ambassador in Moscow, met and negotiated for research cooperation and exchange for lecturers and students among countries. In that case, the role of Ambassador and the partners, play a very vital role in the success of a program of cultural diplomacy. It was he who gave the direction, facilitating and financing some assistance.9 Implementing the wayang diplomacy as early prevention to terrorism, we must intensive making a dialog with partners, embassy of all ASEAN countries to share of information, share values and norms, to gain the same perception. The strategy will be explained below: 1. PLANNING We try to go and share the activities together with the people of the countries. Including the Academic, artist, and Cultural institution. This meeting is essential to find the best scenario for presenting wayang performance. 2. ENGAGEMENT For all partnership, we must find the same issues. Every country

has special norms and values. The edutainment of wayang diplomacy is runing a line of the spirit of local society. 3. ADVOCACY The message program of wayang diplomacy must be about the peace building &conflict prevent. The prevention against terrorism is the final objective of the performance. 2. WayangDiplomacy as Early Prevention Wayang (puppet) diplomacy created by writer is form of culture diplomacy based on research 3 years. Puppet diplomacy is an interactive, using multylanguages and performed by ordinary people, doing by the people (non-state actors). Puppet diplomacy can be shown in all ASEAN countries, the main objective is to achieve a similarity vision for the peace of the region.Then, for the things that are special, message of puppet diplomacy is a form of soft power diplomacy. message can be charged with spreading the negative impact of terrorism in life, its impact to neighborliness and for the sake of upholding the values and humanitarian. The target of wayang diplomacy as a diplomacy activity, do by people and to people(multitrack diplomacy) to support the achievement of early prevention to terrorism. With a target directly to the community (people) and by the community, the puppet diplomacy aims to achieve positive relations between citizens in ASEAN. Entering the 2016, ASEAN nations have entered the ASEAN community which requires a favorable climate for the success of the idea. Target staging is addressed to those emerging, namely young people, mothers, social workers, workers of social media, members of the press with the concept to instill in their hearts and minds on the things that can destroy civilization (prevention focused on heart and minds). To achieve these objectives, participation or direct community involvement is required. Puppet diplomacy

9

Berrige, Op. Cit, p. 17 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 16



as one of the early media to perevent the growth of terrorism and supports cooperation among nations in Southeast Asia, it takes a synergic cooperation with the Government in all ASEAN countries.Puppet is a form of public education that has been used by the Java community since hundreds years ago. So now the puppet diplomacy is also expected to be a potential media to disseminate the idea of anti-terrorism. Puppet diplomacy success is the ability to manipulate stories and messages of anti-terrorism, is packaged in the form of edutainment.So the puppet diplomacy is not just entertaining but also directed to disseminate ideas Coexistence peacefull life. This is in line with the spirit of ASEAN community realize the idea of a unified (building the peacefull coexistence.)Socialization is done in various ASEAN countries involve local communities. Puppet diplomacy as a communication medium has proven able to bridge and accelerate the process of interaction and communication between citizens of nations in Southeast Asia in order to create a liberty and familiarity relations. Puppet diplomacy besides as a medium of communication, also as well as a cultural bridge that connects people to people brotherhood among the people of Southeast

Asia. Besides useful for promoting the protection of the idea of terrorism, shadow diplomacy is also useful to prepare the ASEAN community entered the era of the ASEAN Community of peace, goodneighbourhood, equal and mutually beneficial cooperation. CONCLUSION Puppet diplomacy can be used as early prevention of acts of terrorism and be able to build friendship among nations due to the nature. It because of the character of the puppet diplomacy :entertaining, interactive, educative and up to date. The success of the puppet diplomacy relies heavily on partners, namely the Indonesian representatives abroad, the people of Indonesia in ASEAN, ASEAN institutions and institutions of art and culture of local communities and the artists, journalists and the public as the target program. Full support from domestic institutions, such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Education and Culture, Ministry of Tourism, are very desirable especially to facilitate financial and other administrative supports. Some models presentation of puppet diplomacy in various countries showed a positive reception as a medium of communication and a tool for exchanging together ideas and experiences.

REFERENCE Berridge, et.al.(2001).Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelli to Kissinger.Macmillan, New York:Palgrave. Chaliande, Gerard and Arnau d Blin. (2007).The History of Terrorism, From Antiquity to Al Aqeda, (ed). LA :University of California. Jonson, C and Hall, M. (2005).Essence of Diplomacy.New York :Palgrave Macmillan. Walter et al. (2013).Handbook of international relations, the Indonesian version.Bandung : Nusa Media. Mowlana, H.(1997).Global Information and World Communication, New Frontiers in International Relations, Sage Publications, London Chang, H. 2008. Autoethnograpy as a Method. California: Left Coast Press, Inc. http://www.terrorismanalysts.com /pt/index.php/pot/article/view/schmid-12-rules-forpreventing-terrorism







From A Colonialto A National Company : The Nationalization of Western Private Plantation in Indonesia Wasino History Department, Faculty of Social Sciences, Semarang State University ([email protected] /[email protected]) Abstract: Plantation companies in Indonesia developed long before Indonesia declared its independence. After independence, the government nationalized and managed the plantation industries.Nationalization took place through political, legal and economic processes.The legal process was aimed for the transfer of the industrial ownership from colonial to Indonesia handsin line with the political process to fight Dutch colonization through confrontation and diplomacy. The Impacts of nationalization was becoming transformation in management and company capital from colonial ownership to Indonesian.

A. Introduction

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lantation companies in Indonesia developed long before Indonesia declared its independence. In the Dutch colonial era, plantation became the main economicsector since VOC era. VOC or Dutch East India Companycame to Indonesia and cooperated with the local authorities to develop the spice plantations in the Mollucas and the sugar cane plantation in Java in the seventeenth centuries. The colonial government developed an industrial plantation sector since theCultuurstelsel(1830-1870) in the form of sugar cane and tobacco plantations and as an economic base of production.After the ending of the Cultuurstelsel, the sector was transferred to western-private groups both in Java and Sumatera (1870-1942) (Wasino, 2013). After independence, thegovernment nationalized and managed the plantation industries.Nationalization took place through political, legal and economic processes.The legal process was aimed for the transfer of the industrial ownership from colonial to Indonesia handsin line with the political process to fight Dutch colonization through confrontation and diplomacy. In the economic process, nationalization was interpreted as a transition from colonial economy to national

economy. On the other hand, according to the legal process, nationalization was based on the rule of law at a national and international levels. Currently, Indonesia’s nationalized industrial plantation sector is managed by the Nusantara Plantation Company (Perusahaan Tanaman Perkebunan Nusantara or PTPN). The company is astate-owned enterprise under the supervision the Ministry of State Owned Enterprise.

B. Nationalization The embrio of nationalization is “Indonesianization”. It began as a political process with implication in economic and legal processes. This idea was developed decades before the proclamation of independence. It is reflected in the political programs of Perhimpunan Indonesia (one of the founder is Bung Hatta who becomes vice president of Indonesia), and speeches of Bung Karno, for instance in Indonesia Menggugat(Abdullah:).10This process started 10

Taufik Abdullah, Indonesianisasi, paperin Workshop on the Economic Side of Decolonization, Yogyakarta, 18-19 Agustus 2004.




to be implemented during the Japanese occupation era (1942-1945) and became stronger during the revolutionary years. After Indonesia’s independence, interests of the freedom fighters to develop the national economy became stronger. One of the important aspect was Indonesianization of assets belonging to foreigners, especially Dutch citizens. John Sutter said that there were six forms of Indonesianization: (1) establishment of new companies in the sectors that were previously closed for Indonesian people, (2) asset transfer that previously belongs to the private colonial companies to Indonesia government, (3) establishment of state-owned enterprises, (4) the increasing of government control towards business belong to foreigners, (5) the increasing of Indonesian people participation in the management of foreign companies, and (6) an ownership transition from foreign companies to Indonesia government., (7) the transfer of the private-foreign companies to Indonesia and organizations in Indonesia, (8) the increasing of equity ownership of Indonesian people in companies established by foreigners, (9) the return of land tenure for Indonesian people by foreign companies (Lindblad, 2008: 2-4; Sutter, 1959). Nationalization refer to the elimination of Dutch control and the fundamental economic re-orientation of Indonesia during the years immediately after the recognition of Indonesia’s independence in 1949. Nationalization was interpreted as a replacement of Dutch employees and managers to Indonesian in the bureaucracy and the private companies during nationalization assets of Dutch business on 1 December 1957. Nasionalization created broad structural change (Lindblad, 2011: 6). Nationalization has a quite specific legal meaning. This concept is different from similar concepts such as “confiscation, onteigening, and disenfranchisement” and is often misunderstood. Erades argued that nationalization is a rule to accept (dwingt te gedogen) the rights of something or some kinds of thing which belong to someone or group swift to state. Based on the argument,

S. Gautama said that nationalization is a way of transfer of right from private ownership to state ownership by force. Therefore, nationalization is a “species” of disenfranchisement (ontegeining) (Gautama, 1975: 6). Ontegeining appeared first in the Temporary Constitution. Article 27 from the constitution stated that the revocation of rights for public interest was not allowed, except by indemnifying based on constitution. Thus, the word “indemnify” had opened a gap for a process the permissibility of “the revocation of rights” which became a legal basis for the publication of nationaliztion law Another ontegeiningconcept which was closed withthe revocaion of rights was “confiscation”. There was a similarity with ontegeiningconcept, that is both of them dealt with “the revocation of rights”, but the conficsation was without compensation. This process was a natonalization process as if it occured in Mexico 1940 (Gautama, 1975: 7). C. Nationalization Process The birth of new post-colonial government brought changes in the colonial asset management. The colonial economic assets were transferred to national asset by coloial freedom fighters.The process of asset transfer occured in two ways, namely the switch of institution from Dutch Colonial to Indonesia Government and nationalization or indonesianization (Sutter, 1959:1). The institutional transfer usually occured in the government institution, that is from The Dutch East Indies to Indonesia Government. Meanwhile, nationalization was intended to non-government assets, both belonged to private-foreigner and Dutch state-owned enterprise. The process of institutional transfer took place some time after Indonesia had declared its independence. On the other hand, the nationalization occured in process later and reached its peak in 1957 (Dick, 1999: 14). All of nationalization were initiated from the people, especially those related to political parties. Indonesian Communist Party (ICP) was a political party which was able to mobilize many supporters to take over those




foreign assets. The nationalization drive became stronger after the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference (Indonesia: Konferensi Meja Bundar) (Kanumoyoso, 2001:9). One of the clause from the DutchIndonesian Round Table Conference was the return of West Irian (now Papua) into Indonesia. However, there was an impression that the Dutch government was not serious to realize the result of the conference. As a result of this, many people were angry and it strengthened the sentiment to fight the Dutch. The sentimen grew wider and in the form of anti-Dutch ownership. There were unilateral actionsfor asset transfer of Dutch companies. In the face chaos, the Indonesia government was nationalized assets of foreign companies, especially Dutch. The execution of nationalization team was armed forces (TNI), especially the army (Hariyono, :127).11After 1957, many Dutch companies were transferred into Indonesian ownership. Most State Owned Companies have its originin the nationalization. Indonesia government legalized the nationalization based on theLaw (UU) No. 86 in 1958 about the nationalization of Dutchowned companies. Article 1 explained that Dutch companies located in Indonesia would be set with the government rules and be subject and be avowed becoming full and free ownership for Indonesia.12Nationalization was the responsibility of the Indonesia government and was aimed for the benefit of the state in order to develop the national economy and finally would benefit for the Indonesianpeople. Therefore, the main purpose of the Indonesia government was to srengthen the national economic potential of 11

Hariyono, “NasionalisasidanKontraksiEkonomi Indonesia di AkhirTahun 1950-an” in JurnalEkonomidanManajemenVolume 8 No.1, page 127. 12 See Undang-undangRepublik Indonesia No. 86 in 1958 About Nationalization of Ducth Companies, in hukum online.comaccessed on 10 September 2012.

Indonesia. It was also to liquidate the colonial economy (Lindblad, 2008: 105). The nationalized companies were basically all of Dutch companies located in Indonesia, either it was the center or branches (general explanation). As implementation ofLaw no.86, Government RegulationNo. 2 was published in 1959. It stated that the companies belong to Dutch ownershipsubject to nationalization were: First, a company which all or partly belonged to individual citizen of Dutch and was located in Indonesia; Second, a company belonged to a legal entity that all or partly of the capital came from individual Dutch citizen and the legal entity was located in Indonesia; Third, a company located in Indonesia and belonged to a legal entity in the Dutch State area. On the other hand, the nationalized companies included the entire wealth and property reserves, rights and bills. Meanwhile, it was not explained whether those rights had to be located inside Indonesia (Perpu no. 2/1959).

C. NATIONALIZATION OF PLANTATION COMPANIES Political tensions between Indonesia and the Netherland in 1957 resulted in the nationalization of Dutch assets, including plantation companies. Nationalization was characterized by transfer and takeover of assets belonging to those plantation companies. Among those companies, the most dominant were sugarcane plantation and sugar mills which were mostly located in Java. The nationalization of sugarcane plantation and its sugar mills was considered important by the Indonesian people because sugar was a significant economic assets. In the period before economic crisis (1930), the sugar industries in Java represented threequarter of overall Javanese exports and contributed a quarter of all income of the Dutch East Indies government (Djoko Suryo, 2004: 2). Article 1 of the Nationalization Law state that “The Dutch Companies located in Indonesia would be set with The Government




Rules that it was subject to nationalization and was avowed becoming full and free ownership for Indonesia”. The companies would get compensation as determined by the committe and fixedby the government (article 2). Implementation of the nationalization law was stated in the government regulationno 4/1959 andno 19/1959. The Government regulation no 4 /1959regulatednationalized tobacco plantation companies. The Government Rules no 19/1959 regulated general plantation companies belonging subjected to nationalization. The Government regulationno 4/1959 andThe Government Rules no 19/1959also regulated plantation companies belonging to N.V. Vereenigde Deli Mij. According to those government rules, 38 tobacco plantation companies had been nationalizedin Sumatra and Java.Most were companies located in east Sumatra. Those companies include"Bandar Klippa" tobacco plantation company in Deli/Serdang, "Kwala begomit" tobacco plantation companyin Langkat, "Bangak" in Boyolali, "Adiong" in Jember, etc. The government regulation no 19/1959 regulated plantation companies outside tobacco plantation. This regulation not only mentioned about the nationalized plantation companies, but also that those Dutch plantation companies had been nationalized. Details of those farming and plantation companies were governed in the Government regualationNo. 31/1959. This rule was an explanation in the Supplement to Statute No. 1764 and it was published in the Indonesia State Gazette No. 31, 1959. On the attachment of those government rules, 204 administration offices of plantation companies had been nationalized. The nationalized plantation companiesexperienced many problems. For example, the nationalization of sugar mills caused the beginning of the collapse of the Javanese sugar industry.The sugar industries was under the control of PPRI (Perusahaan Perkebunan Republik Indonesia, Indonesia Plantation Companies) and later toPTP (Perusahaan Terbatas Perkebunan= The

Limited Plantation Companies). Foreigners who previously held important positions in the plantation companies resigned from Indonesia, even though knowledge transfers from foreigners to indonesian had not run perfectly. Many Indonesian who previously were only low level employees in these plantation companies were promoted to top leader, a plantation foreman (Indonesia: sinder tanam)were promoted to sugar mills administrator.In some plantations, management positions were handled by the millitary officers who have no experience in managing companies. Another negative aspect of nationalization was the availability of land. Before nationalization investors who invested in plantations used people’s land through a land rent (up to 20 years). After nationalization, people withdrew their rentbecause it would be used for crops (Padmo, 2004: 2). Plantation production decreased.Thiswas caused by the lack of land and mismanagement. In addition, the rupture of international trade network was also significant (Padmo, 2004: 11-12).

D. Closing Indonesian independence required not only political freedom, but also economic freedom. One means to achieve that was through the nationalization of the Dutch plantation sector by the government. Nationalization initially was a political process transformed into a legal and economic process. The political process was related to the West Irian issue, the legislation of legislation, and the economic process was the independent management of plantation assets previously belonging to Dutch people. Indonesian were proud of the nationalization of Dutch owned companies, but caused legal problems between the previous owners and Indonesian people, especially on the control and ownership of lands. Nationalization obligated the Indonesia government to give compensation to the owners of Dutch plantation companies, which was settled only in 2002. Conflicts about the control and ownership of lands among the




plantation remained ongoing producing horizontal conflicts. A historical approach is

required to overcome reconciliation or law process in court.

BIBLIOGRAPHY BondanKanumoyoso, 2001. Nasionalisasi Perusahaan Belanda di Indonesia. Jakarta: SinarHarapan. Dick, H.W. et al., 1999.The Emergence of National Economy: an Economic History of Indonesia, 1800-2000. Djoko Suryo, 2004, “Nasionalisasi Pabrik Gula di Pesisir Utara Jawa Kasus di Bekas Karesidenan Pekalongan”, in Workshop on the Economic Side of Decolonization , cooperated with LIPI, PSSAT UGM, andHistory Department Postgraduate UGM, Yogyakarta. Hariyono, “NasionalisasidanKontraksiEkonomi Indonesia di AkhirTahun 1950-an” in JurnalEkonomidanManajemenVolume 8 No.1, page 127. Lindblad, Thomas, 2008.Bridges to New Business: the Economic Decolonization of Indonesia, Leiden: KITLV. Lindblad, Thomas, 2011. “The Economic Decolonization of Indonesia: a Birds’ Eye View” in Journal Indonesian and Humanities, Vol. 4, 2011. Siddharta Gautama, 1975.Segi-segi Hukum Internasional Pada Nasionalisasi di Indonesia, Bandung: Alumni. Sutter, John, 1959. Indonesianisasi: Politics in a Changing Economy, 1940-1955. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Soegijanto Padmo, 2004. “Menuju Perusahaan Terbatas (PTP)”,inWorkshop on the Economic Side of Decolonizationcooperated with LIPI, PSSAT_UGM, and History Department Postgraduate UGM, Yogyakarta. Taufik Abdullah, 2001. “Indonesianisasi”, in Workshop on the Economic Side of Decolonizationcooperated with LIPI, PSSAT_UGM, and History Department Postgraduate UGM, Yogyakarta. Wasino, 2013. “Dari Agro Industri Kolonial Belanda hingga Reformasi Indonesia”, in Dhanang Respati Puguh dkk, (ed.), Membedah Sejarah dan Budaya maritim Merajut KeIndonesiaan Persembahan untuk Prof.Dr. A.M. Djuliati Suroyo, Semarang: Undip Press.







Improving Democratic Consciousness Using Diversity-Based Historical Learning Sariyatun Historical Education Study Program of Teacher Training and Education Faculty of UNS sari_fkip_uns @yahoo.co.id Abstract: Democratic education aimed to prepare the members of community for democratic behavior and action through implanting knowledge and consciousness in order to implement democratic values. One strategy of transform democratic values is to use learning at school. School has provided a room likely confirming knowledge base and life experience of students in order to appreciate difference and plurality. One of subjects at school contributing to implanting democratic consciousness is historical education. History Subject in Senior High School has two missions: firstly as intellectual education, and secondly as value education containing noble values necessary in intercourse within society and nation in diversity. History and community are two interconnected elements. History, in fact, is time movement through mass media. Historical learning is a bridge to raise students’ awareness (consciousness) of social tolerance, inter-ethnic cooperation and democratic consciousness issues. Keywords: consciousness, democracy, historical education, diversity.

INTRODUCTION

E

ducation in globalization era needs new paradigm that can empower the students to use knowledge and culture flexibly, namely, the ability of analyzing and solving problem from various perspectives and of cooperating with a variety of different groups (Suarez Orozco and D.B .On Hillard .2004). For that reason, an education that can grow and develop democratic consciousness is required. Democracy provides the best opportunity to the implementation of justice and respect to humanity esteem and prestige. Democratic education will results in graduates with the ability of participating in society life and can influence public policy decision making.

As Samuel Huntington (2001: 30) suggested, democratic politic system does not come, grow, and develop itself. A real attempt is needed from anycitizens or state organizer in the form of democratic behavior. The attempt of building a democratic society should be followed with building social-political structure and democratic culture (Asykuri Ibnu Chanim, 2003). Democracy needs not only institution, but also rule of law or other state institutions. True democracy requires living attitude and behavior from its supporting society. Democratic education aims to prepare the members of society for behaving and acting democratically through implanting knowledge, consciousness to be able to implement democratic values. As Zamroni (2001 : 165) suggested, knowledge on and awareness (consciousness) of democratic




values include: (1) consciousness that democracy is the life pattern mostly ensuring the members of society’ rights and the best choice of living-withincountry pattern; (2) democracy is a long learning process not just imitating other society; (3) democratic sustainability is dependent on the successful transformation of democratic values within society. One strategy of transforming democratic values is through school education. Cholis, S (2008: 29) stated that school has provided a room likely confirming knowledge base and life experience of students to appreciate difference and plurality. Thus, teacher is a starting point expected to implant diversity values and democratic consciousness. Zamroni (2001: 1650 stated that knowledge and consciousness of democratic values include: (1) consciousness that democracy is the life pattern mostly ensuring the members of society’ rights and the best choice of living-within-country pattern; (2) democracy is a long learning process not just imitating other society; (3) democratic sustainability is dependent on the successful transformation of democratic values within society. One of subjects in school relevant to the problem is historical learning. History subject in Senior High School contains two missions: firstly, for intellectual education, and secondly, value education, humanity education, morality building education, self-esteem, nationalism and nation identity. Theoretically, historical learning contains noble values required in intercourse within society and nation in diversity. History and society are two interconnected elements. In reality, history is time movement through society media. Historical learning is a bridge that could raise the students’ consciousness of social tolerance and interethnic cooperation issues. It can be conducted when teacher can insert tolerance and democratic values into historical learning, thereby confirm knowledge base and life experience of students to appreciate difference and

plurality. Thus, historical learning tells the students to memorize or remember not only events, but also how to use learning activity to discuss their life. For that reason, history will be alive and meaningful. Teacher can make historical learning a multi-ethnic and multicultural nation unity and integrating unit (Abdul Razaq Ahmad ,National University of Malaysia). As Kuntowijoyo suggested (1995: 33), historical teaching approach at Senior High School level should be taught critically. Through that approach, the students are expected “to be able to think of why something occurs, what actually occurs, and where the events will go”, because at this level, the students’ reasoning ability has been able to be invited to think critically. This reality needs a special approach in implementing historical learning, namely, by applying critical pedagogy. Critical approach is oriented to the realization of students’critical consciousness in order to be able to identify injustice in the existing system and structure, the ability of analyzing the work mechanism of structure and system, and the way of transforming it into society life. The implementation is carried out through critical question. As nana Supriatna (2007) suggested, critical questions developed in historical learning not only facilitates the students in order to have critical thinking but also makes them the historical actor at their time. For the students to have historical role, an ability of reading phenomena developing in their social environment including critical questions about themselves and their environment is required. This thought refers to critical theory developed by Jurgen Habermas concerning ways of knowing. In Habermas’ thought, knowledge is emancipator in nature. Every individual can develop knowledge corresponding to experience and local situation and condition. Every individual, including students, can be historical actors at their time. Considering the description of background above, the objective of




research was to describe how to improve democratic consciousness among senior high school students through diversitybased Historical learning.

METHOD This study was a descriptive qualitative research conducted in Public Senior High Schools in Surakarta, Central Java Province. Data source included informants: teacher, headmaster, and deputy of headmaster, place/event, and document. Techniques of collecting data used were observation, in-depth interview, and written document. Data analysis was carried out using interactive analysis.

DISCUSSION 1. Historical Learning in Senior High School Kuntowijoyo (2001: 18) defined history as a result of the past reconstruction. Generally, history has education function, namely, as moral education, reasoning education, political education, education for change, education for future, and beauty. When a close relationship between history and education has been realized, the process of actualizing historical values into real life is required. In other words, history not only functions as education process leading to nation growth and character when those historical values have not been realized yet into real behavior patterns. History is human experience in a variety of past life including political, including political, social, economic, and culture areas. Daniel (1981: 40) stated: History is the keystone of the entire study of human life.” History means event generated by human activity in the past in a certain place. The past fact is history and means that its relationship is explained with dialectical mechanism between process and structure (Kartodirdjo, 1986: 7; 1987: xvii).

In lain with this, Kochar (2008: 36) suggested the essence of history as follows: (1) History is a science about human being, history is related to science if only history studies human’s hard work and the achievement he/she achieves; (2) history studies human being in time scope. Thus, time in history brings about perspective about various events occurring and something prominently capable of enlivening the pass all atone; (3) history also studies human being in spatial scope. Either as individual or as nation, human being is studied in the context of geographical physical environment. Interaction between human being and environment will run dynamically; (4) history explains the present. The present is a compilation of the past events. Historical task is to explain the advent of the present. Studies on the causal relationship between many selected historical events the historicistsdid can explain the present phenomena and can build the law dominating it; (5) history is dialog between the past events and the future development. Interpretation on the past made by historicist, the selection of significant and relevant events,grows the consciousness on the growth of new objectives in the future; (6) history is a story of human consciousness development, in either individual or collective aspects or the process of searching for a nation’s selfidentity; (7) continuity and interrelationship are very important things in history. No event related to human beings is born from non existence; that event must be born from previous event. In history there are outside and inside. Outside of history is the recording of time circulation and power circulation in the past. But, when reviewed in-depth, history is a critical reasoning and thorough attempt of looking for the truth or hikmah(Ibn Khaldun in Issawi, 1962). History has outside and inside elements, representing human activity in the past (Collingwood, 1956: 213). Outside element includes everything of human activity that can be captured by historicist, while inside or internal elements (Burston




1972: 23) are human ideas and thoughts behind human activity in the past in the form of: motives, intentions, designs, purposes, andpolicies. Considering the explanation above, history is considered as functioning to teach man of action about how others act on special conditions, choice they make, and their success and failure. History explains appropriate condition and situation for a statesman to undertake his/her state duty appropriately. Without recognizing history, a statesman or the one having public responsibility will be misled in implementing his/her policy. As Allan Nevin stated (Ahmad Syafii Maarif, 2006: 29), history is a bridge connecting the past and the present, and a clue for the future. National Education Minister’s Regulation No.22 of 2006 mentioned that Standard Content for Elementary and Secondary Education Unit (Aman, 2011: 59) mentioned that history subject in detail has an objective of enabling the students: (1) to build their’ awareness of the importance of time and place constituting a process of the present, the past, and the future; (2) practicing students’ critical ability to understand historical fact correctly based on education concerning scientific approach and methodology; (3) growing their appreciation and reward on historical heritage as the evidence of ancient Indonesian civilization; (4) growing their understanding on the process of Indonesian nation establishment through a long history that keeps running in the present and the future; (5) growing students’ self-realization as a part of Indonesian nation having feeling of proud of and loving to homeland that can be implemented in various life sector, both nationally or internationally. A variety of objectives elaborated relative to the objective of learning history states that basically history aims to develop ability and potency the students have by referring to understanding on the past events so that a historical consciousness is realized within the students. Considering historical

consciousness (awareness), national consciousness is established. It generates inspiration and aspiration among young generations for service to state with full dedication and availability to sacrifice (Aman, 2011: 31). Historical consciousness should be implanted to the students, particularly concerning Indonesian multicultural condition and long history of nation struggle to make them realizing that Indonesian state-nation has not been built and established by certain class but the result of all society elements’ struggle. The main duty of historical learning is to build student characteristics. Historical learning will generate empathic awareness among students, namely, sympathy and tolerance to others accompanied with mental and social ability to develop imagination and creative, innovative, and participative attitudes. Those attitudes are very important to develop for living within multicultural society like Indonesia. Daliman (2012: 56) stated that historical teaching at school aimed to make the students acquire historical thought and historical understanding. Through historical teaching, the students can develop competency to think chronologically and to have knowledge about the past that can be used to understand and to explain society development and change process and social cultural diversity in the attempt of finding and growing nation’s self-esteem amid the world society’s life. Historical teaching also aimed to make the students realize the presence of diverse life experience and different perspective in individual society. 2. Improving democratic consciousness using diversity-based historical learning The 2013 curriculumgives space for historical material development through increasing learning hour and gives the teacher the opportunity of




implementing innovative learning with scientific learning approach. The improving attemptis still required in relation to historical teaching process, including about teaching portion coming from cognitive and affective domains (Soedjatmoko, 1976:16).Both domains should always exist in historical teaching process. Historical learning emphasizing on stringent fact should get significant attention because such historical learning only generates bored feeling among the students and in turn generates reluctanceto learn history. For that reason, a learning using inquiry model should be developed constituting developing thinking, with the following objective, as Savage and Amtrong (1996: 228): “Inquiry approaches encourage pupils to examine individual places of information for the purpose of developing explanatory principles and generalizations. They encourage development of the kinds of rational decision- making skills that pupils will need through their adult lives.” This developing thinking will be developed with critical questions developed in historical learning. Critical questions will facilitate the students to improve critical thinking ability and to make them the historical actors at their time. This thought refers to critical theory developed by Jurgen Habermas concerning ways of knowing (Nana Supriatna, 2011). Jurgen Habermas (1972, 1974), as cited by Nana Supriatna (2011), stated that knowledge is established because perception, desire, and human interest. Human interest to master technical control in his life can encourage them to know fact, physical object or figure as subject. It then encourages human being to make empirical analysis in the process of knowing. Meanwhile desire, human interest, to understand the meaning behind

an event can encourage them to explore inner dimension to try to connect one factor to another. This process encourages the advent of historical hermeneutics and serves as a means of understanding the process of knowing totally. This second process brings about interpretative tradition in process of knowing. Finally, human interest in maintaining his/her autonomy as knower can encourage them to make critical reflection on subject matter or in the aspect becoming desire or interest and based on various resources and themselves as agent of knowing. Through critical or self reflection, the process of knowing occurs totally and then power is inherent to the knower through such the process. This process enables individual to play his/her historical role as agent of knowing. Mc.Donald (1996) has developed ways of knowing into three types of question applicable to learning: (1) technical question, (2) interpretative question, and (3) emancipatory questions. Technical question requires factual and explanatory answer about what, where, and when something occurs in historical dimension and social environment. Interpretative question not only focused on why and how something occurs but also how human beings see something and interpret something occurring or surrounding world. Interpretative questions can encourage them to explore inner dimensions to try to connect one fact or factor or other cause. This process encourages the birth of historical hermeneutics and functions as a means of understanding the process of knowing totally. Practical and interpretative questions not only focus on what, why, and how something occurs but how human being sees something interpret something occurring or surrounding world. Emancipatory question focuses on issues concerning the effect of power on what occurring and howhuman being sees something interpret and explains what occurring and then why something should occur (Giroux inNana Supriatna, 2008).In




real world recently power is inherent to each institution, in cultural system, state ideology, political ideology, capitalism, and etc. Emancipator question can improve understanding and encourage individual to be self-determinant and historical actor in his/her time. For example, in the context of multiethnic and multicultural Surakarta community, how the students develop strategy to develop a healthy democratic life and to reduce conflict between students. How the school’s strategy is to develop good democratic life, according to the students. Through those critical questions, the students were given opportunity as much as wide possible to investigate and to be science (historical material) developer,and to transform social values within multicultural society (historical material application for daily life). Thus, the implementation of critical questions in historical learning will generate emphatic awareness among the students: sympathy and tolerance to others followed with mental and social to develop imagination and creative, innovative, and participative attitudes (Aman, 2011: 2). Those attitudes are very important to develop for multicultural society’s life like that in Surakarta. The development and implementation of diversity-based historical learning model with scientific approach will encourage the growth of tolerance and appreciation on multiculturalism and just acceptance to race and gender difference and will be the symbol of acceptance to the Unity-inDiversity nation. Diversity-based historical learning is one of strategies in improving the students’ democratic awareness in constructing a Unity-In-Diversity Indonesianess. This learning will develop social skills such as sincerity, empathy, and tolerance, and democratic awareness without losing self-identity (Zuchdi, 2008:93). The implementation of critical questions in diversity-based historical learning is that (1) difference is the largest

issue in Indonesia because Indonesia is a largest multicultural state in the world, (2) the increased violence rate and various social problems indicating that there is a wrong inheritance of cultural values in education realm, (3) various violent and multicultural conflicts cannot be solved with security approach only, (4) education is one of strategy in solving conflict because it can build democratic awareness. The advantages of model developed are firstly: growing and developing social sensitivity and teaching “ethical relativism”. The implementation of model will contribute to growing awareness of tolerance to difference. Secondly, the implementation of critical question in diversity-based historical learning with scientific approach will develop critical thinking ability, students’ self-development and provide students’ self-development ability through various social life skills. Thirdly, the implementation of model will lead the students to having social care and empathy to those outside their social, cultural, and religious margins, or called outsiders. Thus, this model is effective to improve the students’ democratic awareness (consciousness) in construction Indonesianess. In the relationship between education and democracy there are two contradictory opinions. Firstly, it arises among liberal democratic adherents resisting the school to be a political socialization instrument favorable to the ruler. This group argues that education should be put as an instrument of developing democratic character, improving critical thinking ability, encouraging spirit to pursue knowledge and to uphold human esteem and prestige. Secondly, it is an argument stating that education is an instrument of developing awareness, attitude, and political behavior expecting that the students will be good members of society (Zamroni: 2011) Diversity historical learning to improve democratic awareness refers to second perspective that through education,




in this context, diversity-based historical learning serves as an instrument of developing democratic consciousness (awareness). Democracy and education are actually interconnected and have reciprocity. Democratic education is characterized with learning circumstance having ability of growing the students’ potency optimally to achieve certain objective (Suhardjono, 2000). Otherwise, for democratic, freedom, justice, equality and transparency values to be understood and possessed by students, education is required.

CONCLUSION Diversity-based historical learning to improve democratic awarenessamong the senior high schools was based on the result of library study and analysis of the need for historical learning at school. The objective of model developmentwas to grow democratic awareness among senior high school students. Democracy, in education scope, is the recognition over individual students, corresponding to

students’ esteem and prestige, because democracy is natural and humane. In education process, all stakeholders realizing democracy means that they have appreciation, respect, tolerance to each other including self control and unselfishness. It means that in democratic spirit an individual should be submitted to mutual decision or consensus. Diversity-learning history to improve democratic awareness refers to second perspective that through education, in this case, diversity-based historical learning serves as an instrument of developing democratic consciousness (awareness). Democracy and education are actually interconnected and have reciprocity. Democratic education is characterized with learning circumstance having ability of growing the students’ potency optimally to achieve certain objective (Suhardjono, 2000). Otherwise, for democratic, freedom, justice, equality and transparency values to be understood and possessed by students, education is required.

REFERENCES Abdul Razaq Ahmad and Ahmad Ali Seman, Diversity as a medium to Reinforce Ethnic Tolerance in History Subject in Malaysia, inInternational Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. December 2012, Vol. 2, No. 12ISSN: 2222-6990in www.hrmars.com/journals Aman. 2011. Model Evaluasi Pembelajaran Sejarah. Yogyakarta :Ombak Burston, W.H. (1972). Principles of History. London: Methuen and Company Ltd. Center for Multicultural Education. 2001. Diversity Within Unity: Essential Principles for Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural Society. Seattle: College of Education University of Washington Cholil, S (Ed). 2008. Resonansi Dialog Budaya dan Agama.Yogyakarta: CRCS UGM Collingwood, R.C. (1956). The Idea of History. New York: Galaxy Book. Daliman. 2012. Pengantar Filsafat Sejarah. Yogyakarta :Penerbit Ombak. Darmaningtyas, and Edi Subkhan.2010. Demokratisasi Pendidikan Indonesia.Jurnal Dialog Kebijakan Publik Ed. 9 Year IV Daulay, Z. 2005. Implementasi Kebijakan Pengembangan Wawasan Multikultural: Solusi Mengatasi Persoalan Pluralitas Kehidupan Masyarakat dan Bangsa. Jurnal Multikultural dan Multireligius Vol. IV No.15




Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Undang-undang RI No. 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional, Jakarta: Pustaka Widyatama, 2003. Durkheim, E.1990. Pendidikan Moral: Suatu Studi Teori dan Aplikasi Sosiologi Pendidikan.Jakarta: Erlangga Kochhar, S.K. 2008.Pembelajaran Sejarah (Teaching of History). Jakarta: Grasindo Kusuma, Iskandar Wiryo,20011. Demokratisasi Belajar dan Pembelajaran Ditinjau dari Segi Pengalaman Empirik, Malang: Paper in the National Seminar on Learning Technology in Malang Mahfud, C. 2013. Pendidikan Multikultural. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar Muchsin.2002.Menggagas Etika dan Moral di Tengah Modernitas. Surabaya: CV.Adis Naim, N and Achmad Sauqi. 2010. Pendidikan Multikultural: Konsep dan Aplikasi. Yogyakarta: Ar Ruzz Media. Mc.Donald, Helen (1996), 'Planning for Practice', in Gilbert, Rob, p. 20. Prentice Hall, Sydney. Nana Supriatna.2011. “Konstruksi Pembelajaran Sejarah Berorientasi padaMasalah Kontemporer Pembangunan”, in MIMBAR, Vol. Vol. XXVII, No. 1 (June 2011): 21-30, Quanchi, M & Asofou So’o.2003. Teaching History: A Guide for Teachers Teaching History for The First Time. Brisbane: The Council of Presidents of Pasific Island. Sadiman, Arif S., Paradigma Baru Pengemasan Pendidikan yang Demokratis Ditinjau dari Segi Aspek Kebijakan, Paper in the National Seminar on Learning Technology in Malang, 2001 Soedjatmoko.1976.Kesadaran Sejarah dalam Pembangunan.Prisma No 7 year V, p. 47. Jakarta: LP3ES. Sudana Degeng, I Nyoman, Paradigma Baru Pendidikan Memasuki Era Demokratisasi Belajar, Paper in the National Seminar on Learning Technology in Malang, 2001. Suhardjono, Haruskah Demokrasi Belajar Menggunakan Konstruktivistik, Malang: IPTP, 2000 Supriatna Nana. 2008.Pembelajaran Sejarah Berorientasi Pada Masalah- Masalah Kontemporer. Unpublished dissertation.Bandung: Postgraduate Program. University UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. 1998. Learning to Live Together in Peace and Harmony; Values Education for Peace, Human Rights, Democracy and Sustainable Development for the Asia-Pacific Region. Bangkok: UNESCO PROAP (A UNESCO-APNIEVE SOURCEBOOK) Yaqin, A.2005.Pendidikan Multikultural:Cross Cultural Understanding untuk Demokrasi dan Keadilan. Yogyakarta: Pilar Media. Zamroni, 2001. Pendidikan untuk Demokratisasi, Tantangan Menuju Civil Society, Jogjakarta: Bigraf Publishing, 2001. Zuchdi, D. 2008. Humanisasi Pendidikan.Jakarta: Bumi Aksara




Social Skill Learning Using Local Wisdom-Based Audiovisual Media of Surakarta Community in Social Science Learning

Hermanu Joebagio Historical Education Study Program – Teacher Training and Education Faculty of UNS

Abstract: Surakarta is known as pluralistic city. The evidence of its plurality can be seen in a toponymical study on villages (kampong) in Surakarta. In multiethnic society ecology, the inter-ethnic social interaction occurring is dynamic in nature. Potential Ethnical antagonism until today still becomes latent danger potentially developing into opened conflict. For that reason, an education that can minimize inter-ethnic conflict is required to be a basic capital to create social harmony. One strategy that can be taken is to teach social skill through local wisdom-based audiovisual media of Surakarta society in Social Science learning. Keywords: Social Skill, audiovisual media, local wisdom, Surakarta, Social Science.

INTRODUCTION

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ppreciation on ethnic and religion plurality and diversity becomes fundamental interest to plural Indonesian. A multicultural society needs an education paradigm appreciating difference and respecting particular and local, namely, diversity-based historical learning. There should be a change from “totalizing” way of thinking into “pluralistic and open democracy” in any aspects of life. In multi-ethnic and multicultural Surakarta community environment, three principles of life are developed: mutual help, concord, and respect, so that a community is established as a unity in harmony with social etiquette demand

(Mulder, 1986). Javanese community’s thinking culture combines more experience and heart compatibility than rationality and empiricism. Thinking activity in Javanese culture is called “menggalih” meaning using conscience. The highest truth achieved by “kawruh (knowledge)” is not critical truth, but an approach to policy is called kabecikan (goodness)”. There is an idiom that truth is uncertainly close to policy or “bener iku durung mesti pener” An individual not only needs to find out truth but also should focus on policy as the end goal (Sutrisno, 2002). The statement above is in contradiction with the reality of Surakarta community vulnerable to social conflict. It is well established that inter-ethnic Javanese and Chinese conflict in Surakarta




often ends up with massive turmoil followed with chaos, destruction, plundering, and massive violence. Increased violence rate and a variety of social problem indicate that there is an error in inheritance of adiluhung (high) cultural values. Violence cannot be solved completely with security approach only; therefore education medium is required to minimize inter-ethnic conflict and to give understanding on core values of Surakarta community: concord and respect as basic capital to establish social harmony. For that reason, when culture is one of strong foundation in curriculum development, education development process should pay attention to existing diversity (Mahfud, 2013: 231). A social theoretical study finds that aggression is not innate or instinctual basic characteristic but result of learning through socialization. An individual is aggressive or tolerant because he/she learns and interacts with environment. For that reason, an education medium should be developed that can be used for social skill learning. The demand for collaborative skill exists in life not only at both local and national levels, but now at global level. As Bunyamin suggests, students should be equipped with social skill needed in the 21st century with the following reasons. Firstly, because there is a negative tendency in social relationship in the present in which children and young generations tend to individualistic behavior. It seems to be affected by entertainment technological development encouraging their isolation, such as walkman, i-pod, cellular phone with headset, playstation, and games use. Such the tendency can encourage uncaring about interacting socially with others, as Goleman(2006) calls social insulation or social autism. Secondly, in some children and their adolescents, there are tendency to weakening social and empathic feelings to other parties. Thirdly, in several last years, we also often witness social conflict within society and conflict in education institution environment, namely inter-students and

inter-college student conflict.Those facts all indicate their poor ability and awareness of solving conflict peacefully. Fourthly, there is interdependency in social life in line with globalization current. To build social network, social skill, mutualunderstanding and cooperating skills are needed. Social skill is the ability of creating a harmonious and satisfactory social relationship, of adapting to social environment, and of solving social problems faced and of developing aspiration and self-appearance, characterized with mutual appreciation, independency, knowing life objective, discipline, and decision making ability (Iyep Sepriyan (http://www.digilib.ui.edu) . Jarolimek (1993: 9) stated that social skill includes (1) Living and working together; taking turns; respecting the rights of others; being socially sensitive, (2) Learning selfcontrol and self-direction , dan (3) Sharing ideas and experience with others. Social science education should be able to play a part in teaching social skill. It occurs when it is related to the objective of Social Science education in Junior High School to build students into citizens to make decision democratically and rationally acceptable to all classes existing within society. The detailed objective of social science subject are to make the students have ability of (1) identifying the concepts related to society life and their environment; (2) thinking logically and critically, with curiosity, inquiry, solve problem, and skill in social life; (3)being committed and aware of social and humanity values, and (4) communicating, cooperating, and competing within plural society, at local, national, and global levels. The reality of Social Science learning is disconnected from social cultural reality of students’ life (Sariyatun, 2012). This statement supports the finding of previous study conducted by Farisi (2005) stating that the Elementary School students’ low appreciation on Social Science Education because Social Science is difficult to understand and to memorize.




Lasmawan’s (2008)study shows that Social Science teacher tends to be bond to textbook, including content, material sequence, example, and exercise items accompanying it rigidly. Meanwhile, the book has been uncertainly consistent with curriculum structure and students’ learning need. Such the condition resultleads the students’ need and interest in learning to be ignored. The finding of Syaodih’s (2008: 2) study mentioned that the ideal conditionexpected from the result of social science learning at school is considered as not as expected. Social Science education in Indonesia had not been maximal yet because the manifestation of social values developed in Social Science has not been applied obviously in the students’ daily life.

DISCUSSION 1. Social Science in Junior High School The content of Social Science curriculum is most inclusive among all subjects at school. As Stanley and Nelson (1994: 266) suggested, social study is “a research on human being’s all attempts within space and over times”. The borders of Social Science in school should be described because it contains most important social knowledge, skill, and most valuable behavior, and most significant values. It can be observed from the definition of Social Science or social studies included in NCSS of 1994 as follows: Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion and sociology, as well as appropriatecontent from the humanities, mathematics and natural sciences. The primarypurpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to makeinformed and reasoned decision for the public good as citizens of aculturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world (1994:3)

For that reason, Social Science teacher should present real problem in Social Science learning so that learning has actual significance to their life. Luchan (1990) stated that social science is the development of art of living within society. The implication is that a learning medium is required that can visualize the real portrait of their social cultural environment. In the context of Solo city, ethnic settlement area becomes an appropriate media to learn social skill in Social Science learning. From the background above, the objective of this article writing is to describe (1) what is Social Science learning ideally?; (2) how to teach social skill through local uniqueness and wisdom audiovisual of diverse ethnical settlement in Social Science learning? METHOD This study was a descriptive qualitative research conducted in Public Junior High Schools in Surakarta, Central Java Province. The data sources used were informant including teacher, headmaster, and deputy of headmaster, place/event, and document. Techniques of collecting data used were observation, in-depth interview and written document. Data analysis was conducted using interactive analysis technique.

Social science learning in modernism vision only aims to give the students a science as product constituting the body of facts (concept, generalization) needing no critique or reform. It is just like what is reflected on Suyanto (2003) concluding that Indonesian education curriculum in fact does not bring about student demonstration significantly. Students know much information but




insignificant for their life. According to them, Indonesian education, citing Freire’s opinion, follows banking concept of education”. In line with this, Hasan (1996: 2006) considered that Social Science Education material contains less social, cultural, and value problems in children’s daily life, because it is oriented to the mastery of scholarship structure(scholarship source) rather than to social cultural daily reality as reference value source for children, too overloaded, less compatible to children learning motivation and orientation. As a result, education product does not have social sensitivity and solidarity, and strong moral and religion bases. Reproductive format of modern education has made Social Science learning an unattractive and boring subject for Junior High School students. The prior findings of current study and previous studies justify the statement above stating that Social Science education is oriented more to the mastery of scholarship source than to social cultural reality. Social Science teacher tend to be bond totextbook, including content, material sequence thereby leading the students’ need and interest in learning to be ignored(Lasmawan, 2008; Sariyatun 2012). Referring to the characteristics of Social Science education as a synthetic discipline (Soemantri, 2001; 198) Social Science education synthesizes the concepts not only relevant to education and social sciences but also the objective of education and development, and social problems in living within society. As Noffke (2008: 78) suggested, identity and social cultural context of children plays an important role in developing Social Science curriculum. Thus, there should be a shift of students’ role from listener to knowledge inventor or constructor. Similarly, the shift of teacher’s role from dispenser to designer. As Barr and Tagg (1995: 14) suggests, teacher is like “a coach in a team” and a designer of “learning environment” enabling the students developing inquiry process in order to

produce new knowledge (Supriatna, 2007: 31-32). Social Science teacher should be able to make classroom a learning medium and device for the students, by means of presenting the real problem in learning. The most important process in Social Science is not limited to how the learning is done, but how to teach, so that the learning significance is embodied into an actual reality within each of learning students. Social science, according to Luchan (1990),is the development of art of living within society. Any Social Science learning should be able to present the real portrait of students’ social cultural environment. The implication of Social Science education curriculum should provide the students with understanding and awareness of diversity and difference issues in social environment. The development of school curriculum should integrate those problems. As Gardner suggests (2004: 263): Education’s challenge will be to shape the cognitive skills, interpersonal sensibilities, and cultural sophistication of children and youthwhose lives will be both engaged in local contexts1 and responsive to larger transnational processes. We claim that two domains in particular will present the greatest challenges to schooling worldwide: the domainof difference and the domain of complexity. New orientation inthe development of social science learning is in line with constructivism paradigm. The students essentially is a subject of education, the use and the ultimate target all at once, the existence and capability of which should be recognized and appreciated (Sumaatmadja, 2002: 2003). For that reasons, Social Science is a subject expected to contribute to establishing good citizenship attitude and a reflective attempt in which Social Science education should be social criticism. Social




Science education will develop critical thinking ability, personal development, and provide an individual with selfdevelopment ability through various social life skills. Stein (2004) suggested that this world develops very rapidly and there is a change in learning process “from being able of remembering and repeating information to being able to find and to use it”. Wiggins (2004: 10) explained“Learner-Centered approach in which education enables the students to express their opinion confidently. Huba and Freed (2000: 153) confirmed that student-centered education process will encourage the students’ success. This teaching reinforces the students’ skill in interacting socially and cooperating, and controlling or correcting each other. National Council for the Social Studies describes that standard curriculum of Social Science learning will be powerful when the teachers hold on 5 principles of learning: meaningful, integrative, challenging, active, and value based (Sunal and Haas, 2005:5). Wiriaatmadja(2002:307-308)stated that Social Science teaching-learning process will be powerful when it conducts many active activities as follows. (a) Active teaching-learning should be accompanied with reflective thinking and decision making during the activity process, because learning process runs quickly and event can develop suddenly. (b) Through active learning process, students develop and understand their new knowledge more easily. (c) Active learning process builds the necessary meaningful learning to make the students able to develop their social understanding. (d) The role of teacher shifts gradually from a variety of knowledge source or model to the role of encouraging the students in order to be independent and disciplined. (e) The powerful social Science teaching-learning process emphasizes learning process with active activity in the field to learn the real life using the material for the existing skill in the field. The meaningful Social Science learning to students can be achieved when

teacher packages the material connecting knowledge, belief, and attitude they obtain from both inside and outside classroom (contextual).

2. Social Skill Learning with Local Wisdom-Based Audiovisual Medium of Surakarta Community The definition of media, according to Djamarah (1995: 136) “media is any visual aid that can be a means of delivering message to achieve the objective of learning”. Then, Purnamawati and Eldarni (2001: 4) confirmed that “media is everything that can be used to deliver message from sender to receiver thereby stimulating the students’ thinking, feeling, attention and interest in such a way that learning process occurs”. Anderson (in Sukiman, 2012: 28), learning media is the one enabling the realization of direct relationship between a subject developer’s work and the students. Meanwhile, Anitah (2008: 2), learning media is any people, language, tool, or event that can create a condition enabling the students receive the knowledge, teacher/lecturer, teaching material, environment and learning media. In this case, learning media is a means of achieving learning objective containing learning information that can be communicated to the students. The use of learning media deriving from the students’ social cultural environment is very desirable because curriculum should consider teachers’ and students’ understanding on daily experience. Borrowing Doll’s term, this media is an element of relations. According to Doll (1993: 179) relations principle is an important thing in postmodernism curriculum as transformative curriculum. The principle of relations can be seen in two aspects: pedagogic and cultural. Pedagogically, the principle of relations pertains to the substances contained in the enacted curriculum structure. Culturally, the principle of relations pertains to cosmological or cultural relationship




outside curriculum. Such the relation is dialogical in nature between the enacted curriculum document and the students’ spoken cultural experience in curriculum document. Essentially, the students need knowledge and understanding on concepts related to workplace and community generally in which they will live and learn contextually and meaningfully, thereby can apply their knowledge and ability in their life (Agus Suprijono,2012). Bruner (inArsyad, 2005:7), there are three learning main levels of learning mode: direct, (e.g., practicing it), pictorial experience (e.g., seeing photograph, picture, video, film) and abstract (e.g., reading or listening explanation on something). When this experience level is interacting in the attempt of obtaining new experience (knowledge, skill or attitude). Kemp & Dayton in Azhar Arsyad (2005; 19-20) stated that learning media can meet threemain functions when it is used for individual, group or large group of listeners. Those functions are: firstly motivating interest and action. To meet the motivation function, learning media can be realized with drama or entertainment technique. The result expected is to generate interest and to stimulate the students to take actions. The achievement of objective will affect attitude, value, and emotion. Secondly, displaying information. For information purpose, learning media can be used in the attempt of displaying information before a group of students. Participation expected from students only limited to their agreement or disagreement mentally or limited to not glad/less glad, neutral/glad feeling. Thirdly, giving instruction, when information contained in the media should involve students, both mentally and in real activity, so that learning can occur. Good learning media includes visual, audio and motor aspects. It aims to facilitate the students understand the material and implant the concept contained in learning material. The more the students’ sense involved in learning process, the more

easily and meaningfully the student will learn (study) (Bobbi d Porter & Mike Hernarki 2002: 31). The visualization of local peculiarity and wisdom of diverse ethnic settlement as Social Science learning media meets visual, audio and motor aspects. Media development and learning design designed creatively enables the interaction to occur and negotiation to create meaning, meaning construction within students and teaching staffs, thereby meaningful learningwill be achieved. The development of social skill is conducted through learning process; for that reason, the role in the classroom is very important. The indicators observed in the achievement of social skill objective are (1) being active in learning process, (2)questioning and expressing opinion bravely, (3) adaptation, (4) cooperation, (5) precision and speed in responding to, (6) tolerant, (7) empathic, (8) honest, (9) responsible and disciplined, (10) mutual help positively and ethically. The utilization of surrounding environment as learning source and media helps the students to learn, learning to do, learning to be and learning by doing. Interactive media constructs students’ understanding and interaction better. Another role of other media is to be generalization concept developer and to help give experience from abstract material like textbook to clear and real material. As Saripudin suggests in Djamarah (2002: 139), learning media serves as learning source and is used to facilitate learning activity. Roessler (Barth, 1990: 137) suggests: in today’s social studies classroom, with self-motivation not being what it once was, we teachers need all tools we can grasp”. Considering the perspective above, Social Science learning in this classroom should use media that can grow student motivation. Furthermore Barth (1990: 137) explains that “the use technology and instructional resources (TIR) has everything to do with learning, remembering, and effective teaching”. The




use of technology-based learning media can helpmemory and effectiveness in Social Science learning containing a variety of abstract and complex social concept and phenomena, the use of varying learning source can concretize any abstract concept, thereby facilitating the students’ understanding on the material delivered by teacher. Thus, the advantages of Surakarta Community’s local peculiarity and wisdom-based audiovisual media model in Social Science learning are: (1) Social Science learning process becomes interesting and meaningful to students; (2) through social inquiry process, student can find meaning of learning material content. Informationassessing skill will lead a learning to be relevant and meaningful thereby improving social skill; (3) Social Science learning is not disconnected from Surakarta’s social cultural reality; and (4) Visualization of local peculiarity and wisdom of diverse ethnical settlement generates solidarity and pride of cultural identity thereby motivating students to maintain and to preserve cultural heritage. Utilizing local peculiarity and wisdom-based audiovisual media of diverse ethnic settlement, Social Science learning can play a part in giving broad and in-depth interview in interconnected disciplines: (1) introducing concepts

related to society life and its environment, (2) providing basic ability of thinking logically and critically, curiosity, inquiry, problem solving, and social life skill, (3) cultivating commitment and awareness of social and humanity values, and (4) building communication, cooperating and competing abilities in plural society, at local, national, and global levels.

CONCLUSION Social Science learning is the subject expected to contribute to establishing good citizenship attitude, a reflective attempt in which Social Science education should be social criticism. Social Science education will develop critical thinking ability, personal development, and provide an individual with selfdevelopment ability through various social life skills. For that reasons, a Surakarta Community’s local peculiarity and wisdombased Social Science learning media should be developed to provide the students with knowledge, skill, attitude, and to cultivate commitment and awareness of social and humanity values. Thus, it will build communication, cooperating and competing abilities in plural society, at local, national, and global levels.

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Dale, E. 1969. Audiovisual Method in Teaching. (Third Edition). New York : The Dryden Press, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Daryanto. 2011. Media Pembelajaran. Bandung: Satu Nusa. Depdiknas. (2005). Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia nomor 19 tahun 2005 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan. Jakarta: Depdikanas. Dick, W. & Carey, L. 2005. The Systematic Design of Instruction (6thed.). Glecview, Ilinois: Scott, Foresman and Company. Djamarah, Syaiful Bahri, 2002. Psikologi Belajar. PT. Rineka cipta Farisi, Muhamad. 2005.Rekonstruksi Dasar-dasar Pemikiran Pendidikan IPS SD Berdasarkan Perspektif Konstruktivisme. In Dissertations. Bandung: Postgraduate Program. Indonesian Education University Gall, M.D., Gall, J.P., Borg, W.R. 1983.Educational Research. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Gardner, Howard. (2004). How Education Changes:Considerations of History, Science, andValues,”( Edited ) Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco and Desirée Baolian QinHilliar. Berkelyy Los Angeles London: University of California Giroux, H. A. (1996). Is there a place for cultural studies in colleges of education? In H. A. Giroux, C. Lankshear, Hujair AH. Sanaky. 2009. Media Pembelajaran. Yogyakarta: Safiria Insania Press. Jarolimek, J.(1971). Social Studies in Elementary Education. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. Lasmawan.IW. (2005) Pengembangan Model pembelajaran Pendidikan IPS di SD dengan Model ITIM Untuk Meningkatkan Proses dan Hasil Belajar menuju Siswa yang Literasi Sosial Teknologi Pada Sekolah Dasar Kabupaten Buleleng Bali.Unpublished dissertation. Bandung: Postgraduate Program. Indonesian Education University Numan Sumantri. 2001. Menggagas Pembelajaran Pendidikan IPS. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya. National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations for excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies. Washington, D.C. National Council for Social Studies. Nazmi Al-Shalabi. (2011). Empowering Learners: Teaching American Literature by Shifting the Focus from the Instruction Paradigm to the Learning Paradigm. In International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 1 No. 9 [Special Issue – July 2011] 61. Nieto, S. (2004).Language, Culture and Teaching. Chicago: National Reading Conference Noffke, S. E. (2000). “Identity, community and democracy in the new socialorder.” In D. W. Hursh & E. W. Ross (Eds.), Democratic social education: Social studies for social change (pp. 73–83). New York: Falmer O’Brien J L and Smith, J M. 2011. Elementary Education Student’s Perceptions of Good Citizenship. Journal of Social Studies Education Research. Vol 2(1) page 21-36. 2011.




Sariyatun (2014) Pengembangan model media pembelajaran IPSberbasis visualisasi kampoeng Batik Surakarta yang dapat menumbuhkembangkan jiwa entrepreneurship dan sebagai revitalisasi cultural heritage”In a Report on Grant Research Surakarta: LPP – UNS. Sariyatun. 2012. Model Pembelajaran IPS Berbasis Nilai Budaya Lokal Batik Klasik Untuk Menguatkan Jati Diri Bangsa. Dissertation. Bandung: Postgraduate Program. Indonesian Education University. Segall, Avner; Heilman, Elizabeth E. & Cherryholmes, Cleo H. (Eds.) (2006) Social Studies—The Next Generation: Re-searching in the Postmodern. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc. Pp. vii + 299 ISBN 0-8204-7067-8. Sri Anitah. 2011. Media Pembelajaran. Surakarta: UNS Press. Stan Hujair AH Sanaky. 2009. Media Pembelajaran. Yogyakarta: safira Insania Press. Sumaatmadja, Nursid. 2000.Manusia dalam Konteks Sosial Budaya dan Lingkungan Hidup. Bandung: Alfabeta. Sumaatmadja, Nursid..2002. Pendidikan Pemanusiaan Manusia Manusiawi. Bandung : Alfabeta. Wiggins, Haley. 2004.A Learner-centered and participatory approach to teaching community. New York &Burlingame : Harcourt , Brace & World, Inc.







Improving Teacher Professionalism Using Scientific Work

Bambang Sumardjoko Pancasila and Civic Education Study Program of Teacher Training and Education of Surakarta Muhammadiyah University A.Yani Street, PO.BOX 1, Pabelan, Kartasura, Surakarta 57102, (email: [email protected])

Abstract: Generally, the objective of research was to find teacher professionalism development model based on collaborative constructivism to improve soft skill-transferable skill in writing scientific work. This study was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, preliminary study was conducted, and then followed with model examination in the next stage. The objectives of firststage research were to map the teacher professionalism development model, to map the teacher ability in writing scientific work, and to analyze the forms of teacher need in developing teacher professionalism. Techniques of collecting data used were observation, in-depth interview, documentation, FGD, and questionnaire. The data analysis was carried out using qualitative analysis. The results of research were as follows. Firstly, teachers of SMA/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah in Sukoharjo had conducted a variety of activities to develop their competency as a professional teacher, either independently by attending workshop, seminar, buying newest book text, following MGMP (Subject Teacher Discussion) activity and discussing with the fellow teachers of study area. secondly, in the ability of writing scientific work, teachers had not had conceptual understanding about scientific work at all. Teacher’s experience of preparing scientific work is largely obtained during Teacher Professionalism Practice Education activity. Thirdly, to meet the need for teacher professionalism development still found such constraints as limited time, fund, age, infrastructure, motivation, leader policy, and internet network access. There should be a concrete step from the policy makers to simplify any thing related to learning administrative activity, fund support from dikdasmen chamber and sponsor, internet network access support, and college institution support. Keywords: profession development, teacher professionalism, and scientific work.




Introduction

D

iscussion about teacher professionalism improvement is always interesting and actual. It is can be understood because teacher plays a part in determining human civilization and a nation’s progress. Everyone will recognize that the existence of teacher is inseparable from entire human life. There is an assumption that technology advance and rapid information flow makes teacher no longer the only always correct learning source, because in reality, the teacher’s role is still very necessary, particularly related to its role in giving psychologicaleducative touch to the students. In Law number: 20 of 2003 about National Education System only contained two teacher words, in article 39 clauses 3 and 4. It occurs because the definition of teacher is expanded to ‘educator’ distinguished in dichotomy from “education staff”, as poured explicitly into Chapter XI about educator and education staff. In clause 2 it is mentioned that “Educator is a professionalin charge of planning and implementing learning process, assessing learning outcome, facilitating and training, and researching and making service to society, particularly to educators at college”. Then clause 3 mentions that “Educator teaching in elementary and secondary education unit is called teacher and educator teaching at college unit is called lecturer’, Meanwhile, term ‘education staff’ is explained in Article 39 clause 1 stating that ‘Education staff is in charge of implementing administration, management, development, supervision, and technical service to support education process in education unit”. Apart from terminological problem, both of them assume noble duties as professional who has professional norm just like other professions such as physician (doctor), accountant, public prosecutor, judge, and etc. Teacher is a teaching staff in education institution. Teacher is a professional educator with educating, teaching, guiding, directing, practicing,

assessing and evaluating students as the main duties in early age students in formal, elementary, and secondary educations. The position of teacher as professional serves to improve the teachers’ prestige and role as learning agent and to improve national education quality (Law No.14 of 2005). Thus, teacher as an instructor is required to have pedagogic competency or ability in order to transform science to his/her students. In education process, teacher undertakes not only the transfer of knowledge function but also value implantation and character building among the students sustainably and continuously. The teacher’s role is very strategic in preparing high-quality human resource. For that reason, the improvement of teacher professionalism should be done continuously. The development of teacher professionalism was conducted based on the need of institution, teacher group, and teacher him/her self. It is in line with Danim (in Syaefudin Sa’ud, 2009) that teacher development is intended to stimulate, to maintain, and to improve the quality of staff in solving organizational problems. Despite the importance of teacher development based on institution need, the more importantthing in teacher professional development is that based on individual teachers’ need to undertake professionalization process. It is important because the substance of study and learning context always develops and change according to spatial and temporal dimension; thereby teacher is required to keep improving his/her competency by means of developing professionalism sustainably. Data of sustainable teacher profession development shows that many teachers, including those with Civil Servant status, are inhibited by the obligation of writing scientificwork in professionalism development. Meanwhile, the ability of writing scientific work is important to teacher (Suhaenah, Kompas, April 22, 2014) because scientific work writing is useful to be the teachers’ means of reflecting on their various experiences.




In Central Java Province, for example, nearly 60% of Civil Servant teacher reaching IVa grade can not reach the higher level because of scientific work writing problems. Data shows that the teachers of Secondary Schools occupying IVa grade account for 50.88%, while those capable of rising to IVb and so fort account for only 0.5% (Eris Yunianto, 2007).Sumardjoko’s study(2013) on Certification Teacher Reinforcement Model through Professionalism Interpretation in Teachers of Public Senior High Schools in Sukoharjo, Central Java, showed that the factor causing dominantly the teacher’s less successfully improvement of professionalism is teacher’s limited ability of conducting classroom action research and writing scientific work. In prior observation on Muhammadiyah schools, namely SMA/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah Sukoharjo, it could be found that the development of teacher professionalism tends to be ‘stagnant’ and the clearly and systematically arranged development program has not been seen yet. For that reason, considering this phenomenon, a constructivist-collaborative-based teacher professionalism model should be developed to improve teacher’s soft skillstransferable skills in scientific article writing. Considering the description of background above, the objectives of research were: firstly to describe the result of mapping on the teacher professionalism development model implemented, secondly, to describe the result of mapping on teacher ability in writing scientific work, and thirdly to describe the result of analysis on teachers’ need in profession development in Muhammadiyah education institutions of Sukoharjo.

Method This study was a descriptive qualitative research conducted in Sukoharjo Regency, Central Java

Province. Data source included informant: teacher, headmaster, and Muhammadiyah Elementary and Secondary Education Chamber, place/event, and document. Techniques of collecting data used were observation, interview, and written document. Data analysis was conducted using an interactive analysis. Result and Discussion 1. Description on Teacher Professionalism Development Amal Usaha Muhammadiyah (AUM = Muhammadiyah Non-Profit Business) of education in Muhammadiyah area Sukoharjo is large in number. there are 11 education institutions in the form of senior high schools including SMA, MA, and SMK Muhammadiyah. Based on data of June 27, 2015, it can be found that there are totally 346 teachers in 11 (eleven) high schools. Out of 346 teachers, only 119 or 34.39% have attended educator certification program, and 227 or 65.61% have not. It indicated that the number of teachers who have not attended certification program is larger than those have attended. Although only 34.39% of teachers have attended educator certification program, as a private institution, the number can be said as good because it has been above 25%. The 119 teachers who have gotten educator certification, based on their personnel status, are divided into three categories: Civil Servant (PNS), Foundation’s Permanent Teacher (GTY), and Temporary Teacher (GTT). There are 20 educator-certified teachers (16.81%) with Civil Servant Status, 72 (60.50%) with GTY and 27 (22.69%) with GTT status. Data of personnel status is interesting because more teachers with non-PNS status (83.19%) get educator certification compared with PNS-status ones. The 119 educator-certified teachers of SMA/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah Sukoharjo, by their education level, can be divided into two




categories: those with master (postgraduate) and those with bachelor (graduate) final education. There are 10 teachers (8.40%) with postgraduate degree and 109 (91.60%) with graduate degree. This data by education level shows that few teachers (8.40%) have postgraduate degree so that those with graduate degree should attend the higher education program. Then, by sex, the 119 educatorcertified teachers of SMA/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah Sukoharjo can be divided into: 81 (68.07%) males and 38 (31.93%) females. This data by sex shows that male teachers become majority who obtains educator certification compared withthe female ones. The data collection from many teachers of SMA/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah in Sukoharjo provides description on the activity conducted so far in the term of teacher professionalism development.

a. From Teacher Perspective Considering a preliminary study, it can be found that basically any form of certified-teacher self-development has been conducted despite less maximum result. Teacher has attempt to take various self-development attempts to meet and to improve pedagogic, professional, social, and personality competencies. The evidences of teacher selfdevelopment activity can be seen from the result of interview with some informants. BS, as a teacher of Pancasila and Civic Education in SMK Muhammadiyah Sukoharjo (interviewed on June 5, 2015), stated that “I read many books, attend workshop and outbound. If I do that all, I think it is enough to improve competency”. This explanation is confirmed by SS, history teacher, stating that: “in addition to reading book, I also often browse in internet. Because historical event can be found more easily in internet. I have ever attended seminar or workshop as well.

That can support my competency as History teacher”. Information on various activities of teacher development obtained from the two informants above is similar to what H.Sm, a certified-teacher assuming entrepreneurship subject in SMK Muhammadiyah 1 Sukoharjo, does. Similarly, ES, teacher of Pancasila and Civic Education, (interviewed on June 2015), reported having developed his competency and attended MGMP (Subject Teacher Discussion) activity. Then he buys laptop as well for browsing internet, because according to him, it is important to find latest information on citizenship issues. W assuming Physical Education and Sgn assuming Indonesian Language with Civil Servant status confirm ES’s information. Considering the result of interview above, it can be seen that educatorcertified teachers so far have done some activities to develop post-certification competency in many ways. Those activities are attending workshop and seminar, buying latest textbook, attending MGMP activity, and discussing with fellow subject teachers.

b. From Headmaster Perspective Headmaster as the leader is responsible as well for the teacher professionalism development at school. The headmaster takes some attempts of supporting the certified teacher in order to have better competency. HM, as the headmaster of SMK2 Muhammadiyah Sukoharjo stated supporting any activities of teacher to develop competency. Considering the result of interview on June 8, 2015, he stated that: “When there is a seminar or workshop invitation, we will send it to the teachers. And the school will give fund grant for it. Teacher will be given service trip letter and then asked for stamping to the committee of seminar or workshop. Next, the letter will be given to the school. MGMP is also supported, particularly in the term of providing room




(place) when necessary. Related to teaching hour, we adjust it with teacher’s need particularly the certified one in order to be compatible to their need for teaching hour. Many more activities can be done to develop teacher competency”. Informationfrom HM was then crosschecked with Mdj as the headmaster in SMA Muhammadiyah 1 Sukoharjo, and similar answer is found. He said that the school supports completely the teacher competency development, despite some constraints sometimes. Similarly, Skn as the headmaster of SMK Muhammadiyah Watukelir and SMA Muhammadiyah of Imam Syuhada Islamic Boarding School always supports any activities of teacher in developing competency. The data collection that has been conducted with some headmasters of SMA/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah in Sukoharjo gives a description concerning the activities implemented so far in the term of certified-teacher competency development. Considering the result of research, it can be seen that in fact the headmaster has attempted to support certified-teachers so far to undertake various activities to improve pedagogic, professional, personality and social competencies.The support given includes: (1)supporting the teachers who want to attend seminar, (2) supporting the teachers who want to attend workshop, (3) facilitating discussion activity with fellow subject teachers in their own school, (4) supporting MGMP activities, (5) motivating the old certified-teacher in order to keep productive, (6) supporting teacher in holding social activities in religious holiday, (7) overseeing teacher activities at school, (8) supporting the teachers who want hold activity, and (8) participating in making policy in relation to teacher teaching hour sharing.

c. From Elementary and Secondary Education Chamber’s Perspective The reality represents Muhammadiyah Elementary

that and

Secondary Education Chamber of Sukoharjo tends to oversee, support and motivate the certified-teacher activities in competency development. It can be seen thatthe system operating is the bottom-up one. It is characterized with any ideas arising from individual schools so that Elementary and Secondary Education (Dikdasmen) Chambergiving support after the school takes action. The Muhammadiyah Elementary and Secondary EducationChamber’s small role and function in teacher empowerment in Sukoharjo and perhaps in other areas seems to be affected by many factors. The leadership of Elementary and Secondary Education Chamber is largely held by teachers and retired teachers. As a private institution growing and developing from the bottom and having religious social vision, namely dakwah amar makruf nahi mungkar (proselytizing, establishing goodness and resisting evil), professional school management is often difficult to realize. Nearly most Muhammadiyah schools should apply tight efficiency and effectiveness principles in managing school finance. For that reason, it is not peculiar that Dikdasmen Chamber often finds difficult in funding the breakthrough and various intended activities.

2. Mapping and Teacher Competency in Writing Scientific Work Scientific work is the thought result of a scholar who wants to develop science, technology, and art. Scientific art is obtained through library study, others’ previous experience, research, and knowledge. Interview with BS (on June 5, 2015), related to scientific work, suggested that “The mastery of research conceptinhibits me in Classroom Action Research (CAR). Sometimes when we prepare a scientific work, because our confusion of whether or not it has been correct, we stop writing this”. SS, the teacher of history, says that: “Actually historical learning faces some problems. For example, student motivation, effective delivering method, and relevant learning




sources. It can be the theme of classroom action research. But I do not mastery CAR concept well. I am rather confused in preparing a correct proposal and its procedure. I have been given example, but because my discipline is different, I still find difficulty”. Information was also obtained from ES, a teacher of Pancasila and Civic Education, on June 8, 2015 stating that “Conducting a research is perhaps one of my weaknesses, because I did not take thesis when I studied at college”. Then, according to W, “The difficulty in preparing Classroom Action Research generallylies on its research concept, from determining the appropriate title, problem statement, and theory used. The method use can also become obstacles. If there is no consultant, I would find difficulty. Information obtained from teachers of SMK Muhammadiyah 1 and 2 Sukoharjo was crosschecked with that from teachers of SMK Muhammadiyah 1, SMA Muhammadiyah 3, and SMK Muhammadiyah Watukelir, all of which concludes that there are still many constraints in understanding scientific work concept. Teacher experience in preparing scientific work is largely done during Teacher Professionalism Training Education (Pendidikan Latihan Profesi Guru (PLPG). Teachers find difficulty when they enter into standard procedure and research methodology. The educator-certified teachers’ understanding on scientific work concept can be indicated belonging to understanding (15%), less understanding (55%), and not understanding (30%) categories. Such the condition is in line with the findings of Bambang Sumardjoko’s (2012) study stating that the teachers’ constraints with writing scientific work are as follows: (1) low reading interest, (2) teacher’s inadequate information on latest development activity, and (3) misperception. Inadequate information on scientific work will lead the teachers to having misperception on writing scientific work.

In addition the factor above, another factor leading to low understanding on scientific work isinternal factor of the corresponding teachers. Internal factor is the influence coming from inside individual. Low motivation is one of internal inhibiting factors including teachers’ poor reading habit, limited language ability, and less motivation to write. Factors of trying lazily, writing interestand motivation can be seen from the willingness to try writing. Trying lazily is one of factors inhibiting the teacher to start writing.

3. The Need for Teacher Professionalism Development Considering the result of document analysis and in-depth interview with teachers of SMA/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah Sukoharjo, it can be explained that teachers have attempted to develop their professionalism in many ways, one of which with “Individual Guided Staff Development” development model. Teachers can assess their learning need and learning actively and directing themselves. Teacher should be motivated during selecting learning objective based on personnel’s assessment on their need. Independent professionalism development the Muhammadiyah teachers of Sukoharjo have done is consistent with PKB activity guide. PKB activity for selfdevelopment is conducted at school independently and divided into three categories: (1) conducted by teacher independently, (2) conducted by teacher in collaboration with other teachers in one school, and (3) conducted through network. Considering the result of interview, archive documentation, and observation, there are some problems arising related to sustainable teacher professionalism development. The problemsbecoming the constraint included time, funding, age, school infrastructure, motivation, leader policy, and access-tointernet network. For that reason, what




needed are as follows. (1) There should be policy holder’s measure to simplify everything related to learning administrative activity and or evaluation in school. (2) Dikdasmen Chamber and other sponsor should give fund support to give the teachers the opportunity of conducting some activities. Dikdasmen Chamber is not only bottom-up but also up-down in nature. (3) There should be changing policy from the chairman of Dikdasmen Chamber for the grade rise precondition to be more selective so that pertaining to pedagogic, professional, personality, and social domains. (4) There should be supporting access to internet network. (5) There should be support from college institution in holding workshop/seminar and other activities. (6) There should be supporting scholarship for advanced study. Considering the analysis above, a PKB model is developed in integrative manner, by involving association, LPTK, and Stakeholder based on teacher need in PKB. From the result of analysis on preliminary study, it can be found the weakest components: teachers’ understanding and ability in preparing scientific work. For that reason, a constructive collaborative-based sustainable teacher professionalism development model is developed to improve soft skills and transferable skills in writing scientific work for teachers in Muhammadiyah secondary schools.

Conclusion Firstly, the educator-certified teachers of SM/MA/SMK Muhammadiyah in Sukoharjo Regency have conducted various activities to develop their

professional competency. The teachers conduct development by attending workshop, seminar, buying latest textbook, attending MGMP activity, and discussing with fellow subject teachers. Secondly, the educator-certified teachers’ ability of writing scientific work has not been optimally because it is inhibited by the absence of clear understanding on scientific work concept. Teachers’ experience with preparing scientific work is largely done during PLPG. Thirdly, to meet the need for teacher’s professionalism development still finds constraint. The constraints included, limited time, limited fund, age, school infrastructure, motivation, leader policy, and access to internet network.For that reasons, There should be policy holder’s measure to simplify everything related to learning administrative activity and or evaluation in school, Dikdasmen Chamber and other sponsor should give fund support to give the teachers the opportunity of conducting some activities, Dikdasmen Chamber is not only bottom-up but also up-down in nature, should be supporting access to internet network, there should be support from college institution in holding workshop/seminar and other activities, and there should be supporting scholarship for advanced study. Furthermore all elements of stakeholders including Dikdasmen Chamber of PDM Sukoharjo including School, Teacher, and LPTK UMS should improve their participation in realizing the sustainable professionalism development for educator-certified teachers, particularly in Sukoharjo Muhammadiyah institution environment.

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Policy Analysis of Indonesian Food and Nutrition Policy 2006-2010

Dr. Tasnim, SKM.,MPH Discipline of Public Health, Mandala Waluya Health Science College, Kendari [email protected]

Abstract: Malnutrition remains a public health issue in Indonesia. In order to improve community nutritional status, Indonesian government developed food and nutrition policy 2006-2010. This study aims to analyse Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-2010 in terms of the effectiveness of its development and impacts on food and nutrition programs and practices. This study used a Bacchi approach that included six questions to analyse this policy. This approach is called “what the problem has represented to be?’ approach”. This policy sets five action areas, namely increasing accessibility, quality and security for foods, community nutritional status, healthy lifestyles and institutional strengthening. This policy has resulted programs that address intermediary determinants of health, such as improving in health care system, medical treatments, behavioural changes, households income, physical environment, psychosocial and political structures. Those programs have increased some food production that lead to increase in consumption of energy and protein. The numbers of poor families also reduced. As a result, the prevalence of malnutrition in under-five children and adult women reduces, but the prevalence of overweight and obesity in those groups increases. Some food production reduced in 2011 because of natural disasters and avian flu. The outbreaks of food borne diseases still occur in particular time because of poor clean water and sanitation facilities. Unhealthy lifestyles, including smoking and eating unhealthy fast foods also continue to rise. For the reasons, this policy has left unproblematic the issues, including natural disasters, the outbreaks of avian flu, insufficient water and sanitation facilities, and unhealthy food and drink advertisings. In conclusion, this policy needs several improvements in strategies to achieve better health outcome. This includes programs of early detection for natural disasters and avian flu, providing clean water and sanitation facilities, providing consultation and behavioural treatments for smokers, restriction on broadcasting of unhealthy food and drink advertisings, and increasing family planning program. Key Words: Policy Analysis, Food and Nutrition, Malnutrition

INTRODUCTION

A

policy is a guide to implement actions that will lead to better changes (Baum, 2008). In general,

the policy will set priorities and provide detail information about resources allocation (Baum, 2008). For example, Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-




2010 aims to increase community nutritional status in Indonesia (Indonesian Ministry of National Planning and Development, 2007). It sets five action areas, namely increasing accessibility, quality and security of foods, community nutritional status, healthy lifestyles and institutional strengthening. The global economic crisis in 1999 has reduced the community nutritional status in Indonesia. This could be seen from increasing the prevalence of underweight children under five years of age from 18.25% in 1999 to 19.24% in 2005 (Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics, 2005). The global financial crisis led food insecurity and high food prices, so communities could not meet sufficient healthy food intakes and become malnourished (Sari M, de Pee S, & Bloem MW, 2010). Furthermore, unhealthy behaviours, such as cigarette smoking, physical inactivity and high consumption of unhealthy fast foods also increase. These habits have increased the incidence of cardiovascular diseases, including, hypertension, heart diseases and diabetes (Schoder H, Rohlfs I, & Schmelz EM, 2004). In order to overcome those public health issues, Indonesian government developed food and nutrition policy. This policy has been made and implemented since 2001 and then it was amended in 2006 and 2011. The new policy is just implemented in 2011 and its impacts cannot be seen. Therefore, this study will analyse Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-2010 in terms of its effectiveness and effects on food and nutrition programs and practices. Analysis for this policy will include the problems represented, assumptions underlying the problems, history of its development until its effects on food and nutrition programs and practices. Analysis of the effectiveness of this policy will see achievements in the programs that address to social determents of health. This will compare the achievements of food and nutrition programs between 2005 and

2011. Furthermore, the policy analyst will also identify the problems that have been left unproblematic by this policy. This will enable the policy analyst to see its effects on the outcomes in food and nutrition programs. This will then be used as a basis of development recommendations for the future advancement in food and nutrition policy in Indonesia. Moreover, this paper will be published to Australian and New Zealand Journal for Public Health that can guide to improving in food and nutrition policy and programs in Indonesia and other developing countries.

METHODS Analysis of Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-2010 will use a Bacchi approach. The Bacchi approach is commonly called “What’s the problem represented to be?’s approach” (Bacchi, 2009). This approach uses six questions to analyse the policy, including: 1.

What’s the problem represented to be in a specific policy?

2.

What presuppositions assumptions underlie representation of the problem?

3.

How has this representation of the problem come about?

4.

What is left unproblematic in this problem representation? Where are the silences? Can the problem be thought about differently?

5.

What effects are produced by this representation of the problem?

6.

How/where has this representation of the problem been produced, disseminated and defended? How could it be questioned, disrupted and replaced?

or this

DISCUSSION Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-2010 sets five action areas, namely increasing accessibility, quality and security for foods, community




nutritional status, healthy lifestyles, and institutional strengthening. Development the five action areas have required developments and improvements in infrastructures, technologies and human resources.

Action 1: Increasing accessibility for foods This action aims to increase food stocks and varieties at the local, regional and national levels. This requests development and providing in several aspects. Firstly, protection for agricultural land is done because increasing in population and industries have reduced the numbers of agricultural land. This needs regulations that can ensure eternity for agricultural land. Secondly, increasing food production also requires development the new technologies, infrastructures and marketing. This needs a collaborative work between Departments of Agricultural, Trade, Industry and research institutions. Furthermore, increasing availability of foods across regions also needs infrastructures of distribution and economic institutions at the village level. Moreover, promotion of maintaining local consumption patterns is done to ensure that remote communities can still provide their own foods from local sources. The government also subsidizes staple foods for poor families. This program has been implemented since 1998 to increase food intakes in poor families. However, its implementation is ineffective (Hastuti, Sumarto, & Suryahadi, 2008). Thus, improving in this program is done in this policy. In addition, implementation of this action area requires increasing in human capacities of management for food stocks in both the governments and communities. Thus, trainings for staff in the governments and community leaders are given to increase their knowledge and skills in management for food production.

Action 2: Increasing food quality and security This action bases on the issue about hazardous food additives that are produced by small food businesses. This has increased the incidence of food borne diseases, including diarrhoea (Indonesian Ministry of National Planning and Development, 2007). Therefore, this action aims to increase producers and consumers’ awareness, monitoring, protection and development of alternative safe food additives. Several strategies are done to achieve the aims. Firstly, socialization of food standards and regulations for producers and consumers is done. Secondly, monitoring in the food industries and its productions in the markets are increased. This requires increasing in staffs for monitoring and laboratories. Furthermore, development of regulations of protection for consumers is done to ensure that food productions in the markets are safe. Developing new technologies to find alternative food additives which are safe and cheap is done through increasing in researches about food quality. However, this action has left unproblematic the problems of the quality of foods at the household level. This relates to personal hygienic behaviours. Increasing in household hygienic behaviours needs to increase their knowledge and also provide physical capital of hygienic practices, such as water and sanitation facilities. This policy does not include programs that provide these facilities.

Action 3: Increasing nutritional status

community

The problems represented in this action are micro-nutrient deficiency, overnutrition and infectious diseases in Indonesia. Thus, this action focuses on overcoming micro-nutrient deficiency, over-nutrition and infectious diseases. Several strategies are done to meet these purposes. The first strategy is revitalization




in the community health centres. The community health centres have responsibility to provide health education, surveillance, monitoring for child growth, immunization, distribution micro-nutrients and treatment for malnutrition. Health education is proposed to increase vitamin A and iron tablet consumption, breastfeeding for children under two years and planting vegetables and fruits in the backyards. Health messages also include preventive actions for obesity and infectious diseases. Furthermore, health insurance is given freely for poor families. Subsidizing money for poor families is also done to establish a small enterprise that can increase poor families’ income. In Addition, improving the school curriculum at the primary and secondary levels is done to increase nutritional knowledge at the school age.

Action 4: Increasing healthy lifestyles The problems represented in this action are physical inactivity, smoking and high consumption of unhealthy fast foods. Thus, its strategies include health promotion, advocacy and development regulations. These programs aim to increase physical activity, smoking cessation, and eating healthy foods. Improving methods of health promotion is done to increase the effectiveness of health messages. Developing regulations of overcoming smoking also become the agenda in this policy. However, this action does not include strategies that address to restriction on unhealthy food and drink advertisings. These advertisings contribute significantly to increasing consumption of unhealthy foods and drinks (Dalmeny, 2003). Thus, restriction on their broadcasting in frequency and time is necessary to hamper behavioural changes toward unhealthy lifestyles.

Action 5: Institutional strengthening

The problem represented by this action is disintegration of food and nutrition programs. Therefore, this action aims to increase collaborative works between the governments, privates and communities. Programs that are done in the partnerships comprise early detection for food and nutrition problems, increasing administrative and professional capacities. This requires development and improvement in the school curriculums of nutritionist. Other program is increasing the quality and quantity in researches about food and nutrition. This requires collaborative works between Departments of Agriculture, Health, research institutes and universities. Furthermore, reducing in the population growth rate is also done because Indonesia has rapid population growth. For example, in 1995, population in Indonesian were 194,754,808 people.18 This increased to 206.264.595 people in 2000 (Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics, 2010). Implementation of this policy has been delegated to departments in Indonesian government, legislative council, Indonesian Institute of Science, and women organizations. Departments in the government include Departments of Health, Education, Agriculture, Industry, Trade, General Affair, Logistic, National land, Social and Welfare, Internal Affair, Population and Family Planning, Food and Medicine Monitoring, and Local Governments. Ministerial levels are also involved, such as Ministries for Administrative Reforms and Sport.

THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE POLICY HAS RESULTED IN PROGRAMS THAT ADDRESS THE SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH The social determinants of health are recognised as social and structural determinants (Irwin, Solar, & Vega, 2008). These determinants produce stratification within society and shape individual health status and outcomes. The social determinants operate through a set of




intermediary determinants of health, such as material circumstances, psychosocial aspects, behaviours, biological factors, and health system. In general, Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-2010 has resulted programs that address to intermediary determinants of health. Those programs include improving in health care system, family income, behavioural changes, psychosocial and political aspects. The first action of increasing accessibility for food results programs that address not only improving in material circumstances and physical environment, such as providing agricultural land, development new technology, infrastructures and subsidising staple foods. However, those programs also address to behavioural changes and psychosocial factors, such as increasing knowledge and skills for staff in governments and communities, and promotion of local consumption patterns.

Increasing knowledge and skills for staff in governments can increase staff performance that will lead to increasing their job satisfaction (Carden, 2007). This will bring positive impacts on improving in food programs. Increasing knowledge and skill in the communities will also increase their social prestige that will increase social networks . Furthermore, promotion about maintaining the local consumption patterns could reduce stress for isolated communities because they will not depend on food supply from other areas. However, those programs have left unproblematic the issue of natural disasters that often occur in Indonesia and the outbreaks of avian flu. This has led to reducing in some food production in Indonesia. This can be seen in table 1. The table presents production of common foods in Indonesia before and after implementation those programs.

Figure 1. Food production in Indonesia between 2005 and 2011 Before implementat ion 2005 54,151,097 Rice (ton) Cassava (ton) 19,321,183 10,569,000 Cows 365,048 Fishes (ton) 278,954,000 Chicken 1,292,984 Vegetable (Cabbage/ton) 2,214,019 Fruit (orange/ton)

During implementation the policy

After

Production

2006 54,454,937 19,986,648 10,875,000 366,104 291,085,000 1,267,745

2007 57,157,435 19,988,058 11,515,000 466,029 272,251,000 1,288,740

2008 60,325,925 21,756,991 12,257,000 529,173 243,423,000 1,323,702

2009 64,398,890 22,039,145 12,760,000 556,123 249,964,000 1,358,113

2010 66,469,394 23,918,118 13,633,000 730,286 268,957,000 1,385,044

2011 65.756.904 65,756,904 -

2,565,543

2,625,884

2,467,632

2,131,768

2,028,904

1,818,949

Source: Indonesian

1,363,741

Statistical Bureau (2011)

As mentioned in the table that the trend of foods production increases except fruit and chicken. Increasing production in rice, vegetables, and fruits happened between 2005 and 2010, but those then dropped in 2011 except cassava. Significant reduction occurred in fruits from 2.214.019 ton in 2005 to 1.818.949 ton in 2011. Reducing production in chicken related to the outbreaks of avian flu in 2009 (Nusrat, 2009). Many chicken died

because of avian flu in Indonesia. Reducing production in rice, vegetable (cabbage) and fruit (orange) related to natural disasters, including volcano eruption in Jogja in 2011 (Prasetya, 2012). As presented in newspapers, the volcano eruption in Jogja in 2011 had damaged residential and agricultural areas. Furthermore, flooding and drought happened in particular areas of Indonesia that also affected to agricultural yields (Aziz, 2011; Joewono, 2011). This means




that strategies of early detection for natural disasters and avian flu need to get more attention to increase food stocks. On the other hand, increasing production of cassava means that promotion of using local resources as staple foods has gotten good response from rural communities. This leads to increasing demand of cassava.

consumers. Behaviour changes in both food producers and consumers are ones of important factors to reduce the risks of food-borne diseases, including diarrhoea (World Health Organization, 2008). Furthermore, implementation of the law number 8 year 1999 of protection for consumers, increasing staffs and improving laboratories are also to reduce food borne diseases. In general, the implications from those programs have reduced the incidence of food-borne diseases, such as diarrhoea from 2005 to 2011. However, this incidence becomes high in particular time as shown in table 2.

The second action of increasing food quality and security results programs that address improving in behavioural, political and material structures. Programs that are address to behavioural changes include socialization food regulation and standards for both food producers and

Figure 2. The incidence of diarrhoea in Indonesia between 2005 and 2011 Before implementation

Incidence

diarrhoea

2005 5,051

During implementation the policy

2006 10,980

2007 3,661

2008 8,133

2009 5,756

2010 4,204

After Implemen tation 2011 3,003

Sources: Indonesian Health Department (2008); Indonesian Health Ministry (2012) The table shows that the trend of diarrhoeal incidence declined from 5,051 in 2005 to 3,003 in 2011. However, in 2006 and 2008, the incidence of diarrhoea became high. Increasing the incidence of diarrhoea in 2006 and 2008 related to insufficient clean water and sanitation facilities, particularly in rural and poor urban areas as reported by Kompas (Damardono, 2008). Insufficient access to those facilities can lead to poor hygienic practices that increase the incidence of diarrhoea (Alasfoor, Traissac, Gartner, & Delpeuch, 2007). This means that increasing food quality and security should be followed by improving in water and sanitation facilities in the communities. The third action of increasing community nutritional status results programs that address improving in community health services and economic structures in poor families. The programs in the community health services are improved not only on medical aspects, but

also on behaviours and health information systems. The coverage of the community health services is also increased to improve community nutritional status. For example, in 2005, the coverage of community health services was 3.50 per 100,000 inhabitants (Indonesian Health Department, 2007). This increased to 3.86 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2011.37 Poor families also have big chances to use health services through giving health insurance. Besides that, poor families are also given money for small business in order to increase their income, so they can meet their basic needs. In 2005, 19,110,905 poor families were subsidized money out of 35.10 million poor families (54.4%). This program can also reduce the numbers of poor families. As reported by Indonesian Health Department,(Indonesian Health Ministry, 2012), the number of poor families reduced from 15.97% in 2005 to 13.33% in 2010.




In general, reducing in numbers of poor families has led to increasing the proportion of consumption of energy and protein in communities (Indonesian Health Ministry, 2013). The percentage of consumption of energy increased from 59.0% in 2007 to 59.3% in 2010.40,41 The percentage of consumption of protein increased from 58.5% in 2007 to 63.0% in 2010.

in 2005 to 82.66% in 2011 (Indonesian Health Ministry, 2012). The percentage of pregnant women who received iron tables increase from 72.42% in 2005 to 83.30% in 2011. The percentage of infants who were breastfed also increased from 43.47% in 2006 to 47.81% in 2008. In addition, the percentage of infants who got complete immunization increased from 76.23% in 2005 to 93.40% in 2011.

Moreover, increasing the role of community health services has also led to increasing distribution of vitamin A and iron tablets, breastfeeding, and immunization. For example, the percentage of under-five children who received vitamin A increased from 75.66%

The implications of increasing in both poor families’ income and the role of community health services has led to reducing in the prevalence of malnutrition in both under-five children and adult women. This can be seen in table 4.

Figure 4. The prevalence of malnutrition in under-five children and adult women aged 15-45 years and infant low birth weight in Indonesia in 2005 and 2010 Nutritional status

2005 Before implementation (%)

2010 After implementation (%)

Children under five years of age: 19.24 Underweight 9.35 Wasting 18.93 Stunting Adult women 15-45 years of age: 16.24 Underweight 27.9 Infants with low birth weight Sources: Indonesian Health Department (2012) and Indonesian (2013) As described by table 4, in 2005, the prevalence of underweight, wasting and stunting in children under five was 19.24%, 9.35%, and 18.93%, respectively. These reduced to 13.0%, 7.3% and 17.1%, respectively in 2010. The prevalence of underweight adult women also reduced from 16.24% in 2005 to 12.3% in 2010. Reducing in the numbers of underweight adult women has contributed to reducing the numbers of infants with low birth weight from 27.9% in 2005 to 11.1% in 2010. As suggested by Nahar and others’ study (Nahar, Ahmed, Brown, & Hossain, 2010), mothers’ nutritional status have a significant contribution to low birth

13.0 7.3 17.1 12.3 11.1 Health Ministry

weights babies and poor breastfeeding capacity. Furthermore, the fourth action of increasing healthy lifestyles results programs that address improving in behavioural and political structures through health promotion, education and advocacy. Health promotion and education includes counselling, campaigns in the health services and mass media. These programs are proposed to increase physical activity, stopping cigarette smoking and healthy diets. However, this policy has left unproblematic the effects of unhealthy foods and drinks advertisings on unhealthy lifestyles. These advertisings develop




interesting programs that can persuade communities to buy and use their products. Furthermore, development the regulation of overcoming cigarette smoking does not yet get response. This still becomes a debatable issue among policy makers. The implications of those issues, the proportion of intensive smoking and eating unhealthy fast foods continue to rise. The proportion of intensive smoking

increased from 23.7% in 2007 to 28.2% in 2010 (Indonesian Health Ministry, 2013). Consumption of unhealthy fast foods increased from 233.08 kilo calories/capita/day in 2005 to 273.84 kilo calories/capita/day in 2010. As a result, the prevalence of overweigh and obesity in both under-five children and adult people increase. This can be seen in table 5.

Figure 5. The prevalence of overweight and obesity in under-five children and adult people aged 15-45 years in Indonesia in 2005 and 2010 Nutritional status

2005 Before implementation (%)

Children under five years of age: 3.48 Overweight 12.36 Obese Adult people 15-45 years of age: 8,8 overweight 10.3 Obese Sources: Indonesian Health Department (2012) The table shows that the prevalence of overweight and obese in both under-five children and adult people increases. The prevalence of overweight and obese children under five increased from 3.48% and 12.36%, respectively in 2005 to 5.8% and 14.0%, respectively in 2010. The prevalence of overweight and obese in adult people also increased from 8.8% and 10.3%, respectively in 2005 to 10.0% and 11.7%, respectively in 2010. Increasing the prevalence of overweight and obesity in adult people has contributed to increasing in the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes. In 2005, the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes were 2.93% and 2.13%, respectively.34 These increased to 4.67% and 3.32% in 2007, respectively (Indonesian Health Department, 2008). This means that programs of overcoming unhealthy lifestyle need to be improved. For example, these programs can include development regulations and advocacy. Development regulations can include restriction on the numbers of

2010 After implementation (%) 5.8 14.0 10.0 11.7

cigarettes in the markets and on broadcastings of unhealthy food and drink advertisings in media. Programs of advocacy can be extended to privates, nongovernment organizations and civil societies. On the other hand, the action for institutional strengthening results programs that address to political structure through collaborative works. The collaborative works have been done between the governments, privates and communities. The purposes of this collaboration include early detection, providing research evidence, increasing human capital and reducing population growth. Programs of early detection are important in food and nutrition programs. However, programs of early detection do not yet give a clear explanation and emphasis on natural disasters and avian flu. Both natural disasters and avian flu have reduced some food production as described above. Moreover, the program of reducing the population is important to increase




community nutritional status. According to Iram and Butt (Iram & Butt, 2006), increasing the number of family members lead to insufficient food intakes for underfive children malnutrition and become malnourished. However, population in Indonesia still increased significantly in 2010. As reported by Indonesian Central Bureau of statistics (2010), in 2010, the population in Indonesia was 237,641,326 people. This increased significantly from 206,264,595 in 2000. Thus, programs to family planning still need to get more attention to improve community nutritional status. CONCLUSSION Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-2010 represents the problems, including limited access and low quality of foods, malnutrition, unhealthy lifestyles and disintegration of food and nutrition programs in Indonesia. This policy comprises five action areas, namely increasing accessibility, quality and security for foods, community nutrition, healthy lifestyles, and institutional strengthening. Developing of those actions based on agreements of South-East Asian countries workshop that was held in India in 2005. Developing those policy areas also based on other issue in Indonesia regarding disintegration of food and nutrition programs. This policy has resulted programs that address to intermediary determinants of health, including improving in health care system, medical treatments, behavioural changes, households income, physical environment, psychosocial and political structures. In general, those programs have increased production in some foods including cassava, fishes, and cows. Natural disasters and avian flu have reduced production of rice, vegetables, fruits and chickens. Furthermore, programs of increasing the quality of foods have left unproblematic the role of personal hygiene practices for preparation foods at home. As a result, the prevalence of food-borne diseases, including diarrhoea remains high

in particular time. This relates to insufficient clean water and sanitation facilities at home. Programs of increasing community nutritional status have reduced the prevalence of malnutrition in both underfive children and adult women. However, the prevalence of overweight and obesity in those groups still increase. For the reason, this policy has left unproblematic the significant role of unhealthy food and drink advertisings. These advertisings have increased unhealthy lifestyles, including cigarette smoking and consumption of unhealthy fast foods. Therefore, there are several recommendations for future advancement of Indonesian food and nutrition policy. Firstly, programs of early detection for natural disasters and avian flu need to be emphasized in this policy. Dissemination and advocacy about providing sufficient clean water and sanitation facilities to Department of General Affair, privates and non-government organizations should also be done to reduce food borne diseases, such as diarrhoea. Moreover, development regulations of overcoming unhealthy lifestyles still need to be done. Development regulations include overcoming cigarette smoking and restriction on broadcastings of unhealthy food and drink advertisings in television, the internet or other media. In addition, programs of family planning must be increased. This can be done through partnerships with privates, nongovernment organisations and civil societies.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE ADVANCEMENT OF THE POLICY AREA AND RELATED PROGRAMS As described above that this policy needs further improvements to achieve better health outcomes. Firstly, programs that are addressed to early detection for food and nutrition programs in the




collaborative action need to give more attention for natural disasters and avian flu. As mentioned above that natural disasters have damaged agricultural yields. Thus, managing disaster risk should become part of actions for early detection in food and nutrition programs. Loh (2005) suggests for governments to save and do budgetary discipline for projects when natural disaster happens. Moreover, the effects of natural disasters and avian flu on food production need to be disseminated to privates, non-government organisations or civil societies in order to involve in preventive programs. Secondly, the prevalence of foodborne diseases, including diarrhoea remains high in particular time and places. Insufficient safe water and sanitation facilities are found to contribute to that issue. Indonesian General Affair Department has responsibility to develop water and sanitation facilities in the communities. Thus, sharing information about the impacts of insufficient safe water and sanitation facilities on food borne diseases should be included in the agenda of partnerships. Furthermore, overcoming unhealthy lifestyles, including cigarette smoking also needs to combine treatments of both psychosocial and pharmacology.

Psychosocial treatments comprise individual counselling and behavioural treatments. Both of psychosocial and pharmacology treatments for smoking should become part of health programs in community health services. Involving private hospitals and non-government organizations also need to be done, so the issue of cigarette smoking can be overcome effectively. Moreover, restriction on frequency and time of broadcasting of unhealthy food and drink advertisings should be done to overcome unhealthy lifestyles. This needs to advocate policy makers to develop the regulation for restriction on frequency and time of their broadcastings. Advocacy to television companies also needs to be done regarding rearrangement or restriction on broadcasting of unhealthy food and drink advertisings. In addition, programs of restraint population in Indonesia still need to get more attention. Programs of family planning must be extended. Identification about barriers and enablers of family planning programs can be done to find effective strategies in these programs. The findings must also be shared to privates and non-government organizations to involve them in reducing population in Indonesia.

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Dalmeny, K. (2003). Food marketing: The role of advertising in child health. Consumer Policy Review, 13(1), 2-7. Damardono, H. (2008, 18th December). loss caused by bad sanitation Rp. 56 quintillion, Kompas. Hastuti, Sumarto, S., & Suryahadi, A. (2008). The effectiveness of the raskin program. Jakarta: SMERU Research Institute. Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics. (2005). Under five children nutritional status in 1998 - 2005. Jakarta: Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics; 2005. Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics. (2010). Population in Indonesia per province 1971,1980,1990,2000 and 2010. Jakarta: Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics. Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Food production in Indonesia. Jakart: Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics. Indonesian Health Department. (2007). Indonesian Health Profile 2006. Indonesian Health Department.

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Indonesian Health Ministry. (2012). Indonesian Health Profile 2011. Jakarta: Indonesian Health Ministry. Indonesian Health Ministry. (2013). Basic health research (RISKESDAS) 2013. Jakarta: Indonesian Health Ministry. Indonesian Ministry of National Planning and Development. (2007). Indonesian food and nutrition policy 2006-2010. Jakarta: Indonesian Ministry of National Planning and Developing. Iram, U., & Butt, M. S. (2006). Understanding the health and nutritional status of children in Pakistan: A study of the interaction of socioeconomic and environmental factors. International Journal of Social Economics, 33(2), 111-131. Irwin, A., Solar, O., & Vega, J. (2008). The United Nations Commission of Social determinants of health. International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 64-69. Joewono, B. (2011, 15th April). Flooding damages tha land of 10 hectare, Kompas. Loh, B. (2005). Disaster Risk Management in Southeast Asia: A Developmental Approach. ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 22(2), 229-239. Nahar, B., Ahmed, T., Brown, K. H., & Hossain, M. I. (2010). Risk factors associated with severe underweight among young children reporting to a diarrhoea treatment facility in Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 28(5), 476483. Nusrat, M. (2009, 16th May). Many chickens die because of avian flu in Banyumas, Kompas. Prasetya, D. (2012, 3rd October). Factors that cause reducing rice production in Sleman, Kompasiana. Sari M, de Pee S, & Bloem MW. (2010). Higher household expenditure on animal-source and nongrain foods lowers the risk of stunting among children 0-59 months old in




Indonesia: Implications of rising food prices. The Journal of Nutrition, 140(1), 195-200. Schoder H, Rohlfs I, & Schmelz EM, M. J. (2004). Relationship of socioeconomic status with cardiovascular risk factors and lifestyle in a Mediterranean population. European Journal of Nutrition, 43(2), 77-85. World Health Organization. (2008). Foodborne disease outbreaks: Guidelines for investigation and control. Geneva: World Health Organization.




The Origins of Dalang Ruwat in Ruwatan Ceremony

Agus Efendi1, Andrik Purwasito2, Bani Sudardi3, Wakit Abdullah4 1. Agus Efendi, S.Sn.,M.Sn, first author, Doctoral Student of Cultural Studies Sebelas Maret University email: [email protected], 2. Prof. Dr. H. Andrik Purwasito, DEA, second author, Sebelas Maret University email: [email protected] 3. Prof. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum, third author, Sebelas Maret University email: [email protected] 4. Dr. H. Wakit Abdullah, M. Hum, fourth author, Sebelas Maret University email: [email protected]

Abstract: In ruwatan ceremony, the use of media entertainment like puppet leather show holds a cultural function as a means to conduct ruwat bocah sukerta ‘ritual ceremony to cleanse individuals who experiencing bad luck, or inborn into disadvantages often referred to as panganyam-anyaming Batara Kala’ the individuals who are at risk of becoming foods of Batara Kala’. Another function is because in a particular village there are those who affected by calamities or unfortunate events in life, many of them who died mysteriously, and even committed a mass suicide. Through ruwatan ceremony, it is expected that the village will return to be safe and peaceful, self-awareness to get away from social disasters and thus ruwatan ceremony as a form of cultural and religious acculturation. The ruwatan ceremony is held with leather puppets show organized by a ruwat puppeteer. Ruwat Puppeteer is also known as the true puppeteers who are determined by the lineage of the puppeteers, with specific criteria must be a descendant of a ruwat puppeteer (the ordained puppeteer). This study is a qualitative descriptive research which focuses on the descriptive-qualitative explanation. The primary data is obtained from information of the research sources and direct observation in the field according to the characteristics of the data obtained from ruwatan ceremony. Secondary data is the text stories "Serat Murwakala" copied version from RM Citrakusuma. Ruwatan tradition as many found today was a new product of Sultan Agung of the Mataram dynasty, (Pigeaud in de Graaf, 1986: 24). The monopoly business impacted from the ritual services, particularly ruwatan ceremony has been started since 17th century which along with the exercised hegemonic power of the Mataram Kingdom in Kerta. Key Words: tradition, ruwatan, puppet leather, true puppeteer, Sukerta.




INTRODUCTION

A

puppet leather show for the supporting community is seen as not only a form of a mere performance, guidance and entertainment, but they believe that this show could be a means for certain celebration interest, one of which is as a remembrance on the important events in a life or journey of human life from being in a mother’s womb to the death such as mitoni tradition, wedding supitan, nyatus, nyewu etc. (Wibisono, 1974: 61). Puppet leather performances are also seen as a frame of reference and can be used as a reflection of life, depictions of attitudes and behavior of the supporting community. For the community, the narrated stories in a leather puppet performance are believed to be able to depict various life events and valuable life teachings. The performance is, therefore, deemed to be a bridge towards the interests of the community, especially as a kind of worshiping tool through conducting a ruwatan ceremony (Ibid). Ruwatan as a ritual performance is part of the Javanese local traditions or kejawen, a traditional Javanese philosophical system of principles of which involves a search for the inner self with fundamentally concerns on bringing a peace of mind for the practitioners. Additionally ruwatan is a ritual cleansing of a place or person deemed to be in danger because of some constellation of events or individual location. This ritual ceremony has been trusted as a medium preventing the individuals who hold the tradition from common misfortunate life called sukerta. Sukerta describes as individuals of those who experiencing bad luck, born into disadvantageous sibling order and locations- whole villages, dangerous intersections, these misfortunate people or places can be effectively cleansed or exorcised through a performance of the ruwatan ceremony (Endraswara, 2003). Ruwatan is often called as Murwakala, the word murwa means ‘proletarian’ which defeat and control the kala ‘time’. This means that in the lives of human beings from time to

time, the supporting community could find the outer and inner tranquillity. The supporting community believes that if he/she should be included in a class of people who has to be held a ruwatan ceremony then it is assumed that they are the people who are believed Bathara Kala would eat. Thus, the supporting communities in the past were among the people who conducted man shows at least until the 90s but in recent years after, the ruwatan show begin to decrease on its numbers (ceremony). This Ruwatan ceremony has been a deeply rooted belief in the hearts of the supporters even it could grow the autonomous strength from the various religions that blended into one in preserving the works of show that are descended from the ancestral traditions and contains a hyperspirituality beliefs (Derlin DE, 2011). In this ruwatan ceremony the leather puppets are used as a display media to tell the story about Murwakala, in which the birth of Bathara Kala until at a certain point where Bathara claimed his right to get a food and to the story that Batharakala be defeated or controlled by the puppeteer Kandhabuana or the true puppeteer (Kusuma, 1923). In the scene, Bathara Kala was confronted by his father Bathara Guru and asked him for his promising foods, and among the people who are eatable to him will be the variety of people who fall into the category so called wongsukerta (Soetarno, 2004: 52). In pakempang ruwatan Murwakala and Serat Centhini there are told sixties types of people who fall into the category people of sukerta. In Serat Murwakala there are 147 types of wong sukerta and in Pakem Murwakala there are 136 types, for example 1) Ontang-anting: single male child in a family, has no siblings; 2) Unting-unting: single daughter in a family; 3) Gedhana-gedhini: two children in a family, male and female; 4) uger-ugerlawang: two sons in a family; (5) The twin pair: two daughters in a family; 6) Pendhawa: five sons in a family; 7) Ngayomi: five daughters in a family; 8)




Julungwangi: a born child at the sunset time; and 9) Pangayam-ayam: a child born during the middle of the day. Among other types of people who deemed to be in the category of sukerta, they were considered mistaken because dropping cormorant, when cooking rice and breaking the gandhik, a tool used to clam herbs (Soetarno, 2004: 53). In ruwatan puppet shows, it will be led by a puppeteer called Dalang Sejati ‘the true puppeteer’. The true puppeteer is a trusted person to lead the way the ruwatan ritual ceremony is held and considered capable of releasing bad luck or could clean people of sukerta by conducting ruwatan ceremony even they are the people who have to be responsible for the safety of all who are in the show including all the supporting accompaniment or crew puppeteer, guests and spectators as the attendants of the show. A puppeteer will be referred as the true puppeteer if such puppeteer is mere descendant of the ruwat puppeteer. Similarly, in his social status he should be able to be a role model or beyond reproach and must already have conducted several laku tirakat ‘behavioral penance’ in advance even on each conducting ruwatan performance, the puppeteers must definitely undergo fasting or ngirangi (Subalinata). In this age, the perspective towards the mainstream that exists inruwatan has stagnated or exceptional rigidity and leading to reducing the ruwat puppeteers which could eventually lead to the extinction of the ruwat puppeteers at the end will affect the tradition of ruwatan performances. The researcher as part of the supporting community for ruwatan feel encouraged to find solutions on the conditions and there required a variety of sources to find the sources of data about the history or traces / trace of the True Puppeteer, myths, rules and so on which are expected to become a new discourse in the show of this ruwatan. METHOD

This study is a qualitative descriptive research. Focusing on the qualitative descriptive explanation, this study is capable of explaining a complexmeaningful phenomenon that cannot be well-explained by the quantitative model of approach (Sutopo, 2002: 35).The primary data is information from sources of research and direct observation in the field according to the characteristics of the data of ruwatan. Secondary Data is the text stories "Serat Murwakala" copied version from RM Citrakusuma published by Tan Kun Swi Kediri in 1926, which tells about the birth origin of Bathara Kala, among those that are ruwat, conditions and procedures of the ruwatan). Serat Candra Pustaka" in the Javanese language of Kalawarti No 123 and 132 texts by Pujono S and Dra. S.A. Satiti issued by the Javanese Languag eand Literature Development Project of Central Java in 1989, contains about the understanding of ruwatan and classification of people who should be blessed in ruwatan and contains about the history of Heaven and Gods who found a place called Nusa Java follows the journey of gods who created a new place in the land of Java until the story of the birth of Bathara Kala. The writing of R.Tanoyoin 1971, entitled "History of Prince Pandjangmas Leluhuripun Para Dalang Karaton Mataram-KartasuraSurakarta", recounts the journey of the Prince Panjangmas as the puppeteer in the palace at the time of Sultan Agung Mataram until being ordained as Prince Panjangmas (of ruwat puppeteer or the true puppeteer) and on the legitimatization of Prince Panjangmas against other ruwatan puppeteers. Data collection techniques in this study follow the interactive and noninteractive techniques (Goetz and Compte, 1984 in Sutopo, 2002: 58). The techniques involved three folds; (a) interviewing; the interviews were conducted to engage with informants / speakers. The purposive questions are in open ended, that the interview method is, therefore, not structured and directed to the depth of information, thus various fundamental and




complete information can be wellrevealed, i.e., spells used in ruwatan can be well-revealed. Observing; the researcher as the human instrument directly involved in study that take place around the environmental field of the puppeteers to understand the procession of ruwat performances. The researcher also employed the enclosed observation method, which additionally examined particular cultural behaviour, such as on the problem of meditation, magical techniques and sacred rituals of kejawen (Endraswara, 2003: 210). Content Analysis; the researcher conducted a series of work, observed, analyzed various data of ruwatan or on the texts of ruwatan, and these texts were compared with the real situation in the field so as to know the difference, intent, purpose and meaning of all of them (Yin, 1987 in Sutopo, 2002: 69). Data analysis techniques employed the interactive analysis which processes in the organization the needed data to find a theme and can formulate the hypotheses. The research directions undergone several stages they are the data reduction, data presentation and verification of data continuously and keep considering the meanings of the formed situations (Sutopo, 2002: 96). All the collected data are the object of this study and they were analyzed with a various theories and approaches that include using the concept of Barthesian myth with the definition of that myth which is the formation of a special system, and build from the semiological chain which has been exist before (1972). Semiotic theory is also employed as a basis to examine this phenomenon and consider what is happening in society is as a sign. (Rusmana, 2014: 31). In viewing the cultural phenomenon such as ruwatan activity, the researcher also employed the hermeneutic theory, which is a process of decomposition to get the hidden meaning of certain conditions and according to Ricoeur, "hermeneutic tries to understand the meanings which lay behind the structures" (in Endraswara, 2003: 42).When the data has been completed

analyzed the next stage is on the approach discussing issue of power around the puppeteers, especially done under the paradigms of cultural hegemony and is expected to get the conclusion of reading the position of Dalang Sejati ‘the true or ruwat puppeteer’ within the culture of the Javanese community.

DISCUSSION The purified (ruwat) Dalang or puppeteer also called Dalang Sejati ‘the true puppeteer’. The ruwat puppeteer must be a descendent of seventh generations of the great grandparents and further described on the definition of the true puppeteer is a member of the Javanese community who shared the same puppeteers’ lineage; both paternal and maternal side should be from the pure generation of ruiwat puppeteers (Rusdy, 2012: 42). The above opinion is also corroborated by the opinion of Ki Manteb Sudarsono who stated that "of course, if you want to be a ruwat puppeteer, it must go through the process of learning with a teacher. And of course, in selecting a teacher from the senior ruwat puppeteer is not a simple matter, ora sak karepe dewe, it must be a descendant ruwat puppeteer, either from the grandparents or elders. This is intended to generate genetic purity of ruwat puppeteers, like the oath which was taken from them to be ordained as ruwat puppeteers. Other requirements of ruwat puppeteers are those who must have ever settled marriage for their children or children in-law, must not be a widower, must not have two wives, and must not violate religious taboos. Those are among the mandatory requirements of ruwat puppeteers) (http://www.soloblitz.co.id). Statements regarding the requirements to become a true or ruwat puppeteer has becomes mainstream trusted by majority of the supporting community. Because they hold a belief on the ability of the ruwat or true puppeteer for these puppeteers are the descendant of ruwat




puppeteers. The descendant puppeteers are believed to be able to help people releasing sukerta afflicted by the responders who held the ruwatan ritual show. The ritual ceremony of ruwatan held by Mr. Sukiman fom Tirtomoyo, Central Java invited Ki Surono, aruwat puppeteer descent. In the ceremony Mr. Sukiman expressed some utterances; “kula menika ngawontenaken ruwatan amargi ngleluri tembungipun tiyang sepuh utawi leluhur, amargi anak kula klebet golonganipun bocah sukerta inggih menika Bantheng Ngirit Jawi supados saget tebih saking sengkala. Lajeng kula angrawuhaken ki surono menika amargi sampun tradisi saha pitados menawi Ki surono menika saget angruwat anak kula, Ki surono menika dalang ruwat ingkang turunan dalang ruwat ugi”.

Translation "I am holding this ruwatan for obeying and preserving the messages from parents and ancestors, because my child who is afflicted by sukerta ‘impurity’Bantheng ngirit Jawi (both male & female) in order to get away from danger. Then I invite Ki Surono because it has been our tradition and I believe that Ki Surono could purify‘angruwat’my child. Ki Suronois a ruwat puppeteer, a descent of a ruwat puppeteer" (Sukiman, personal communication, April 2, 2015). In conducting a ruwatan show Ki Surono started the ceremony by burning the incense and began reciting pangruwatan spells. After having finished praying, Ki Surono began the show with leather puppet performance on the story of Murwakala beginning from Bathara Kala who was told to seeking for his father Bathara Guru and asked him for name of victims which shall be the exact foods. Then. Bathara Guru mentioned some foods that can be consumed by Bathara Kala,

among the recommended foods are bocah ontang-anting, kembang sepasang, bantheng ngirit Jawi etc. At the scene of Bathara Kala,it will be purified by a puppeteer KandhaBuana (true puppeteer), Ki Surono mention that he is entitled to purify ‘angruwat’ because he is a descendant from Javanese ancestors who had occupied a professional career as a ruwat puppeteer. “mulane aku wenang angruwat amarga aku turas ki Panjang mas, banjur maringi palilah ki Kadamsari, ki Kadamsari maringi palilah marang ki Karsono, ki Karsono maringi palilah marang ki Kande, ki Kande maringi palilah marang ki Kasino, ki Kasino maringi palilah marang ki Surono ya aku sang dalang Sejati”.

Translation “Because I'm entitled to purify ‘angruwat’ because I am a descendant of Ki Panjang Mas, who gave his blessing to the Ki Kadamsari, kiKadamsari then gave his blessing to the Ki Karsono, Ki Karsono then gave his blessing to the Ki Kande, Ki Kande then gave his blessing to the Ki Kasino, Ki Kasino ago gave his blessing to the Ki Surono yes here I am the true puppeteer “. These expressions as mentioned above have also been performed by Ki Sahir from Giriwoyo, Wonogiri, Central Java and by Ki Hardo Sutino from Eromoko, Wonogiri and thus being performed by some other ruwat puppeteers on their each performance.The utterances have indirectly turned the puppeteer into consecrating themselves having the right to angruwat ‘to take part in the process of purification’. To track down who was puppeteer Panjangmas which constantly used as the top source figure of the ruwat puppeteers will be elaborated in the following paragraph. Puppeteer Panjangmas or Ki Lebda Jiwa is a member of the Javanese




royal palace so called Kraton at the time of Sultan Agung Mataram Anyakra kusuma. Panjangmas or Ki Lebda is the beloved puppeteer to the King. The only reason he became the beloved and pride of the king is due to his excellent service of being able to entertain and able to make happy the king then he was given a full right to organize the play as recorded in the following mandatory: ”ing samangke kyai Lebdadjiwa kaparingan nama kyai Mulya inggih kyai Mulya Lebdadjiwa, lestantuna dados kekasih-Dalem, sarta kinen amadhanana para abdi dalem dalang karaton, lan para kawula Dalem dalang ing padhusunan sadaya, ingkang sami kabawah ing karatonDalem, sarta wiwit ing samangke saking keparenging karsa-Dalem, sakathahing dadalng ing padhusunan, menapa dene tiyang ambarang topeng, taledhek, ringgit beber, sasamining bangsaning bebarangan, sami kakengingaken prabeya nama pajeg Pajuwehan, ing saben satengah tahun kedah asok upekti dhateng kyai Mulya Lebdadjiwa, kathahipun satanggapan, inggih punika, sapintenipun angsalangsalipun pituwasing ambarang sdinten sadalu, kyai Mulya Lebdadjiwa ingkang winenangaken amupu pajeg Padjuwehan wau, dadosa kamukten lan kawibawanipun. Kejawi gegadhuhan siti lenggahipuntanah Pajang, selawe jung utawi satus karya, dhusunipun Karajan ing Gledheg, ingkang sampun kaparingaken wiwit kakarsakaen dados abdiDalem dhalang Daleman ing karaton, kala jamanipun Kanjeng Panembahan Adi Anjakrawati rumuhun, kalulusake dadosa gegadhuhanipun. Kajawi punika, wiyosing dhawuh pangandikaDalem, para abdi-Dalem dhalang sadaya mboten kalilan

Angruwat Amurwakala, kajawi Kyai Mulya Lebdadjiwa, punika dipun absahaken angruwat. Sanadyan para dhalang ing padhusunan, manawi angruwat kedah nedha idhi dhateng Kyai Mulya Lebdadjiwa, utawi dhateng saturun-turunipun ing tembe wingking, ingkang sami anggentosi kalenggahanipun. .…(R Tanaja, 1971: 44-45)

Translation “Now Kyai Lebdajiwa was given a name Kyai Mulya or Kyai Mulya Lebdajiwa, be eternal to be the beloved person of the king, as well as be given the right equal position to the other Abdi Punggawa, and by the king from now on, all the puppeteers across villages or the person who sings with a mask, tayub, wayang beber, essentially intangible singers, all taxable money is called Pajak Padjuwehan, the individuals of each once every year must pay the taxes.” To Kyai Lebdajiwa, the amount of money for once singing perfomance, for whatsoever the earnings in each day and night, and Kyai Lebdajiwa is authorized to take the taxes, for the reasons of prosperity and nobility. And also belongs to the ground in Pajang twenty jung or hundred works in the village Krajan, Gledheg region, which was given up when Kyai Lebdajiwa was given an authority to serve the king since the rulling period of Kanjeng Panembahan Adi Anjakrawati in the past, his belonging too. In addition to that, all the servants of the King of among the Puppeteers are not given any access to conduct ngruwat Murwakala (purification) except Kyai Mulya Lebdajiwa and is ratified angruwat. Although the puppeteers who intend to perform ruwatan are incumbent to ask permission from Kyai Mulya Lebdajiwa or the descendents who in the future will take his position. The belief embraced by the supporting community of ruwatan toward the ability of the true puppeteers has been a strong and established belief in the hearts




of the community. Thus, in case any member of community wishes to hold a puppet leather show, he/she would invite a ruwat puppeteer as so called the true puppeteer. Phenomena that exist in the community of puppeteers, despite of having services in demand or good sell of the shows, but each of them still do not dare to accept any request to play as a ruwat puppeteer because they are aware for their genetic position as beyond the lineage of the true puppeteers. This situation indirectly marginalizes other puppeteers who are not genetically belonged to the ’ruwatan puppeteers’ lineage as so called pangsa pasar. In this sense, there seem to be the only true puppeteers and the family deserve the right to hold any ruwatan ceremony with the puppet show. In accordance with the phenomenon, Camus (2013: 44) argues that scholars should take their side in supporting those who are under the marginalization by doing research and discovery based on the existing problems. In case there is no one who would fight against this marginalization, then the extinction of ruwat puppeteer becomes inevitable for the next generation. To achieve the ideals of the hegemonic existence of the ruwat puppeteers usually use the primordially emotional movement, which is through the framework of a magical-religious or mythical thinking (Purwasito, 2002: 129). Andrik emphasizes that the resistance of the symbolic thinking realm clearly define the foreign powers as a threat to the local stability. However, in this case, "foreign powers" should be understood as other forces beyond humans.

CONCLUSION There are many characteristics of people who should be taken into purification angruwat and finding those who hold the traditions are quite easy, even the ruwatan tradition itself has ever been a life style in the Javanese community. It can be summed up that the ruwatan tradition is a form of mass culture that had been wrapped by cultural myths. Ruwatan tradition as many found today was a new product of Sultan Agung of the Mataram dynasty, (Pigeaud in de Graaf, 1986: 24). The monopoly business impacted from the ritual services, particularly ruwatan ceremony has been started since 17th century which along with the exercised hegemonic power of the Mataram Kingdom in Kerta. Thus the success of such a designed monopoly practices is a working network between power and knowledge (Foucault and Grace, 1993: 57). In 1998, when the Indonesian people afflicted by financial crisis that have a great impact on the decline of the ruwatan show performances, the embracement of new ideology and belief has either been an inevitable factor. The above phenomena are among the extrinsic factors afflicted by different types of art performance, especially in the case holding the ruwatan performance. Departing from the decline of the ruwat puppeteers because of the restricted requirements for the requisite of being the ruwat puppeteers and the remaining problems of the ruwat puppeteers who are not blessed with children or offspring. This is apparently the most inspiring aspects of the study triggered the researcher to seek for the discursive solutions to such phenomenon.

REFERENCES Barthes, Roland. (1972). Mithologies (Hill and Wang, Trans). Canada: Haper Collins Ltd. (original work published 1957)




Bourdieu, Piere. (2010). Arena Produksi Kultural: Sebuah Kajian Sosiologi Budaya [The Field of Cultural Production] (Santosa, Yudi, Trans). Yogyakarta: Kreasi Wacana. (original work published 1993). Camus, Albert. (2013). Krisis Kebebasan (Martono, E., Trans). Jakarta: Pustaka Obor Indonesia. Citrakusuma R. M.(1926). ” Serat Amurwakala” (Text Transcription). Kediri: Tan Kun Swi de Graff, H.J. (1986). Puncak Kekuasaan Mataram; Politik Ekspansi Sultan Agung (team Pustaka Grafiti Pers, Trans). Jakarta: PT. Pustaka Grafiti Pers. Durkheim, Emilie. (2011). The Elementary Forms of The Religious Life (Muzir, R. S., Trans). Jogjakarta: IRCiSoD. Endraswara, Suwardi. (2003). Mistik Kejawen [Mystical Kejawen]. Yogyakarta: Narasi. Gramsci, Antonio. (2013). Catatan-catatan dari penjara [Prison Note Books] (Utomo W.T., Trans) Yogyakarta : Pustaka Belajar. Ini dia persyaratan dalang ruwat menurut ki manteb (http://www.soloblitz.co.id) Kamajaya. (1986). Serat Centhini. (Text Transcription). Yogyakarta: Yayasan Centhini. Mangkunagara VII. K.G.P.A.A, (1978). Serat Padhalangan Ringgit Purwa Vol.II (Mulyono S. R., Trans) Jakarta : Proyek Penerbitan Buku Bacaan dan Sastra Indonesia dan Daerah. McHoul, A., and Grace, W. (1993). A Foucault Primer: Discourse, Power and the subject. London and New York: Roudledge. Patmosoekotjo, S.(1979). Silsilah Wayang Purwa Mawa Carita.. [the Genealogy of Puppet Purwa Mawa Carita. Surabaya: Citra Jaya. Peursen, van. C. A. (1988). Strategi Kebudayaan [Cultur in Stroomversnelling – Strategie Van De Cultuur; Cultural Strategies] (Hartoko, Dick, Trans). Yogyakarta: Kanisius. Poerwodarminto, W.J.S.(1940). Baoesastra Tjilik. J.B. Wolters’ Uitgevers-Maatschappij N.V. Batavia: Groningen. Purwasito, Andrik. (2002). Imageri India: Studi Tanda dalam Wacana. [Indian Imagery: Analysis of Semiotics in Discourse]. Surakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Cakra. ________. (2003). Komunikasi Multikultural. [Multicultural Communication]. Surakarta: Muhammadiyah University Press. Ranggawarsita. (1993). Serat Pustakaraja Purwa Vol.I -kaesahaken kasusatranipun awawaton Serat Paramasastra kalatinaken Kamajaya. Yogyakarta : Aquarius Offset. Rusdy, Sri Teddy. (2012). Ruwatan Sukerta dan Ki Timbul Hadiprayitno. Yayasan Kertagama.

Jakarta:

Rusmana, Dadan. (2014). Filsafat Semiotika; Paradigma, teori, dan metode interpretasi tanda dari semiotika struktural hingga dekontruksi praktis. [Semiotic Philosophy: Paradigm, theory, and the methods of interpretation from structural semiotics to practical deconstruction]. Bandung: Pustaka Setia. Sedyawati, Edi. (2012). Budaya Indonesia: Kajian Arkeologi, Seni, dan Sejarah. [Indonesian Culture: Archeological, Artistical and Historical Studies]. Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 70



Soetarno. (2004). Wayang Kulit: Perubahan Makna Ritual dan Hiburan. [Puppet Leather: the Change between the Ritual and enternaiment Meanings]. Surakarta: STSI Press. Subalidinata, Suprayitno, and Wirawan. (1985). Sejarah dan Perkembangan Cerita Murwakala dari Sumber-sumber Sastra Jawa. [History and the Development of Murwakala Stories from the Javanese Literary sources].Yogyakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Direktorat Jendral Kebudayaan. Proyek Penelitian dan Pengkajian Kebudayaan Nusantara (Javanologi). Tanaya R. (1971). ”Riwayat Pangeran Pandjangmas Leluhuripun Para Dalang Karaton Mataram-Kartasura-Surakarta”. Wibisono, Singgih. (1974). Wayang Sebagai Sarana Komunikasi [Puppet leathers as a means of Communication]. Galam Prisma No.3/Th.III/Juni 1974







The History of Indonesian Towards International Language Andayani, Prof. Dr. M.Pd. Sebelas Maret Surakarta University, email: [email protected] Abstract: A nation will be great in the international community if the language is used as a communication tool in the international sphere. In the history of Indonesian, there are efforts to make Indonesian become the international language through diplomatic efforts to build the image of Indonesia in the international world. Until now, Indonesian has successfully pursued into courses at 200 universities in the ASEAN region and now Indonesian has successfully taught in a number of countries in Asia, Europe, America, and Australia. Key word: history, Indonesian, international, language

INTRODUCTION

L

anguage is something very important and it takes everyone in communication. A nation will be known when the national language into one of the languages used by other nations in the world. Although effective rebranding is to change the reality, but the role of Indonesian diplomacy could be very crucial. Related to this phenomenon, the high interest of foreigners learn the language and culture of Indonesia should be greeted positively. It will be able to realize the acceleration of Indonesian role as a communication tool in the international sphere. Indonesian role as a communication tool in the international sphere is not something impossible. Enhanced functions Indonesian become an international language has been cultivated with state approval. We can see that in the legal basis in Indonesia, the Indonesian government tried to improve the functioning of the international language Indonesian gradual, systematic, and sustainable.

Nevertheless, prior to the legislation mentioned above have ever been mentioned in any of the presentations at the plenary session of the IX Congress of Indonesian, and has been discussed that the Indonesian language as a medium of diplomacy to build the image of Indonesia in the International region. Since Indonesian IX congress has stated that at present there are 45 countries that teach Indonesian, among which are Australia, Japan, China, Vietnam, Thailand, Poland, Egypt, Vietnam, Morocco, Italy and many other countries. For example, in Australia Indonesian become the fourth popular language. There are 500 schools teach Indonesian. In fact, children 6th grade elementary school have been many who can communicate using Indonesian.

THEORETICAL REVIEW In 2009, results of empirical studies find that the Indonesian who studied the foreigners with a view to the interests of diplomacy and increase knowledge about foreigners, as well as increase understanding of cultural treasures. In this regard Indonesian




modules need to be held, so that foreigners would learn Indonesian well cared for (Andayani, 2009). Meanwhile, special classes held for two weeks or in accordance with the needs of the learner. Indonesian teaching activities for foreign speakers based on the consideration that in the global era, Indonesian position in the international arena is increasingly important and potential. Potential Indonesian was supported by the geographical position of Indonesia is located in a very strategic sea traffic, natural resources potential, and the unique cultural diversity of Indonesia. Thus, the Indonesian is expected to be a bridge for other nations to increase their understanding of the people and culture of Indonesia. That fact has led many foreigners are interested and are interested to learn the Indonesian language as a means to achieve various objectives, such as politics, economy, trade, education, art, culture, and travel. Indonesian teacher for foreign speakers at the Agency for Development and Coaching Languages are lecturers who have experience teaching Indonesian as a foreign language. They are native speakers of Indonesian educational backgrounds have understood the language and about language. They also understand the various difficulties experienced by learners from various countries of different social and cultural backgrounds. These efforts will ultimately support the Indonesian increasingly become much in demand, so it is proven that the "conduct" the language of a nation, the stronger the effect. Presumably this is to prove that the language showed the nation. If the Indonesian nation and state of Indonesia into a country worthy and important role in the life of the world, both in the field of economics, politics, culture, science, and technology, then by itself the language of the nation that should it be worth becoming a world language are studied and even used in the association world.

That fact has led many foreigners are interested and are interested to learn the Indonesian language as a means to achieve various objectives, such as politics, economy, trade, education, art, culture, and travel. Indonesian teacher for foreign speakers at the Agency for Development and Coaching Languages are lecturers who have experience teaching Indonesian as a foreign language. They are native speakers of Indonesian educational background in language and understood the ins and outs of the language. They also understand the various difficulties experienced by learners from various countries of different social and cultural backgrounds.

METHOD This research was done in February-Oktober, 2105. The research method used of research libraries. Library use is a library relating to the history, language, and language learning. This research aims to discover and explain the history of language and language learning are useful for the development of Indonesian Language in the future. Data obtained from the literature search. As for the validity of the data maintained by triangulation theory. Data analysis was performed with data presentation, discussion of the data, and conclusions. This analysis included in the analysis flow.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION The result of this research were the Asean Inter-Parliamentary Assembly (AIPA) held 32nd Phnom Penh, Cambodia on 18 to 24 September 2011, the Indonesian delegation to fight for the important mission which makes the Indonesian language as Asean, especially in meetings AIPA. Indonesia is optimistic to fight for Indonesian became the official language of Asean, and this effort turned out to be acceptable. This phenomenon marks a possibility of acceleration of Indonesian role in the international sphere more real.




It was also supported by a number of facts that exist today that the development of the Indonesian widely taught internationally. For example, Beijing Foreign Studies University, has 44 language study programs, one of which is a program of learning Indonesian. Still in China, the Shanghai International Studies University (SHISHU) opened Indonesian Studies Program since 1985 because of the need for Indonesian speakers felt very much at Shanghai recall Indonesian business relationship with Shanghai growing rapidly. The same was found in Guangxi University for Nationalities (GXUN), and Guangxi Normal University (GXNU) (Han, 2012: 14). Furthermore, the Indonesian language is also taught in Korea as elective courses or as a Special Language Program. There are many factors that cause the Korean students interested in learning Indonesian. The first factor is the economy. Generally they are found by learning and mastering a particular language, the better their future as happened in South Korea. Interest students who are interested in learning Indonesian is gradually increasing. There is no exact information how many Korean students studying Indonesian now but we can see an interesting phenomenon in Indonesia today. On one occasion a presentation at a university in Jakarta, an official at the Korean Embassy in Indonesia explained that the current number of Koreans who live either for work or study increased drastically. The amount is approximately 50,000 thousand. This amount represents the largest number of foreign nationals living in Indonesia today (Prabowo, 2012: 22). Furthermore, Indonesian became subjects have also been implemented in Thailand. This occurs because of the interest of the citizens of Thailand to learn Indonesian increasing. Embassy in Bangkok in Thailand had been opened Indonesian Study Center up to 6 locations in 2012. As previously, Indonesian Study Center in Thailand since 2011 has reached 3 (three) places, namely (1) Mae Fah

Luang University, Chiang Rai, (2) at Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, and (3) University Burapha, in Bangsaen , The opening of the Indonesian Study Center at the University of Chiang Mai in 2012 (Andayani, 2012). The purpose of establishment Indonesian Study Center in Thailand is promoting basic education till the high in Indonesia, promote the arts, culture, and tourism in Indonesia, promote Indonesian to be learned by the people of Thailand, increasing the number of Thai students studying in Indonesia, increasing cooperation in education and culture and research between Indonesia and Thailand, as well as prepare for the ASEAN Community 2015. Follow-up of Indonesiaan Study Center Program that has been accomplished today is sending a number of Indonesian lecturers from Indonesian native speakers and workshop / seminar together on Education and Culture of Indonesia and Thailand. The impact of this program is that more students, students, officials and residents of Thailand interested in learning Indonesian. The other parts of the world, in the city of Poznan Poland, there are colleges that open The Indonesian Literature Department. It is enthused of students in Poland. It can be seen from the number of students who are interested in learning Indonesian. Even when the Embassy opened registration scholarships for student exchange programs to Indonesia there are 40 students at this time would be prospective students at several universities in Indonesia. In contrast, the number of Indonesian students studying in Poland was still minimal. In the year 2012/2013 as a whole there are four universities in Poland who opened and Indonesian Literature department. In addition through the opening of the course, the Indonesian Embassy in Warsaw opened the general class of beginners and advanced. Indonesian courses enthusiasts in general classes are held at the Embassy in Warsaw




on advanced class is for the public, not only for students but also employees. Their goal Indonesian learn many things, among them Indonesia interested in natural beauty, cultural diversity and some even want to visit Indonesia. Before coming to Indonesia would like to speak Indonesian fluently (Wahyudi, 2012). In Russia, there are five Indonesian Studies Center and there are three universities, namely the University of St Petersburg, Vladivostok University, and the University of Moscow. So far, the interest of Russian students learning Indonesian is relatively good, an average of 10 students every year studying Indonesian through the study centers (Ariyanto, 2012: 4). In the United States, Indonesian Language as a subject has been implemented in 12 universities. The twelve universities include: Arizona State University; Cornell University; Northern Illinois University; Ohio University; University of California at Berkeley; University of California at Los Angeles; University of Hawaii; University of Michigan; University of Washington; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Yale University; and the University of Colorado at Boulder (Wolf, and Gibson, 2006) Many universities in various countries in the international sphere that has taught Indonesian, even opening the Indonesian Studies Program, it indicates that the acceleration Indonesian important role as a communication tool in the international sphere is very possible. Even today we can be proud of themselves because the ministry of education and culture of Indonesia have Dharmasiswa scholarship program for foreign students who are interested in learning Indonesian in Indonesia. This program will be more effective and leverage if they want to involve teachers Indonesian scattered around the world in addition to cooperating with the Indonesian embassy in the country. These educators can be used as a resource to introduce Indonesia. They are the ones always meet and interact

with strangers. They can influence their students interested in coming and learning Indonesian. Other support which enables acceleration of Indonesian role in the international sphere has been supported since 2000. Support is done by the Language Center (now the Agency for the Development and Language Development), Ministry of National Education, Republic of Indonesia, has been conducting the Indonesian language teaching for foreign speakers. The activity was organized in regular classes and special classes. Regular classes held regularly every year. These efforts will ultimately support the Indonesian increasingly become much in demand, so it is evident that increasingly use the language of a nation, the stronger the effect. Presumably this is to prove that the language showed the nation. If the Indonesian nation and state of Indonesia into a country worthy and important role in the life of the world, both in the field of economics, politics, culture, science, and technology, then by itself the language of the nation that should it be worth becoming a world language are studied and even used in the association world. Potential is all actually exists and is owned by Indonesia. Countries Indonesia has had a great potential to become a great country and a respected world. However, the potential does not automatically happen. Everything begins with a thought. Countries that think small affairs impossible become a big country. Language busy with the affairs of the minor, also impossible to be a great language. Indonesian seen from the wearer very likely to be the world language. However, if the various conditions set forth above are not dealt with seriously, then let alone become a world language, the language of the Indonesian people even more and will be more abandoned. Based on the reality of the historical development of Indonesian increasingly the potential to become an




international language, the Indonesian people had to be proud of, because Indonesian proven accepted by the international community. Now you can do is continue to seek to use Indonesian in

various occasions. If not now when more people participate Indonesia Indonesian introduce both within our own country and abroad.

REFERENCES Andayani. 2009.“innovative models of language teaching”. Linguistic,languange, and literature. Xxv (1).pp.280-291 Andayani. 2012. “minat warga thailand belajar bahasa indonesia semakin meningkat”. Detik news. (dalam http://news.detik.com/read). Ariyanto, gesit. 2012. “program studi bahasa indonesia di rusia”. Kompas. (dalam http://edukasi.kompas.com/read) Han, Jiehun. 2012. “Jejak Langkah Bahasa Indonesia di China”. Berita Edukasi. VII/2. p.14. Prabowo,Hendro. 2011. “Wajah Bahasa Indonesia di Negeri Kimchi”. Selasar. XXXV(2).p.22. Wahyudi, imam. 2012. “jurusan sastra bahasa indonesia di polandia”.tribunnews(dalam http://tribunnews.com). Wolf, Florian and Edward Gibson. 2006. Coherence in Natural Language : Data Structures and Applications. Cambridge: Mass. MIT Pres.







Moslem as a Hook for Beggars Apdelmi, S.Pd., M.Pd Jambi University, email: [email protected]

Abstract: Lately witnessed how numerous and widespread beggars, such as abandoned children, pretending to be in physical weakness, donation boxes, or the use of physical weakness. In Padang, the total of beggars increased from year to year. Most of beggars are Moslem. Then, they more increased on Friday and Ramadhan.There are several factors that encourage them to beg (1) poverty, (2) the elderly or advanced age and no longer productive, (3) disability, and (4) culture. Interaction beggars by giving alms using verbal symbols, such as the word "Assalammualaikum" and ask for alms "pak / buk / uda / uni" and the symbol gesture like cupped hands, and show the face pleading. This study reveal the meaning of Friday, Ramadhan and Moslem’s symbols to beggars. It is assumed that the beggar has a special meaning to Friday, Ramadhan and and Moslem’s symbols. This research used theory Symbolic Interacsionism by Blumer,that all the basic principles of this theory able to see and know the meaning of symbols and sacred moment of Moslem to beggars. This research used qualitative method, data was collected by interview and observation to obtain accurate data. Base on the data and concept of this research, result shows that beggar is one of communities which use religion to get money from Moslem people. They use two of Moslem’s symbols, such as visual symbol and auditory symbol. Both of symbols are identity of Moslem, confidence, and means to earn money. Furthermore, the holly moments of Moslem, like Friday and Ramadhan become the “harvest time” for them to get money from Moslem, who want to do charity through alms and zakat. Base on the explanation above, can be conclude that beggars have their own meaning of the symbol, day, and holly month of Moslem. Actually, this symbol, day, and month are used as media and moment to share and do the charity by the Muslim. However, beggars use them as media and moment to gain the money. Key word : Religion, Moslem, Beggar

1. Introduction

B

egging is now used as a kind of a job by some people who are tempted to earn money withouthaving to invest or have special skills and expertise. Lately witnessed how numerous and widespread beggar, like a waif, donation boxes, or the use of

physical weakness. Beggars in the Padang city increase from year to year. In 1989 the number of beggars in Pasar Raya Padang amounted to 133 people. In 2005 increased to 405 people, in 2006 to 412 in 2007 and increased to 415 (Social Service of Padang, 2007). The government's policy to reduce the number of beggars has been done, one




of them by making PP 36 1980 which among others read: Prevention efforts homeless and beggars includes preventive, repressive, and rehabilitative aim to make them as people who live esteem and has the ability to be independent in the next life, but in fact the number of beggars has only increased. The increase occurred mainly on Fridays andRamadhan. This study will reveal the meaning of Friday, Ramadan and religious symbols of Islam to beggars. It is assumed that the beggar has a special meaning to Friday, Ramadan and religious symbols Islam. It can be seen that the number of beggars tend to rise on the day and the holy month. 2. Method This study used qualitative methods; depth interview and direct observation to obtain accurate data and using the theory of symbolic interactionism. In this theory there are some basic principles that are used to see the meaning in people's lives. First, the capacity to think, not like animals, humans provided the ability to think, the ability that allows humans to act with the mind rather than simply behave without thinking, thinking ability is stored in the mind, and in view of the symbolic interactionism of mind associated with the socialization of meanings, symbols themselves and also community. Second, think will interact. Thinking shaped and refined in the process of social interaction. Third learning the meaning and symbols. Blumer further stated that the meaning is not from mental processes alone, but from the interaction. Fourth, action and interaction. Blumer also focuses on the impact of the meaning and symbols of the actions and interactions of humans. Fifth, make a choice.

3. Discussion 3.1. Measures Overview

Beggars

General

A regular place visited by beggars are restaurant, mosques (in prayer schedule) and other crowded places, to relieve boredom and get more they use the strategy of moving the location from one place to another. Only in the afternoon they usually sit settle certain in places considered strategic. On Friday they begging in mosques since at 12.00-14.00 pm, waiting the poeple who will and have completed the Friday prayers, then they dispersed to the places they think are strategic to beg. Most beggars who were in the mosque are beggars with disabilities, and children, while the beggars who use the mosque donation boxes, donations for orphans there. This was due to the Masjid has provided boxes of the construction of mosques and orphans. That is why the majority have become beggars in mosques on Friday are beggars disabled, elderly, and children. They usually use public transportation and taxis to the location of begging, and for the blind beggars there are taxis that shuttle their subscriptions. Among them have already reached a dozen years as a beggar, but also there is a one year to pursue this work. Most beggars also use the bank for saving their money from begging. The pattern of behavior and the means used beggars to get attention or sympathy from the public are: (1) carry a bucket or katidiang (2) reached with the tone and sometimes pleaded, while reading the verses of the Qur'an, (3) wear shabby and some wearing T shirt (beg by utilizing the beggars are blind or have children (normal or disabled), (5) using the "cap" for the beggar men and headscarves for beggar woman, (6) for some beggar do prayer or mantra, (7) using the donation box (unbranded to mosques and orphans) or papers donations.




3.2. Reason to Become Beggars There are four factors poeple becomes a beggar; problem of economic, physical disability, aging / elderly and culture. Besides these four factors, also found three other factors are told by other people, do not have the skills, and lazy.

3. 3. How Begging 3.3.1. DisabilitiesBeggars Disable beggar generally tried to take advantage of its physical flaws to get sympathy social objects which become a target. Many ways that used by beggars: (1) disable beggar who has a defect in the legs (like the stump) and burn just stay in places without moving. Another with a blind beggar and partially handicapped beggar hand, they always came to diners in Pasar Raya Padang and Lanya crowded places. Blind beggar is always one of his men who accompanied him in begging activities, such as wives, children, family, relatives of friends. (2) disable beggar children. How they beg for just sitting, lying, and dwell in crowded places, while waiting for people to give alms. physical disabilities such as disorders of the hands, feet, or other parts and are generally accompanied by the female family.

3.3.2. Normal Beggars Normal beggars are: (1) normal adult beggars. There are several methods used by normal adult beggars in begging. Old beggar trying to take advantage from his physicaland weak in begging. Through that conditions they were trying to touch the feelings, moral and religious values of social objects which become target. The old beggar some who have a high mobility rate, but some others do not. There was also use of blind beggars to beg, and this beggar called the Pembimbiang. Pembimbiang serves to bring the blind beggar get around to specific locations, such as restaurants, ampera or hawker, and they can quickly move from one place to another by a considerable distance. The

relationship between the blind beggar with penbimbiang mostly working relationship and not kinship. The results are usually divided into two part to beggar and pambimbiang. At Pasar Raya Padang most pambimbiang are women, although can be found a few men. The beggars in the city of Padang also a normal beggars who exploit young children for begging, toddlers who exploited children, grandchildren or still have a relationship with her family. Toddlers utilize usually two kinds ; toddlers with disabilities, and normal toddler. For toddlers with disabilities, they just sit in certain places while waiting for someone who will give alms. As for the normal toddlers, they do not sit and wait in a place, but walking from one place to another. Beside that there is also a normal beggar bringing donation boxes and paper donations. The paper box and there were marked for the construction of mosques and others for orphans and beggars sometimes recited verses from the Koran in begging. The places visited usually are shops, college campuses, and restaurant, their mobility is very high. Furthermore (2) normal beggar children. This beggar is elementary school. They take advantage of the innocence they have to make money from social objects. Generally children beggars consist of two kinds: (1) children Katidiang, begging individually. Results of begging is mostly given to their parents with a view to support their families, and sometimes their parents are sent to beg, and monitored from far. Children have always bergurila katidiang from place to place hustle hustle laninya. The usual places they visit are shops, mosques, restaurants, and so on, (2) Child in trafic light. Begging in public transportation and private cars were stopped at a red light. They also were forced by their parents to beg, and the income earned is mostly given to their parents and the rest is used for shopping. 3.4. Beggar’s Life




They were very indifferent to the circumstances that exist, as well as being very closed to primarily interact with people outside their community. Most relationships that occur between people outside with them is a relationship that is material, here they look at people who are outside their group as a source of money.

Based on all the information obtained is only a fraction of the beggars who passively read the Qur'an, although the rest could however not be passive. Most beggars there who recited verses from the Koran when he sees "the object begging" in bofet or at food stalls. There was also reciting the verses of the Qur'an (generally blind beggar) alongside a road or crowded places.

3.4.1. Beggars and Islam 3.4.1.1. Knowledge and Action Beggars General The beggars have been getting a pretty good religious education as a child from his family. Beggars who have little religious, when child have little educated to know the deeply religious and they only know a little about reading prayers and how to read the Qur'an. The beggars believe in prayer to enhance prosperity and some who wear "Talisman" for action on begging. They consider that the provision would be easy to come to know prayer to enhance prosperityand help of magic. It be a motivation to begging, because with the prayer and amulets that social object be pity to them and then give them money. In general, they are Muslims, but a lot of their behavior is sometimes not in accordance with the teachings of their religion, like prayer, talks like pitched sex when being together, and some are cheating althoughalready had a wife and husband.

3.4.1.2.Prayer Sholat is the pillar of religion, and one of the indicators that states the person is Muslim is a Sholat. For beggars, many of those who do not sholat continuous, even a beggar who likes to talk about and discuss the religion of Islam, but at the moment they do not do sholat in friday.

3.4.1.3.Reciting Al-Qur'an

3.4.2. Meaning Mosque for Beggar Mosque for moslems is a place of worship, such as prayer and recitation or religious lectures. However this place begging as the land to make money. This can be seen in the big mosques in the city of Padang many beggars who sit in front of the mosque door to beg from people who have been and will be to offer prayers, especially on Fridays during Friday prayers. They were sitting in front of the mosque's door, begging by exploit religious and humanity of people who after ibadah. They try to put a "weak" face to get sympathy of people to give alms on him. 3.4.3.The symbols of Islam are In Use In begging 3.4.3.1. Hijab and Kopiah The hijab is an object made of fabric and used to cover the head for women, especially Muslim women. It is ideally hijab to work for an explanation of Islamic identity and close the genitals for women, but at now it has a function that mentioned above, as well as trends or to decorate. While the kopiah is a cap for male Muslims. Kopiah is oval shaped and black. This usually used for sholat, but at the now also used to join an event or social activities. As a government official inauguration ceremony, marriage ceremonies and events of death, so called a national cap. The change of the function and purpose of hijab and kopiah does not only occur in the level of formality or




ceremonial, but also extends in the job. That mean of hijab and kopiah is used as a tool to make money, and most of that use them are beggars. As "Fitri" when asked why he did not wear hijab when not begging, when begging it used again, she said it just way to get the money, if did not beg she not to wear her hijab. Besides used to get money from "social objects", wearing hijab is also influenced public demands of their job, where they are required polite, and should reflect the values of religious, because it’s the place to do good for people, especially Muslims. Community indirect want them to wear a hijab or kopiah (using symbols of Islam) while begging. The result is change the value of hijab and kopiah, from the originally used for worship turned into a tool achieving money. 3.4.3.2.Baju Koko Baju Koko is a culture of Minangkabau society, it has been a tradition Muslim clothing for men. Usually koko used by mubalik to give lectures for jamaah, but at now beggars also uses koko as a symbol of identity. A symbol of identity is means used to express the identity of the social object of who the individual itself. Beggars in using koko choose that has crumpled and shabby because they wanted to show their identity as Muslims. The use koko for begging only as a symbol of Islam by themselves. This selfimage influenced by space, time, and under certain conditions. This was revealed by a statement some beggars that they should be able to behave and dressed in accordance with the circumstances in which they are located. For example, when the begging they should use Islamic symbols and beg when rest they can release it. It can be concluded that the beggar use of Islamic symbols when begging is a common thing because they use it just on time and under certain conditions.

3.4.3.3.The boxes of Infak Boxes of donation usually have the words "for the mosque" "donations orphans" are common in mosques as well and run by people who will do ibadah (prayers, lectures, or study). But at this moment beggars used this box to beg on social objects and sometimes accompanied by a donation of paper. The boxes and paper donations used as a means or a strategy to get the money. Usedonation boxes and paper donations is their thinkcan cause sintimen religious and moral sense to the Muslims, and it will made them to give money. 3.4.3.4.Greetings Assalamu'alaikum Assalammu'alaikum is one word of the symbols in Islam, it mean "good for you". These words usually say by Muslims when a visit home of a Muslim and when meet with other Muslims, it purpose to show respect and familiarity Muslims. But for beggars it used to beg on social objects.One of beggar say, when we say Assalammu'alaikumpeople will be happy, then it cause them easy to give money. From the above statement can be concluded use of the word Assalammu'alaikum things to do in begging. It purpose make person who is the object of begging feel happy. If people are happy will give money to beggars. Assalammu'alaikum has a double meaning for the beggars, it mean courtesy, manners, and has economic significance. The purpose of the meaning of this modesty is to create sympathy and glad to social objects attended beggars. Economic significance implied therein rewards they will receive from the social object of which was to come, namely money, as they say the word. The need to use the word Assalamu'alaikum makes beggars always use it when begging.

3.5. Beggars on the Moon and Holy Day of Muslims




3.5.1. Month of Ramadhan Fasting during Ramadhan is one of the pillars of Islam required in the second year Hijri, ie the second year after the Prophet Muhammad's Hijrah to Madinah. In this month all Muslims have the dutry to fast. In the month of Ramadan Muslims solidarity levels are usually increase, especially the desire to provide assistance to people who think they need to help. Because Allah may reward more for poeple that do good things in this month. The high level of solidarity of Muslims in Ramadhan makes a lot of beggar use this moment to their interests. As a result, this month increased the number of beggars. Their attempt to seize moment the Muslim holy month to gains money was successful. This evident from the results that they can during the month of Ramadhan, such statement one of beggar: " in Ramadhan, my income increase may be many who do not believe, before the Eid day till one night I can get Rp. 2,500,000 ".Furthermore, other beggars also say that similar "Three days before Eid, my wife managed to collect money as much as Rp. 4,000,000. whereas my own is just begging late afternoon during Ramadan can get Rp. 150,000 per day ". From the above it can be conclude that their income had increased significantly during Ramadhan, especially a few days before Eid. For beggar Ramadhan is "harvest time", because in this month their income improved compared to previous months. Money earned during the month of Ramadan is used outside of the primary needs, such as buying television, home furnishings, and for recreation with family, none of them are using the money as capital to open a business, such as trade or other employment.

3.5.2. Friday Friday is a holy day for Muslims. On this day men of Muslims go to the

mosque to Friday prayers. At this time they gathered to worship and listen to the sermon from scholars. In sermon the scholar teach about Islam, which is generally implied mean that every Muslim should try to do good things, especially fellow Muslims, because Muslims are brothers, one embodiment of these is charity. This makes beggars income increased on Friday.Every Friday charity boxes carried by the beggars always filled with money. As one of a beggar say: “Kalo hari Jum’at biasonyo iyo agak balabiah ma, dari pado hari-hari biaso”. (If Friday is a bit excessive, than on any other day). The place is crowded by beggars to earn money on Friday was in the mosque, especially located near the market. This is because the market is the occurrence of all economic activity, both the service sector and non services. When these people a break from their activities and go to the mosque for Friday prayers, some of the money is used for its activities was brought to the mosque, usually money will be partly for charity and infak. On Friday beggars usually out of from their house earlier compared with the usual day, although a strategic time to beg for only about an hour and 12:00 to 13:00 pm. This is due to the conception of the idea that the beggar on Friday Muslims more charity than the usual days, because today is a holy day for Muslims. The emergence of this conception is due to experience during the beggars begging and socialization provided other beggars.

4. Conclussion The concept of "religion as a hook" can be used generally to refer to individuals or communities who utilize their symbolic and sacred moments of a religion to achieve certain goals, such as politicians, scholars look for money in the mosque, and the merchants and others.




Explanation of this concept, and based on the fact that no field can be concluded that the beggar is one of the communities that exploit religious sentiments to get money from the Muslims. Islamic religious symbols use when begging is divided into two, visual symbol and auditory symbols. The second meaning of these symbols is as selfidentity, foster self-confidence, and a means to earn money. Additionally moments such as the Muslim holy month of Ramadan on Friday and has significance

for the beggars are as harvest time or in other words as the right moment to get money from Muslims who want to do charity through alms and zakat. From the above it can be concludethat the beggar has special meaning to the symbols, and the day of Islam's holy month. Ideally symbol, day, and month it used as a medium or a moment to charity in achieving salvation of the world and the hereafter, especially for Muslims. But beggars used as a tool and the right moment to get the money.

REFERENCES BPS Kota Padang.Padang DalamAngka 2006. BPS.Penduduk Sumatera Barat, HasilSurveiPendudukAntarSensus. 2006. Seri: SI.02. Database DinasKesejahteraanSosialdanPenanggulanganBanjir Serta BencanaAlam Kota Padang, DepartemenSosial Kota Padang. Hendropuspito.O.C. Sosiologi Agama. Jakarta. Kanisius: 2000. RasjidSulaiman. Fiqih Islam. Bandung. SinarBaruAlgensindo: 1994. Ritzer, George. TeoriSosiologi Modern. Jakarta. PrenadaMedia :2005. Rinda, Dodi. KehidupanPengemis. Andalas Press: 1988. Saifuddun, F Ahmad.AntropologiKotemporer. Jakarta. Kencana: 2006. Siddiqi, Muhammad, Nejadtullah. KegiatanEkonomiDalam Islam. Jakarta. BumiAksara: 1979. Suparlan, Parsudi (Penyunting). Kemiskinan di Perkotaan. Jakarta. YayasanObor Indonesia: 1995. Singgalang, berita, Pengemis, MelodiSumbang Kota Padang.Sabtu, 17 November 2007. Singgalang, berita, PengemisMempunyai Tabungan PuluhanJuta.Rabu, 16 Januari 2008. Paloma, M, Margaret. SosiologiKotemporer. Jakarta. PT. Raja GrafindoPersada: 2004.







The Dwindled Existence of Pituahin Pasemah Ethnic Bengkulu: anAnalysis from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics Een Syaputra1, Muhammad Rozi2 1

Kel.Pucang Sawit, rt 01/rw 02, Jebres, Surakarta; Sebelas Maret University, [email protected], 2

Jl. Surya 3, No.10, rt 01/rw35, Jebres Tengah, Jebres, Surakarta; Sebelas Maret University, [email protected]

Abstract: Pituah is a kind of classical idiomatic (metaphoric) expression usually used as a media to deliver advices or guidance in the issues of action rules in daily life. As a media of expression, pituahis closely related to the people of Melayu in Indonesia, one of which is Pasemah ethnic in Bengkulu.pituah, especially in Pasemah ethnic, is an existence full of moral values that is important to keep social harmony.However, nowadays, pituah is gradually dwindled, even disappeared.Regarding the issue, this article will try to elucidate the cause/s of the dwindling function of pituah from the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistic.The dwindling existence of pituah happens due to the change of register of it, related to the context of situations; Field (representation of experiences and logic), Tenor (representation of relationship status between users), and Mode (representation of the way how pituah is delivered); where the language is used. Pituah which take a form as a classic idiomhas not been accepted anymore by the modern society which considers it as ineffective form of expression since it needs a deep analysis to understand the information contained in. Keywords: Pituah, Pasemah Ethnic, SystemicFunctional Linguistics,

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Pituah: The past and The Present

I

n communicating, people in the past, especially in Indonesia, often used figurative expressions,one of which named Pituah. It is a kind of classical idiomatic (metaphoric) expression usually used as a media to deliver advices or guidance in the issues of action rules in daily life. As a media of expression, pituah is closely related to the people of Melayu in Indonesia, one of which is Pasemah ethnic in Bengkulu.

It has different names in every regions or community using it. In particular, people of Pasemah, name of an ethnic community in Bengkulu, call it Petuah which means guidance, tenet, or advice. Guidance referred In Pituah constructed to be a media in creating social harmony by regulating the behavior patterns of society through counsels. In the past, especially for People of Pasemah, Pituah is a precept of social values. In daily life, it was positioned as criterion of acts as well as unwritten law. They, Pasemah people, appraised something bad or good based on the Pituah. With such using, Pituah can also be said as the




medium of moral building, at least among elements. It is the product of Pasemah People. environment in which pituah is used Apart from the function as a medium of moral building. Pituah was also the identity of Pasemah people themselves. Through it people of Pasemah established their identity as agreed upon by all members of the community. Hence, it is not excessive to say that without Pituah Pasemah people are not what they are should be.

its

Hence, based on the description above, in this paper,we will try to do an analysis of the dwindled existence of pituah from the standpoint of linguistics, namely systemic functional linguistic approach since it has relation to the use of language in a social semiotic system. This analysis will compare between pituah and expressions commonly used by people of Pasemah today with, Pituah, as it was used hereditary, is a more or less, the same functions in their cultural artifact. Hence, it is natural for the register. future generations, especially among Pasemah people, to preserve the existence as well as the functions of Pituah 2. METHOD OF ANALYSIS considering the benefits before. In analyzing the problem, an approach However, the existence of pituah starts named Systemic Functional Linguistics will dwindling gradually from the side of people be used. It is an approach seeing a language of Pasemah. Among them, especially for as a process of meaning making, focus on Pasemah people in Padang Guci and texts and its context (Rahmah, et.al, 2011). Kedurang districts in Begkulu, it is no As what has been explained before that longer known. The most critical thing is that language use is a matter of choice made by it is dwindled unwittingly. Like other past its users in certain context to realize certain products, which are no longer matches purpose, it also happens to pituah. The today’s life, it starts to be forgotten since focus will be on the relation between pituah people prefer using forms considered more and its context of situation. effective and suitable for them. Context of situation referred focuses on the three dimensions proposed by Halliday namely field, tenor, and mode.It is closely 1.2. Pituah as a Text related to the three metafunctions of language so called; ideational (represent Text is a language in function. It means experiences and logics), interpersonal that in every form of texts there are (represent the relationship between users), functions contained in. function that is and textual (represent the way how a text contained then realized in a context. In this contributed). The configuration of elements social semiotic view, a text is ...” a construct in context of situation will form a text in use build simultaneously through functions and called register. It is not only about the system” (Santosa, 2011). Functionally, a variety of word choices but also the text text is used to express the experiences, structure and texture (cohesive devices, logics, values, and social process in a coherence, andlexico-grammar) (Halliday, context (Halliday, 1994). The environment 1989, 1996; McCharty& Carter, where a text is used form the text as what it 2001)Based on what is elucidated above, it is. In this view, a text is all about linguistic can be said that register is in the same value choice that can be represented...”as multiple with language style (Fowler, 1977, 1986; paths or passes through the networks that Santosa, 2011). constitute the linguistic system...” (Halliday In general, there are two types of and Hasan, 1989) language styles, written and spoken In the view, Pituah as a text is (Halliday, 1985; Pellegrini, Galda, & Rubin, something that is produced through 1984 in Santosa 2011). Language styles are functions, and choices of linguistic closely related to the readability and Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 88



understandability of language. Writing style spoken tends to less readable compared to the .

style

There are characteristics can be used in distinguishing written and spoken style of language. No

Spoken

Written

1

The lexical system is congruent (no abstraction)

The lexical system is incongruent (using abstraction and technicalities

2

Lexicogrammatical: two way communication (using vocative), minor clause, exclamation, imperatives

Lexicogrammatical: one way communication (no vocative), no exclamation and imperatives

3

Grammatical Intricasies: More Complex sentence; simplex group

Grammatical Intricacies: More simplex sentence; Complex group

4

Using repetition, ellipsis, and substitutions

Less repetition, ellipsis, and substitution

5

More use of external conjunction

More use of internal conjunction

6

Explicit logic and less metaphor

Using implicit logic and metaphor

Figure 2.1. Characteristics of written and spoken style language (Adapted from Santosa, 2011) However, in appraising whether an Georgakopoulus & Goutso, 2004 in expression belongs to spoken or writing Santosa, 2011) language styles is a style, it can’t be too rigid. According to continuum. It can be seen as in figure 1.0

S poken Tends to Spoken Spoken/W ritten Tends to Written WrWritten itten

Figure 2.1. The continuum of Language Styles

3. ANALYSIS and DISCUSSION

(Do not poison the upstream bathing place *on river).

The following are the examples of pituah usually used by the people of -“Jangan nutuh dahan peninggighan” Pasemah and also the expressions that are (Do not cut the tree perch) often used by Pasemah people today (taken - “Ndikuk ndikuk, ndik ughang ndik from social media postings). ughang, ndepat balikkah, rame beghagih” 3.1. The Examples of Pituah (What is ours is ours, what is other’s is -“Jangan nube ulu mandian” other’s, if you find some else property then Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 89



return it, if it is public property then use it Source: www.facebook.com together) N.B:This quote has received approval from the parties concerned 3.2. The examples of Today’s Expression of Pasemah people

3.3.The Analysis of Texture

-“Cuma minta tulung nuliske name saje 3.3.1. The Texture of pituah kaba dide ndak, tunggulah masih kah The first to be analyzed is the pituah. It ghapat bekendak nga aku asenye kele” can be seen that the first, the second and the (Just ask for help to write the name, you do third examples of pituah take the form of not want to, wait for it, you’ll need my help imperatives. It also use complex sentence someday) (referring to the lexical density and -Mereka tau aku siape, dan aku tau mereka configuration) so it is categorized in siape, kite same2 berjuang tapi posisis simplex group (referring to the readability) kite beda. Kita tidak perlu saling adu as well as containing repetition (in the third domba atau ngumpat. Pekerjaanku examples). Based on those categories it can punyaku pekerjaanmu punyamu. Jangan be said that pituah is expressed in a spoken ngitung rejeki jeme lain. Lakukan ape style. yang jadi tugas kaba maitu pule aku. However, it also uses metaphor, implicit (They know who I am and I know who they logic and abstraction in the construction as are. We are struggling but our positions are well as one way communication since it is different. Don’t count the fortune of others. an advice which need no feedback. Hence, it Do what you should do and so do me) can also categories in the written style. If it is displayed in a table, it will look like in table 3.1.

Char.No

Spoken

Written

1

-



2

-



3



-

4



-

5





Figure 3.1. The texture of pituah From the table, it is obvious that pituah is in the continuum between spoken and written style (tends to be written). 3.1.2. The Texture of Expression of Pasemah People

Today’s

Referring to the examples, it can be seen that there is no abstraction, technicalities, metaphor or implicit logic used in the expressions. All of lexical

choices expressed explicitly based on the experience of the user. They are also configured as two way communication because of the use of vocative words, “Kaba (you)” in example 1; and “Kita (we)” , ”Kaba (you)” in example 2. Moreover, the two expressions also contain imperative (expressed in imperative mood),




as in “...tunggulah masihkah ghapat bekehendak nga aku...” (“Wait for it, you’ll need my help someday”) and “Jangan ngitung rejeki jeme lain. Lakukan ape yang jadi tugas kaba maitu pule aku” ("Don’t count the fortune of others. Do what you should do and so do me”).There is alsothe use of repetition, as in “mereka tau aku siape dan aku tau mereka siape...” (“They know who I am and I know who they are”).

On the grammatical intricacies and the use of conjunction, they uses complex sentences and external conjunction as in “Mereka tau aku siape, dan (and) aku tau mereka siape” which is functioned to connect qualities (addition). From all the categorization of textures, it is obvious that the expressions are spoken style. The display of the texture can be seen in table .3.2.

Char.No

Spoken

Written

1



-

2



-

3



-

4



-

5



-

Table 3.3. The Texture of Today’s Expression of Pasemah People power (in case of a tribe, one considered has more power and knowledge is the one who gives advices and teaching to the community member).

3.4. The Analysis of Context of Situation 3.4.1. Situational Features of Pituah In sequence of the previous, this analysis will, firstly, analyze the context of situation of the pituah. As what has been explained, there are three dimensions in context of situation, field, tenor, and mode. Referring to the examples the situational context of pituah can be seen as follow. Field:

(1) Imperative expressions containing ideology of community of the values of what should be and not should be. (2) There are particular names of objects involved in the text functioned as metaphor to represent the experience of users i.e. “ulu mandian” (bathing place on river), “dahan peninggighan” (branches of trees where birds take shelter and make nests) and to refine the language to avoid conflicts that may arise because the interlocutor is offended. (3) The expression serves to remind or advise.

Tenor: (1) the expressions are involve users with unequal position of

Mode: (1) spoken (audio channel) monologue as it is an advice which need no spoken response. 3.4.2. Situational Features of Today’s Expressions of Pasemah people Second analysis of context of situation is on Today’s Expressions usually used by Pasemah people. Referring to the examples the situational context of pituah can be seen as follow. Field: (1) Imperative expressions containing ideology of community of the values. (2) Expression of user’s experience in explicit logicwhich is intended to convey the meaning of a message directly to the intended person. Tenor: the participants are people in equal position as it is not use formality. Mode: written (visual channel), it is written on a social media page.




3.5. Discussions In the elucidation before, it can be seen the differences between pituah and popular style of expression in texture and situational features.

unlike in the pituah case in which the message was delivered privately to the intended person. This is how one builds power because in today’s situation, especially on online social media (media that is most commonly used and closest to people's lives today) all participants tend to have similar positions in expressing ideas. Hence, the legibility of a message must be understood by all participants.

The most obvious difference between the two arepituah, in the construction, uses metaphoric words to express its meaning while the popular one is delivered in explicit logic. This thing is one of the factors The third point is the topic delivered triggering the dwindled existence of in today’s expression is more specific to pituahas metaphoric construction, using the issues compared to pituah which use implicit logic, needs analyses and deep universal and fixed expression of analogy understanding between participants to for issues comes up. Thereunto, sometimes, extract the meaning. Meanwhile, in the analogies in pituah commonly used cannot popular way of expression the meaning can represent certain issues. Of course, this sort be extracted by the participants directly so of thing is an obstacle in communication. the communication would be more effective and efficient. Moreover, the objects used as metaphoric words are based on the 4. CONCLUSION experiences of participants in the past as in “dahan peningginghan” (Tree branches), “Ulu pemandian” (bathing place on river) From all of elucidations it can be which is not suitable anymore for today’s concluded that the dwindled existence of situation since ,today, the objects are no pituah has a causal relation to the change longer close to people's lives (in modern of situational context (field, tenor, and era). Hence, it will need efforts to find the mode)affecting changes in texture or style suitable interpretation of analogy for the of expressions in the same functions used expressions. by people today. As what has been stated Then, from the perspective of media before that expressions/text, as media of delivery, today’s people tend to use meaning delivery, is influenced by the expressionsto influence other participants choice of linngistics REFERENCES Fowler, R. (1977). New Accents: Linguistic and the novel . London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. Fowler, R. (1986). Linguistic criticism. New York: Oxford University Press. Halliday, M. A. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M. A. (1996). Literacy and Linnguistics: A functional perspective. Lonson: Longman. Halliday, M. A., & Hasan, R. (1989). Language, Context, and Text: aspects of language in a social semiotic perspective (2nd ed.). (F. Christie, Ed.) Hongkong: Oxford University Press. McCarty, M., & Carter, R. (2001). Ten criteria for spoken Grammar, New Perspective on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classroom. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.




Rahmah, Gurning, B., & Immanuel, G. P. (2011). Functional Grammar. Medan: Unimed Press. Santosa, R. (2011). Logika Wacana. (S. J. Abidin, A. E. Shabdia, & K. Saddhono, Eds.) Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia: UNS Press.







The Origin of Food According to Javanese Tradition Murtini and Bani Sudardi 1 Dra. Murtini, M.S., Indonesian Literature Department, Sebelas Maret University ([email protected]) 2 Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum, Cultural Studies Department, Sebelas Maret University ([email protected]).

Abstract: Every nation has its own procedures for acquiring, processing, presenting, and storing food. The ordinance also sometimes derived from mythology or tradition that is hundreds of years believed. The Javanese have their own traditions about the origin of the food, how to prepare, how to save, and how to obtain it. The tradition of developing hereditary so appear myths about food. This study is about the myth of the food in the Javanese tradition It is according to agricultural tradition that developed around Surakarta. The story comes from the story of Jaka Tarub which is ancestor of Javanese kings. However, the tradition doing rice fields and planting rice as well as making the food is a tradition that has been listed on the initial story of the Javanese. The story is the story of India Ajisaka who had came from India and saw a girl who was processing the rice. Javanese tradition also recognize a wide variety of processed foods and forms of interaction with foreign cultures. The tradition developed in Java folklore. Apem (bread from rice) believed to come from Arabic. Food is brought by Ki Ageng Cakrajaya of Jatinom after he was on a pilgrimage from Makkah. While the food selad (soup from vegetables and fried potato) believed to be the Dutch cultural influence that once ruled in Java. The myth of Dewi Sri and Sadana or the story about Wiji Widayat is the story about the origin Javanese food. It has manifestated in Javanese daily life and the way to planting rice. There are many ceremony and ritual related to this myth so we can call it as the story of the origin Javanese food. Key Words:Javanese, tradition, food

INTRODUCTION

F

ood is samething important in our life. Although, we life not for food (eat), but we eat for life. So every nation has its own procedures for acquiring, processing, presenting, and storing food. The ordinance also sometimes derived from mythology or tradition that is hundreds of years believed.

The Javanese have their own traditions about the origin of the food, how to prepare, how to save, and how to obtain it. The tradition of developing hereditary so appear myths about food. The myth of Dewi Sri and Sadana is the important myth about the origin food according Javanese people, especially in agricultural people.




This study is about the myth of the food in the Javanese tradition It is according to agricultural tradition that developed around Surakarta. The story comes from the story of Jaka Tarub which is ancestor of Javanese kings. However, the tradition doing rice fields and planting rice as well as making the food is a tradition that has been listed on the initial story of the Javanese. The story is the story of India Ajisaka who had came from India and saw a girl who was processing the rice. Javanese tradition also recognize a wide variety of processed foods and forms of interaction with foreign cultures. The tradition developed in Java folklore. Apem (bread from rice) believed to come from Arabic. Apem was brought by Ki Ageng Cakrajaya of Jatinom after he was on a pilgrimage from Makkah. While the food selad (soup from vegetables and fried potato) believed to be the Dutch cultural influence that once ruled in Java. Serabi (bread from rice) is a kind of apem that influenced by Chinese tradition. It was told that the pioneer was a Chines couple namely Hoo Geng Hok and Tan Giok Lan who made apem in 1923. Initially, the couple was asked by a neighbor to make a apem. Many people liked the the version of the apem. . This effort was then forwarded by her children and grandchildren. This article discusses the origin of the food in Javanese tradition. METHOD This study is a qualitative research. This research tries to study a problem and laid out in a universe so structured as universality with its own peculiarities (Vredenbregt, 1985). The object of study is related to food in Javanese culture. This study in the realm of the study of folklore (Abrams, 1981: 66). Javanese culture in question is of Javanese culture around Surakarta. The research location is in Surakarta and surrounding areas is often called ex Karisidenan Surakarta. Which is the source

of data is the informant, events, and written sources. Interviews were conducted with informal interviews (depth interview) to the other informants that have been mentioned above. To maintain the validity of the data, then the interview will be accompanied by a member check (Nasution, 1992: 117). In the analysis of these data, the data collected can be achieved directed to a description of categorical data. This description chronological nets a phenomenon that can be imaged causal processes that make up the network (Miles and Huberman, 1993: 243).

DISCUSSION Javanese people put food in a symbolic system. For example, lontong or foods with oval shape is usually served with a variety of other foods, such as salad, soup, meatballs and so forth. Soft and tender texture makes it an alternative to rice. This meal is called "lontong" that has meaning “alane kothong” "the bad has gone away". Other foods that are present at the celebration of Idul Fitri is kupat. The word is an abbreviation of "ngaku lepat", which means admit the wrong. This shows that the food is not just chitterlings. The philosophy is closely related to the month of Ramadan. In the way that we already know, that Ramadan is a holy month in which Muslims opened the door to forgive and make for worship and reward many times over compared to other months. Until finally returned the sacred or fitrah (no wrong). Two mythology associated with food also mentioned about food processing. The myth is about Aji Saka. In the story of Aji Saka also mentioned that the locals also cultivate rice pounded way first. Stories about Joko Tarub also relates to the history of rice. It was told that in the Joko Tarub era, rice were big, but because of an error Joko Tarub that breaking taboos




of his wife, then the rice into small and be ground to cultivate. In addition to the Java native food, many types of food mentioned from outside Java. Apem srabi, and soup are food from outside then modified by Javanese. A mix of savory dishes and soup (Europe) in Java called timlo solo. The food is very popular with ingredients and spices tradition, but the presentation is similar soup. It shows that the type of verbal and not verbal folklore has come together and influence each other (Dananjaja, 1986) Javanese people already familiar with the technology of food processing, especially planting rice called pranatamangsa(the rule of the season). Pranatamangsa, is still widely used in rural peasantry. They know the moment for planting coconut, banana, rice seed spread, cutting bamboo, and so on. They believe that the plant, cultivate, and take rice, trees, and others will be better when taken according to the season . Regarding rice, the Javanese have a special named Dewi Dewi Sri. Dewi Sri Javanese believed to be the god of rice. He is the bearer of a blessing in the field of agriculture. Therefore, at the beginning of The Name of Ceremony Tedhun (down to the field)

the rice planting and harvesting rice Javanese always correlated to Dewi Sri. How, with the ritual acted upon so that crops produced more helpful. Tradition is always glorify Dewi Sri is ritual of harvesting rice called wiwit. Wiwit tradition there is also a mention methuk Dewi Sri or ceremony methik (Suyami, 2001: 3). Generally, after a successful harvest of rice, then put in a barn in each house. In fact, to keep the drought (shortage of rice), Javanese also held a village barn. Village barn is a kind of social gathering that will be opened during a famine. After all the people completed the harvest of rice, collectively perform salvation in the form of a clean village (bersih desa) . The play puppet is usually played story of Sri Mulih at noon. Clean village is also accompanied by a feast together in the village leaders. This is an effort worship the Goddess Sri. The form of offerings is two ball rice (golong) for Dewi Sri and her Brother Sadana. Dewi Sri is reincarnation of Visnu’s wife and Sadana is Visnu so Sri and Sadana are not a brother and siter, but a cople of deva. The ritual associated to the existence of Sri and Sadana as the table below.

Activitie Planting rice. The offer is pasta from rice (bubur). Give rice plant the soup from chili and fruit (rujak).

Meaning Associated with the Dewi Sri come to the field of rice. Associated with the Metengi (Pregnance) pregnace of Dewi Sri who need some chillied and sour. Harvet the rice. For the Associated with to bring Wiwit (The firt harvest) first time the offer are rice home Dewi Sri. and side dish (chicken and the other). Sri Mulih/ Merti Desa (Sri Stored the rice and make The happy time. The come home or clean the anniversary by puppet show planting and harvesting rice with the story Sri Mulih. succes and Dewi Sri in their village) house. As a symbol of Dewi Sri, the rice storage installed in front of the statue that is Loroblonyo, a symbol Dewi Sri and her

husband Vishnu. Therefore Loroblonyo statue believed to be the caretaker of rice. Dewi Sri is on the left and on the right




Sadana. This is a picture of Dewi Sri as a symbol of femininity, always keep in senthong kiwa (left chamber) where the crops. Sadana as guards also senthong tengen (right chamber) where agriculture weapons. Manifestations of sculpture Loroblonyo is when the Javanese carry out livelihood or to be bride (manten) , always symbolized this small statue. This is reprpesentasi relations between the two bride to be prosperous like Dewi Sri and Sadana. Therefore Javanese initially worked as an agrarian society, the statue Loroblonyo regarded as being the god of agriculture and a symbol of family happiness. The mythology of Dewi Sri is a mythology that under the influence of India involving Shiva or Guru. In the story of Dewi Sri, we are told that she is the reincarnation of Wiji Widayat. Wiji Widayat will be granted to people in the world. But Wiji Widayat didn’t obey Batara Guru. It drove itself into marcapada. As a result,Wiji Widayat must accept god curse of Batara Guru. Suddenly revelation Wiji Widayat slid down to the bottom of the sea and into the stomach Nagaraja. Of course this makes Nagaraja stomach feel sick and not feeling well. He was immediately brought before Batara Guru. Finally stomach held by Batara Guru. Wiji Widayat go out and tobe two creatures. The creature that is later renamed Sri and Sadana. Only Sadana and Sri wants to get married after a large, thus making Batara Guru angry. Because, both considered to be cousins. Sri and Sadana had died because of the curse of Batara Guru, and was ordered to be dumped into the woods. Two god named Wangkas and Wangkeng are sent to throw the bodies of Sri and Sadana, turned out to be very curious. Both had opened the bodies that exist in the coffin. Along the same Sadana corpse missing from the crate. Because it was suddenly out of the crate out walang rice pest (walang sangit). Walang sangit is what will become the enemy of rice farmers. For that casket be closed and

immediately taken to Krendawahana for burial.

the

forest

At the time of goddess Sri buried, no strange signs. Hence to the gods were just leave a message to the rural farmers in order to maintain the cemetery. Farmers often emberikan-food-grain in the cemetery after the rice harvest. Farmers in the village was getting rich thanks to the rice harvest. Since then, the idol of goddess Sri become statue in rice farmers. However, one day the rice is also attacked by pests intangible walang rice pest. Apparently, walang rice pest that comes from the spirit Raden Sadana, which is none other than as incarnation of the god Vishnu. So, walang rice pest actually disrupt rice in an effort to mystical meeting between the goddess Sri Vishnu ,. Both can be fused after a suksma odyssey. Furthermore, to commemorate the story, the end of each harvest clean village with a puppet show took the play Sri Mulih. This play is a mystical and sacred gathering process between Sri and Sadana. That's why farmers are always trying organizes clean Javanese village after the rice harvest. Clean village as a tradition of commemorating the rice god they know mystically. Because of this tradition has been passed down through generations, the net cost was borne collectively village. If farmers do not run Java village purification ritual generally fear that there are things that are detrimental to agriculture. It also does community Tengger (Sutarto, 1998)

CONCLUSSION Java community is a growing community. Food is a form of culture that reflects Javanese culture. Javanese have a variety of food forms, but rice seems to be a native of Indonesian food so that the story of rice in the form of Goddess Sri myth has colored Javanese daily life in the form of stories, ceremonies, rituals, and the philosophy that is reflected from foods such as rice.




In Javanese tradition also found other forms of food due to the influence of foreign cultures, it also shows that the

Javanese culture outside influence can still be accepted along with their native culture.

REFERENCE Abrams, M.H., (1991). A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. Danandjaja, James. (1986). Folklor Indonesia: Ilmu Gosip, Dongeng, dan lain-lain. Jakarta: Grafitipers Miles, Matthew B. dan Huberman, A. Michael. (1992). Qualitative Data Analysis (Analisis Data Kualitatif) Translate Tjetjep Rohendi Rohidi. Jakarta: UI-Press Nasution. 1992. Metode Penelitian Naturalistik Kualitatif. Bandung: Tarsito. “Sejarah Singkat Serabi Notosuman” (http://indonesiancuisine99.blogspot.co.id/2012/01/sejarah-singkat-serabinotosuman-solo.html) Sutarto, Ayu. (1998). “Kebudayaan Orang Tengger”. Makalah dalam Semiloka Tradisi Lisan, Bogor, 18 Juni 1998. Sutopo, Heribertus. (1988). Pengantar Penelitian Kualitatif : Dasar-dasar Teoretis dan Praktis. Surakarta: Pusat Penelitian Universitas Sebelas Maret. Suwardi. (2000). Folklor Jawa. Yogyakarta: Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta. Suyamni. (2001). Serat Cariyos Dewi Sri dalam Perbandingan. Yogyakarta: Kepel Press. Vredenbregt, J. (1985). Pengantar Metodologi untuk Ilmu-ilmu Empiris. Jakarta: P.T. Gramedia.







The Importance of Student’s Reading Strategies Awareness tothe Success of Reading Comprehension Achievement

Asti Gumartifa, S.Pd.,M.Pd1 Prof. Dr. Indawan Syahri, M.Pd2 1.Asti Gumartifa, S.Pd.,M.Pd1, Lecturer Muhammadiyah University Palembang, Indonesia E-mail: [email protected] 2.Prof. Dr. IndawanSyahri, M.Pd2, Lecturer Muhammadiyah University Palembang, Indonesia Abstract: Indonesian students’ reading comprehension achievement was in the low level of average rank. The consideration of reading activity is only to learn new vocabulary only. Language learners do not read for the purpose of understanding the writer’s message in the text but wrong concept of reading development implemented. Introducing appropriate and variation of reading strategy used is important to the success of reading comprehension achievement. Therefore, teacher must help students to acquire appropriate reading strategies used which canunderstand overall comprehension of text.Reading strategies are the strategies that are used by the students in order to understand and enhance the language and vocabulary knowledge from reading text. Besides, teachers should design good learning situation and motivation which allows students to apply appropriate reading strategies. Finally, understanding reading strategies could gain the best ways for both teachers to teach efficiently and students to learn effectively due to perform the better reading comprehension achievement.

Key Words: reading strategy, success, reading comprehension.

1.

R

Introduction

eading is really necessary for academic success and students’ growth across all subject areas (Bart, 2012, p. 3). No one denies the importance of reading skills for student, college and graduate student who often have to complete extremely long reading each week. The qualities of graduation students are depend on their reading comprehension skill. Therefore, the efficient readers definitely need comprehension and practice in reading continuously (Wen, 2008, p. 132). Reading is an active skill which consists of highly interactive process between reader and text. Every reader has

their own different levels of skill and experience in reading. The term ‘reading activity’ consists of cognitive abilities process such as; understanding, predicting, and commenting the main information of the text. Therefore, in achieving the success of reading comprehension, students are asked to predict and understand the whole information of the reading text (Saricoban, 2002, p.1). Comprehension is a complex process that has been understood and explained in a number of ways (Pardo, 2004, p. 272). The success of learning material depends on the process of students in comprehending the printed text. Therefore, the academic success can be




reached by the students who have ability to comprehend the reading text well. Additionally, students have to understand and underline the concepts expressed by words from reading text The conditions of reading achievement in Indonesian students are still poor. It can be seen from PIRLS (progress of international reading literacy study for young learners in primary school). The survey stated that Indonesian country is in the rank of 41st out of 45 countries that joined the PIRLS survey. The result of survey also stated that the average score of Indonesian students were under the international average score. In fact the qualities of reading study in Indonesia should be managed and improved since early learners or in primary level of school. Students prefer doing other activities to reading. Besides, some perception stated that reading English is boring and complicating. Thus, students tend to have low reading score. Clark and Akerman (2006) support that “children are less likely to enjoy going to a library and more likely prefer to do other activities in the spare time”. In fact students should have a lot of variation experience in reading comprehension activity. The phenomena discussed before lead to a question of what happens to our reading comprehension which causes low achievement and bad perception from the students. In relation to reading skills, students might have different strategies or even they might have no any strategies toward reading comprehension activities. In fact, they must have self strategies in comprehending the reading text. Chen (2008, p. 26) states that high achievers tend to employ a wider variety of strategies than the low achievers. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the importance of student’s reading strategies awareness to the success of reading comprehension achievement.

2. Literature Review Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension is a process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language (Snow, 2002). There are nine basic abilities in reading comprehension. They are the ability to identify word meanings, phrase in reading context, follow passage organization or reference, main thought, specific text-based questions, text-based questions with paraphrase, inferences about content, literary devices, and author’s purpose (Davis, 1944, p. 186). Vaseghi, Gholami, &Barjesteh (2012, p. 402) state that the process of reading activities, teachers should teach students what to think and how to think critically. They define that critical thinking is a complex process which has higher order thinking. Thus, students should involve critical thinking abilities in solving the problems, making decisions, evaluating information and formulating inferences which are related to reading activities. Saricoban (2002, p. 2) states that reading activities should be chosen to suit the text. It is fundamental ability to know the author’s point of view into consideration for a full understanding of the text. Besides, students should have schema theory before reading. Schema theory is an interactive process between the readers’ background knowledge and present knowledge. According to Anderson and Pearson (1984, p. 23), the use of schema theory can assimilate information. Therefore, when students implement it well, they will understand the whole context meaning easily.

Types of Reading Comprehension According to Berry (2005) and Herber (1978) there are three types of comprehension that can be used by some English reading teachers in helping learners to be active and creative in comprehending the reading text. Here are some types of comprehension: Literal comprehension is the easiest level because it deals with the facts Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 102



or what is actually stated or presented from the text directly. Therefore, it is easy and it does not need and heavy thinking. Literal comprehension is used in order to examine how well the readers can identify and understand the information that is directly stated in the text. This comprehension asks students to find the explicit and important information by reading and translating the lines of the content text in order to get the main point of the author’s message (Herber, 1978). Interpretive is the second level of reading comprehension. At this level, students should be able to combine the relationships between information in the content material and the conceptual material to those relationships in order to make inferences about the author’s message. In other words, interpretive comprehension can be described what is implied rather than what is exactly stated. Therefore, students must use the content information in the text and activate their critical and analytical skills in getting the implied meaning from the information. Additionally, the readers are asked to make conclusion of inference from the little facts that have been presented. Applied comprehension is the combination between literal and interpretive levels of reading comprehension. It can be described as taking what was said (literal), what was meant by what was said (interpretive), and extend (apply) the concepts based on the two levels of reading comprehension passed. In other words, students were asked to read critically the lines in order to comprehend the text effectively. At this level students were asked to translate its meaning in order to understand the concepts, principles and implications presented in the text. Reading Strategy Reading strategies are the strategies that are used by the students in order to understand and enhance the language and vocabulary knowledge from reading text. According to Block (1998),

“Reading strategies indicate how readers conceive a task, what textual cues they attend to, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they do not understand.” Strategies are really important to improve reading comprehension achievement and overcome comprehension failure. Generally, in term of learning, Oxford (1990) emphasizes that appropriate learning strategies use with the task requirement is even more important than the frequency of learning. Thus, if students have understood their own reading strategies in the learning process, they can control their reading process to achieve reading comprehension achievement well. Therefore, students should be aware of the appropriate and inappropriate strategies that they use in comprehending reading text well (Martinez, 2008, p. 169). Students who are more strategic would be more motivated to learn (Chamot, 1998, p. 3). Thus, strategic students perceive themselves as more able to succeed academically than students who do not know how to use strategies. Kinds of Reading Strategy To learn, we depend on our senses to process the information around us. Most people tend to apply one of their senses more than the others (Nosratinia, 2011). Based on this, there are three kinds of reading strategies namely metacognitive, cognitive, and social affective (Chamot, 1998, p. 25).

MetacognitiveReading Strategy According to Boroujeni, Hesabi, and Serri (2012, p. 844), “Metacognitive strategies refer to the actions that learners use consciously while listening to a spoken text attentively.” It is also deal with knowing about learning by involving the thinking about the process of learning. Chamot (1998, p. 25) mentions processes of metacognitive reading strategies which are: planning, directing attention, selecting, managing, monitoring, identifying problem, and evaluating. Students tend to




pass these processes regularly until they can achieve goals of reading well. The main characteristic of metacognitive reading strategies are: students tend to plan by previewing the principle of an anticipate learning task, generating a plan into a part, then, students tend to monitor by correcting one’s comprehension or performance in language task. The last, students tend to evaluate by checking the outcomes of the language performance and production. Here are some detail process activities of metacognitive reading strategy. Planning, learners previewing the organizing concept or principle of an anticipate learning task, then generating a plan for the part. Directing attention, learners attend to learn task in general and ignore irrelevant distracters. Selecting attention, learners attend to specific aspect of language input or situational details to be good in performance task. Self-managing, learners know the conditions that help the successful of language task by maximizing the conditions that have already known. Self- monitoring, learners correct one’s comprehension or performance in language task. Identifying problem, learners identify the central point is needed. Self-evaluating, learners check the outcomes of language performance against, strategy use, the ability to perform. Cognitive Reading Strategy According to Boroujeniet al. (2012, p. 844), cognitive strategies refers to the input control used in a certain skill to complete a particular task. Cognitive strategies are students’ interaction with what is to be learned by manipulating the reading task mentally or physically in order to understand and produce new language in different ways (Chamot, 1998, p. 25). The process of cognitive strategies consist of repeating by imitating language

model, resourcing by using reference materials, grouping by classifying concepts according to attributes, note-taking by taking notes on main idea, introducing by making a role, substituting by selecting alternative approach, elaborating by making analogies to what students’ know of prior knowledge, summarizing by writing the main idea, translating by rending the idea from one language to another, transferring by acquiring previous linguistic knowledge, and inference by using available knowledge to guess the language meaning. The main characteristic of cognitive strategies are students get the success of reading easily by interacting the material to be learned and manipulating it with mentally (as in making mental images or relating new information to previously acquired concepts or skills) applying physically (as in grouping items to be learned in meaningful categories or taking notes on or making summaries of important information to be remembered). Here are some detail activities processes of cognitive reading strategy: Repetition, learners imitate a language model including practice and rehearsal. Resourcing, learners use available sources of information about the target language, including dictionaries, textbooks and prior work. Grouping, learners classify material used in language task based on common attributes and recall information based on grouping previously done. Note taking, learners write down the key words and concepts graphic or numerical form to assist performance of language task. Deducting or introducing, learners keep self-developed rules to produce or understand target language. Substituting, learners select alternative approaches, revised plans or different words to accomplish language task. Elaborating, learners relate new information to the prior knowledge, and




relate different part of new information to each other. Summarizing, learners make a metal, oral, or written summary of language and information presented in a task. Translating, learners render ideas from one language to another in a relatively verbatim manner. Transferring, learners use previously acquired linguistic knowledge to facilitate the language task. Inferencing, learners use available information to guess the meaning or unfamiliar language items associated with a language task in order to predict the outcomes or fill the missing information.

Relationships between Reading Strategy and Reading Comprehension Achievement One important problem which is faced by the language learners is reading difficulty. Chan and Lau (2003, p. 178) compare that “Reading processes of good readers with poor readers from the information of processing perspective.” He says that poor readers are found to be deficient in multiple reading processes, such as cognitive and metacognitive process. While good readers know how to use effective strategies to construct meaningful understanding of the text, poor readers tend to read the text word by word without using any strategies. Social-affective Reading Strategy Chamot (1998, p. 26) defines Othman and Zare (2013, p. 187) social-affective is learner interacts with state that nowadays some language other persons or uses affective control to learners do not read for the purpose of assist learning task. Learners who have understanding the writer’s message in the social affective reading strategies tend to text, they developed wrong concept of pass some activities such as: questioning reading, they just consider that the purpose for clarification, cooperating for solving of reading is only to learn new vocabulary. the problem, self-talking by reducing They also argue that “What a reader needs anxiety, and reinforcing by providing to focus on is not only every word in the personal motivation to success the text but also the semantics of the text.” language task. The main learning Reading strategy is considered as one of procedure of social-affective strategies are the features of cognitive psychology which questioning for getting additional are important to the success of explanation from teacher or other expert, comprehension. They also argue that the cooperating task to solve problem and get use of strategy in different ways is in more feedback, and the last is self-talking by and less proficient readers. Anderson reducing anxiety in order to improve (2004, p. 13) also defines that reading competence. Here are some details strategy is readers’ ability in using some learning activities process of social variety of reading strategies in order to get affective reading strategies: the purpose of reading. Good readers tend Questioning, learners ask to use strategies in reading, thus, they explanation, verification, examples as the know what to do when they got difficulties clarification of the material. in reading. Cooperating, learners work together The importance of strategy used is with peers to solve the problem, pool also emphasized by Rokhsari, (2012, p. 5). information, check a learning task, and get He states that teacher must help students to feedback on oral or written performance. acquire the strategies in reading processes Self-talking, learners reduce anxiety because it can improve the overall by using mental techniques that make them comprehension of text. Chen (2008, p. 26) fell competent to do a learning task. also states that high achievers tend to Self-reinforcing, learners provide employ a wider variety of strategies than personal motivation by arranging the low achievers. It means teachers rewards for one when a language learning should investigate the essential of reading activity has been successfully completed. strategies for academic purposes between Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 105



low achievers and high achievers by observing students’ different frequencies in applying reading strategies. 3. Conclusions Becoming a good teacher is not simple. Therefore, teacher awareness of making their students to achieve the output from learning process well is also the main important thing. There should be some ways that teacher can implement due to make the students achieve the goal of learning. Specifically, in the process of reading English subject activities also needs some ways that can achieve for both teacher and students goal of reading. Learning reading activity does not just understand the new vocabulary only, but there should some comprehension goals of reading that must be achieved also.According to Berry (2005), there are three types of comprehension of reading. Such as: literal interpretive and applied

comprehension of reading. Literal is the lowest level of comprehension, and applied is the highest level of comprehension. Specifically as the college students must achieve the highest level of understanding. The exposure of reading strategies used is the basic important thing to do for some English reading teacher. Students will enjoy the learning process if they apply their self-of reading strategy. Martinez (2012, p. 169) stated that there were strong correlations between appropriate reading strategies used, and reading performance. Therefore, the more students apply their appropriate reading strategies, the better students’ reading comprehension level would be. The importance of strategy used is also emphasized by Rokhsari, (2012, p. 5). He states that teacher must help students to acquire the strategies in reading processes because it can improve the overall comprehension of text.

REFERENCES Anderson, C. R., & Pearson, D. P. (1984).A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. New York: Longman. Bart, J. (2012). Reading to learn: The important of reading. West Markham, Little Rock: Northwest Arkansas office. Berry, J. H. (2005). Levels of reading comprehension.Retrieved from www.sc4.edu/[email protected]. Block, E. (1998). The comprehension strategies of second language readers.TESOL Quarterly, 20(3), 463-494. doi: 10.2307/3586295. Boroujeni, A. J., Hesabi, A., &Serri, F. (2012).Cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective strategies in listening comprehension and their relationships with individual differences.Journal of Theory and Practice in Language Study, 2(4).doi: 10.4304/tpls.2.4.843-849. Chamot, A. (1998). Teaching learning strategies to language learners: Professional preparation of teaching assistants in foreign language. Washington, DC, America: Grace Stovall Burkart. Chan, W. D., & Lau, L, K. (2003).Reading strategy use and motivation among Chinese good and poor readers in Hong Kong.Journal of Research in Reading, 26(2), 177190. Retrieved from http://www.fatih.edu.tr. Chen, L. (2008). A study of Taiwanese technical college students’ English reading motivation, attitude, strategy use, and reading performance (Master thesis, University of Science and Technology National Taiwan, Taipei, Taiwan). Clark, C., &Akerman, R. (2006).Reading for Pleasure. London: National Literacy Trust. Davis, B. F. (1944). Fundamental factors of reading comprehension.Psychometrika, 9(3), 185-197. Retreived from http://www.iapsych.com/ wmfhcaarchive/LinkedDocuments/DAVI11.pdf. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 106



Herber, H., L. (1978).Teaching reading in content areas. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Inc. Martinez, L, C, A. (2008). Analysis of ESP university students ’reading strategy awareness (Master’s thesis, University of de Oviedo, Asturias, Spain).Retrieved from http://www.aelfe.org/documents/10_15_Lahuerta.pdf. Nosratinia, M. (2011).The effect of personality type, learning styles and strategies on Iranian MA EFL learners.Paper presented at the organizers of the Enhancing Learning: Teaching and Learning Conference, Iran. Othman, M., &Zare, P. (2013).The relationship between reading comprehension and reading strategy use among Malaysian ESL learners.International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(13), 187-193. Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_13_July_2013/22.pdf. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York, NY: Newbury House. Pardo, S. L. (2004). What every teacher needs to know about comprehension. The Reading Teacher,58, 272-281. Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS).(2011). TIMSS & PIRLS.Retrieved from timssandpirls.bc.edu. Rokhsari, S. (2012). An investigation of reading strategies used by Iranian EFL intermediate readers. Journal of Academic and Applied Studies, 2(8) &2(9), 1-21. Retrieved from http://www.academians.org/articles/Agust& September1.pdf. Saricoban, A. (2002). Reading strategies of successful readers through the three phase approach. Journal of Matrix, 2(3), 1-16. Retrieved from http:// www.readingmatrix.com/ articles/ saricoban/article.pdf. Snow, C. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R & D program in reading comprehension. Retrieved from http://www.rand.org /pubs/ monograph_reports /2005/ MR1465.pdf. Vaseghi, R., Gholami, R., &Barjesteh, H. (2012). Critical thinking: an influential fator in developing English reading comprehension performance. Advance in Asian Social Science, 2(1), 401-410. Retrieved from http:// worldsciencepublisher.org/journals/index.php/AASS/article/viewFile/406/357. Wen, Z. (2008). Reading in a foreign language: Reading skills for college students. Journal ofReading in a Foreign Language, 20(1), 132-135. Retrieved from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl /April2008/reviews/wen.html.







ENACT and Multiculturalism as Approach in Learning History

Bachtiar Akob1 1 Drs. Bachtiar Akob, MA. Lecturer History Education Department of Samudra University Langsa, [email protected] Abstract: The Acehnese society has long historical experience in the relationship with other social group. In the age of commerce from circa 900 to 1600, they built a modern, dynamic and plural society based on social relationship and harmonization in the mutual interest frames. They became cosmopolitan and heterogeneous society. However, the multiculturalism disappeared by the historical process, especially in new order era. New Order designed a repressive policies, marginalize or annihilation the political opponents in Aceh by implementing military operations area. It has negative impact to social relationship in Acehnese society. They evolved into an exclusive society and not accepted the presence of other communities. Perceive on that situation, there is a potential conflict in Aceh. This paper aims to provide solution for those problems by designing a historical learning based on ENACT and multiculturalism for peace education. The findings of the research are: (1) historical learning based multiculturalism provides chance to internalize multiculturalism by using historical material. Historical learning contains cognitive, affective and virtue that can encourage the highest excellence of character, linking to life, linking us to our past, helping skills development, and inspiring to greatness ; (2) constructivist approach and learning strategy ENACT develop a societal cohesion and networking collective memories which become the construction of multicultural and peace society (3) historical learning based multiculturalism and ENACT are encourage the students to acknowledge the potency and diversity of ethnicity, religiosity and cultural. In multicultural point of view, there is a societal cohesion and participation right in various areas of life without relieves cultural identity. Key Words: Historical Learning, ENACT, Multiculturalism, Peace Education 1. INTRODUCTION Acehnese society consisting of various ethnic. Quantitatively, Aceh is the majority ethnic and spreading throughout Sabang, Banda Aceh, Aceh Besar, Pidie, Bireun, North Aceh, East Aceh, South Aceh dan Lhokseumawe. Besides that, there are other ethnic groups such as Gayo, Alas, Aneuk Jamee, Tamiang, Simeulu, Kleut and also the ethnicity from outside

of the island such as Javanese, Maduranese and etc (Wajdi, 2008). The ethnic diversity in Aceh closely related with the historical aspect. Perceives on historical perspectives, Aceh is an important and open area for social-economic interaction and relationship. In the age of commerce from circa 900 to 1600, Aceh became an important transit port for the European,




South Asian, East Asian and Nusantara traders (Van Leur, 2016). Aceh locate between 20 – 60 LU and 95 - 980 and about 125 meter above the sea level. Generally, the landscape of Aceh divided into three parts: (1) mountains; (2) lowlands; and (3) coasts. The mountains areas are suitable land for pepper plantation. Lowland areas for settlements and the centre of the Acehnese Kingdom. In the north side, composed by small islands, i.e. Wauh, Breueh, Bunta Islands and surrounded by corals that made the Acehnese port hard to visited. However, islands and corals affected security from the stranger traders and provided a safety trade activity. Aceh`s natural resources trade commodities especially pepper, silk, petroleum, sulphur, camphor, menyan and gold, attracted the traders to made import and export activities in Aceh (Lombard, 1991). The traders not only sold and bought but they also made contact, communication and cooperation with the Acehnese society. Based on that situation, there was chance to make a multicultural, multiethnicity and multireligiousity relationships based on economical activity. 0

Acehnese evolved into cosmopolite and heterogeneous society because interaction with Indian, Arabic and Chinese traders in the period of Islamization era. The historical phenomenon above shows that social groups related to each other, both in terms of material and spiritual aspects. Those relations can be seen as a social capital, because the process of trade relations as well as the conversion of beliefs encouraged the sharing of knowledge, norms, rules, and expectations. Social capital would be compared a concept between public interest and group interest. Based on the description, social network and multicultural thinking already flourished among the Acehnese society. The social networking and multicultural thinking as mutual needs produces harmonious relations among communities. Harmonious relations occurred in the 7th to

12th, which predicted Acehnese society had faced the globalization and glocalization process. Therefore, Acehnese social structure until 12th century had been modern, dynamic, and pluralist (MDP). The harmony collapsed by Dutch & New Order political system. Dutch and New Order practiced Snouck Hurgronjes political models, but New Order implemented military operation area to deal with Aceh-Sumatera National Liberation Front (ASNLF or GAM). The consequences of that policy caused human rights violations. Approximately 7.078 peoples became victims during military operations (Ishak, 2013). Political repression, stigmatization and marginalization destroyed harmonious social relationships. The historical process inflicting historical traumatic for the Acehnese society, particularly in terms of the social relationship with otherness. This condition inhibiting harmonization in the contemporary society in Aceh. Based on those problems, this research trying to developing learning history base on multiculturalism by ENACT learning strategy to promotes peace society.

2. METHOD The method using in this research is qualitative descriptive analysis with literature review approach. Research was divided into three parts: (1) collecting data, (2) analysis data, and (3) the reporting of the results of the research. Collecting data consist of finding the theories, concept and method. Analyses data consist of analytical process of literature include a review and synthesis of theories. The theoretical analysis use to take and adapt the concepts to constructing historical learning such as constructivism learning and multiculturalism approach. Reporting of the result of the research in form of framework, a new concept and theoretical findings.




3. DISCUSSION 3.1 Multiculturalism in Learning History Multiculturalism basically is the spirit of Indonesian national education. Multicultural values are human values for peace education. The core of multicultural paradigm is recognizes diversity, acknowledge differences of ethnicity, etnoreligiousity, and etnocultural in the social life. In this point of view, the presence of societal cohesion is fundamental factors without eliminate cultural identity of social groups, and opportunity to acquire the participate right in various areas of social, culture, economic, and sosio-politics aspect. The natures of multicultural society are rich in social and cultural values, and those values become a socio-capital power. In this context, socio-cultural capitals are useful to strengthening individual selfdevelopment as well as to social groups to face the future, modernization and globalization (Tilaar, 2004).

to life, linking us to our past, helping develop skills, and inspiring to greatness. Those function of learning history, directed to explore networking collective memories (Joebagio in Garvey & Krug, 2015). The exploration of networking collective memories will encourage inspiring to greatness. Deepening networking collective memories implicated for the formation of consciousness that in the past, Indonesian societies have been build great socio-cultural, socio-economic and sociopolitic relations. Deepening past events growing self-respect, human brotherhood, social equality, security of life, becomes justice, becomes educate. Hence, learning activities required instructional design that produces output quality which is appropriate to the learning objectives.

The Placement of multicultural strategy in learning history is metaphor for humanistic approach (Maslow, 1970). In this approach, the multiculturalism values are using to encourage the need for togetherness (Schunk, 2012). In the intersubjective interaction, the relations in Multiculturalism can be imparted the dialogue or discussion show that the to the learners through learning history. learners feel their need each others. The Learning mean changes of competence, learning activities held with dialogue skills and knowledge’s permanently in the between learners, rests on equality and cognitive, afective and psychomotor aspect differences. Dialogues and discussions (Illeris, 2011). History is the record of promote recognition of “private spaces” human activity in the past which is and “public spaces” (Supardan, 2015). providing wisdom and moral value. Partick Dialogue between them develops virtue, Gardiner (1959) argued that “historical includes moral knowing, moral feeling, events have an irreducible richness and and moral action (Ryan & Lickona in Ryan complexity”. Complexity of historical & McLean, 1987). Characters are form by reality can expand the horizons of learners. learning activities that promote virtuous of Therefore, learning history is the processes learners. Psychologically, virtuous is the of internalization of values from past core characters to encourage social and events, includes the origins, genealogy, cultural changes towards “harmony and collective memories, and imitates the peace” culture. Harmonious and peacefully agents of history. Learning history is the society not a necessity but it is a social process of transmission of knowledge, reality that must be fought (Gonggong in transmission of values and also analysis- Bertrand, 2012). In the dialogue, there are synthesis of the historical research that positive and negative comments in the produce by historians. Learning history dialogue. Comments are representation of designing to forming wisely personality. the diversity that must be respected by According Grant Bage (1999), every learners and teachers (Supardan, learning history emphasis on encouraging 2015). The discourses of diversity in the the highest excellence of character, linking historical learning encourage the learners to gain the freedom of thought (Abdurahman Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 111



in Baidhawy & Thoyibi, 2005). The consciousness of diversity indicates existence of universal human values, and those values grow along modernity (Hardiman, 2012). With consciousness of diversity, learners are able to overcome ethnocentrism problems, even they can show multiculturalism solidarity action that goes beyond the issues of race, religion, social class etc. The relationship and interaction in the learning history activities build awareness to not exploit, harm, and keep off intolerance. According to that theoretical framework, we need particular approach and learning strategy which triggered the freedom of thought, freedom to discussion and to express opinion. In the psychological-social perspective, those approach and learning strategy will affect to the formation of soft skills and also shaping self-reliance, self-sufficiency, selfdefence and creative self-development values. In this paper, researcher developing constructivism learning approach and ENACT learning strategy.

3.2 Constructivism Learning Approach & ENACT Strategies Historical events contain many of values which can be used to develop hard skill and soft skill through constructivism learning and ENACT learning strategies. Under those approaches, multicultural values can be utilized in the process of learning history, for example peace, harmony and unity values. Constructivism learning approach is a psychological learning paradigm that emphasize on independency of students to construct their knowledge’s (Schunk, 2012). Constructivism paradigm prioritizes social context and related with experience and knowledge obtained by learners. In this paradigm, learners have autonomy to construct knowledge and intelligence through experience and interaction with physical or social world. Therefore, in the constructivism paradigm more emphasis on interaction in mastery of knowledge’s

and skills (Schunk, 2012). Learning in constructivist perspective is devices to build knowledge, behaviours and skill permanently through experience, both within formal education or social environment (Santrock, 2007). Experiences and knowledge inherent with the origin, culture, language, belief, democratic and humanistic personality (Djahiri, 2006). ENACT learning strategy can be use to explore multiculturalism of Acehnese society. The learning steps for ENACT includes: exploring, narrowing, analyzing, creating and teaching. The details of ENACT learning strategy can be seen below:

3.2.1

Exploring

Exploring mean that learners explore, collect and check the historical data. Learners identify one problem that will be their main analytical theme. In the next steps, learners collectively explore, search and collect the historical data from primary resources and secondary resources like text books, journal, paper etc that suitable with the main analytical theme. Learner must be work in a group discussion, so they need support from the others to maximize their exploring activities. Moreover, learners get more rich historical data from those collective works. Lecturer give learners hand out (modul) that have function as a guide and preliminary description about theme and problem to exploring historical data and to open the new horizons of learners.

3.2.2

Narrowing

Narrowing means that learners individually choose one particular theme to shaping their analysis and get detail in the new finding and ideas. Through narrowing stages, every learner will have their own particular theme. The narrowing process systematically selecting suitable theme and also organize historical data. The particular themes must be interested, needed and important or contextual with social, politic




and economic condition that is feels by learners in their daily life. In the narrowing stages, learners start to connect the historical data in accordance with particular theme for further analysis. The outcome in narrowing stages is draft paper that will be use in the next stages.

3.2.3

Analyzing

Analyzing mean that learners collectively analyze the particular theme with any approaches and theories to find the detail. Learners must be able to interpreting and appraising the dynamic of multicultural society in Acehnese society. In these stages, peer group discussion, interaction and relation become very important for learners to analyzing their individual particular themes. Theoretically, analyzing stages encourage ZPD of learners by the process of assist knowledge, information, and historical data among learner and also among learners with lecturer which have various ethnicity, races and cultures. The assist process is important aspect which is naturally construct societal cohesion in learning history.

3.2.4

of the paper composed of: (1) introduction; (2) discussion that consist of explanation and analysis in the exploring, narrowing, analyzing and ends with creating stages; (3) conclusion. Each learner will produce various argument and finding. Those finding expected to arouse multiculturalism values and networking collective memories.

Creating

Creating mean that learners individually generate a new concept or a new finding after narrowed and analyzed their particular theme. The result of the creating can be an argument, refutation and new ideas. Learners must report their finding individually on paper. The systematic of report refers to stages of ENACT learning strategy. The systematic

3.2.5

Teaching

Teaching means that learners articulate and present their findings to the others in the classroom. At this stage, learners learn to be able to accept the opinions or argument from the others. Their acceptance is the representation of willingness the presence of the others. Lecturer observes teaching stage to evaluate and valuing affective aspect of learners in their attitude to accept and refute arguments. Theoretically, ENACT learning strategy consist of two learning concepts: zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding. ZPD is an area to expanding knowledge learners. Scaffolding is a process through which a teacher or more competent learners helps the other learners to solve the problems beyond their cognitive, affective and psychomotor level. Learners should be encouraged to achieve zone proximal development as their cognitive development. In the ZPD, the distance among actual developmental level and potential development level can be enhanced through interaction with peers groups and interaction with adult to improving the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor competences (Schunk, 2012)




The illustration of ZPD and scaffolding can be seen on the diagram below:

Knowledge beyond students

ZPD

Knowledges that already known by learners

scaffolding

Diagram 1.1 The Zone of Proximal Development In the ENACT learning strategy, the ZPD and scaffolding situated on all of learning stages, especially in exploring and analyzing stages. Learners need to make relation, communication and interaction with the others. In the multicultural aspect, scaffolding encourages students to makes relationship with the others to get knowledge. The relationship and sense of mutuality growing multicultural experience based on relationship with the other learners and different culture and ethnicity. Moreover, scaffolding develops societal cohesion and finally connects networking collective memories. Through ENACT learning strategy, lecturer obtain two advantages and learning outcomes that is: (1) encourage historical knowledge, and (2) coexistence peace education.

3.3

Learning Outcomes

The learning outcome from historical learning based multiculturalism is to encourage the students to acknowledge the potency and diversity of ethnicity, religiosity and cultural. In multicultural point of view, there is a societal cohesion and participation right in various areas of life without relieves cultural identity. The details for the objective of the learning process include:

1.

2.

3.

Learners can analyze the diversity, equality and differences sociocultural, ethnicity, religiosity, race and culture as nation identity. Learners can apply the societal cohesion knowledge and skills among ethnicity, religiosity, race and cultural entity for peace building, peacemaking and peacekeeping. Learners can apply tolerance, respect for diversity, disviolence, and justice in the relationship among sociocultural.

4. CONCLUSSION The findings of the research are: (1) historical learning based multiculturalism provides chance to internalize multiculturalism by using historical material. Historical learning contains cognitive, affective and virtue that can encourage the highest excellence of character, linking to life, linking us to our past, helping skills development, and inspiring to greatness; (2) constructivist approach and ENACT learning strategy develop a societal cohesion and networking collective memories which become the construction of multicultural and peace society (3) historical learning based multiculturalism encourage the




students to acknowledge the potency and diversity of ethnicity, religiosity and cultural. In multicultural point of view,

there is a societal cohesion and participation right in various areas of life without relieves cultural identity.

REFERENCE Bage, Grant. (1999). Narrative Matters: Teaching and Learning History Through Story. New York: Falmer Press Routledge Baidhawy, Zakiyuddin & M. Thoyibi. (2005). Reinvensi Islam Multikultural. Surakarta: Pusat Studi Budaya dan Perubahan Sosial Universitas Muhammadiyah Bertrand, Jacques Bertrand. (2012). Nasionalisme dan Konflik Etnis di Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Ombak Djahiri, Kosasih. (2006). Strategi Pembelajaran berbasis nila, moral dan norma, agama dalam pendidikan persekolahan, dalam Pendidikan Nilai Moral dalam Dimensi Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan. Bandung: Laboratorium PKn FPIPS UPI Gardiner, Patrick. (1959). Theories of History. New York: The Free Press Garvey, Bria & Mary Krug. (2015). Model-model Pembelajaran Sejarah di Sekolah Menengah . Yogyakarta: Ombak Hardiman, F. Budi. (2012). Humanisme dan Sesudahnya: Meninjau Ulang Gagasan Besar tentang Manusia. Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia Illeris, Knud. (2011). Contemporary Theories of Learning: Teori-Teori Pembelajaran Kontemporer. Bandung: Nusa Media Ishak, Otto Syamsudin. 2013. Aceh Pasca Konflik: Kontestasi 3 Varian Nasionalisme. Banda Aceh: Bandar Publisher Lombard, Denys. (1991). Kerajaan Aceh: Zaman Sultan Iskandar Muda (16071636).Jakarta: Balai Pustaka Maslow, Abraham H. (1970). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row Publisher Ryan, Kevin & G.F. McLean (eds.). (1987). Character Development in Schools and Beyond. New York: Praeger Santrock, John W. (2007). Psikologi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Schunk, Dale H. (2012). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar Supardan, Dadang. (2015). Manusia, Kekerasan, Multikultural, dan Transformasi Pendidikan. Bandung: Rizqi Press Tilaar, H.A.R. 2004. Multikulturalisme: Tantangan-tantangan Global Masa Depan dalam Transformasi Pendidikan Nasional. Jakarta: Grasindo Van Leur, J.C. (2016). Perdagangan dan Masyarakat Indonesia: Esai-Esai Tentang Sejarah Sosial dan Ekonomi Asia. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak Wajdi, Farid. (2008). Aceh Bumi Srikandi. Yogyakarta: Muti Solusindo Press.







JAVANESE BATIK POWER IN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

Bani Sudardi Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum, Head of Cultural Studies Program (S3), Sebelas Maret University, [email protected]

Abstract: Batik Indonesia is one of the works that have been recognized worldwide. Batik of Java has the strength and history that can be used as one element in cultural diplomacy. The elements that can be used in batik cultural diplomacy about the history, about the motives and manufacturing technique that creates a distinctive beauty. This paper examines the power of the story behind the batik motif for cultural diplomacy. Batik motive actually have narratives that can be used to add to the discourse interpretation of batik. It is not yet widely studied by many people. Interpretation of a work of art is of utmost importance to develop an appreciation. This kinds can be used as a vehicle for cultural diplomacy when batik promoted as a means of cultural diplomacy. That is, in the beauty of batik there are interesting stories. The story will be uploading curiosity and it can affirm cultural diplomacy between nations when the nations of the world begin to understand also that batik is not only a piece of cloth painted batik, but there are meanings that must be understood in its social context Key Words: batik, cultural diplomacy

1. INTRODUCTION

D

iplomacy can be interpreted as an attempt to create peace without violence. Diplomacy in the form of measures to keep the peace of a country in relation to the other state, e.g. (1) affair or organizing official nexus between one country and another country; (2) business interests of a country through its representatives in other countries; (3) knowledge and skills in terms of the nexus between the state and the state; (4) cak prowess using appropriate word choice for the benefit of the parties concerned (in the negotiations, answer questions, express opinions, and so on).

There are diplomacy, namely   

 

several

types

Armed diplomacy with the support of the armed forces; Cultural diplomacy through the recognition and understanding of the various outcomes of art and culture; Megaphone diplomacy by shouting each other tougher stance, recriminations, threatened-threatening foes; Preventive diplomacy which seeks to prevent a large state direct interference in the crisis arising in the third world; Open diplomacy held without a confidentiality agreement (Alwi, 2001)


of



Cultural diplomacy can be done by introducing the superior culture of a country to another country in various ways. Batik is one of the elements of Indonesian culture that has a superior culture. Batik is already widely known and have a variety of types and forms and has a long history. Original Javanese court batik is clothing, but over time the development of batik has spread throughout Indonesia. Batik is also known to the world community as a work of art that is unique, beautiful, and worth. n the course of its history, batik also has touched all walks of life who interact with Java. The types of batik is batik Dutch, Chinese batik, batik Japan (Hokokai). In Indonesia, batik is also already menyentih different walks of life such as batik farmers, merchants batik, batik Pekalongan, Madura batik, batik Papua, Jambi batik, batik Besurek (Bengkulu), batik Minahasa, and so forth (Rizali, 2015). This paper discusses the position of batik can be used as a means of cultural diplomacy which has various advantages. This article discusses the advantages of batik as means of cultural diplomacy. 2. METHOD This study was a descriptive study. The data source of this study consisted of informants, books and documents, and events. In the present study used in-depth interviews, document review, and observation. Researchers used data triangulation to get valid data. Informants consisted of batik entrepreneurs, experts batik, batik employees. Document consists of books and data. Data sourced from printed books and resources searching the internet. Meanwhile, the event consists of various aspects related to the use of batik like batik, batik making, and so on. 3. DISCUSSION

Batik has superior force to cultural diplomacy. First of all in the realm of international batik has been recognized and awarded by the UNO as wordl heritage. According to the Antara news agency website, that Indonesian batik is officially recognized by UNESCO incorporated into the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in the Fourth Session of the Intergovernmental Committee on Cultural Heritage There are objects in Abu Dhabi. Department of Culture and Toursm declare the entry of Indonesian Batik in the UNESCO Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity is an international recognition of one of the Indonesian culture, which is expected to motivate and raise the dignity of batik craftsmen and support efforts to improve people's welfare. The ministry stated that the efforts of Indonesian Batik UNESCO recognized it involves stakeholders with batik, good government, and the craftsmen, experts, business associations and foundations / institutions batik and the wider community in the preparation of nomination documents. RI Representatives member states Jury (Subsidiary Body), namely the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, Estonia, Mexico, Kenya and South Korea as well as the UNESCO-Paris, plays an important role in introducing batik more broadly to the members of the Subsidiary Body, so that they more carefully studied Indonesian batik nomination document. UNESCO noted Batik Indonesia and one other proposal from Spain is the best nomination document and can be used as examples in the nomination process of cultural eyeobject in the future. The ministry claimed the Indonesian government's efforts is a commitment as a state party to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage, which has been in force since 2003 and ratified by 114 countries (Indonesia ratified in 2007). (http://www.antaranews.com) Batik has been recognized by UNESCO declared legally batik is part of world culture so it is known to the world community. If batik used as a means of




cultural diplomacy, the batik own power for the known world. Power is not power that is obtained naturally, but it is the result of long efforts batik stakeholders throughout the ages. The second strength of batik is batik has a long history and unique. Ways of making batik has similarities with the tradition found in China and Egypt. Doellah (2002: 7) states that Indonesian batik has a spiritual beauty that comes through constituent decorative pattern with deep philosophical meaning as a result of the fusion of Hindu-Javanese culture and the Chinese in Indonesia. This beauty is not owned by batik loaded another country. This shows that the batik has a relationship with other world cultures, but also has a uniqueness that is native to Indonesia. In this case the cultural diplomacy is important to show the similarities and differences in order to achieve a condition of mutual respect. Some things about the unique history of batik expressed by Hitchcock (1991: 83: 86) that as widely regarded as the world's foremost exponents, the early history of batik is not clear. Archaeologists discovered ahwa Javanese batik techniques similar age to those found in Egypt from 5th and 6th century technique of making batik is also found in West Africa, China, Japan, and Turkestan. Experts suspect made batik technique was introduced in Java through India. There are also allegations that the batik making at least half began in the 18th century in the form refined batik patterns, According to the latter theory, could not be executed on Indonesian textiles before that period because reviews these were too coarse. Futhermoder, it would appear from lingistic evidence that Indonesia resist techniques are not very ancien because the term "batik" is not mentioned in old Javanese (Zoetmulder, 1982). This is precisely the main attraction. Batik is Indonesia cultural works that have networks with other cultural works, but the characteristics of Indonesia still stands out because it is processed by the inner

experience of Indonesia. Diplomatic principle of mutual respect will be formed and the success of diplomatic efforts to build a harmonious relations between nations. Batik has a relationship with the history of culture and social values of a society. In the Java community, motif has many functions in everyday life which contains a symbolic meaning. In Solo (Surakarta), for example, there are special rules abt the wearing of batik. These had to do with the social position of the wearer and the occasion on the which the batik was worn or used, in connection with the meaning and hope or wish symbolized by the motif (Djoemena, 1990: 11). So, batik is not just a motif, but has a deep spiritual meaning. This is what is important in cultural diplomacy. Culture as one of the elements of soft power. Philosophical strength that is capable of providing the main attraction for other nations. Form of appeal very nature emosial and psychological capital can be used as the basis for a country to be able to establish cooperative relations better and humane. In this case, the cultural diplomacy used to use Java concepts, namely “menang tanpa ngalahake “ "win without defeate". Another element in the batik that supports the power of cultural diplomacy is in batik are interesting stories and create emotion. The story deals with the history kepahlwanan, love, and spiritual foundation. Batik is a banned batik (batik larangan) should only be worn by the king and his family. The famous banned batik is batik parang motif. Parang motif is varied, but the main forms are skewed picture. Parang own words said to have originated from the word that means perengor mountainside. There is also interpreted the rock sloping beach. Parang said there were also interpreted from Parangkusuma word (name of the beach at the edge India Ocean). Parang motif is distinguished by stuffing such as a parang parung, parang




Gondosuli, parang rusak, parang seling nitik, parang seling naga, and the others. Parang motif becomes the banned motif because the motif is believed to be a tribute to the founder of the Mataram dynasty named Panembahan Senopati. Told that Panembahan Senopati gain strength untu establish the kingdom of Mataram after he was imprisoned in Turkish Parangkusuma. In the ascetic, he was met by a fairy named Ratu Kidul (Queen of the South Coast). He met Panembahan Senopati because they feel uncomfortable with his ascetism (tapa) of Panembahan Senopati. He admitted defeat and surrender and said it would help Panembahan Senopati with soldiers. He will protect Mataram from enemy attack. There are two important things related to the story Panembahan Senopati in Mataram kingdom artwork. The first is a parang motif to be banned batik motif batik. This motif is specifically for the king and his family and used at Jumenengan (to the throne). Batik is a symbol of the struggle Panembahan Senopati in founding the kingdom's spiritual victory in Parangkusumo. Because it was the main motif picture batik parang is sloping beach. Mythological, Senopati Panembahan meeting with the Queen of the South Coast (Ratu Laut Kidul) is a meeting between sea and land is a symbol of the unity of an empire. So, Parang reflect events Ratu Kidul presence of Parangkusuma. The second important element is bedhaya ketawang dance. Dance is also performed when jumenengan or jumenengan anniversary. According to the story, the birth of dance bedhaya is a picture of the meeting of two of nature, that nature was born and inner nature, sea and earth, the real and the supernatural. The incident was described by a meeting Panembahan Senopati and Kanjeng Ratu Kidul. All of that is part of understanding the philosophy that exists in the Java community. Bedhaya dance is a symbol of the presence of the Queen of South when jumenengan event, even if some people

believe bedhaya dance performances are being carried out, then the shadow of Kanjeng Ratu Kidul looked in it danced so bedhaya danced 9 people looked danced by 10 people (Herawati, 2010). In the stories of cultural diplomacy as it provides a snapshot of the state of a work of art that is related to many factors of life, which includes the history, the romance, mythology, legitimacy, and governance community relations. Bedhaya dancer is a kind of special because it allowed dancers to use batik parang motif. This is because it relates to a mythological story that the dancers is the incarnation of Ratu Kidul of the South Coast who is the mythological wife of the king of Mataram In the mythological story is told that Ratu Kidul is the unseen wife of all the kings who ruled Mataram. Ratu Kidul as a form of protection to the king of Mataram. The meeting place between Panembahan Senopati with Ratu Kidul in Pantai Parangkusuma regarded as the main gateway to enter the territory of Ratu Kidul. Therefore, in Ruwah month (according to the Javanese calendar) in Pantai Parangkusumo held Larungan (throwing offerings into the sea) who throw nails and used clothing Sultan (King Yogyakara) as well as the offerings for Ratu Kidul. In the mythological story is told that Ratu Kidul later became the unseen wife of all the kings who ruled Mataram as a form of protection od Ratu Kidul to the king of Mataram. The meeting place between Panembahan Senopati with Ratu Kidul in Parangkusuma Beach regarded as the main gateway to enter the territory of Ratu Kidul. Therefore, in Ruwah (according to the Javanese calendar) in Parangkusumo held Larungan (throwing offerings into the sea) who throw nails and used clothing of Sultan (King Yogyakara) as well as other offerings are intended to Ratu Kidul. Another force in cultural diplomacy is a process of making batik. Batik is a painting. Unlike the other works of art, batik is a work produced collectively. A




batik cloth can be realized through some human touch "undocumented" in the fabric. In the first batik making a fabric given a pattern with a pencil. This pattern is a new form of basic shapes. Image pattern is then given wax (malam). Award malam was dropped at the desired spot colors remain. It performed by trained personnel and not by the constituent patterns. In the wax giving the trained personnel are also already familiar with these forms form stuffing picture so that he will fill with stuffing that has been accustomed to do in the form of geometric patterns, circles, straight lines or other form of images of flora and fauna. After finished cover the wax, then the next step is to color. The color application process also requires someone with specialized skills, especially when given color is the color of the natural material. Almost never appear the same color on each staining. Coloring method is by dipping a batik cloth that had been given the wax into a color liquid . If the desired color is not only one, then some of that color will be maintained should be given the wax again. This method is often called nembok / ngeblok. After that section is closed, then dipped into the liquid dye further. The last step is to dissolve the wax stuck in the fabric batk by heating in boiling water so that the wax is separated from the fabric. The process of making batik is known as the process exciting. Many foreigner to learn batik (generally limited

to using canting). They feel the sensation of the difficulty of drawing with canting). Some companies batik in Solo batik now also provide attractions for tourists. This description of the batik making is the origin of batik. Meaning refers to the process of closing batik wax using canting. So, batik is the cover image with a night on cloth or other materials. Once colored, the wax is removed with hot water or gasoline (Pujiyanto, 2010: 17).

4. CONCLUSSION Batik has the power as a tool for cultural diplomacy. The strength there are at least four things: (1) the strength of the history of batik had become a part of world culture, (2) the strength of the batik process that have specificity in the making, (3) the strength of the birth of batik motifs that have meaning in community owner. Stories like that give a snapshot of the state of a work of art that is related to many factors of life, which includes the history, the romance, mythology, legitimacy, and governance community relations. Batik is also associated with other works of art such as dance bedhaya. Bedhaya dancer is a kind of special because it allowed dancers to use batik parang motif. This is because it relates to a mythological story that the dancers is the incarnation of Queen of the South who is the mythological wife of the king of Mataram.

REFERENCE Alwi, Hasan dkk. (2001). Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Edisi Ketiga. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka Doellah, H. Santosa. (2002). Batik: The Impact of Time and Enviroment. Surakarta: Danarhadi. Herawati, Enis Niken. (2010). “Makna Simbolik dalam Tata Rakit Tari Bedhaya”. Tradisi: Jurnal Seni Budaya. Vol. 1 No.1 November 2010).




Hitchcock, Michael. (1991). Indonesia Textiles. Findon: Periplus Edition. http://www.antaranews.com/berita/156389/batik-indonesia-resmi-diakui-unesco. Nian Djoemena. (1990). Ungkapan Sehelai Batik. Jakarta:Jambatan. Pujiyanto. 2010. Batik Kraton Kasunanan dan Mangkunegaran Surakarta. Yogyakarta: Kendil Media Pustaka. Seni Indonesia. Rizali, Nanang. 2015. “Ritual Islam dalam Motif Batik Besurek Bengkulu”.Jurnal IBDA’: Jurnal Kebudayaan Islam Vol. 13, No. 2, Juli - Desember 2015 hlm 266-276. Zoetmulder, PJ.. 1982. Old Javanese English Dictionary. . Leiden: ‘s GarvenhageMartinus Nijhoff, KITLV.




Thomas Stamford Raffles in Melaka: a Diplomat or a Spy?

Daya Negri Wijaya

History Department, UniversitasNegeri Malang [email protected] Abstract. Thomas Stamford Raffles is well-known as the founding father of Singapore. However, he is also known as the assistant secretary of Penang’s governor and the lieutenant governor of Java. There is a confusing jump from assistant secretary to lieutenant governor in few years. It is interesting to re-visit his journey in Southeast Asia. He has a secret duty from Lord Minto, the governor of East India Company placed in India. Minto wants him to make a survey on the condition of Java before deciding to invade Dutch-French in Java. Raffles knows that the native really hates the Dutch and the Dutch wants to gain an independence from the French. Raffles tries to communicate his sympathy to the native people of Nusantara. In other side, his communication becomes guidance in assisting Minto’s armies to dispossess the French power from Southeast Asia. He seems to be a diplomat and in other side as a spy when staying in Melaka. He takes information of the Javanese condition and its surrounding. Moreover, he tends to separate Java from the foreign power. This article will elaborate the short biography of Raffles, the role of Raffles in Melaka, and the reflection of Raffles’ role in Melaka. Keywords: Raffles, Minto, Melaka, Java, East India Company

Indonesian is often used as an “object”. It is affected by the foreigners, therefore Indonesian culture is shaped by the foreign culture. However, human beings are unique. We have many differences with other culture. We cannot understand a culture or a society without using a perspective from within. One of historians pioneering the within perspective is J.C. van Leur. According to Kartodirdjo (2001, p.13),“...the works of Schrieke and van Leur shied away from the official colonial historiography adopted by Stapel with its Neerlando-centric point of view. In actual fact, the above authors followed by Wertheim can be regarded as precursors of

the writing of Indonesian history from the inside...” Van Leur (2015, p.231) also suggests that Indonesian history should be viewed as the global history. Indonesian has a reciprocal influence with the foreigners. However, the Europeans influence the map of power in Java but the Javanese culture shapes the consciousness of Europeans. The authority of the Javanese king is determined by the European’s importance. The beginning of nineteenth century, Java faced its “owner” between British or French-Dutch. Their war and their importance changed the map




of Javanese power. In contrast, there are some ways in colonizing a colony. One of the ways is to follow the people tendency. Dirk Van Hogendorp and Thomas Stamford Raffles are the romanticists which are deciding any policy based on the Javanese way of thinking. It seems that the Javanese culture has shaped the European’s consciousness. The journey of Thomas Stamford Raffles in Southeast Asia seems to be following this tendency. He seems to affect and to be affected by Javanese culture. We should start to reveal this tendency by his appearance in Melaka and in the context British-French dispute. Between the late of eighteenth and the beginning of nineteenth centurywas the crucial period of Southeast Asian political condition. British and France tended to prove whothe bestwas. Their competition, absolutely followed by a war, was not only seen in Europe but also in Southeast Asia. As the impact of French imperialism in Dutch, the Dutch-Indies was also colonialized by the France. The appearance of the French-Dutch in Malay Archipelago was the real threat for the British trade and their importance. British had to face their heavy competitor to guide thesailing traders between India and China or Japan. East India Company representing the royal power sent a message to the branch of company in India. The message stated that the workers in India should dispose the French power in Java. Lord Minto, the governor of East India Company in India, wanted to make a survey on the condition of Java before deciding to invade Dutch-French. He looked for someone who could inform the Javanese circumstances in detail. His righthand, John Leyden, gave him an important suggestion. Leyden knew someone who could inform the Javanese condition. He recommended Thomas Stamford Raffles, the assistant secretary of Penang’s governor. Raffles had placed the position since his first arriving in Southeast Asia, around 1805.

As people know, Raffles assists Minto to invade the French-Dutch in Java. Moreover, he then convinces Lord Minto to colonialize Java. However, it is a little information concerning the RafflesMinto’s strategies in invading Java and particularly, explaining the Raffles’ ways in collecting data on Java. Raffles never goes to Java before the 1811 conquest. This directs us to look at his appearance in Melaka. He should stay at Penang, if he considers his work as the assistant secretary of Penang’s governor. However, after visiting India, he does not go back to Penang and stays in Melaka.In Melaka, Raffles plays a confusing role. He seemsto be a diplomat in one side and is seen as the other Minto’s eyes. Concerning his role in Melaka (the second coming), there are some opinions. Sophia Raffles (1885:53) argues that “from the moment of his arrival at Malacca, MrRaffles had devoted himself with all his usual ardour to the acquirement of information on every point calculated to promote the conquest of Java, and communicated the result of his inquiries to Lord Minto in letters which contained a mass of useful information”. Hahn (1946:110) explains that “In Malacca, he became agent to the governor-general and not quite incidentally, was in a far better spot than Penang would have been from which to collect information useful to the approaching campaign”. Collis (2000:42) states that “besides his diplomatic approaches to the regents of Java and the Sultans of other islands, Raffles had undertaken the task of working out the best route for the invasion fleet to follow”.Hikayat Abdullah as edited by Sweeney (2008:299), records his activities around three or four months in Melaka. He has sent the diplomatic letters and the presents to all Malay kings. He wants to be supported by the king of Mataram (in invading the French) but the king does not reply his message. It could be clearly seen that his role in Melaka is twofold, a diplomat and a spy. However, the previous studies do not




give any explanation why does Raffles choose Melaka as the starting place to work out the Minto’s secret duty; how does Raffles create some alliances with the Malay or the Javanese kings; and how does Raffles give a suggestion leading the armies to Java. The author wants to go further. It might be worth to elaborate the short biography of Raffles and the role of Raffles in Melaka. Moreover, this article is written using the mode of duality. The author tends to not only focus on the detail of events but also analyse the use of history. Therefore, it is useful to writethe reflection of Raffles’ Role in Melaka. The Life of Thomas Stamford Raffles Raffles’ second wife, Sophia, tended to describe the determination of Raffles when he was young. He was motivated to learn any knowledge. “my leisure hours, however, still continued to be devoted to favourite studies; and with the little aid my allowances afforded, I contrived to make myself master of the French language, and to prosecute inquiries into some of the branches of literature and science; this was, however in stolen moments either before the office hours in the morning, or after them in the evening” (Raffles, 1885:3). This directs us how to be a learner and to manage the learning time-table. He divided his time of learning and working as an assistant clerk in East India Company, London at the age of 14 years old. His father death, Benjamin Raffles, affected his education. He, then, left his education and became the backbone of his family (Hannigan, 2012, p.41). Raffles had an emotional approach with the ocean. He was born on the ship of Ann when approaching the Morant Harbour, one of many islands in Jamaica, in 5 July 1781 (Boulger, 1999, p.xxxvi). His mother was Anne Lyde Lindeman. She was the clergyman’s sister in London, John Lindeman (Raffles, 1885, p.2-3). According to Hahn (1946, p.3), poverty

coming to his family was the influence of the economic crisis and English social system when the unwell-educated person did not gain any good-paying job. In the early eighteenth century, there were two revolutions changing the socio-cultural pattern of the mankind. Those were the American Revolution (1776) and the French revolution (1789). The later revolution had shaped Raffles’ mind that the emerging of the middle-class forced the aristocrats to agree the limitation of power through constitution (Kuntowijoyo, 2005, p.65). According to Bastin (1957, p.xii), “Raffles’ policies were not only determined by economic factor but also prompted by sincere humanitarian motives. However between Java and Sumatra the administration was different but the aim was essentially the same-that of improving the condition of the people. Raffles was a product of the late eighteenth century humanitarian movement which had found its inspiration in the work of Rousseau of the myth of the noble savage”. Raffles was an actor and a product of the late eighteenth century humanitarian movement. His way of thinking was inspired by the French enlightenment and the main classical thinkers of Voltaire, Montesquieu, and JJ Rousseau. French revolution was the logical consequence of the corrupted government in managing its citizen. This change was not only forced by people’s suffering but also led by people’s importance, the bourgeoisie. This middle-class continually criticized the corrupted work of Louis XVI and Maria Antoinette. They spent people’s money brutally. Some thinkers motivated the spirit of this struggle like Voltaire’s criticism on the standing position of clergyman in the front of the king. Montesquieu argued that the power should be separated by three power of legislative, executive and judicative power. They had to give a responsibility to people not to the king. However, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and the other oppositions were forcibly imprisoned by the king. This was




compounded by the issuing of taxation system for the peasants. Ironically, the aristocrats and the clergymen were set to free from any form of taxation (Romein, 1956, p.132-3). The right to have a freedom grew along with the spread of Rousseau’s works on the social contract and the people’s sovereignty. Rousseau argued that the freedom is the state when the man releases his will to conquer others. They are free from their afraid of the persuasive or the violence invasion. He also argued that the free men are the obedient man on order. However. This order does not make him as a slave therefore his owned freedom does not direct him to social anarchy. This free men make an agreement to shape a collective power. This power is called by people sovereignty. Everyone who give his right or his freedom does not lose the both. The state has a responsibility to service every citizens and if the state deviates from the general will therefore the state would face a crisis (Suhelmi, 2001, p.249-252). The crying of French Revolution of life, liberty, and brotherhood led everyone to pursue for their freedom and their justice. The enlightenment world inspired that everyone should place himself as a centre of the world and not obey the king’s order or the church dogma. The state of Europe in the eighteenth century showed the contradictory life. Charles Dickens (1859) in his work of a tale of two cities described this condition in: “it was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair...in short, the period was so far like the present period...”. Raffles’ maturity grew up in this spirit of the age. The young Raffles, as described early, spent his life for working in the day and reading many books on France in the evening. William Ramsay, one of his bosses in East India Company in London,

saw the peculiarity in Raffles’ characteristic. He came earlier and back from the office in the midnight. He often took the overtime work and all his salaries was given to his parent. However, Raffles was never complained and kept his spirit in developing his French skills. He thought that the French knowledge would lead him to understand European literatures. Raffles, however he had many limitations and few times in practicing French conversation, succeeded to speak French fluently. His fluency was well-recorded in Sophia Raffles’ memoir (1885, p.6-7), “...in the year 1818, during his government in Sumatra, a lady was singing in his house one of Moore’s Melodies...when some French gentlemen present regretted that the beauties which he was so admiring were lost to them; he immediately translated the whole into French verse, much to the surprise of all present“. Ramsay realized that Raffles’ potencies should be developed. Therefore, he proposed Raffles to the board of directors for the branch of the company in Penang (Prince of Wales’ Island) in 1805. Raffles then became an assistant of secretary in Penang (Raffles, 1885:8-9). In the boring voyage around five months to Penang, Raffles spent his time to read all literatures on the Malay world. When he arrived in Penang around September 1805, he succeeded to master Malay language. In his busy weeks, he spared his time to learn the local language and tradition (Raffles, 1885, p.10). Therefore, Raffles could easily know the managing skills and the general knowledge related to the ways of western and local governing. Raffles often visited and communicated to all classes. He continued the British tradition which was smart to take people’s heart (Hanggoro, 2015, p.4344). He wanted to know the local culture and saw the condition in developing the trade, the population, and the port in Penang (Raffles, 1885, p.23). He was astute in negotiating. John Leyden had known his brilliant knowledge. He then recommended Raffles to Lord




Minto, The general governor in India who was afraid on the French-Dutch occupation in Java that was disturbing his trade and political stability in Southeast Asia. Leyden claimed Raffles as a competent person on Malay world. He also knew that Raffles had a communication with William Marsden, the Sumatra’s expert. Vlekke (2008, p.286-8) explained that the British invasion in Java was based on the disposed effort of his enemy in Europe that was France. The director of East India Company in London governed the general governor in India to dispose the French from their settlement, to destroy all their bastions, and to take all their arsenals and ammunition; for the rehabilitation all settlements to the native. Raffles then executed the mission by sending a letter and some interesting presents for the kings of Nusantara (Vlekke, 2008, p.295). In his letter, Raffles showed his sympathy and wanted to help them in order to release from the Dutch colonization. Raffles, after got an instruction from Lord Minto then joining the British armies around 12.000 armies on 100 ships, succeeded in destroying Janssens’ troops in Batavia. Raffles became a lieutenant governor in Java. He placed himself as the agent of French revolution.However, Javanese did not face any changing in their history butthe French faced the change through the revolution and needed some years. Raffles forced to fasten this process (Vlekke, 2008:294-5). In the end of his government in Java, the spirit of revolution in terms of freedom and justice affected Raffles’ daily activities as described in his cousin’s letter around March 1815 (Raffles, 1864, p.132). This state continued till John Fendall replacing his position. Raffles with his disappointed feeling left Java in 25 March 1816 and went back to England. He was welcomed by some people especially some noblemen. Princess Charlotte, one of the royal families, was familiar with Raffles and he gave her a beautiful table from Java. His present was really famous in London therefore Princess Charlotte’s

grandmother, King George III’s wife, invited him to the palace. He then was well-known in the circle of London intellects after his book entitled “History of Java” was published. Seeing the engagement of Raffles and the royal family, the board of directors of East India Company opened his complicated case around 3.5 years (a charge of Gillespie and his re-calling to England). They apologized for the past mistreatment. The directors confirmed the place of Raffles in Bengkulu (Collis, 2000, p.100). Raffles arrived in Bengkulu in 22 March 1818 after facing a voyage around 4 months. He spent his time to read Marsden’s work and collected some information in Sumatera. He issued the same policy when he had a power in Java. The forcing policy and slavery was abolished by giving a freedom certificate. He believed that gambling and cockfighting contributed to social disharmony. Raffles claimed that those activities affected some crimes like killing and robbery (Raffles, 1824, p.34-36). He believed that it was prominent to keep the safety of Southeast Asian trade. He pointed the Malacca strait as a strategic area. The Prince of Wales’ Island was far from Malacca strait and Bengkulu was near from Indian Ocean and Sunda strait. He looked out into Tumasik Island, then called Singapore. Raffles, through his diplomatic ability, succeeded to gain a license in building Singapore from Sultanate Johor by paying the land rent. After he had finished a project in building Singapore around July 1823 and India had confirmed John Crawfurd as Singaporean resident, Raffles went back to England in 22 august 1824. He died a year later.

The Role of Raffles in Melaka It was really a huge jumping for Raffles’ carrier when gettingMinto’s duty. He worked out the duty in Melaka and left his responsibility as an assistant of




Penang’s secretary. Apart of Hall’s accounts (1975, p.451) of “the post of Minto’s agent for the courts of Malay in Melaka”,it was strategic place to fill Minto’s demand on Javanese information. Hannigan (2012, p.64-65) stated that: “...if you had visited Melaka sometime in the final months of 1810 you would probably have found Raffles earnestly quizzing some white-turbaned sailor from Sulawesi or some batik-clad emissary from Sumatra. Native scribes in slate-blue jackets would have been scribbling away in Jawi, writing replies to far-off rajas...he wrote every scrap of information about DutchIndies territories, about Daendels’ road and fortbuilding projects, about agricultural and administrative systems in the Javanese hinterland, about the archaic stratifications of the native courts, about trade winds and sailing routes, about the role of the Chinese immigrants in Indonesia, and about the strength and composition of the Dutch armies...”. It might be true that Melaka was a centre of information on Southeast Asia including Java. Tome Pires (2014, p.386), a Portuguese explorer, reported Melaka as a heaven of trade. There was a meeting of the traders and even being the busy market. They were from Java, Bengal, Pasai, China, Brunei, and others. In addition, Van Leur (2015, p.195) explained that thousands of Gujarat traders stayed in Melaka. They had sailed between the important ports of India and Indonesia. We could imagine that many traders, meeting in Melaka, not only exchanged their commodities but also shared their cultures and their experience.

Raffles started a correspondence with the native courts of Nusantara. He would like to create natural allies against the demonic Dutchmen. He sent letters, written by local scribes in florid Malay, to the petty fiefdoms of southern Borneo, to Madura, and to Palembang (Hannigan, 2012, p.66). Abdullah, Raffles’ clerk in Melaka, in Sweeney (2008, p.299-301) recorded his activity in: “...between three and four months, Raffles stayed in Melaka, all Malay kings from west to east were sent some letters along with all presents...Therefore, at this time, they thought that British spited the Dutch. They believed that the British would have a war with the Dutch...therefore, Raffles sent a letter which was wrote in Javanese language by the local prince to the king of Mataram. The prince wrote the letter till 12 PM and Raffles stamped the letter with all presents, approximately 200-300 ringgit...” It was important for Raffles to create some allies with the Malays. They would support, at least on Javanese information, the conquest of French-Dutch in Java. Between British and Malay had the same enemy that was the Dutch. Malay was completely hate the Dutch, at that time Dutch was colonialized by France. Raffles tended to set Malay as an ally if the British troops invaded Java. It was simply discussed by Abdullah in Sweeney (2008, p.295), “the Dutch fooled the Malays however Mr Raffles loved always to be on goodterms with the Malays, even the poorest could speak tohim”. It was common that Raffles was helped by the Malays to gain his objective. In contrast, the Malays did not know what his aims are.




In addition, Malays were happy to receive a present.This showed that the gift represented their will to be admitted. Raffles knew this information. He sent many letters to the Malay along with the presents. Giving the gift was an important component to create the allies as explained by Mauss’ gift (1990, p.25) in: “...presents could form a link of kinship between them.They give the two ‘sides’ the same nature, and this identical nature is made clearly manifest in the prohibition that, from the first betrothal vows to the very end of their days, places a taboo on the two groups, who from then onwards do not see each other or communicate verbally, but continue constantly to exchange presents...”. Raffles did not hope to get any reply such as a letter or a thing. He wanted to receivetheir help and their support. He seemed to convince that the French-Dutch was alone. It could ease the British invasion of Java. He tended to compare Malay and Javanese. He also sent a letter with some presents to the king Mataram. Abdullah in Sweeney (2008, p.301) recorded that “...Mr Raffles asked Pangeran, son of Javanese noblemen stayed in Melaka, to write a Javanese letter and sent it to SusunanBentaram (King of Mataram) along with the presents approximately 200-300 Ringgit...”. However, Raffles did not get any real reply from the Javanese king. Pangeran and TengkuPanglimaBesar had made the false letter to Raffles, even they arrived in Java based on Gallop’s account (1994). Abdullah in Sweeney (2008, p.318) wrote their conversation in “...PanglimaBesar stated that you (Pangeran) wrote a letter, you informed Mr Raffles that the letter was written by the SusunanBentaram. The King had already received your letter. He waited in Java. He

would be at war... Pangeran replied that I wrote a letter then was covered by a yellow fabric...” Raffles was absolutely confused. He could pay the information but he did not get any chance. The reality came out to him that the Malay (Panglima Besar) had clearly given the false information. He was really upset to the Malay. This episode was a failure on the part of Raffles’ diplomacy (Egerton, 1900, p.45). He then seemed to have the bad stereotype on Malay. He raised their bad habits in his work, like in “...it is a mistaken idea to confound the Javanese with the character of ferociousness and barbarity that has been attributed to the Malay...” (Raffles, 1816, p.19). Hikayat Abdullah did not inform any clue on the failure of Raffles’ diplomacy to Javanese.We could assume that the Javanese could not want to be colonialized. They had an antiimperialistic spirit. They probably claimed that the foreigners were the same, the imperialist.However, the foreigners had completely ruled the Javanese in any aspects of life. They could still show their nationalism through the Javanese “rampokmacan”. From the Dutch to the British were always received by the entertainment of “rampokmacan”. This entertainment should be realized by its symbolic meanings, the tiger representing the European and the buffalo dealing with the native. The ceremonies were arranged and were ended by the winning of the buffalo. This gave a national spirit for the people (Wessling, 1992). This tendency, then, led him to colonialize Java by the way of Javanese thinking. He expressed himself as an enlightened despot when he took a power in Java. Raffles was not only seemed to be a diplomat but also become a spy specifically the empirical spy. He gave the fullest information on the route to Java. He led the royal-company’s armies from Melaka to Java. From Boulger (1897) and Coupland (1926) to Hahn (1946) and Collis (2000) agreed to describe that




Raffles had successfully contributed to move the fleet to Java. He considered the best and safest route to be followed by the British fleet. Two sea routes were possible. One voyage, round the northern tip of Borneo, would take at least two months. The navigation was risky though because otherwise the rainy season. This would overtake them about halfway even if they started immediately. The other route by the south-west was known only by hearsay. However, its reputation was bad. Navigation was supposedly far worse that way than by the North Borneo passage (Hahn, 1946, p.145-146). Even, the Dutch had covered the knowledge in approaching Java. British sailors did not know the way to Java. They agreed that it was impossible (Coupland, 1926, p.28-29). Raffles was fortunately sceptical of the former conclusion; and he sent Captain Greigh to report on it by personal examination. He gave a time for twenty days to examine the channel and return with his report. The point to be settled was whether the expedition must sail by the straits of Makassar or whether the Caramatha (Karimata) passage and Strait of Biliton (Buton) offered a feasible route. Captain Greigh then reported the practicability of the Caramatha passage. This was forwarded by Raffles to Lord Minto, “no doubt can now be reasonably entertained that the south-western passage may be effected, by the fleet sailing in divisions, in the space of a month or six weeks at farthest” (Boulger, 1897, p.101102). Naval experts finally adopted Raffles’ suggestion. It was supported by Minto’s trusting on Raffles. The voyage was going to take some weeks, but the chances were that the fleet and transports would arrive without mishap. In fact, the voyage lasted from 11 June 1811 to the first week in August, a matter of six weeks. After passing Singapore, the fleet threaded its way between the nearby archipelagos of Rhio and Linga, and steering north east came to Borneo’s most northerly spot,

Balambangan Island. By 4 August 1811 the whole fleet was lying off Batavia, the capital of Java (Collis, 2000, p.42-43). The British voyage from Melaka to Java was also recorded by Thorn in: We sailed from Melaka in June, passing the Singapore Strait few days later. The ships were approaching Borneo by using the land breeze. We arrived in Selangor dated 3 July 1811. In 27 July 1811, we reached at Sambas. Then, we arrived in Cilincing, 10 miles east of Batavia, in 4 August 1811 (Thorn, 2011, p.10-12). British had been stayed for a week in Java. They faced the first real battle and conquered the Cornelis. British completely destroyedJanssens’ troops in Batavia. Janssens escaped to Semarang before gave up to the Britain. This added his bad record after giving the hope cape to the British. In 18 September 1811, Nusantara was officially under British armies (Vlekke, 2008:291). Lord Minto realized that Java had a strategic area to support the company’s trade in Southeast Asia. He believed that Raffles could manage Java. However, Raffles had a vision not only to support British trade but also to lead the natives into their freedom. He re-organized Javanese administration after FrenchDutch left Java. He did not realize all problems related to the changing system from indirect rule system to direct rule system. This would end his legacy in Java and Fendall replaced his position. Reflection on the Raffles’ Role in Melaka Hikayat Abdullah is not just a tale but an inspiring tale. It informs the readers how to re-evaluate meanings and values from the event.The tale, for example, suggests how to choose the fittest man for the important work. For Abdullah in Sweeney (2008, p.320), it was difficult to




decide the trusted man. He brought us to reflect on Raffles’ upset. He was really disappointeddue to the performance of his representations in Java. He wanted to send the letter accompanying by some gifts but they might not give those things to the king. Even, they gave the false letter of the Mataram king. It could be learnt that we should know someone’s track record before trusting him. It is useful in order to prevent the coming failure and to chart the succeeding decision. Carey (2014, p.7) supported its suggestion. He claims that the ultimate aim of the history is twofold: to achieve closure on the tragic events of the past and to resurrect the dead. This means the historian has not only a sustained willingness to confront, document and acknowledge the atrocities of the past but also a morally task to teach the forgotten people. We could learn from Raffles’ scepticism. He tends to verify the people’s truth on the way of approaching Java. He sends Captain Greigh to identify the safest route to Java. After Greigh’s report is received, Raffles leads Minto to decide the best route. Raffles in fact, considers the empirical knowledge. He awakes the unknown knowledge or in the accounts of Carey, “resurrect the dead”. Interestingly, Raffles has successfully kept the victims of the AngloDutch war in Batavia. He covers the “tragedy” through returning the Javanese civilization from the barbarian Dutch. He uses the Javanese king legitimization to rule Java and its dependencies. He believed that Javanese needs a king who has a justice and capability to rule based on the passive characteristic of Javanese. It is

a public secret that the Javanese political system is despotic. This consideration leads him to use the direct rule system. Javanese, in his view, is the generous and honest people. This leads him to introduce the jury system in Java. He hopes that the justice will be appeared in reality. The tendency of hedonic Javanese is also shaped him to move the wheels of capitalistic system and the free trade in Java. He wants that Javanese will be one of British markets in Southeast Asia.

Conclusion Thomas Stamford Raffles is a complicated figure. He loves the Eastern tradition When working as an assistant Clerk in London. At Melaka, he plays two roles. One becomes a diplomat. He tends to relate the alliances between British and Malays. He sends many letters accompanied by the gifts. He could speak and write Malay fluently. Therefore, they could accept his appearance. In addition, he also collects the fullest information on the safest route from Melaka to Java. He does not believe on the hearsay knowledge. He sends Captain Greigh to reportthe feasible route to Java. He is able to lead the British armies arriving in Java. The important thing, British armies could dispose the Franco-Dutch power in Java. To short, people could learn from Raffles’ journey in Melaka. One of values is preventing the coming failure and to chart the succeeding decision through knowing someone’s track record before trusting him.

REFERENCE Bastin, John. (1957). the Native Policies of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles in Java and Sumatra: An Economic Interpretation. Oxford: The Clarendon Press Boulger, Demetrius C. (1897). The Life of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. London: Horace Marshall & Son Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 131



Carey, Peter. (2014). The Uses and Abuses of History: A British Historian’s View of Indonesia. Inaugural lectureAdjunct Professor at the Faculty of Humanities of the Universityof Indonesia (FIB-UI). Monday, 1 December 2014 Collis, Maurice. (2000). Raffles the Definitive Biography. Singapore: Graham Brash Coupland, R. (1926). Raffles 1781-1826. Oxford: Oxford University Press Dickens, Charles. (1859). A Tale of Two Cities. A Weekly Journal. Saturday, 30 April 1859 Egerton, Hugh Egerton. (1900). Sir Stamford Raffles: England in the Far East. New York: Longmans Gallop, Annabel. (1994). the Legacy of the Malay Letter: WarisanWarkahMelayu. London & Kuala Lumpur: The British Library Hahn, Emily. (1946). Raffles of Singapore. New York: Doubleday Hall, D.G.E. (1975). Sejarah Asia Tenggara. Surabaya: Usaha Nasional Hanggoro, Hendaru Tri. (2015). PerangKongsiDagang. MajalahHistoria, 22 (2): pp.4245 Hannigan, Tim. (2012). Raffles and the British Invasion of Java. Singapore: Moonson Books Kartodirdjo, Sartono. (2001). Indonesian Historiography. Yogyakarta: Kanisius Kuntowijoyo. (2005). PeranBorjuasidalamTransformasiEropa. Yogyakarta: Ombak Mauss, Marcel. (1990). the Gift: The Form And Reason For ExchangeIn Archaic Societies. London & New York: Routledge Pires, Tome. (2014). Suma Oriental. Yogyakarta: Ombak Raffles, Sophia. (1885). Memoirs of the Life and Public Services of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles London: William Clowes and Sons Raffles, Thomas Stamford. (1824). Statement of the Services. London: Cox &Baylis Raffles, Thomas Stamford. (1816). Review of the Administration, Value, and State of the Colony of Java with Its Dependencies. London: Black, Parbury& Allen Raffles, Thomas. (1864). Memoirs of the Life and Ministry of the rev. London: Jackson, Walford, & Hodder Romein, Jan. (1956). Aera-Eropa: PeradabanSebagaiPenyimpangandariPolaUmum. Bandung-Jakarta-Amsterdam: PT Ganaco Suhelmi, Ahmad. (2001). PemikiranPolitik Barat: KajianSejarahPerkembanganPemikiran Negara, Masyarakat, danKekuasaan. Jakarta: GramediaPustakaUtama Sweeney, Amin (Ed). (2008). KaryaLengkap Abdullah bin Abdul KadirMunsyiJilid 3. Jakarta: KPG Thorn, William. (2011). PenaklukanPulauJawa: PulauJawa di Abad Sembilan BelasdariAmatanSeorangSerdaduKerajaanInggris. Jakarta: PT Elex Media Komputindo Van

Leur. (2015). PerdagangandanMasyarakat Indonesia: EsaitentangSejarahSosialdanEkonomi Asia. Yogyakarta: Ombak


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Vlekke, Bernard H.M. (2008). Nusantara: Sejarah Indonesia. Jakarta: KPG Wessling, R. (1992). “A Tiger in the Heart: the Javanese RampokMacan”. In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 148 (1992), no: 2, Leiden: 287-308







Measuring the Effectiveness of Forestry Management in Indonesia A Case Study on Forest Fire and its Effect on Biodiversity

Dewi Gunawati Pancasila and Civic Education Study Program, Teacher Training ad Education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University, [email protected], jl.ir Sutami 46 A Surakarta

Abstract: The background of this paper was forest and land fire case occurring in Indonesia. Forest fire impacts on health, reduced species variety, extinct germ plasm, forest ecosystem reform, monoculture, lost life source and livelihood of people surrounding the forest thereby threats the conservation of forest resource. This paper focused on measuring the effectiveness of forestry management in Indonesia. The data collection was conducted through document study and observation. The result of analysis described the less effective management of forest due to: i) economicentrist paradigm of natural resource management triggered exploratory and exploitative behavior, ii) the policy of determining the function of area as productive forest, conservation forest, and protected forest based more on land condition rather than on potential and biodiversity interest so that instead the lowland forest with highest biodiversity was allocated for productive forest and even for other sector development. iii) Overlapping regulation put into legislation resulted in the confusion in the field implementation. iv) The poor law enforcement against the forest firing perpetrator resulted in no wary effect for forest firing perpetrators. v) The poor evaluation on the license holder for forestry sector and environment license issued by government. vi) The poor management and security of wild animal types entrapped in forest fire and entering into population settlement leading to illegal hunting or illegal trading. Keywords: Measuring, Forest Management, Effect, Biodiversity

Introduction

F

orest all over the developing world are being degraded and deleted. An important part of the problem is that while in theory most forests are government owned (as is the case for many forests in the rich countries). In practice the forests are often open access resources that are exploited for firewood, charcoal and timber by local communities, outside

harvesters, or both. (R.A Bluffstone, 2015, 107). A variety of practices above describes Indonesian paradox as a country rich of biodiversity, but the reality is otherwise. In Berau Forest, 75% or 2.2 millions hectare of its area is still covered with primary and secondary forests. But since 2000, more than 201,000 ha of forest was cut either legally and illegally, for




sawit (palm) and wood plantation, mining and housing areas. It led to deforestation from 12,833 ha to 20,760 ha. Primary forest in Berau contains 133-145 millions tons of carbon, secondary forest stores 127-128 millions tons. As a result, 81-185 millions tons of Co2 are released to atmosphere. If observed more in-depth, the cause of forest fire disaster is APL (areal penggunaan lain = other use acreage) allocated to 23 cutting concessions, 281,000 allocated to industrial plantation and more than 193,000 ha for seven mining companies. So, 80% of Berau land is divided into sawit (palm), wood industry, logging and mining. The forest firing event leading to smoke fog disaster in Riau recently is one of the befalling disaster manifestations due to forestry practices. Considering the data until September 2015, the number of fire point in Riau reaches 2085 according to NASA’s monitor. Fire points include, among others, 336 points in industrial plant forest area (HTI) of PT Arara Abadi, 297 points in PT. RAPP, 107 points in PT Bukit Baatu Hutani, 103 points in PT. Inhil Hutani Pratama, 146 points in PT. Rimba Rokan Lestari and 208 points in PT. Sumatera Riang Lestari. Meanwhile, the fire point in plantation area includes 43 points in PT. Alam Lestari, 1730 points in non HG, and 10 points in PT. Pusaka Mega Bumi Nusantara (Kompas.com). When observed closely, the cause of fire is turf degradation as the main source of carbon emission in Indonesia. Considering the elaboration above, there are a few phenomena of ineffective forest management disclaiming the function of forest as wood producer, germ plasm source that can prevent soil erosion and flood, oxygen producer, air pollutant absorber, forest ecosystem, flora and fauna habitat and water organizer and soil preserver. The ineffective forest management leads to deforestation and forest degradation. Deforestation is defined as the changing function of forest into other use acreage, while forest degradation is the

reduced forest capability of supplying both environment product and service. Considering the illustration above, this article addressed the effectiveness of forest management in Indonesia as a case study on forest fire in Indonesia. The objective of research is to study the effectiveness of forest management in Indonesia from legal system by Lawrance Friedman including: structure, substance and culture.

Methodology The research approach the writer used was doctrinal and non-doctrinal research. Doctrinal law research was used to find positive law materials employed to address the problem of preserved forest management effectiveness; the measures taken included: i) identifying the cause of ineffective forest management through regulation study, and ii) describing the impact of forest fire on forest biodiversity and ecosystem. In implementing doctrinal approach, this research referred to statute, conceptual, and case study approaches. The location of research was determined purposively, to obtain data and information on the problem to be discussed. The location of research in the attempt of investigating the regulation related to forest management included: 1. Republic of Indonesia’s Forestry Library, Republic of Indonesia’s Forestry Ministry, in Manggala Wana Bhakti Building, Jakarta 2. CIFOR (Centre international Forestry Research) in Bogor 3. Epistema Institute, in Jakarta 4. Huma (Association for Community and Ecology-Based Law Reform in Jati Agung Street No.8, Jati Padang, Pasar Minggu, Jakarta). Technique of collecting data used in this study was library study. Meanwhile secondary data was obtained by searching for, inventorying and understanding literature relevant to the material of research in Library, browsing internet, clipping newspaper and studying the




important documentation relevant to forest management. The research approaches used in this study were doctrinal and nondoctrinal ones.

Discussion Forest fire in Indonesia belongs to very high category (Bambang, 2004: 34); historically, there has no smoke pollution due to forest fire impacting on neighbor countries, but today the smoke impact on Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Thailand and Philippine (Jazuli, 2007: 21). In Indonesia the vulnerable-to-fire area can be categorized into: (Majid, 2007: 12) a) very vulnerable including the forest in South Sumatera, Lampung, Riau, Jambi, Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, and South East Sulawesi provinces, b) fairly vulnerable including forests in Sumatera, Aceh, Bengkulu, Central Java, East Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara Provinces, and c) rather vulnerable including the forests in West Sumatera, West Java, Yogyakarta, North Sulawesi, Maluku, and Irian Jaya provinces. The very extreme history of forest fire traced back into 2013 in Riau in which the fire was very awesome, severe and unprecedented surpassing the previous one. Observing the history of forest fire in Indonesia can found irony referring to the finding released by PGA (Panel Participatory Governance Assessment) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) based on a research on 10 provinces mastering 80% of Indonesian forest acreage, showing that the businesspersons should deal with 31 minister-level regulations and 2 first echelon official –level regulations when they want to obtain and to extend the forest management permit (Forest Communication Forum, 2014: 14). Then, WGA (World Governance Assessment) as cited by Hyden, Court and Mease, defined governance as (Un REDD Program, 2014:4):

“The formulation and stewardship of the formal and informal rules that regulate the public realm the arena in which state as well as economic and societal actors interact to make decisions” The parameter used by WGA includes: a) community’s freedom level of using political rights, (b) political stability and violence absence, (c) government effectiveness, d) regulation quality, (e) regulation and law enforcement, and (f) control over corruption. The less optimally forest management will impact on deforestation and forest degradation. Deforestation is defined as the changing function of forest into other use acreage, while forest degradation is the reduced forest capability of supplying both environment product and service. The conservation field has historical suffered from a dearth of rigorous, ex post, empirical impact evaluations of both biophysical and human welfare outcomes. That said in recent years, the body of rigorous empirical studies employing quasi experimental techniques to evaluate the impacts of conservation qualify of protected areas on poverty in Costa Rica and Thailand and on deforestation in Costa Rica and Sumatra; impact decentralization management on forest cover in the Himalayas and on welfare in Malawi and Uganda; and the impact of payment for ecosystem services on deforestation in Costa Rica. (Susan Caplow, Pamella Jagger, Katleen Lawlor, Erin Sills, 2010.152). Referring to the United Nation’sREDD, the factors supporting deforestation and forest degradation are (Banner, 2012: 11): 1. Ineffective spatial design and layout 2. Less effective forest management 3. Ineffective and inefficient forest management 4. Unclear legal foundation and poor law enforcement and corruption development in forestry and land sector.




The factors triggering deforestation and forest degradation are: 1. Development paradigm incompliant with the principle of sustainable development. 2. Poor leadership in forest regulating and managing process 3. Pursuing the economic growth target regardless environment supportability and forest preservation. 4. Discrepancy between wood and palm (sawit) demand and supply. The factors affecting deforestation and forest degradation above are interrelated, for example, the spatial layout design does not function effectively as an instrument of control to ensure the sustainable and just forest utilization; it leads to tenurial problem. Tenurial problem manifests in the form of conflict of area ownership and forest conversion. The factors contributing to ineffective forest management leading to the society’s dissatisfaction with justice are as follows UN REDD Program,2012:4): i) no mutually agreed forest area map, ii) inadequate number of personnel, and iii) low integrity among the employees who work and issue permit and control the permit given and many permits given without adequate consultation or getting the society’s consent. In addition to the factors elaborated above, the government’s policy approach is top-down in nature, supported by overlapping regulations in other various sectors opening the opportunity of misusing forestry investment permit, forest and land concession leading to illegal logging. Considering the illustration above, it can be summarized that the forest management condition involves a series of interest pulling-pushing. The interest pulling-pushing is divided into forest governance discourse including (Ribot, 2006:1864-1866): Firstly, decentralization. A discourse involving the authority’s transfer from central to local government. It means

that local government obtains technical capacity or formal authority of managing forest belonging to its local government administration border from central government. In practice, the authority transfer is defined as publishing the license of uncontrolled forest resource utilization regardless the principle of good and sustainable forest governance. Secondly, participative forest management is defined as recognizing and appreciating the existence of local community to participate in forest management. The objective of participative management is toward the process and product efficiency and effectiveness conducted jointly by local government and community and other stakeholders. However, in reality, the participative forest management is conducted unilaterally by local government. Thirdly, forest management through market mechanism. Government or company applies certification to its produced product. Market mechanism is considered as suitable for the large-capital company, while the small-scale one managed by local community difficultly access the certification because of its expensive cost and special skill requirement. Citing Lawrence Friedman’s work studying the legal system, analysis on the effectiveness of Indonesian forest management is studied in three aspects: i) structure, ii) substance, and iii) culture. a. Substance or policy implementation Concept of policy implementation is to develop a lesson learning framework for the analysis.Within the framework,policy implementation is defined as translating documented policy decisions into practice through on the ground activities to achieve desire implementation outcomes(Leventon and Antypas, 2012:24) Substance regulation of

is related Indonesian


to

the forest



management. The regulation governing forest management includes: a. Licensing The mode of licensing process can be categorized into: Firstly, licensing is given when the forest area has not been established completely and has not been arranged for the permitted location within it so that many transactions are needed and the fee is assumed by the prospect license holder. It has implication to non-objective discretion of licensing and neglected licensing service for the local community. Secondly, the license administration is conducted by the prospect license holder to deal with internal affairs between central and local government, and spatial information (forest area border and the existence of third party). Thirdly, it is not available accurately so that the license recommendation is only administrative in nature. In addition, forest stand in accounting is not recorded as government’s asset, so that it has no implication to short-term performance, and fourthly, the strongly consolidated effect of elite makes licensing policy and practice meaningless and not working as the instrument of controlling forest resource utilization. The problem emerging above is overlapping with the regulation governing licensing relative to other institution’s authority. For example, forestry law under Forestry Ministry, mineral and coal law under ESDM (Mineral Resource and Energy) Ministry, Local Autonomy Law under Interior Ministry, all of which governs the border of their authority in managing forest area. The overlapping of licensing is related to the state administrator’s responsibility. The overlapping of license function (vergunning) as the instrument of state order for controlling loses its function. Meanwhile, from business interest aspect, such the licensing makes the licensing process not only complicated but also at risk, so that decision making tends

to be based on legal formal aspect and to open discretionary space. The effect resulting from overlapping is studied from economic perspective indicating that it highly affects the forestry investment climate because there is no guarantee of law certainty on the investment climate sustainability. Regulation overlapping in forestry licensing area will open the opportunity of authority misuse due to the regulation overlapping thereby leading to manipulation-based and intriguing negotiation resulting in corruption opportunity.

b. Area Use Overlapping The problem of authority overlapping in area use is a crucial old problem. The President Regulation Number 55 of 2012 about National Strategy of Preventing and Eradicating Corruption, in middle term during 20122014 and long term during 2012-2025, instructs the attempt of harmonizing and synchronizing the legislation corresponding to national policy with the local requirement relative to natural resource, particularly in forestry, natural resource, mineral and coal, land affairs, spatial layout and financial balance between central and local governments as the focus of middle-term corruption preventing strategy. The rise of problem is not in line with the regulation governing natural resource matter, thereby inhibiting the reconciliation against the attempt of utilizing natural resource in each sector. The overlapping of licensing concerning area use is the problem of authority. The word “government” as included in Law Number 41 of 1999 about Forest by defined narrowly by Local Government No. 44 of 2004 as Forestry Minister. The Forestry Minister’s rationale is that using Law No.32 of 2004 and Law No. 39 of 2008 about State Ministry, including the decision concerning forestry matter, President has appointed Forestry Minister through Keppres (President Decree) No.84/P.2009. The problem above




becomes polemic in the formulation of development plant leading to a conflict of central-to-local relationship. The problem of authority overlapping is a reason of why out of 33 provinces, only 7 have arranged their space completely until today (Erwin Dwi, 2014: 18). Several ministries will be primarily in charge of building business area in their own sector. The Law No.4 of 2009 about Mineral and Coal Mining states that mining business area is reclassified later into license area of mining business and public mining area. For example, it determines the location to be applied for license. Meanwhile, the Law No.41 of 1999 about Forestry also governs the blocks of forest utilization order based on Article 22 of Law No.18 of 2004 about Plantation governing the development of plantation plan for its area aspect by taking spatial layout and living environment into account. Law No.41 of 2009 about Sustainable Food Farming Land Protection also establishes the presence of sustainable farming land that should be provided by local government in determining its spatial layout. Law No. 26 of 2007 should be the basis of all business arrangement in all sectors, but the provision of Law No.26 of 2007 does not explain how the development plan and the business in each of sectors are integrated. Considering the elaboration above, the case of position leads to the absence of spatial guideline for the local government to publish policy about natural resource management from various sectors, including licensing issuance. Without such area guideline, the issuance of licensing is indeed governed in spatial layout but the regulation still enables the business allocation for two or more sector in one allocation function. It makes the business function run unexpectedly, and it also gives the opportunity of overlapping licensing between business activities. This problem

is vulnerable to misuse thereby triggering the potential corruption and conflict.

b. Structure The application of Law No. 23 of 2014, in reality, creates disharmony of regulation leading to paradigm building on the management concept of central and local governments in the attempt of “utilizing” forest resource. Forest resource is difficult to manage, it is because: (Anderson, 2008, 421-426) i) natural resource is a common pool resources, so that it is more difficult to organize than the private one, ii) the utilization of natural resource provides externality, and iii) the complex spatial and temporal borders of natural resource with its externality potential is rarely consistent with the existing political institution. The paradigm of natural resource governance in Indonesia is economiccentric development and neoliberalism treating consumptive object in achieving economic growth-to-economic development ratio. It results in explorative and exploitative behavior that exploits the natural resource excessively. It impacts on the damaged order of natural environment ecosystem in the form of disaster. Empirical condition of forest management reflects on the low totality of forest management performance because of position allocation and the government institution’s role inconsistent with the actual problem, the government’s low capacity of dealing with various problems of area protection and management, the poor quality of coordination between existing institutions in managing the area (Dewi Gunawati, 2015: 13). Harmonious coordination has not been established so that the institutions seem to work individually. Similarly, non-government (non-formal) institution has contributed less optimally to forest management. They should support and be in harmony with each other in protecting and managing national park so that shared movement and action are reflected embedded in the




principle of preserved forest development reflecting the concept of Ecosystem and Social Values concept (Dewi Gunawati, 2015: 14). The attempt of dealing with forest fire. Indonesia attempts to cooperate with ASEAN (Pikiran Rakyat Online, 2015: 21) corresponding to the vision of ASEAN BEBAS ASAP (ASEAN free of Smoke) in 2020 focusing on the strategic implementation and the effectiveness of simultaneous and synergic prevention between members of ASEAN. Indonesia becomes Asean Coordinating Centre For Trans-boundary haze pollution Control applying regulation about Agreement on trans-boundary haze pollution. Government and stakeholder consider a variety of objectives in understanding landscape, understanding the cause, determining the priority, acting and monitoring the progress. Considering the illustration above, in the attempt dealing with forest fire, the actual stakeholders of fire should be identified, embedded in the principle of landscape including adaptive management, stakeholder involvement and diverse objective. An attempt should be taken to detect, to anticipate, and to take action over the organized crime involved in illegal land transaction leading to fire (Heri Purnomo, 2015: 10). A task force should be established constituting the collaboration between ecology and forestry ministry, interior ministry, agrarian ministry and KPK (Corruption Eradication Commission).

c. Culture Indonesians are the type of society with association feature; such a society upholds collectivity values such as commonness, tolerance, and concord coloring the social interaction within it, and valuing social-cultural value established and developing in the society

embedded in the following principles (Endang Sutisna, 2013: 76): a. b. c. d. e.

Valuing local knowledge Valuing local culture Valuing local resource Valuing local skill Valuing local process

The society surrounding forest is the specific and unique one interacting with living resource in national park (Evrizal Zuhud, 2012: 22). The society has specific knowledge related to forest protection and management. The specific knowledge has been implanted strongly for many years, even cross generations depositing and manifested in daily attitude or behavior in the activity of human resource utilization. The specific knowledge manifested in attitude and behavior then becomes society local wisdom. Considering the condition above, in dealing with forest fire, there should be an attempt of strengthening and encouraging the reinforcement of civil society through establishing a care-to-fire society in charge of detecting fire and early warning system. Local initiative at micro scale is taken through restoring turf land by damming up the channel, wetting turf and planting jelutung (tree that produces milky sap from which a rubber substitute can be made), rubber and pineapple, improving landscape level or hydrology unit. Through water level management in the landscape scale and damming up the channel, the society is invited to preserve turf restoration, incorporating the best practice of local initiative with private sector in restoring the turf ecosystem and encouraging practical adoption to create uniformity. The society can cope with fire by: a) developing a map of area vulnerable to fire based on satellite imaging help utilizing thermal channel like NOAA image, from which the hot spots can be identified in certain area, b) monitoring fuel accumulation weather and vulnerableto fire symptom, c) preparing fire extinguisher squad, d) building overseeing tower, d) developing fire partition




separated between two lines: yellow and green, and e) establishing a forest fire managing organization, a forest fire controlling unit. Regarding the aspect: action, who, how? (Heri Purnomo, 2015:5-8), spatial layout approach is taken with landscape approach to integrate farm, conservation and competition for other land use. Successful participatory management process could go a long way towards improving sustainable livelihoods for local people by building on the physical, human, social, financial, and natural capitals already present in the village. Since sustainability of the national park is linked to the sustainability of the livelihoods of the people living within its borders, continuous involvement of local people in conservation activities can lead to sustainable development (Jelena Tomicevic, 2009:157) It is clear that understanding the relationship between local people and protected areas, as well as knowledge of conflicts between people and protected areas, is required for the design of sustainable conservation strategies for management of most protected areas. Ensuring local support for protected areas is increasingly viewed as an important element of biodiversity conservation. Furthermore, participation by local communities in management is widely considered a means of sustaining protected areas. Further, new policies have emerged, seeking to promote public participation, in planning, decision making and management of protected areas. Thus the attitudes of the local people in conservation area are important.(Jelena tomicevic,2009:162) The effect of forest fire threaten living organism; a good forest management will affect the quality of biodiversity existing within it. However, biodiversity poses a particular challenge for species and habitat types can vary greatly from place, spatial data on the distribution of biodiversity, its threats,

and/or proxies of these are therefore vital in helping to identify priorities for conservation investment that can be compared against spatial priorities for carbon investment(whilst also considering other social, economic, and political factor.(Toby (A Gardner,et all, 2012:64)

Conclusion Deforestation and forest degradation appearing in the form of smoke fog due to forest fire is one of disasters frequently occurring in Indonesia. Forest fire impacts on health, species diversity, germ plasm extinction, forest ecosystem renewal, lost living source and livelihood of surrounding society thereby harming the preservation of forest natural resource. When investigated more indepth, the roots of problem are i) economicentrist paradigm of natural resource management triggered exploratory and exploitative behavior, ii) the policy of determining the function of area as productive forest, conservation forest, and protected forest based more on land condition rather than on potential and biodiversity interest so that instead the lowland forest with highest biodiversity was allocated for productive forest and even for other sector development. iii) Overlapping regulation put into legislation resulted in the confusion in the field implementation. iv) The poor law enforcement against the forest firing perpetrator resulted in no wary effect for forest firing perpetrators. v) The poor evaluation on the license holder for forestry sector and environment license issued by government. vi) The poor management and security of wild animal types entrapped in forest fire and entering into population settlement leading to illegal hunting or illegal trading.




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Indonesian Maritime Diplomacy towards China: An Effort to achieve the agenda of World Maritime Axis Diah Ayu Intan Sari1, Martin Purnama Chandra2 and Hasrah Juri Harahap3 [email protected], Master Student Program of International Relations, Padjadjaran University, Bukit Dago Utara Street number 25, Bandung-Indonesia [email protected], Master Student Program of International Relations, Padjadjaran University, Bukit Dago Utara Street number 25, BandungIndonesia [email protected],Master Student Program of International Relations, Padjadjaran University, Bukit Dago Utara Street number 25, Bandung-Indonesia

Abstract: Under the leadership of President Joko Widodo, Indonesia has a political agenda to become the World Maritime Axis. Therefore, the direction of Indonesian foreign policy always strives to achieve the agenda. Indonesia maritime cooperation with China is one of the concrete steps that the Indonesian government did to realize the agenda of World Maritime Axis. This paper will examine more deeply on how maritime diplomacy undertaken by the government of Indonesia to China. China’s commitment to help Indonesia become World Maritime Axis evidenced by the number of cooperation in the maritime field either in the form of investment, agreements, as well as a loan from the Asian Development Bank. Moreover, this article will also explain about maritime cooperation that has been done and agreed upon by both countries. To some extent, this paper will also explain about ongoing maritime cooperation in which China and Indonesia eagerly engaged to more cooperative relations. By using maritime diplomacy approach and liberalism interdependence, this paper will explore and proves that Indonesia’s maritime diplomacy towards China has given rise to the cooperative partnership in which China supports Indonesian government efforts to become the World Maritime Axis. Key Words: Indonesia - China relations, maritime diplomacy, liberal interdependence, World Maritime Axis.

INTRODUCTION

T

he histories of diplomatic relations between Indonesia and China have been built since 1952. After China had become ‘a friend’ of Indonesia in Axis of Jakarta -Peking-Pyongyang in the 1960s, the two countries severed diplomatic relations in the period 19671990 (Hadi, 2012). The differences in

political interests cannot be reconciled between the two countries became the reason for the vacuum of their relationship for 23 years. Then, the changes of international politics and security constellation after Cold War encouraged the resumption of diplomatic relations between Indonesia and China (Lan, 2015). Nonetheless, a significant improvement in




relations between the two countries occurred in 2005, when Indonesian President (Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono or SBY) and Secretary General of the Community Party of China signed a Strategic Partnership. The Chinese government’s decision to provide a support network of maritime surveillance radar to Indonesia is a realization of the priority for improving cooperation in maritime domain with Indonesia. Indonesia-China strategic partnership is a mutually beneficial relationship for both parties in which Indonesia-China relationship is currently residing within the framework of the strategic partnership between the two countries (Ali, 2012). Under the leadership of President Joko Widodo (Jokowi) Indonesia’s foreign policy towards China appear to have continuity and reorientation ofhis predecessor’s foreign policy. This is evident from the continuation of the cooperation framework and a comprehensive strategic partnership with China that continues to be done by the Jokowi’s government. In the SBY administration, the actual idea of diplomacy maritime has been established with the idea of the blue economy, then at the time of Jokowi with the idea of World Maritime Axis promoting maritime diplomacy in order to realize Indonesia as World Maritime Axis (CNN News, 2015; Detik News, 2015). In the process to achieve the agenda of the World Maritime Axis, the Indonesian government continues to pursue cooperation with other countries. One of the countries that currently have very intense relations with Indonesia as well as supporting the idea of the World Maritime Axis is China. Cooperation between the Indonesian government and the China’s government has entered a new phase after the meeting of President Jokowi with China’s President Xi Jinping in China where the China’s government is committed to provide financial assistance amounting to 40 billion US dollars to the Indonesian government in order to realize the vision of the World Maritime Axis. Since then the cooperative bilateral

relations between the two countries are increasing rapidly, especially in regard of maritime cooperation. Basically, the policy making of maritime diplomacy in Indonesia covers three fundamental aspects (Gindarsah & Priamarizki, 2015), namely (1) the sovereignty of the islands off the coast, (2) the defence on the threat of conflict over overlapping waters and seas territorial and the continental shelf, as well as (3) the management and utilization of marine resources. In addition, the scheme of World Maritime Axis policy was perceived as a governing policy on which these policies include: First, utilization of biotechnology products resources, utilization of marine energy resources, the management of marine areas as zones of integrated conservation, management and utilization of the results of fisheries, increasing the strength of the security instruments of sea and maritime sovereignty through maritime diplomacy. Second, build strategic trust with ASEAN countries. Third, gather political support from various parties regarding the agenda of the World Maritime Axis, both political support and abroad. Currently, the government is gathering support from other countries regarding the agenda of the World Maritime Axis where China responds well to the Indonesian agenda. This is evidenced by the amount of cooperation either in the form of MoU (Memorandum of Understanding) or funding where since the visit of President Joko Widodo to China, the cooperation in the maritime sectors are highly increasing. Therefore, the author is interested to examine more deeply on how the government runs its maritime diplomacy to China in the scheme of strategic partnerships that benefit both parties.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The authors use interdependence liberalism theory and maritime diplomacy approach to analyze how maritime diplomacy undertaken by Indonesia to China. Maritime diplomacy encompasses a




spectrum of activities, from those (1) 'cooperative maritime diplomatic' activities such as port visits, port calls, joint exercises, training and humanitarian assistance, through (2) 'persuasive maritime diplomatic' activities, such as naval presence roles, and through (3) 'maritime coercive diplomatic' activities (Miere, 2014). According to Christian Le Miere in his book titled Maritime Diplomacy in the 21st Century: Drivers and Challenges states that nowadays, maritime diplomacy is not only activities done by navies (state) but also in this modern era it is pursued by coastguards, civilian vessels, and non-state groups. Moreover, maritime diplomacy in the modern era is a useful tool for navies and government worldwide to achieve their interests. In addition, maritime diplomacy is also used by the government or naval to predict and prevent conflict. Therefore, the use of maritime diplomacy by a country is not only useful for preventing conflict or war, but also to be taken into consideration for proposing a political policy. In addition, the concept and approach of maritime diplomacy in the modern era in which the role of governments and navies are also assisted by other actors in the scheme of cooperative diplomatic maritime activities also very appropriate to describe how the maritime diplomacy undertaken by the government of Indonesia to China. Indeed, maritime diplomacy which have been done and or an ongoing Indonesian maritime diplomacy towards China more focus on cooperative maritime diplomatic activities in which Indonesian government with other Indonesian actors such as civil society have tremendous impact for the success of Indonesian maritime diplomacy towards China. Moreover, the roles of navies are also present in maritime diplomacy activities with China, however it roles for instance are in term of joint exercise and joint training. On the one hand, the authors use maritime diplomacy approach to describe the maritime diplomatic activities which done by Indonesian government, On the

other hand, the authors also use liberalism interdependence theory to describe and explain the relations of strategic partnership between Indonesia and China which give mutual benefit for both countries. The key assumptions of liberal theory look interdependence and international system as the configuration of interdependent state preferences which determines states behavior (Moravscik, 1997). State behavior reflects varying patterns of states preferences and it drives foreign policy of state itself. Indonesian’s foreign policies in maritime sector also drive by its preferences when engaging relations with other countries. To some extent, interdependence liberalism argues that interdependencies which occur between countries lead to a peaceful and cooperative relations so that the interdependence was also able to prevent conflicts or wars (Rosenau, 1969, p.365). This also fits the context of IndonesiaChina maritime relations where interdependencies between them lead to peaceful relations. Moreover, interdependence liberalism stated that cooperative relations among countries are able to resolve conflicts and problems by using a peaceful way through negotiation, cooperation and compromise. This also suitable for describe how Indonesian government roles on helping the counties to resolve South China Sea dispute using negotiation. Interdependence liberalism assess that modernization increase the level and scope of interdependence relations between countries-not only in economics but also in other areas such as politics, security, maritime, technology, education, and tourism-which leads to cooperative relations (Jackson and Sorensen, 2006, p.104). The authors believe that interdependence in maritime cooperation between Indonesia and China makes their relationship becoming more cooperative. The interdependence relation in the maritime-economy triggered a sustainable interdependence relation at political and regional security. Interdependence liberalism looks that cooperative relations




which resulted mutual benefit does have risks and expenses that may be detrimental to either party. Nonetheless, risks and expenses can be minimized or even eliminated through cooperation relation among the parties that are arranged in a mutual agreement. This fits the context of interdependence relations in maritime domain between Indonesia and China where the two countries increased the government's role in maritime cooperation. Indeed, interdependence liberalism states that in the industrialized countries, economic development, foreign trade and investment are the tools to achieve excellence and prosperity with less cost (Jackson and Sorensen, 2006). This also applies in the China-Indonesia relation which is more focused on maritime cooperation to increase well-being of both societies.

INDONESIAN MARITIME DIPLOMACY FROM TIME TO TIME: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF DJUANDA DECLARATION, BLUE ECONOMY AND THE WORLD MARITIME AXIS AGENDA Indonesian maritime diplomacy in the past stressed the struggle of Indonesian sovereignty over the sea territorial and marine areas. Meanwhile, Indonesian contemporary maritime diplomacy has two main dimensions: first, the need for stability in the region of East and Southeast Asia, especially in the South China Sea. Second, the economic utilization of marine resources of Indonesia known as blue economy that is an approach as a model of economic development of marine that can be offered by Indonesia to the developing countries and developed an archipelago or an oceanic region. Djuanda Declaration aims to explain that the oceans among Indonesia’s islands are part of Indonesia’s marine area (Cribb & Ford, 200). Indonesia legalized the declaration on Law of Republic of Indonesia No.4 / Prp. 1960 concerning the

watery areas of Indonesia. Djuanda Declaration not only stalled the declaration but also championed the basis for the determination of the sea border of the international community. Djuanda Declaration guarding maritime diplomacy in order to be accepted by the international community. In 1982, the majority of members of the United Nations (UN) agreed to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea / UNCLOS-82) in Vienna. Djuanda Declaration also listed in UNCLOS by recognizing Indonesia as an archipelagic country. UNCLOS contain about 12 miles nautical territorial recognition of the countries in the world and their sovereignty over the marine resources and other legal linkages in Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 200 miles and the width of the continental shelf (Yturriaga, 1997). UNCLOS was ratified by Indonesia in the form of Law No. 17/1985. UN General Assembly ratified UNCLOS as the foundation of the law on maritime world, which became effective on 16 November 1994. Indonesia maritime diplomacy related to the problem of conflict in the South China Sea which located in the Southeast Asia region. Conflicts in the South China Sea have attracted worldwide attention-including Indonesia because of its overlapping recognition of the sovereignty of China, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines and Brunei Darussalam (Jakopson & Medcalf, 2015). Indeed, the possibility of the South China Sea which contains abundant marine resources such as oil and gas in the seabed into the suspense factor is getting stronger because countries want the content to the welfare of their own countries. Moreover, tensions in the South China Sea increased after armed incidents between China and the Philippines as an incident in May 2012 in Scarborough shoal where Indonesia serves as a facilitator for the peaceful settlement of the conflict over the sea. In addition, the shipping lane through the South China Sea is one of the busiest sea transportation




lines in the world for connecting East Asia to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. The number of cruise ships that pass through the South China Sea is estimated 50,000 ships annually with a trade value of US $ 5.3 trillion so that many countries were hostile and claims on this sea area. Although Indonesia is not a country that claims to the area of the South China Sea, but Indonesia’s responsible to keep the peace of the South China Sea-and the regions which claim it-for the continuation of its maritime economy as well as to realize the vision of World Maritime Axis required marine areas and secure shipping lane so that Indonesia need to keep secure condition in South China Sea. Moreover, in the context of the dispute in the South China Sea, maritime diplomacy conducted by the Indonesian side is also fighting for the Declaration of Conduct in the South China Sea (the Declaration of the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea) to be agreed by ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and China in 2002. Indonesia seeks to maintain the solidity of ASEAN, especially Cambodia and the Philippines which have different opinions about whether or not the South China Sea issue to be included in the results of the 45th ASEAN Foreign Ministers meeting in Cambodia in 2012. Indonesia urges ASEAN countries to pursue the need to transform the Declaration of the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea into a Code of Conduct in the South China Sea for ASEAN and China. China welcomed the proposal of ASEAN to start joint consultation between the two parties about the way to behave in the South China Sea and also wants the settlement of territorial disputes through bilateral channels between China and Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines and Brunei Darussalam. Indonesian maritime diplomacy is also focused on the approach that held by the Blue Economy Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono at the United Nations Conference and 20 goverments in Rio de Janeiro (June 2012).

Blue economic approach is a paradigm of empowerment of marine resources and maritime economy which is digging through various potential resources in the sea, on the beach and on the coast for the benefit of the people of Indonesia. The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries estimates that state revenue could reach US $ 1.2 trillion of the maritime sector. Indonesian maritime diplomacy could establish and encourage cooperation between island countries through the exchange of experience and development cooperation in implementing blue economic approach. In 2012, Indonesia and China agreed on a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on maritime cooperation. This MoU establishes the creation of the Maritime Cooperation Committee (MCC) between Indonesia and China. Moreover, in this meeting formed body that funded MCC funds projects initially provided by China. The MoU was then followed by the holding of the first session of MCC in Beijing, China in December 2012. The maritime cooperation MoU was signed by the foreign ministers of both countries. Maritime cooperation is one of the important cooperation from the strategic partnership agreement signed by both countries in 2005. In 2012 the two heads of state, in this case the President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and President Hu Jintao, agreed to increase cooperation and strategic partnership in various fields, especially in maritime sector. On one hand, Indonesia is one of the strong countries in the ASEAN region. Geographically, Indonesia has a 2/3 waters in Southeast Asia, and has strategic lines of communication and world trade. In international politics, Indonesia plays an important role in Asia region. Indeed, Indonesia is often referred to as the de facto leader of ASEAN. Economically, Indonesia has good economic growth and a big market. In the field of security, Indonesia has the lines of the strategic defense and security as well as trade. On the other hand, China is a big country in Asia that is now capable of being a balance




of power to America. China is a country that has economic, political and strong security in the region. These facts make Indonesia and China could be a good partner especially in achieving both visions in maritime domain. Moreover, for Indonesia, the duty to ensure the voyage remains open, safe and unhindered as set out in UNCLOS. However, this pathway is not only for international shipping, but also domestic shipping, civilian or military so that the frequency of traffic on the line was very busy so the possibility of collision between the ships is likely to occur. ChinaIndonesia cooperation through increased power capacity and operator training vessel traffic service (VTS) in the Lombok and Sunda Strait will certainly help Indonesia to guarantee that international interest is maintained. Similarly, with the help of China through the replacement of navigational aids along the Strait of Malacca which have been damaged by the tsunami in 2006 and the establishment of marine and Indonesia-China climate. Kamsalat Developments (marine security satellite) are also part of China's efforts to help Indonesia ensure the safety of navigation in these strategic lines. Therefore, both parties (IndonesiaChina) agreed that maritime cooperation is the key of this strategic cooperation, and the establishment of MCC is a new step to strengthen maritime cooperation between the two countries. Both sides agreed to strengthen further bilateral maritime cooperation mechanisms in the field of shipping safety, maritime security and the marine environment, namely; a) In the field of shipping safety, both Indonesia and China agree to exchange information on the safety of shipping; providing tools for the safety of cruise shipping and associated facilities; and cooperation in the dialogue between littoral states and user states of Malacca and Singapore Straits. b) In the field of marine environment and fisheries cooperation, MoU have agreed to exchange information on the marine environment; protection of the maritime

environment and ecology; technical exchange and cooperation on oil spills at sea and prevention of pollution; technical exchange and cooperation to combat, prevent, deter and eliminate illegal fishing, unregulated and unreported; and conduct scientific research of Maritime, observation and training programs. c) In the maritime security cooperation agreed on an exchange of information on maritime security; provision for supervision, monitoring and maritime management; cooperation to combat transnational crime, and the exchange of the armed forces of each country. d) This MoU also agreed on other things such as search and rescue maritime cooperation; development and supply vessels, an increase in capacity regarding maritime issues, and cooperation in various international maritime forums. e) Cooperation in the increased power capacity and operator training vessel traffic service (VTS) in the Lombok and Sunda Strait. Cooperation VTS in the Strait of Lombok and Sunda Straits right to give a positive thing for Indonesia, in this case to ensure the safety of navigation in the waters of Indonesia. While in the era of President Jokowi, Indonesian maritime diplomacy toward China increasingly complex cooperation through maritime diplomacy, Indonesia has managed to increase the volume of maritime cooperation with China either directly related to maritime and economic interests that intersect as Indonesia itself. Two important things that concern Indonesia’s maritime diplomacy in contemporary ranging from SBY to the Jokowi era today are (Connelly, 2015): First, highlighting the importance of peaceful settlement of overlapping claims among countries in the South China Sea. It also persists in an era in which Indonesia’s maritime diplomacy in Jokowi era continue to pursue a peaceful settlement over the conflict of South China Sea. In this regard, Indonesia as a facilitator is not partial to any country involved in conflicts over the sea. Second, the blue economic approach in the era of SBY aimed to




capitalize upon marine resources and improved the welfare of the people through international cooperation. It would also continue in the Jokowi era with vision of World Maritime Axis to promote maritime cooperation in the course of Indonesia's foreign policy focus to develop the infrastructure of the sea and maintain marine areas through various maritime cooperations that have been and is being done with many countries, especially with China.

INDONESIA-CHINA MARITIME COOPERATION: INDONESIAN MARITIME DIPLOMACY IN CONTEMPORARY ERA OF PRESIDENT JOKOWI Indonesia needs a maritime strategy to optimize all the instruments of maritime resources. The definition for ‘maritime domain’ covers all areas and objects that exist on, below, relating to, adjacent to or adjacent to the sea or ocean, river, straits, estuaries, bays, delta, island and archipelago, or other waterways, including all related maritime activities, infrastructure, people, cargo, and vessels and other transportation equipment including air space above sea (Simatupang, 2015). Indonesia-China cooperation is currently underway is the cooperation in the field of maritime safety with the first step joint exercises between the two countries. China is a major industrial countries and have a good knowledge in the field of maritime and shipbuilding. Therefore, the two countries have committed to increase cooperation in the field of maritime safety. Moreover, the geographical location of China which is closer to Indonesia than countries in Europe and the United States is also a consideration in fostering cooperation in maritime. One form of maritime cooperation between Indonesia and China recently was at the time of arrival of the vessel Haixun 01 to Indonesia exploited by a joint exercise between the two countries

maritime personnel. This is one part of the process of sharing experiences and knowledge of each country in the field of maritime safety. Indeed, previously have been made co-operation safety in maritime through cooperation scheme between Indonesia and China in a program called Project-6 as the reconstruction of seven units Amenities Shipping Tools Navigation which have been damaged by the December 2004 tsunami in Aceh and North Sumatra or the north coast of the island of Sumatra, in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. In addition, China has contributed 1 billion yuan to build maritime cooperation between Indonesia-China through the cooperation of navigation safety, maritime safety, marine scientific research and environmental protection, as well as space tracking, telemetry and control since 2013 (Laksono, 2013). China and Indonesia have also maintained close cooperation and coordination in maritime fields such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and the Strait of Malacca to the present to achieve World Maritime Axis. Currently, in regard to the cooperation mentioned above, President Joko Widodo has also been actively inviting investors from China to cooperate in the field of maritime as the two countries have a common vision in the field of maritime. President Joko Widodo and Chinese President Xi Jinping agreed to step up cooperation, particularly in the field of maritime and infrastructure. Indonesia will also encourage marine issue and maritime issue become one of the main issues in the discussion of cooperation that will be and are being made in Indonesia under the leadership of President Jokowi (BBC, 2014). Indonesia under President Joko Widodo (Jokowi) has a vision to make Indonesia as World Maritime Axis, while China has a vision to make China Maritime Silk Road (Reskisari, 2015). Therefore, both countries have agreed to increase cooperation in order to implement




the maritime vision of the two countries. Pioneering maritime cooperation that immediately followed between Indonesia and China are (Fajriyah, 2015): (1) the development of maritime science and technology which include maritime science and technology development. Cooperation between the two countries was conducted by marine research institutes of Indonesia with State Oceanographic Administration of China. (2) In term for increasing tourist arrivals from China to Indonesia; Chinese government also appreciate and are grateful for the enactment of policies on visa exemption for tourists from China, which will travel to Indonesia. Currently, Indonesia started to study the locations of the historical presence of Admiral Cheng Ho expeditions to the Indonesia archipelago in the 15th century in order to be introduced as a destination for Chinese tourists to Indonesia. The frequency of flights between Indonesia and China will also soon be improved. (3) The cooperation in construction of a hydro power plant or the flow of sea water and the construction of the shipyard, to cooperation in the field of fisheries. Chinese Ambassador Xie Feng said that China is ready to move its shipyard to Indonesia to cooperate with shipyards in Indonesia. Moreover, (4) the Chinese technology in the field of shipbuilding, power generation, road transport, railway up to be one of the best in the world. Therefore, before Indonesia choose China’s technology for Indonesia’s maritime infrastructure, China invited experts from Indonesia to study in detail the technology that will be applied in order to obtain optimal results (Fajriyah, 2015). In addition, the sector of maritime investment, increased investment in the field of maritime through maritime diplomacy conducted by Indonesian government managed to provide benefits for both sides is evidenced by the increase in the volume of investments from China to Indonesia. According to the Indonesia’s Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) until the end of the third quarter of 2015,

realized investment of companies from China reached US $ 245.75 million with the number of projects to 300 projects. That amount increased 151% compared to the same period last year amounted to US $ 97.5 million. Cumulatively, Indonesia’s Investment Coordinating Board recorded that investment from January to September 2015 to reach Rp 400 trillion or an increase of 16.7% over the same period the previous year amounting to Rp 342 trillion. The increase in investment realization is dominated by foreign investment rise 16.9% or Rp 266.8 trillion, followed by the realization of domestic investment of 16.4% or Rp 133.2 trillion (Purba, 2015). Increased cooperation in the field of maritime using maritime diplomacy conducted by the Indonesian government is also done by the president Joko Widodo during his visit to China when he met with President Xi Jinping in which the two heads of state involved in the talks on strengthening cooperation in the field of maritime and economy, particularly trade, finance, maritime infrastructure, industry, tourism, until relations between the communities. During the meeting, specifically the president Jokowi invited the Chinese side to further increase the flow of direct investment in various fields to Indonesia including maritime domain. The two presidents also touched on regional issue (South China Sea) is common concern for both countries. Besides discussing maritime trade cooperation to regional issues, the two presidents also agreed on bilateral cooperation in order to synergize ideas and initiatives World Maritime Axis (Indonesia) and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road (China) (Lan, 2014). The realization on the idea of World Maritime Axis is in order to realize the agreed maritime connectivity between Indonesia and China through infrastructure development. Moreover, the results these bilateral meeting between the government delegations stated in the Joint Statement of Comprehensive Strategic Partnership




between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia (RI) and the Government of the Republic of China. Furthermore, the two Heads of Government witnessed the signing of cooperation documents, covering (Sari & Ridwan, 2016): 1) Economic cooperation between Indonesia and the Minister for Economic Affairs of the National Development and Reform Commission of China; 2) Industrial and Infrastructure Development cooperation between the National Development and Reform Commission of China by the Minister of State Enterprises; 3) the Ministry of SOEs with the National Development and Reform Commission of China to speed Rail Construction Project Jakarta-Bandung; 4) the National SAR Agency (BASARNAS RI) with the Minister of Transport of China; 5) the prevention of double taxations; 6) the National Space Development Agency (LAPAN) with the China National Space Agency; 7) the Ministry of State-owned Enterprises (SOEs) with China Development Bank Corporation (CDBC); 8) Projects Assistant to Prevent and Cure Bird Flu; 9) Specific Comprehensive Economic Cooperation; 10) the Establishment of a Joint Investment Promotion committee; 11) the ChinaIndonesia Economic and Trade Cooperation Website; 12) Exchange of Letter for Training Course and Management of Economic and Trade Cooperation. Furthermore, there are at least 20 Memorandums of Understanding (MoU) which were also agreed upon by Indonesia-China private sector in an effort to increase maritime cooperation that is mutually beneficial for both parties. During Jokowi's visit this year 2015, Chinese firms inked at least 30 deals whose worth around 63.4 billion US dollars with Indonesian business partners; of this 24.9 billion US dollars will be channeled to maritime infrastructure (Oxford Analytica Ltd., 2015). The twelve MoU mentioned above can be seen that the relationship between Indonesia and China is a relationship of mutual dependence.

Indonesia bilateral relations with China always prioritize the principle of mutual respect, appreciation and both countries play a role in maintaining regional peace and stability so that the comprehensive strategic partnership formed to enhance the mutual benefit and achieve social welfare (Utami, 2015). In relation with Indonesia's foreign policy toward China, the current maritime cooperation is indeed a boon for both sides, especially in the realization of the idea of World Maritime Axis where Chinese government as the main partner will share in the profit of the Indonesian maritime shaft. To some extent, Jokowi agenda to build maritime infrastructure in Indonesia also engaged with China to do Jokowi’s World Maritime Axis strategy by complimenting China's aim of creating a Maritime Silk Road. One key pillar of Jokowi's strategy is to build maritime infrastructure including 24 ports, deepwater harbors and fishing industries (Sari & Ridwan, 2016). China has pledged to support these initiatives through the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (of which Indonesia is a founding member) and China's Silk Road Fund. Moreover, China has also pledged investment beyond the maritime domain. The two sides have also announced a maritime forum to enhance cooperation between their coast guards, and a plan for baseline security agreement for search and rescue operations as well as humanitarian assistance and disaster relief. In addition, for adding collaborations mentioned above, there is field of maritime cooperation that will be implemented are priority projects which will be entrusted in advance to investors from China is the hydro power plant to be built in Tanjung Selor, North Borneo. The plan, the power plant project valued at $ 17.8 billion, it will have a capacity of 6,080 megawatts (MW). The memorandum of understanding of cooperation or Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) this project was signed in conjunction with the visit of




President Jokowi when Summit Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC Summit) in Beijing in November 2015. The project will be built by a Chinese joint venture company, Shanghai Electric Power Co. Ltd. and China Power Investment Corporation together with local partner PT Kayan Hydro Energy. The construction is expected to begin in 2016 and completed in 2024, with five stages of development (Gumelar, 2015). Moreover, in the current era where globalization impact on the increasing interdependence between state and non-state actors on a global scale so that social relations in a community significantly shaped and influenced by the dimensions of the wider social relations on a worldwide scale (Scholte, 2000). Globalization also encourages good maritime economy cooperation like what is happening now between China and Indonesia. The direction of Indonesian foreign policies towards China since under President Susilo Bambang Yodhoyono has implemented a strategic cooperation to achieve mutual benefit. It also seems to remain consistent under current Indonesian President Joko Widodo (Jokowi). Indonesian maritime policy direction toward China continues to conduct strategic cooperation with efforts to increase volume of the cooperation between the two countries. It can also be seen from the foreign policy model of President Jokowi that emphasis on maritime sector as priorities by using maritime identity in international cooperation and diplomacy (Rahmawaty, 2014). President Jokowi’s vision is to make Indonesia as the World Maritime Axis (WMA) has a bit more influences for Indonesia-China relations and cooperation. This is an evident from the results of the President Jokowi’s visit to boost some agreements to strengthen maritime economy cooperation with China. Moreover, the mutual relationship beneficial through interdependence between Indonesian-China is through approval of China on WMA idea and initiative of the 21st Century Maritime Silk

Road. Indonesia interdependency relationship with China over the approval of WMA has on implications and strategic cooperation for maritime connectivity in order to realize the economic interests of both parties. The realization of the Maritime shaft can enhance the strategic cooperation through the development of infrastructure that will facilitate economic trade between Indonesia and China. The author thinks that Indonesia and China maritime co-operations would be increasing in the future relations of both countries.

CONCLUSION Indonesia maritime diplomacy towards China resulted in a relationship of mutual dependence and mutual benefit for both parties. This is because both countries have the same vision in the field of maritime where Indonesia has a vision to make Indonesia as the World Maritime Axis, while China had the vision to create the Maritime Silk Road. Interwoven in the field of maritime cooperation between Indonesia and China provide economic benefits for both parties, especially in regard to the security of shipping sea lanes where Indonesia in cooperation with China is building maritime infrastructure, combined with the development of the field of other maritime sector such as joint exercises. Maritime diplomacy conducted by Indonesia to China is also a way in which to realize the vision of Indonesia as a country that is self-sufficient and able to create a region of peace. Moreover, Indonesia maritime diplomacy in contemporary era conducted by the Indonesian government not only focuses on the ways in the scheme of strategic partnership of cooperation with China, but Indonesia also serve to participate in maintaining peace the South China Sea. In this regard Indonesia as a neutral party through maritime diplomacy seeks to continue pursuing the path of peace for the seizure of the South China Sea.




At the end, Indonesia maritime diplomacy to China in Jokowi era is a form of strategic partnership relations that produce interdependency relationship for both countries. Indonesian Maritime diplomacy toward China has also increased cooperative relations where the two

countries support each maritime vision of each party so that a relationship of interdependence that occurs can continue to run while providing a positive effect on the cooperative maritime relations between Indonesia and China.

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Tengaran People’s Struggle in Defending the Independence of The Republic of Indonesian During 1947-1949 Dimas Anggoro, S.Pd. The Graduate Program in History Education, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta ([email protected]) Dra. Emy Wuryani, M.Hum. The Under Graduate Degree in History Education, Satya Wacana Christian University, Salatiga Sunardi, S.Pd. M.Pd. The Under Graduate Degree in History Education, Satya Wacana Christian University, Salatiga

Abstract: The struggle of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) to defend the independence of the Republic of Indonesia in Tengaran Sub-district was not an easy undertaking. Moral and material supports from the community were their key to victory in facing the Dutch military forces with their superior weaponry. The struggle that took place between the years of 1947-1949 helped to show Tengaran Community contribution in defending the independence of the Republic of Indonesia. In their actions, the community shared the tasks to help the Indonesian National Armed Forces. As a combative support, they formed guerilla army such as PasukanClurut (the Shrew Mouse Army) andPasukanBatu (the Stone Army), while as non-combative support they made common kitchens to supply the logistic needs of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Keywords: Struggle, guerilla.

INTRODUCTION

R

evolution is a sudden and sharp changes in the national power cycle, which happened due to a very fundamental social anomaly (shifting) or social inequalities which affect an effort of a certain group to radically cut everything that was considered as failure

in the past (Eisenstadt, 1986: 3). Indonesian independence has one special characteristic, namely that the independence was gained through the way of diplomacy as well as through the force of arms. The termination of the Japanese occupation in 1945 did not mean that the Indonesians gained their full independence since they once again faced the threat of




the return of colonialism in Indonesia. The threat brought about highly explosive anxiety, coupled with the widespread armed resistance. Although Indonesian warfare technology at that time was far behind the enemy, from the very beginning the fighters had believed that national revolution required battles and wars (Kartodirdjo, 1982: 81). In 1945, structurallyTengaran areais a sub-district, part of KawedananTengaran (an administrative area below regency but above sub-district), Semarang Regency, Central Java. Geographically, Tengaran area is strategically located since it is in the middle of transportation road which connected two big cities in Central Java, namely Solo (also known as Surakarta) and Semarang (Hajati, et al., 1997:122). In the course of the Indonesian National Armed Forces guerilla warfare history from 1947 to 1948, the Tengaran area held a very importantmeaning in determining the Indonesian National Armed Forces victory in defending Indonesian independence because in that area the Indonesian National Armed Forces once succeeded to halt the Dutch forces that would overcome the Indonesian Republic. Moreover, after the Dutch occupied Indonesian Republic in 1949, from that same placethe Indonesian National Armed Forces managed to weaken the Dutch power through the strategy to sever thelogistical supportsandthe Dutch military personnel which were sent to Solo fromSalatiga. The key to the Indonesian National Armed Forces victory during the war to defend the Indonesian Republic in Tengaran area lied on the universality or totality of the struggle of Tengaran people in helping the Indonesian National Armed Forces to defend the Republic of Indonesia. It contributed to the failure of the Dutch government strategy, which only relied on its military ability.The community economic and moral supports psychologically fostered the morale of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, while on the other side, put prolonged

psychological pressure on the Dutch (Seskoad, 1990: 329).

METHOD The research used the historical method which comprises of four working stages namely, heuristics, source criticism, interpretation, and historiography. The sources were written sources, namely: sources that come from history books which are relevant to the subject matter; material sources, namely: primary sources in the form of archives, which consisted of official reports and government decrees and also contemporaneous documents in the form of Sin Po newspaper; andoral sources, namely: oral testimonies from the operators of the history on the subject matter that would be researched (Sjamsuddin, 2007: 88-89).

DISCUSSION After the approval of Linggarjati agreement, the Dutch forces still stayed in Indonesia. The Tijger Brigade (Brigade T) under Colonel Van Langen had already occupied Semarang city (Olivia, 2005: 57). When the British army was withdrawn on November 30, 1946 the Dutch army position in Semarang was already strong.In July 1947They had occupied that city and turned it intotheir main military base in their preparation to seize the Republic of Indonesia’s territory in Central Java (Moehkardi, 2012: 264). In July 21, 1947, the Dutch army launched a massive attack into the Republic territory. They moved from Semarang military headquarters toward the south, namely to Srondol, Ungaran, and Ambarawa (Olivia, 2005: 56). On July 22, 1947, the Dutch army from Tuntang attacked Salatiga to release their people who were detained by the Indonesian National Armed Forces, but in the afternoon, they went back to Tuntang (Hajati, et al., 1997: 120). Based on military tactical decision made by the




leader of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, at that same night Salatiga was relinquished. Buildings that were considered to be useful for the Dutch were burned down. That action spread to the area around the Suruh Market, the office of the Bringin Assistant Wedana, schools, and Gogodalem station that were also burnt down.Bridges that led to Solo were also destroyed (Hajati, et al., 1997: 122). Subsequently, the Indonesian National Armed Forces andthe Sea Army of the Republic of Indonesia from Cirebon continued the battle to face the Dutch army outside Salatiga. In their effort to annex the Indonesian Republic area aroundSalatiga, the Dutch got fierce resistance inPulian area, Getasan. That fierce resistance came not only from the Indonesian National Armed Forces nor from the Sea Army of the Republic of Indonesia alone, but also from the surrounding community (Subardi an interview onSeptember 29, 2013). The battle continuously got widespread, and the southern Tengaran started to be packed with combatants from various regions willed to defend Surakarta from the Dutch army attack which came from the direction of Semarang andSalatiga. The Dutch ambition to spread its occupation up to Surakarta had to stop in Tengaran since United Nations Security Council issued a motion, which ordered an immediate ceasefire that started from August 1, 1947 under the control of the KomisiTiga Negara/KTN (Three-State Commission) (Tashadi, et al., 1997: 120). Despite the applied ceasefire, both sides still attacked each other. To strengthen their position, the Dutch built defenses in Kebonjeruk, Karangduren. On October 13, 1947, the Dutch infantry army from Kebonjeruk created havoc in Susukan area. With the power of two military companies, helped by a tank and protected by three airplanes, they attacked two villages, one of which was Petak village. In that village they attacked a mosque which was also an Islamic boarding school (Pesantren) and killed 89 civilians, two of

whom were babies. (Nasution, VI, 1978: 169). On January 17, 1948, the Prime Minister Amir Syarifuddin signed the Renville Agreement. His decision was really detrimental for the Indonesian Republic in politic, economic, and military fields.In politics, Indonesia had to acknowledge the Dutch sovereignty over the area that they had occupied; in economy the Republic of Indonesianhad to hand over major and trade cities that had been occupied by the Dutch; while in military, the Republic of Indonesia army should leave their defense pockets in the Dutch-occupiedarea (Wiyono, et al., 1983:98). Following up the Renville Agreement, in Central Java negotiations between the Dutch military and Indonesian National Armed Forces took places in three places, namely, Tengaran, Parakan, and Gombong. In Tengaran negotiation, the Indonesian Republic side was led by Lieutenant Colonel Mursito, while the Dutch side was led by Lieutenant Colonel AJP. Brummer. As the mediator, the representative of the Three State Commission was Colonel Survy from Belgium and Major Mackie from the United States of America (Hajati, et al., 1997: 124). The negotiation between the Indonesian and the Dutch in Tengaran was held in Klero village on January 24, 1948. It discussed the status quo line that was proposed by the Dutch, from the Merbabu Mountain to the Java North Sea. The proposal was approved by the Indonesian. Moreover, the Indonesian Delegation agreed to withdraw all of its army from the Dutch-occupied area (Indonesian Delegation Archives No. 43). The status quo board initially was placed at the south of Kali Tanggi (Tanggi river) (the Indonesian Republic area) on January 27, 1948, and directly witnessed by Major Sunitijoso (Indonesian National Armed Forces) along with Captain A.V. Vosveld (the Dutch army /KoninklijkeLandmacht (KL)). While in the North (the Dutchoccupied area) it was witnessed by




Lieutenant Colonel Sunandar (Indonesian National Armed Forces) and Major C.M. Schilperoord (the Dutch army /KoninklijkeLandmacht (KL) (Arsip Delegasi Indonesia No. 43). From then on, the area of Tengaran Sub-district was officially divided into two governments. The geographical location of the District Tengaran thatwas directly adjacent to the headquarters of the Dutch army in Salatigawas very important to dispel the breach that was committed by the Dutch army.As per to the instruction from the Supreme Commander Sudirman, following the break of the First Dutch Military Aggression, The Central Java Battle Leadership Headquarter was disbanded and replaced with KomandoPimpinanPertempuran /PP(Battle Chief Command).PPwas divided into six sectors with the codes of PP4A up to PP4F (Hajati, et al., 1997:124). TheTengaranarea was included in PP4A that was led by Lieutenant Colonel Suadi (Arsip Kementrian Pertahanan No. 637). Since Tengaran Sub-district was the major road to Surakarta, in this sector, the Indonesian National Armed Forceslined up two linear defense layers at the South of Kalitanggi. Miserable condition was suffered by the combatants who gathered in PP4A sector. All through the war, they lacked food and clothes; they did not even have blankets to sleep. Wiryo's role as theTengaranWedanaandSiswoas the Tengaran'sCamat(the Sub-district head) wasprominent for the Republic Indonesia combatants survival. Although they were the Dutch government officials, they held deep sympathy for the Republic of Indonesia struggle. They often illegally sent bullets and sought for rice and clothesfor the combatants. Other than Wiryo andSiswo, Jayus, lurah (village head) of Klero (federal region)also played important role in the struggle of the Republic of Indonesia. In the end of his career as a lurah, he was caught and imprisoned by the Dutch after he was proven spying the Dutch movementin

Klero(Jarkoni, an interview on September 28, 2013). Tegalrejo village was the second defense line of the Republic of Indonesia. To support the logistics of the combatants, both the Indonesian National Armed Forces and the army of non-military who gathered in that village, two common kitchens were formed. A big common kitchen was established in the home of one civilian named SuwarinTegalrejoLor. This common kitchen was fully funded by the government and only served for military logistics. Guerilla troops were not part of the Indonesian National Armed Forces and as such they did not received rations from the big common kitchen. However, they still got whatever available rations from the small common kitchen that was founded in TegalrejoKidul.That small kitchen was funded by the surrounding community and managed by Tegalrejolurah called Sudar(Mujiyem, an interview on January 12, 2014). When the great exodus happened from the Dutch occupied area to the inland, the developed vogue was thetibanmarket or the impromptu market. At the beginning, the official market was located in Tengaran. Since the market there was often disturbed by the Dutch, the market moved to Gatak, and lastly to Sri Badak, Kembang. It was undeniable that the effect of the Dutch economic blockage caused the scarcity of essential goods in Republic area, either textile, salt, or medicines which brought about the decrease of the life assurance (Sin Po, August 2, 1948 col. 1). To overcome the goods scarcity, the role of the trans-border traders became crucial. Other than trading, they also smuggled bullets and medicines, and even became spies for the Republic of Indonesian combatants.To give one example was Maryam who disguised herself as a trader while smuggling medicines which she got from a health officialnamed Binoso who worked for the Dutch Government Health Service in Salatiga (Hajati, et al., 1997: 128).




The Jihad Resolution that was issued as a fatwa(a ruling on a point of Islamic law given by a recognized authority) from the NahdlatulUlama (NU) Supreme Rois (Islamic religious leader), K.H. HasyimAsy’arihad moved the Kyais to defend their homeland.In Tengaran subdistrict, the Kyais who devoted themselves to defend the republic sovereignty belonged to an organization calledBarisanKyaiTengaran (TengaranKyais' Line). Its members were: KyaiMawardi (the founder and commander of the PasukanClurut/the Shrew Mouse Army), KyaiZubair andKyaiKhumaidi (Leaders ofPondokTingkirLor/North Tingkir Islamic Boarding School), and Kyai Abu Ngamar from Cabean (Hajati, et al., 1997: 147).Through preaching, they could recruit Islamic youth combatants to defend the country. Despite their success in mass amassment, as imam (Islamic priest) they did not get any payment norpositions either in civil or military government.Their participation in the struggle was purely due to their love to the nation of Indonesia. The youth was the engine of the nation's struggle. At the beginning, PasukanClurutwhose members were Islamic youth combatants from Tengaran only had 20 members. This army was founded in 1947 by KyaiMawardi, and was led byDullahSadjadi.At the beginning, the army's main job wasonly to spy and fight.As every year its members grew up to a single company, not all members were assigned in the forefront. They were divided into several positions. Some were on duty in the common kitchen (cook), some became tobang (food delivery person for the fighters), some were the spy, some were in communication,some worked as road-finder or bodyguard forthe Indonesian National Armed Forces that would attack enemy bases, and some others sabotaged roads and fought (Mawardi, interview on December 3, 2013 and Jarkoni, on September 28, 2013). Other than PasukanClurut, inTengaranthere was also combatant army

named BarisanTahanUdji/PasukanBatu (literary translated as the Hardship Resistant Army/the Stone Army). PasukanBatu was founded by SlametRiyadiwhile he was assigned as the commander of the Battle Operation in the Sector II in 1948. Itconsisted of robbers who were frequently troubling the community and was chaired bySastroSadjat. This army was the non military army which had the most complete munitions and was the most infamously sadistic (Kusdi, an interview on September 29, 2013). The Second Dutch Military Aggression was launched along with the attacks against the capital of the Republic of Indonesia, namely Yogyakarta. On December 18, 1948, the Dutch army which would be departed toSolohad been concentrated in Salatiga. They were transported by trucks which were inscribed with the words “Naar Solo” (to Solo). In the morning on December 19, from Ngebul and Kebunjeruk, the Dutch fired cannons to the South. The cannons’ attackbroke down the Indonesian National Armed Forces defense in Tengaran, and even victimized some civilians. The Dutch army movement to immobilize Tengaran area was very swift.SlametRiyadiordered his men to destroy Ampelbridge. Meanwhile, some of his men who were still in Tengaran were ordered to retreat Southward and Westward. Tengaranwas attacked from three directions. From the West the Dutch invadedNgaglik. From the East the Dutch attacked Gading, while the Dutchmajor forces raided Tengaran (Kusdi, an interview on September 29, 2013). Physical clash between the Indonesian National Armed Forces that was assisted by the local community with the Dutch was unavoidable in Kaliwaru. KyaiMawardi, KyaiZahrodji, KyaiBadjuri, KyaiAmri, andKyaiDulbari with the spirit of jihadfiSabilillah(holy war for the cause of Allah) refused to back off. They kept on fighting until in the end they diedaround the Kaliwaru mosque where they managedPasukanClurutcaderization.Once the Dutch was able to




conquerTengaran,the combatants who got caught were imprisoned. They were paraded fromKaliwarutoKebonjeruk under

the threat of arms. The Dutch unhesitantly killed the combatants that they thought were dangerous (Hajati, et al., 1997: 139).

The Battle of Tengaran 19 December 1949

On December 21, 1948, The Dutch had already took Solo over. To ensure the strength of their position in that city, they tried to secure Solo-Semarang arteryroad.The Dutch guard and patrol in the Solo-Semarang road became easy targets for the Republic of Indonesia combatants who still remained in Tengaran. Convoy ambush and trekbom planting (landmines) were the ultimate strategy of the Republic of Indonesia guerilla in exploiting limited technology. As an example, in one event at the end of January 1949, the Republic of Indonesia guerillas that were led by the Second LieutenantSudarkocohad successfully detonated a truck which was carrying the Dutch Army from Solo to Salatiga by means of mines that were planted on Krakal bridge (Hajati, et al., 1997: 145). The Second Dutch Military Aggression impacted on the cessation of routine budget from the Central Government to all units, departments, andagencies. From January 1, 1949, the

logistic supply for the army became the responsibility of the District Military Government. (PemerintahMiliterKabupaten/PMKB). PMKBhad to meet the logistic needs of its members in any way they could, such as bylooting from the enemies or by gathering from the community (Hajati, et al., 1997: 148).InTegalrejo village, after the Indonesian National Armed Forces went back to Tengaran (inwingate course, i.e. infiltrating the enemy area), the common kitchen was managed by the local community. Due to the rice rarity, Tegalrejo common kitchen only provided corn rice with side vegetable dishTherefore, it was obvious that the major source of the Indonesian National Armed Forces logistic supports in the former PP4A after the Second Dutch Military Aggression came from the community (Mujiyem, an interview onJanuary 12, 2014). After fighting for six months, the Dutch was defeated. They onlymanaged to




defend big cities. The Indonesian National Armed Forces who was previously backed into a corner retaliated and upturned the situation. The Dutch who was besieged in Solo did not get any help from Salatigasince their help was always stopped in TengaranandBoyolali. In August 3, 1949, a ceasefire between the two sides was agreed. On December19,the Regent of Semarang,Sumardjito, and the police head,Sutardjo, had already entered Salatiga to discuss about the surrender of Salatiga to the Republic.It was only on December 29, 1949 that Salatiga officially entered the Republic of Indonesia along with the surrounding sub-districts (Hajati, et al., 1997:150).

CONCLUSION Throughout the war to defend Indonesia independence in Tengaran during 1947-1949, Tengarancommunity was not a passive party. Instead, they fought along with the Indonesian National Armed Forces. The community economic and moral supports psychologically fostered the morale of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, while on the other side, put prolonged psychological pressure on the Dutch. As a combative support, they formed guerilla army called PasukanClurut and PasukanBatu, while as non-combative support the Lurah (village head) had a role to gather logistics to support the Indonesian National Armed Forces necessities for the war.

REFFERENCES Arsip Delegasi Indonesia No. 43.HasilPerundinganGenjatanSenjata di Klero. Tanggal 25 Januari 1948. ArsipKementrianPertahanan No. 637. DaftarBagianBagiandariPemimpinPertahanandanPertempuran. Tahun 1948. Eisenstadt, S. N., (1986). RevolusidanTransformasiMasyarakat. (terjemaaholehCandraJohan). Jakarta: CV. Rajawali. Hajati, Chusnul et al., (1997). PerananMasyarakatDesa di Jawa Tengah dalamPerjuanganKemerdekaanTahun 1945-1949 Daerah Kendal danSalatiga. Jakarta: DepartemenPendidikandanKebudayaan RI. Sjamsuddin, Helius. (2007). Metodologi Sejarah. Yogyakarta: Ombak. Kartodirdjo, Sartono. (1982). PemikirandanPerkembanganHistoriografi Indonesia, SuatuAlternatif. Jakarta: PT Gramedia. Moehkardi. (2012). RevolusiNasional 1945 di Semarang. Jakarta: KementerianKoordinasiKesejahteraan Rakyat. Nasution, A.H., (1978). SekitarPerangKemerdekaan Indonesia,PerangGerilyaSemesta I jilid6. Bandung: Angkasa. Olivia, Ani. (2005). PeranTentaraPelajarBatalyon 200 SalatigadalamPerjuanganMempertahankan KemerdekaanRepublik Indonesia di SalatigaTahun 1945-1949. Salatiga: SkripsiJurusanSejarah, FKIP, UniversitasKristen SatyaWacana SESKOAD. (1990). SeranganUmum 1 Maret 1949 di Yogyakarta LatarBelakangdanPengaruhnya. Jakarta: PT. Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada. Sin Po, 2 Agustus 1948, kolom 1.Kamerosotandjaminanidoep di saloeroedaerahRepoeblik. Tashadi. (1997). SejarahPerjuanganHizbullahSabilillahDivisiSunanBonang. Surakarta: Yayasan Bhakti Utama. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 163



Wiyono, dkk.,(1983). SejarahRevolusiKemerdekaan (1945-1949) Jawa Tengah. Jakarta: Departemen PendidikandanKebudayaan.




Colonial Education and Subjectivity in Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Condition and Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s This Earth of Mankind

Dono Sunardi

Faculty of Language and Arts, Universitas Ma Chung, Malang, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: While there have been several researches on the relation between colonial subjects’ participation in colonial education and the birth of idea of nationalism and modern nation among those colonial subjects, there is nothing yet that seriously tries to see the long process as to how it works that way. This paper will not refute those researches on the ground of factual relationship between colonial education and the rise of nationalism in postcolonial countries. Instead, it will try to fill the gap, or try to answer the question raised by Viswanathan (1989) as to how colonial education worked toward this end or how it is so specially constituted to produce the reaction that it did. In so doing, this discussion will start by reviewing the history of colonial education in two representatives of once colonized lands, i.e. India and Indonesia, and argues that nationalism and modern nation came only much later after the introduction of colonial education, suggesting the existence of something significant in-between. And to help finding that something in-between, we turn to use the main characters of T. Dangarembga’sNervous Condition (1988) and Pramoedya A. Toer’sThis Earth of Mankind (1980) as readers. The nervous condition that colonial subjects experienced because of his/her participation in colonial education and how they responded to it as well as how creative were they in using those nervousness to create their own “third space” of identity, one of them being nationalism, is the filling to the gap this discussion tries to offer. Keywords: colonial education, identity, nationalism, nervous condition, subjectivity

INTRODUCTION

I

n order to better understand the conception of modern nationalism in today’s postcolonial countries, an exploration into colonial education could offer a great help. The discussion of this paper will limit colonial education only to

formal education that was provided based on certain colonial policies and agendas by colonial masters for their colonial subjects. A education, provoked intelligent

popular belief is that colonial no matter how uninspiring, has and evoked a new era of resistance against colonialism




from the part of colonial subjects. If in the era prior to participation in education anticolonial resistance had mostly of physical nature like the launching of wars and terrors against colonial power in the era that followed it colonial subjects learned how to resist in intelligent ways, like by using modern organization. In the Netherlands East Indies, today Indonesia, for example, the first modern “national” organization, BoediOetomo (BO), was founded in 1920 or nineteen years after the introduction of Ethical Policy. Ethical Policy was the Dutch East Indies’ colonial policy that made possible the provision of education for colonial subjects in the colony, along with the construction of irrigation infrastructures and the transmigration of people from then overpopulated Java to other islands in Indonesia. Before that, almost all that we read about anticolonial resistance is limited to sporadic regional and local battles waged across the Archipelago. Besides shifting the mode of anticolonial resistance, participation in colonial education also shapes, introduces and, later on, provides fertile grounds for the breeding of idea of modern nationalism among colonial subjects. Such an idea had never existed before. What had been there merely primordial bonding, based on the sameness of race, religion, color, and/or language. In the case of the Netherland East Indies, people from Java would not feel a “sense of communion” with people from Minahasa in North Sulawesi, for instance. And Moslem Acehnese would not say that they shared a common goal with Catholic people of East Nusa Tenggara. The conception, birth and awakening of nationalism and the imagination of modern nation are something abstract that was made possible by awareness as a result of their participation in colonial education. Our discussion, however, is not specifically about the birth and shaping of modern national imagination and nationalism among colonial subjects as a result of their participation in colonial

education. This subject has already been explored by several researches such as Bruce McCully’sEnglish Education and the Origins of Indian Nationalism, which concludes that the education the colonial subjects received provided them with tools for questioning colonial authority and eventually subverting it (Vismanathan, 14). While I share the finding, the rise of national imagination and nationalism in the part of colonial subjects is, I would also argue, a later development of what precedes it, something more basic: the subjectivity of colonial subjects. Colonial education has created a group of educated young people who were aware of the layers of contradiction in their situation. They felt nervous by the knowledge that they were not as traditional as other colonial subjects who did not participate in the education, but were still, at least in their physical features, just like them. Colonial education did not make them European. Because of their participation in colonial education, these young men (and women) were exposed to and embraced the idea of western modernity but at the same time they were paralyzed by the fact that they could not fully participate in the train of modernity simply because they were, in fact, non-Europeans. So, what should we call these groups of young people? In the case of Dutch East Indies, they were the so-called brown-Dutchmen, i.e. those young people who were “white” in the mind but brown in their skin color. They were people in nervous condition that did not really have a place in the existing social and political system, which accommodated only if they were natives or Europeans, colonial subjects or colonial masters. As such, some of them, after some while of personal struggle and reflection, took a subversive action against what was being prescribed to them through education. Colonial education as idealized by the proponents of Ethical Policy was that it would create a group of young men with just enough skills to become “the nuts and bolts for colonial machine.” But these young people later chose nationalism instead, which is one form of third space.




I will begin this discussion with an exploration into the history of colonial education. In so doing I will take two cases as my focal points, i.e. India and Indonesia. These two cases are representative enough because these two Asian countries were colonized by two major European empires (Britain and the Netherland, subsequently). After that, the discussion will then move on to explore how that participation in colonial education would awaken the subjectivity in the part of colonial subjects. For this purpose, I am going to use two novels as the reader, i.e. Nervous Condition (1988)and This Earth of Mankind (1980 in Indonesian, and 1990 in English, translation by Max Lane). The first novel was by TsitsiDangarembga, a Zimbabwean author, while the later was by an Indonesian writer, PramoedyaAnantaToer. What I will do is trying to compare and contrast between the main characters of the two novels, in order to find out how each of them deal with their new-acquired identity as a result of their participation in colonial education as well as how their subjectivity emerges and toward which third space they tend to. The paper will be concluded by an attempt to contrast and compare some of possible new spaces and finds which one of them, if any, which is more “genuine” and free from colonial ambiguity.

TWO CASES EDUCATION: INDONESIA

OF COLONIAL INDIA AND

Colonial education is a much later development in the course of colonialism’s history. That is if we agree upon the notion that European colonialism began when European traders firstly settled in the colonial soils, built their forts, armed themselves with soldiers and canons, and enforced their monopolistic trading system to non-European traders in 16th century. Many historians will probably disagree with this since the process of colonization in some parts of the area would not complete until the second half of

nineteenth century. However, most will agree that colonization of much Asia and Africa had started much earlier than that. Colonial education, on the other hands, was introduced in 1813 in India and 1901 in Indonesia or almost three centuries later. What happened in between was that colonial conquerors, or trading companies from European countries equipped with royal privilege and papal blessing, came to heathen lands of Africa, America, and Asia to fulfill their economic interests. They took all that they thought valuable, especially spices, and brought them back to Europe. In doing so, there was no real exchange between them and the native populations, except a top-down interaction between extractors of spices and gold and their deprived subjects. For those trading company men, the matters of their subjects were not of their immediate interest. They would, without second thought, repress and crush, in cruel way if needed, any resistance to their powers raised by the natives of the islands. One factor that instigated colonial rulers in both India and Indonesia to introduce education to their colonial subjects was the force from the parliaments. To understand this, we can take a look a little further back of time. In the 17th and 18th centuries, most European trading companies became, as a result of their mismanagement or low morale among their men, either dysfunctional or bankrupt, prompting the kings or emperors to interfere and take over the matters of the colonies. This was true, for example, in the case of VOC (VereenigdeOostindischeCompagnie), Dutch East Indies Company, which was very successful in running spice monopolistic trade before its bankruptcy in 1799. In response to this, the Dutch throne decided to take over the colony. All the whiles, in the 18th and 19th centuries, radicals and humanists gained more vote in those European empires’ parliaments, something could not be separated from the Marxist thought. And upon learning about the extremely exploitative practices of the colonizers in the colonies in extracting




benefits without paying any heed to the colonial subjects’ wellbeing from writings like Max Havelaar(a novel by Douwess Dekker under alias of Multatuli which tells about the cruelty of the colonial ruler, first published in 1860), these factions in the parliament condemned them on moral basis, citing that these were far from Christian values and were not in line with the mission of civilization they believed their empires divinely entrusted with. Another factor, which is more realistic than those dubious kindness and humanitarian consideration, is the awareness (when being put in positive term) of the colonizers that in order to perpetuate the dominance over the colonies they could not forever rely on military force. For one, military force was expensive, seen both from financial and human resource points of view. Even then, the numbers of the colonial subjects were many times bigger than the numbers of European settlers and their soldiers’ altogether. This, again, can be exemplified by the case of the Dutch colonial ruler in the Netherland East Indies, where they must pay soldiers of fortune. They had to find less expensive ways to maintain their control, and in the efforts came to a realization that the existing power structure that gave them privilege over natives could best be sustained through internalization process of values that the colonial ruler is always more superior than their colonial subject. The first step to such a hegemonic condition is by indoctrination. And the best way to indoctrinate people is through heavily controlled education, which was carefully designed to totally whitewash the colonial subjects, making them stripped off of their agency and became, to its extremity, mere objects. Providing education to selected few was relatively cheaper than maintaining military.

these colonial subjects were later asked to participate in the running colonial governance, under the supervision and guidance, of course, of their white masters. These educated natives were given a small power, usually as administrative staffs. The power endowed was vast enough for them to do what were required to accomplish by their positions, but at the same time small enough so that they would not make any significant decision that could possibly hurt the masters’ interests. To these factors, Ricklefs (2001, 193-194) adds a pure capitalistic consideration. As European countries became more and more industrialized by 18th century following the successful Industrial Revolution, they needed a bigger market to absorb their products. Education in the colonies would eventually create a middle class with money to spend. This middle class would be a new market target for European manufactured goods. That in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries some colonial subjects in India and Indonesia had access, however limited, to formal education was a fact. The colonial governments built schools and provided books and other educational infrastructures. The fundamental facts of exploitation and subjugation of colonial subjects, however, remained, if not got stronger than before. The binary opposition between what was believed to be civilized, powerful, white colonial ruler and savaged, powerless, color colonial subject was maintained, or better sustained than ever. To this binary, it was now added another structure of Educator - student, or, following Jean-Paul Sartre, the Word echoes. About this sad fact, Sartre in his introduction to Franz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth powerfully wrote: “The European elite undertook to manufacture a native elite. They picked out promising adolescents; they stuffed branded them, as with a red-hot iron, with the principles of Western culture; they stuffed their mouths full with high-

The third factor that drove colonial rulers to provide education to their colonial subjects is a theory known as the principle of association. It is a theory where the colonial ruler chose and educated several potential colonial subjects and in return




sounding phrases, grand glutinous words that stuck to the teeth. After a short stay in the mother country they were sent home, whitewashed. These walking lies had nothing left to say to their brothers; they only echoed. From Paris, from London, from Amsterdam we would utter the words, ‘Parthenon! Brotherhood!’ and somewhere in Africa or Asia lips would open ‘ … thenon! …. Therhood!’” (Fanon, 7). Either with riffles and cannons or with what seems to be “benevolent” act of providing education, the motive of the colonial ruler is the same, i.e. to maintain their dominance and control over colonial subjects. J. Farish, in his “Minute on Education, Bombay Presidency, 1814” as cited by GauriVismanathan wrote a chilling comment about the goal of the education seen from the colonial ruler’s perspective: “The Natives must either be kept down by sense of our power, or they must willingly submit from a conviction that we are more wise, more just, more humane, and more anxious to improve their condition than any other rulers they could possibly have” (1989, 2). With all these efforts, hegemony of the colonial ruler seemed to be inevitable. The binary opposition between Native-Purer seemed to gain its natural quality. No room was left uncultivated. What could be expected from this? Would this mean that there was no escape from the colonial hegemony? And yet, at all times, resistance could find its ways out, even when these ways out are negligible. Resistance is like water because it leaks through the smallest pore available to make breakthroughs for a bigger momentum. Resistance also has a reputation of being a survivor among very difficult situations. And in our case, it was the colonial subject’s subjectivity that has escaped from the colonial agenda. By

subjectivity here I mean both Lacanian subjectivity where our responses to society’s ideologies are what matter and New Historicism’s subjectivity which means a lifelong process of negotiating our way, consciously and unconsciously, among the constraints and freedoms offered at any given moment in time by the society in which we live (Tyson, 31, 284).

COLONIAL SUBJECTIVITY IN DANGAREMBGA’S NERVOUS CONDITION Nervous Condition (1988) is a very rich text that one best single reading is almost impossible. There are several possible topics that intermingled one with the others, from patriarchy to traditional values to Englishness to racism to feminism to colonialism. The topic of colonial education is particularly important and intriguing because it serves as a common thread that connects its major characters, i.e. Babamukuru, Nyasha, and Tambudzai. All three of them experience colonial education. Babamukuru, who is the father and patriarch of the family, is an epitome of a colonial subject who would be picked up by colonial ruler, provided with access to education, sent for some while to the mother country in Europe to pick up its values, and then after all these is finished, required to come back home to spread the words (read: echo) of what he had learned to his brothers, sisters, and students. Babamukuru represents the first generation of colonial subject in Zimbabwe provided with access to education. Never before in his family, did someone achieve such an honorable position as his. This makes Babamukuru the role model for his family and beyond: “My [Tambu] uncle was not afraid of hard work … He surprised the missionaries by performing exceptionally well at school … He was diligent, he was industrious, he was respectful. They thought he was




a good boy, cultivable, in way that land is, to yield harvests that sustain the cultivator. … Then the Government took over with a scholarship to South Africa. My uncle became prosperous and respected, well enough salaried to reduce a little meagerness of his family’s existence. This indicated that life could be lived with a modicum and dignity in any circumstances if you worked hard enough and obeyed the rules” (Dangarembga, 19). Romantic as this may sound, it is exactly this kind of social upward mobility that becomes the dream of many colonial subjects. Colonial subjects everywhere, like Babamukuru, work very hard, try to become good boys or industrious girls, obey and embrace the values of their masters and teachers, and in short do almost everything so that they win a rare chance to be singled out and deemed as a potential candidate for access to education. And once they are inside, they will prove themselves cultivable, letting their masters know that they are more than happy to learn the teachings in the hope that the master-teachers will give them or lead them to nice and lucrative posts after their schooling finishes. And when eventually they are successful in getting such a post, they will rise into the position of highly respected persons, men and women everyone will look with amazement and jealousy. Their family will honor them and make them their protectors and patrons. They are privileged members of the colonial society, but they must bow down before the colonial ruler, proving that they work hard enough for the benefit of the master.

superior to people of colors. At the same time, he is uncritical to any colonial policy. Babamukuru willingly internalize colonial values and spread them to his family and students. He will help the colonial ruler to perpetuate the idea that they are wiser, superior, and more anxious about their subject’s welfare. In short, a man like Babamukuru is a good servant of colonialism. Nyasha, the daughter of the family, is, on the other hand, more problematic than the simple-minded Babamukuru. At the first impression, Nyasha might just look like a troublesome teenage girl. Her problems are problems commonly found in young girl who thinks herself as the center of the universe and wants others to think likewise. But to do her justice, Nyasha’s problem is much more than that. Nyasha experiences colonial education just like her father once did. Her experience with that, and particularly her direct contact for several years with the colonial culture when she comes to follow her father, has a deepseated influence upon her. Nyasha does not speak the vernacular anymore as her first language, and when she tries to speak it she does not sound natural. Nyasha cannot enjoy being around with her old own people. The third major character of the novel, Tambudzai, provides another interesting insight. Contrasting herself and her simple dream of emancipating herself and her family from poverty just like Babamukuru with that of Nyasha and her complexities, Tambudzai makes such a keen observation, indicating how she could possibly bridge the two sides: “Nyasha was something unique and necessary for me. I did not like to spend too long without talking to her about things that worried me because she would, I knew, pluck out the heart of the problem with her multidirectional mind and present it

From colonial ruler’s perspective, Babamukuru definitely represents a group of natives they seek to create through the provision of education. Babamukuru is cultivable, moldable, and eager to embrace colonial values that the White is always




to me in ways that made sense, but not only that, in ways that implied also that problems existed not to be worried over but to extend us in our search for solutions. … Consciously I thought my direction was clear: I was being educated. When I had been educated, I would find a job and settle down to it, carrying on, in the time that was available before I was married into a new home, Babamukuru’s great work of developing the family. … Babamukuru was my touchstone who showed me that this was true. … But Nyasha’s energy, at times stormy and turbulent, at times confidently serene, but always reaching, reaching a little further than I had even thought of reaching, was beginning to indicate that there were directions to be taken, other struggles to engage in besides the consuming desire to emancipate myself and my family. Nyasha gave me the impression of moving, always moving and striving towards some state that she had seen and accepted a long time ago” (Dangarembga, 151-152). Because of the experience with colonial education, Nyasha represents someone who has departed from her old, and possibly safe, identity towards some new, and probably unachievable, space. Nyasha does not belong to the past—no matter how romantic the past is for many—and she is also not accepted in the present time because of the unbridgeable gap that colonial education did to her. The colonial education has ripped Nyasha apart from her traditional sense of identity. “’I don’t want to do it, Tambu[dzai], really I don’t, but

it’s coming, I feel it coming.’ Her eyes dilated. … ‘Why do they do it, Tambu?’ she hissed bitterly, her face contorting with rage, ‘to me and to you and to him [Babamukuru]? Do you see what they’ve done? They’ve taken us a way. … All of us. They’ve deprived you of you, him of him, ourselves of each other. We’re groveling. Lucia for a job, Jeremiah for money. Daddy grovels to them. We grovel to him … I won’t grovel. Oh no, I won’t. I’m not a good girl. I’m evil. … I won’t grovel, I won’t die.’ … She rampaged, shredding her history book between her teeth (‘Their history. Fucking liars. Their bloody lies.’) … They’ve trapped us. They’ve trapped us. But I won’t be trapped’” (Dangarembga, 200-201). Babamukuru and Nyasha, I argue, represent two extremes of response toward colonial education. Babamukuru represents those at one end who welcome and celebrate the opportunity to being educated by colonial ruler. Many of these people even voluntarily buy Western values in order to prove their cultivability to colonial ruler. Nyasha, on the other end, feels a contradiction between her “romanticized” self of the past and the new identity constantly indoctrinated into her in mind by the school and at home. Nyasha’s “romanticizing” the past, traditional identity happens because, unlike her father, she does not really grow up in that identity. What she can do is only fantasizing that she has one and that she, to some points in the past, belonged to it. It is possibly true that someone who does not really have something but fantasizes or dreams of having it can be more anxious of losing it than those who do own it. And Nyasha is aware of the consequences of her participation in the colonial education and does not want to submit to its trap.




Education will separate her from that old “romanticized” identity, uproot her from her safe set of identity and put her in a situation of non-belongness. It is interesting to see how Tambudzai responds to and resolves this conflict. Tambudzai herself is not a member of Babamukuru’s immediate family. She is one of many Babamukuru’s nieces. Just like Babamukuru, Tambudzai lives all her childhood with her poor big family. And just like her uncle, too, she works very hard to be admitted to colonial education. When the problem is money, for example, she proves to her mother that she can afford the education by herself. It is Tambduzai’s dream to emancipate herself and her family from the meager existence they have lived so long. And once she is admitted into school, she will not simply abandon it and let her biggest dream crumble. And yet at the same time, the more she talks to Nyasha the more she understands the struggle her cousin experiences and cannot deny that this struggle is something essential. She begins to feel empathy for her and even shares the same concern with Nyasha. She probably starts feeling the same way as Nyasha. In the very last paragraph of the novel, Tambudzai concludes how she compromises the contradiction. Learning from Nyasha’s frontal confrontation and how this has badly damaged the family, while being not able to imagine herself takes the similar radical step, Tambudzai manages to find a compromise and tells us how she comes to her own, unique “third space”:

“I told myself I was a much more sensible person than Nyasha, because I knew what could or couldn’t be done. In this way, I banished the suspicion, buried it in the depths of my subconscious, and

happily went back to Sacred Heart. I was young then and able to banish things, but seeds do grow. Although I was not aware of it then, no longer could I accept Sacred Heart and what it represented as a sunrise on my horizon. Quietly, unobtrusively, and extremely fitfully, something in my mind began to assert itself, to question things and refuse to be brainwashed [italics added]bringing me to this time when I can set down this story. It was a long and painful process for me, that process of expansion. It was a process whose events stretched over many years and would fill another volume …” (Dangarembga, 203-204).

It is here, in the process that Tambudzai characterizes as long and painful, that Tambudzai’s subjectivity plays crucial role. Through the process, she negotiates her identity. Tambudzai is fully aware that she is not the same as that simple child from the past anymore, but she cannot welcome and celebrate Western values wholly as his uncle does as well. She has to create her own place, a third space of herself. And this reminds us of Sartre’s introduction to Fanon about third generation of colonial subject who was “traumatized” by life. They are “halfnatives” because they learn things from their masters, and at the same time also know and experience the pain and suffering of their fathers. Tambudzai’s subjectivity is that which makes her creative to establish a new identity for herself. Her writing her own story; her determination not to forget what has happened to her, to Nyasha, and to her family; her refusal to be brainwashed even when in reality she faces it every day at




school are some forms of her subjectivity, even when Tambudzai is “only” a female colonial subject under such strong hegemonic colonial structure celebrating Western values and enhancing foreign interests. COLONIAL EDUCATION IN TOER’S THIS EARTH OF MANKIND This Earth of Mankind is firstly published in 1980 in Indonesian. It is written by PramoedyaAnantaToer, one of Indonesian most celebrated novelists. The novel was written during his more than 15 years long forced exile in Buru Island in the eastern part of the country. The first in a series popularly known as the Buru Quartet, it was followed by: Child of All Nation, Footsteps, and House Glass. Pramoedya was imprisoned and later exiled because the Indonesian military in 1965 and 1966 suspected him as a member of Indonesian Communist Party (PKI). PKI itself was banned nationally for a fail coup d’état against the government in September/October 1965. Pramoedya was sent to Buru without trial until 1980. During that period, in order not to forget the writing project he had already initiated, Pramoedya recited his stories to his fellow inmates and only in 1975, when he was granted access to book and pen, he could write his story. This Earth of Mankind, like all other Pramoedya’s works before and after his exile, was immediately banned by the New Order under Suharto, suspected for its leftist content and, only after the fall of this regime in 1998, it is publicly read. One interesting fact is that Max Lane, an Australian activist, writer and translator, translated this quartet and Penguin Books Classic published it for international readership in 1990. For the sake of this discussion, I use Mr. Lane’s translation. This Earth of Mankind is a story of Minke, a son of a Javanese aristocrat who studies in HBS, which was an elite school intended for Dutch and Indo (mix-blood) students. Minke is in fact the only native student there, making his studying in HBS

a prestige to his family. As the only native student in his school, Minke is very receptive to new ideas taught by his Dutch teachers. He is a real modernity enthusiast, believing that everything that comes from the modern West is better than those traditional inheritances of his father. Minke is also hopeful about the future of humanity, where he feels that he certainly will take parts in it. Minke begins to question this beautiful yet intoxicating optimism, however, after his introduction to Nyai Ontosoroh, a native concubine of Mr. Herman Mellema. The introduction to Nyai Ontosoroh has destroyed any wild idea of mistress Minke ever had in mind. This particular Nyai has learned many things from his master, from reading to accounting, from cooking to Western literature, from taking a bath to running a complex business, prior to Mr. Mellema’s becoming crazy. In short, Nyai Ontosoroh is very independent, knowledgeable, and critical. In addition, she is a mother of a beautiful daughter, Annelies, who, because of their shared alienated from the rest of the society, instantly becomes Minke’s best friend and lover. The association with this interesting family opens Minke’s awareness to his being “brown Dutchman”, his being a Javanese in color and race, but a Dutchman in knowledge, taste, aspiration, and language. And for the first time, Minke finds this situation problematic since he is not pure Javanese, as his mother once asserts, and also not pure (or impossible to be Dutch). And then it comes to Minke’s realization that it is his education that makes him as he is now. From his Western teachers he so admires because of their vast knowledge, Minke learns about the modernity and human emancipation. The promises are so sweet, and he is helplessly seduced by it. Minke describes his feeling when he exclaims about it almost in the first paragraphs of the novel: “I was still very young, just the age of a corn plant, yet I had already experienced modern learning and science: They had bestowed upon me a




blessing whose beauty was beyond description” (Toer, 16). Almost at the same time frame, however, we are told about his awareness that his dream is somehow bound to fail. Western modernity and Minke somehow are “predetermined” not to be united. Minke tells this in a very symbollical way: comparing his own situation (a very welleducated native and yet also a subject of colonialism) to that of the Queen of Holland, who, in fact, was born at the same date as himself, August 31, 1880. “… in this modern era tens of thousands of copies of any photo could be reproduced each day. And the important thing was there was one of these that I looked at more often than any other: a photo of a beautiful maiden, rich, powerful, glorious, one who possessed everything, the beloved of the gods. … Whenever I had nothing to do, I would gaze at her face while supposing how it would be to be court to her. How would it be! And how high, too, was her station. And how far away she was, nearly twenty thousand kilometers from where I was: Surabaya … Even then there’d be no certainty of being able to meet her. I didn’t dare speak my feelings to a single soul. They would laughed at me and called me mad” (Toer, 18). Symbollically, this narration, according to me, wants to say that no matter how welleducated Minke is, or how far-reaching his mind, or how intense his dream, he will never be able to even meet his heart’s lover, because there is a great distance between them two: his being native will not let him court to “the queen.” Education has seduced Minke with all its promises of

modernity—of progress—and he thinks about giving away to it. And yet, education will not make him into a Dutch, or even put him in the same level or place in the society with any of them. No matter how smart he is, Minke is (still) a Javanese, a native, a subject of Dutch colonial master. His being named Minke by one of his Dutch teachers, which sounds very similar to the English word “monkey,” also suggests that he is somewhat inferior than other Dutch or Indo students. This is confirmed when Minke meets with the drunk Mr. Hermann Mellema—a Dutch, who is also the husband-master of Nyai Ontosoroh. Minke is in hard way faced to the reality that he is not accepted in the Dutchness category as Mr. Mellema says, “You think, boy, because you wear European clothes, mix with Europeans, and can speak a little Dutch you then become a European? You’re still a monkey” (Toer, 47). One thing is clear by now, i.e. Minke could never be a Dutch, even when the allurement for it is very sweet to him. The next question is “Is Minke still a Javanese?” This question is tricky, because physically he is still the same; Minke’s skin is still brown, his nose remains flat, etc. In short, he has all the physical qualities that commonly characterize a Javanese. But, identity, I will argue, is something cultural. It is created based on certain social values by certain social group to set apart themselves from others and in the end to enhance that group interests. Identity is, therefore, never value-free (Tyson, 419). Understanding identity this way we will have to see what happened to Minke’s Javanese, or in other words, if Minke still complies with what qualities that characterize a Javanese. I am aware that this process itself is far from unproblematic, because we can always question what the meaning of being a Javanese is. It is an ever-relevant question: is there really a thing named Javanese? From textual evidences scattered in the novel, we can read how Minke is by many




perceive as not a Javanese anymore. One of such evidences comes during his forced visit to his father’s palace. Minke’s mother reprimands him, saying: “That is the sign you’re no longer Javanese, not paying heed to those older, those with greater right to your respect, those who have more power … Javanese bow down in submission to those older, more powerful; this is a way to achieve nobility of character. People must have the courage to surrender, Gus. Perhaps you no longer know that song either?” (Toer, 130).

Minke, too, suffers from comparable alienation. He is “alienated” because he is Javanese and he is brown-skinned but he is educated and he speaks Dutch and he wears European clothes.

Minke has become what his mother terms as “brown Dutchman”. This refers to someone whose skin is brown, like most Javanese have, but has personal, behavioral, and intellectual qualities generally believed to be owned by the Dutch colonizers. This term, therefore, contains in it a contradiction of two opposing forces.

To an educated colonial subject, the general expectation will be that Minke “positively participates” in the existing power structure, in terms that he supports it for the benefits of the master. The colonial ruler expects him to be their intermediary with the rest of the natives, governing as a bupati (regent) under the Dutch administration. In the association theory introduced by SnouckHurgronje (1857-1936), a Dutch scholar of Oriental cultures and languages and Advisor on Native Affairs to the colonial government of the Netherlands East Indies, a graduate of colonial education institution like Minke should “… become a leader, a pioneer, an example of your race” (Toer, 148). This is a rhetoric basically means that Minke should become a kinglet so that the natives would be easier to manage, because of the illusion that they are governed by leaders from their own races, instead of being governed by foreigner.

Realizing that he has been ousted from his old Javanese identity and that it is impossible for him to fully embrace the “Whiteness,” it is interesting to see how Minke responds to his nervous condition as a result of the colonial education he experiences. Just like Tambudzai, but unlike Nyasha, Minke is the one who makes decision when it comes to participating in a colonial school. And just like Tambudzai, too, Minke shows a big enthusiasm when it comes to learning something new, particularly something modern from the West. He uses his subjectivity as colonial subject to create his own space in the existing structure. And his association with NyaiOntosoroh and her daughter, Annalies, facilitates him in that endeavor. If Nyai and Annelies are not accepted by the colonial society of time because they are concubine (seen as someone doing a gravitating moral sin) and Indo (mix-blood), subsequently,

Minke, however, refuses to up to that public expectation. It is true that his being educated in colonial institution “alienates” or “exiles” him. It is also true that the colonial education experience has expelled him from his identity as Javanese—even though he does it consciously and maybe voluntarily—and that the modernity he is enticed with is unattainable, simply an illusion. It will be a much easier thing for him and to almost everybody’s approve if he submits to the above-mentioned expectation, but he refuses to be bow down to the unjust system. That’s why, through a long and painful process, Minke creates his own “third space.” And if the “third space” in Dangarembga’sTambudzai is found in her compromise so that she can accept her being in-between, in Toer’sMinke the “third space” is located in his blatant refusal to the categorization of identity itself. His subjectivity leads him to certain




kind of cosmopolitanism, as suggested by his bold assertion after being forced by his brother to better suit himself to the existing system of power: “My world was not rank and position, wages and embezzlement. My world was this earth of mankind and its problems” (Toer, 125, italics added).

CONCLUSION: NATIONALISM AND EDUCATION In the Introduction of this paper, I referred to a research by Bruce McCully. This research found a direct and causal relationship between colonial education and nationalism. Commented on the research, GauriViswanathan writes, “[t]he book is a documentation of the thesis that the growth of Indian nationalism was spurred by the formal training of Indians in the liberal doctrines of Western thought” (14). Viswanathan (1989) argues that one of weaknesses of such theory is that researchers like McCully fails in explaining in specific ways as to how colonial education worked toward this end or how it is so specially constituted to produce the reaction that it did. Viswanathan, by this, suggests that she does not reject the notion of possible relation between education and nationalism. And yet she questions the methods of how it works that way. My hypothesis that I am trying to explore throughout this discussion, too, suggests similar thing, i.e. that there might be a relationship between colonial education and the emergence and growth of nationalism. But it might be not as direct and as causal as one, e.g. McCully, might think before. That is why early on in this discussion I have made myself clear in stating that nationalism is only a later effect of colonial education. It needs some generation of educated natives to make them understand the situation and drive them to create a “new” space called nationalism. I purposefully put the word “new” in quotation marks because nationalism itself is, historically, not an invention of educated natives who used it as their mode of resistance against colonial

power. It is, in fact, another creation of new European bourgeoisie class to protect their own interest and privilege. What happened is the re-imagining of nationalism by educated colonial subjects as a tool to resist colonial ruler and to bring their people toward welfare. As we can see from the examples of Nervous Condition and This Earth of Mankind, colonial education has pulled its participants out of their old identities, like it or not. Once a colonial subject entered the door of a colonial education institution, he or she would never be the same person again. He or she was stripped off of his or her traditional or primordial, presumably “safe” identity. What he or she learned inside was European knowledge, values, and ideals—everything that they learned to believe to be better than what their own kinds ever had. Many would simply agree and begin to internalize those teachings, felt satisfied with themselves going to school and got a good job afterwards, as exemplified by Babamukuru and thousands of native-collaborators. Some would get mad, could not reconcile the contradiction they felt inside themselves, just like Nyasha, and could not reach anything but bitterness. The third group is what I call as the creative group who know when and how to use their subjectivity. They faced similar situation as two previous groups, but they understand that they must live with it. Tambudzai chooses a compromising way, while Minke chooses a more radical one. But whatever it is, they try very hard to reconcile the contradiction resulted from the experience of colonial education they have and the experience as colonial subjects they grow with. And if, there is relationship between colonial education and the emergence and growth of nationalism, I would argue that that it, in all likeliness, would spring from this third group, the group that creatively subverted the tools they were provided with to resist their colonial master. But for the third group to come to the subjectivity that leads them to nationalism, it needs some time. That’s why, as the example I provided earlier in this paper about the first




modern organization in Indonesia to systematically resist the Dutch, it needed almost two decades as the colonial

education in Indonesia was formally started in 1901 and BoediOetomo was founded in 1920. ****

REFERENCES Anderson, Benedict. (1991). Imagined Community. London and New York: Verso. Dangarembga, Tsitsi. (1988). Nervous Condition. Seattle: The Seal Press. Dirks, Nicholas B (ed.).(1992). Colonialism and Culture. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. Fanon, Franz. (1967). Black Skin, White Mask. London: Pluto Press. Fanon, Franz. (1963). The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. Hellwig, Tineke and Eric Tagliacozzo. (2009). The Indonesia Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham and London: Duke University Press. McLeod, John. (2000). Beginning Postcolonialism. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Peters, Michael (ed.). (1999). After the Disciplines. Connecticut and London: Bergin & Garvey. Ricklefs, M.C. (2001). History of Modern Indonesia. London: Palgrave. Shafer, Boyd C. (1955). Nationalism: Myth and Reality. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. Tyson, Lois. (2006). Critical Theory Today.2nd Edition. New York and London: Routledge. Toer, PramoedyaAnanta.(1990). Child of All Nations.English Translation by Max Lane. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. Toer, PramoedyaAnanta.(1990). Footsteps.English Translation by Max Lane. New York: Penguin Books. Toer, PramoedyaAnanta.(1990). House of Glass.English Translation by Max Lane. New York: Penguin Books. Toer, PramoedyaAnanta.(1990). This Earth of Mankind.English Translation by Max Lane. New York: Penguin Books. Viswanathan, Gauri. (1989). Mask of Conquest. Literary Study and British Rule in India. New York: Columbia University.







Multiculturalism in the Ritual of Ancestors Tribute As the Cultural Expression in Gunung Kawi

Dwi Sulistyorini Doctoral student, Doctoral Program in Cultural Studies Universitas Sebelas Maret, email: [email protected]

Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum The Head of Doctoral Study Program in Cultural Studies Universitas Sebelas Maret, email: [email protected]

Abstract: Indonesia is an archipelago country consisting of thousands islands along with its diverse people, culture, belief, and tradition. A number of ethnics lives in harmonious community which enables the process of acculturation as well as assimilation, one of the examples is reflected by local society in Gunung Kawi that is formed by Madurese, Java, and China (known as Durjana – Madura, Jawa, Cina). Those three ethnics live in a peace and dynamics culture binding and have high interreligious and cultural tolerance one another. Cultural diversity among them is reflected in the form of established buildings and the custom of Malam Jumat Legi rituals. This diversity has been well recognized by the local society as the application of conflict management so that the harmony of living among ethnics can be achieved. In addition, the inter cultural tolerance in Gunung Kawi can be also seen in the diverse pilgrims of the graveyard of Eyang Djoego and Imam Sujono-the charismatic spiritual leaders as well as prominent figures, who come from various range of social stratification, ethnic, and religion to give their tribute to Eyang Djoego and Imam Sudjono’s spirits. The harmony among ethnic groups in Gunung Kawi is also shown through the establishment of adjoining religious symbols in the area of Eyang Djoego and Iman Sudjono’s graveyard, for instance Klentheng (Chinese temple), Dewi Kwam In, and mosques. To be uniquely noted, the pilgrimage to Gunung Kawi is associated with special days in Javanese calendar system which are Malam Jumat Legi, Senin Pahing, Syuro, and 1 Muharram as society believe that those days are special days to ease them to obtain blessings in Gunung Kawi. Malam Jumat Legi, particularly, is the day of the Eyang Djoego’s funeral; Senin Pahing is the day of Eyang Djoego’s death; the 12 of Syura is Imam Soedjono’s haul (the annual rite to remembering someone’s death); and 1 Syuro/Muharram is the Islamic new year.

Key Words: multiculturalism, ritual, cultural expression




Introduction

I

ndonesia with its diverse societies and culture has thousands of cultural diversity. Some cultural ceremonial events, inter alia larung sesaji, bersih desa, death ceremony, wedding ceremony, and ancestor tribute have their distinctive aims. Majority, the cultural ceremonies are conducted in the sacred place, for instance in the graveyard. One of the real examples is the ancestor tribute ritual in Gunung Kawi which aims as a tribute to the spirits of Eyang Djoego and Imam Soedjono. Eyang Djoego is an ulama (Moslem scholar) from Yogyakarta during the reign of Sultan Hamengkubuwono II or III. His original name is Kyai Zakaria II while the name of Eyang Djoego is actually a pseudonym used in the era of Indonesian struggle for independence from the Dutch colonial. Eyang Djoego is the loyal followers and religious advisor of Pangeran Diponegoro. After the caught of Pangeran Diponegoro by Dutch, Eyang Djoego fled to East Java, particularly in Blitar. He, then, continued to Malang and eventually resided on the slopes of Gunung Kawi. Eyang Djoego died on Minggu Legi malam Senin Pahing (the day in Javanese calendar system equal to Sunday evening), specifically on Selo 1, 1799 (January 22, 1871). His body was buried in Gunung Kawi on Kamis Kliwon malam Jumat Legi (Sunardi, et al, 1977). The figure of Eyang Djoego, at that time, was renowned as a prominent scholar and a good person who always helps societies. During his residence in Kesamben, he taught agriculture, animal domestication, as well as religion to the society as a part of dakwah (spreading Islam values to the people). Imam Soedjono, then, is a special Senopati as well as the follower of Eyang Djoego who took care of Eyang Djoego’ graveyard. Both figures aforementioned above certainly have a lot of charisma so that people want to give the invocation for their spirits. People who visited the graveyard of Eyang Djoego and Imam

Soedjono are from different regions and ethnic groups, such as Javanese, Madurese, and Chinese. This phenomenon is considered as the unique. Moreover, in the area of the graveyard surrounding, it was also built diverse worship places, for instance mosque, church, klenteng (Chinese temple), and ciamsi. Similarly, a variety of arts also reflect the cultural diversity in that area.

Discussion Ritual Ceremony to Honor Ancestor in Gunung Kawi Gunung Kawi is located in Wonosari village, Wonosari Sub-district of Malang. Gunung (mountain) with its height is believed as the special place which is close to nirvana. This is confirmed by Darmawan (2015: vii) stated that almost all civilization in Indonesia highly respect mountain with various meanings, such as the expression of fear, gratitude, or worship. It is also believed that mountain is the dwelling place of the gods and goddess so that it is regarded as a sacred place that can be used for spiritual activities. In the script Pararaton, Gunung Kawi is considered as a sacred mountain as the name of Kawi means sacred in the Javanese. To be more specific, the word Kawi is derived from the word “Kawitan” which means to start. Society puts the mountain as something that plays an focal role in their lives (Istiyanto, 2006: 71), including Gunung Kawi. Gunung Kawi is renowned by society for the graveyard of Eyang Djoego and Imam Soedjono. The existence of the graveyard of the two distinguished figures attracts the public’s attention. The graveyard pilgrims come due they want to give honor to the ancestral spirits. The pilgrims are not only from the indigenous native people but also from ethnic of Chinese. Visiting Gunung Kawi is associated with the particular day in the Javanese calendar, like Malam Jumat Legi, Senin Pahing, Syuro, and 1 Muharram.




Those days have been believed by the pilgrims as the good as well as special days to pray. Malam Jumat Legi (Thursday evening) is known as as the day of Eyang Djoego’s funeral, Senin Pahing (Monday) is as day of Eyang Djoego’s death, the twelve of Syuro is the day of Imam Soedjono’s haul (annual ceremony to remember someone’s death), and 1 Muharram/1 Syuro is as the new year of Islam. On the Malam Jumat Legi, many pilgrims came to Gunung Kawi for doing the ritual. Ritual can be defined as an activity which has specific aim in a symbol. It is in the form of selamatan (salvation ritual). During the selamatan, the Islamic prayer as well as Javanese spell were recited symbolized cross-cultural or unification between Islam and Javanese. The care taker plays the role as the reciter used the Islamic prayer given to the outstanding figures of Islam, such as the Prophet Muhammad, the companions of the Prophet, Islamic scholars, and the ancestors of Islam. This prayer is followed by the Moslem as well as non-Moslem pilgrims. Therefore, this clearly shows the harmony, mutual respect, and religious tolerance in the religion diversity. Thohir (2013:29) distinguishes between religion and belief. He says that religion is a belief system against "the invisible" that is followed by set of rules. While the belief tends to have the cultural characters developed in the local community and existed prior to the "official religion". Religion, especially Islam and Christianity have missionary pattern while belief functions as an adaptive strategy in its ecosystem survival. However, those differences are not the big deal for the society in Gunung Kawi. The rituals in Gunung Kawi have cultural pattern due the costume worn by the caretaker which is a complete Javanese beskap and the Javanese spell called mantra that reflects their Javanese mysticism (Kejawen). Moreover, the rituals also are colored by religion values for the pilgrims who have different faith (Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and other

faiths) followed the ritual in harmony regardless the different religion identity. So, it is concluded that the identity relation was established for the mutual benefit. Local people of Gunung Kawi and the pilgrims can live in peace and diverse religious communities without igniting any conflicts. Molan (2015: 66) says that the conflict is a sign that something goes on the wrong direction and has to be resolved soon in order to achieve peace and harmony through cultural communication. This is in accordance with the opinion of Purwasito (2015: 64), that "the main purpose of investigating multicultural communications is that to foster mutual understanding between nation by narrowing misunderstanding and the prejudices of the racial, ethnic, primordial among nations, set the one path vision of living together in the world of globalization". Those values, to be noted, are reflected in the implementation of the rituals in Gunung Kawi. Ritual of ancestor tribute to honor Eyang Djoego and Iman Soedjono were conducted by reading a prayer, giving offerings, burning incense, and having a puppet show as the expression of gratitude. According Endraswara (2006: 92), it is stated that "in the Javanese point of view, the relationship between God and human is described as dhalang-wayang-kelir. Dhalang is an absolute being, the puppet is a manifestation of the spirit in the concrete form that can be captured by the mind as a unifying synthesis, kelir is the absolute essence. This means that the puppet show can be a symbol of human life in the universe. In this case, humans are regarded as a replica of the macrocosm consisting of physical (material) and intangible (nonmaterial) components. The physical (material) components can be in the form of social and natural environmental (soil, mountain, seas, rivers). Intangible (nonmaterial) components consist of magical environment, namely god, good spirits, and negative spirits. Human, then, is positioned in the middle and have to keep the two components in balance (Moertjipto, 1987 cited in Sulistyorini,




2006: 201). Thus, the component of macrocosm includes the immortality,

spirits, physical, and social environment. It can be seen in the following Figure. Immortality (positive environment)

Environment

Physical Environmentman Hu

Social

Spirits (negative environment)

Human as the guardians of the balance of those four perform it in the form of ceremonies and selamatan. Ritual conducted in Gunung Kawi is also the form of gratitude which is performed in the form of salvation and a puppet show. This puppet show is a Javanese cultural heritage which also is accepted by broader audiences, including Chinese. The show of puppet is also one of the manifestations of spiritual communication. Purwasito (2015: 325) confirms the religious rituals are manifested in distinctive actions, like meditating, fasting, doing Dhikr (Islamic prayers), giving offerings, having prayer, performing sacred dances, singing sacred songs, doing parade, art, drama, trance, and so forth. In the puppet show, the pilgrims and the local community come together (in fellowship and commonality) to enjoy the performance together. Multiculturalism in Gunung Kawi The people in Gunung Kawi come from the various range of ethnics, such as Chinese, Javanese and Madurese. They blend together in a community by bringing

their own culture. This condition is in accordance with the opinion of Parekh (1997) states that a multicultural society is a society that consists of some cultural communities with little differences in the conception of the world, a system of meaning, values, form of social organization, history, and customs. Molan (2015:33) also confirms that multiculturalism is an honest effort to organize a plural society into a harmonious and dynamic society into multicultural society with regard to the freedom and human equality. This kind of cultural community can be found in Gunung Kawi reflected through the building and the culture shown during the ritual. Cultural diversity in the communities in Gunung Kawi has brought the character of a particular ethnic culture as a character marking of its culture. The society, furthermore, has tried to preserve the diversity and differences in an attempt to create the harmony of living together. The harmony of society in Gunung Kawi can be seen in the daily life, for instance it is shown in the society




cooperation and social interaction. This was confirmed Soekanto and Sulistyowati (2014:379) states that inter personal, inter group, or inter individual occurred in the society system. Thus, the social interaction involves between-parties interaction. The diversity in Gunung Kawi is a cultural expression of a multicultural society in which one group will affect another without dominating among the groups. In line with the opinion of Turgeon in the Journal of Analytic Teaching, it is known that the public sphere is an arena for cultural negotiation. None of group dominates over others. This was reflected in the form of buildings, various arts and culture, and the community in Gunung Kawi. Religious nuance and cultural diversity can also be seen in the form of building that characterized particular religion. It can be found klentheng which is identical as a place to pray or perform ritual of Confucianism. The Chinese people usually perform religious rites, such as ciamsi, ci suak to predict or read the future. The presence of religious symbols (the temple of Kwam In, mosque, church) is a manifestation of harmony in religious life. Many ethnics of Javanese and Muslims also entered the Klentheng to predict their future fate using bamboo ciamsi. This shows the little barriers between Chinese and Javanese. The temple officers were also dressed in traditional Javanese costume. Thus, this practice shows coexistence between religious communities without leading to create conflicts. Feinberg, W. (1996) says that the existence of inter-religious harmony encouraged by different cultures. Individual is considered as part of the collectivity that is meaningful and multiculturalism finds ways to support the diversity. In addition, cultural expression is needed to support the diversity. Cultural expression that reflects the multiculturalism in Gunung Kawi is shown during ritual held on the twelve of Muharram (Syuro) as the haul ceremony of Imam Soedjono. The ritual on the 12th

of Muharram is often referred to Tahlil Akbar. Tahlil Akbar is conducted to pray for the spirits of the two ancestors spirits (Eyang Djoego and Imam Sudjoeno) who were buried in Gunung Kawi. Besides, the ritual is conducted through reading verses from the Al Quran, Khataman, and praying together. The Islam tone of ritual was done as the ancestors honored are Muslim. Even though the pilgrims and the ancestors have different faith, the pilgrims of other ethnics and religions still can accept it. On the 12 Muharram ritual, the society organizes cultural festivals. The cultural festival, among others are reog, barongsai, hadrah, jedor/terbangan, salawat, diba’, and other Javanese arts, particularly East Java cultures. In this case, the community tries to preserve the traditional arts using their creativity. According Sediawati (2014: 336), the preservation of traditional culture is able to be developed in dynamic way by being flexible and providing enough space for community creativity. Reog and jedor, for instance, are the great heritages from the ancestors, of course, need to be preserved by the present community. The emergence of the art of Chinese lion dance (barongsai) reveals that there is an acculturation of culture in Gunung Kawi. The art of hadrah, diba’ from the Middle East are also the proof that there is penetration of other cultures toward local cultures, particularly in Gunung Kawi. Sediawati adds (2014: 317) that in a traditional society who lives in mutual cooperation, the creation of works of art is done in a spirit of togetherness. The haul ritual also presents the art from different religion and ethnic which are Javanese and Chinese. Even though the ritual consists of diverse cultures from different ethnic groups, the difference is still accepted by society. That phenomenon makes the nuances of combination of religious and cultural diversity. Conclusion The ritual of ancestor tribute in Gunung Kawi is attended by community from diverse ethnics, religions, and cultures, yet the mutual respect and




tolerance prevent it from any conflict segregation. Conflict management has a vital role in the multicultural life. Multiculturalism in Gunung Kawi, particularly, can be expressed in the form of worshiping buildings, art and culture

which can stand side by side in harmonious ways. Social interaction among societies is also done without degrading certain ethnicity. Thus, it can be used as a means of transformation of cultural values in the social life.

References Astiyanto, Heniy. 2006. Filsafat Jawa (Menggali Butir-butir Kearifan Lokal). Yogyakarta: Warta Pustaka. Darmawan, Yoke. 2015. Gunung, Bencana, dan Mitos di Nusantara. Yokyakarta: Penerbit Ombak. Endraswara, Suwardi. 2006. Mistik Kejawen (Sinkritesme,Simbolisme, dan Sufisme dalam Budaya Spiritual Jawa. Cetakan Keempat (edisi Revisi). Yogyakarta: Narasi. Feinberg, W. 1996.The Goals of Multicultural Education: A Critical Re-evaluation, Philosophy of Education. Available online: http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/eps/PESYearbook/96_docs/feinberg.html. Molan, Benyamin. 2015. Multikulturalisme: Cerdas Membangun Hidup Bersama yang Stabil dan Dinamis. Jakarta: PT Indeks Permata Puri Media. Parekh.1997. Multiculturalism Citizenship. Oxford:Clarendon Press. Purwasito, Andrik. 2015. Komunikasi Multikultural. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. Sediawati, Edi. 2014. Kebudayaan di Nusantara dari Keris, Tor-Tor sampai Industri Budaya. Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu. Sulistyorini, Dwi. 2006. Upacara Nadar dalam Upacara Pembuatan Garam di Sumenep (Fungsi, Simbol dan Pemaknaannya). Bahasa dan Seni, 34 (2): 190-205. Sunardi, dkk. 1977. Wisata Suci Di Gunung Kawi. Jakarta: Kerjasama antara Pengurus Pesarean Gunung Kawi dengan CV. Marga Djaja. Soekanto, Soejono & Sulistyowati, Budi. 2014. Sosiologi Sebuah Pengantar. Cetakan ke46. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers. Thohir, Mudjahirin.2013. Multikulturalisme (Agama, Budaya,dan Sastra). Semarang: Gigih Pustaka Mandiri. Turgeon, Wendy. Multiculturalism: Politics of Difference, Education and Philosophy for Children. Analytic Teaching, Vol 24 No 2 hlm 102




Public Participation in Potential Development of Cultural Tourism Village in Baluwarti Surakarta Indonesia

Fauzi Rachman ScienceEducationDoctoralProgram, Faculty of Teacher Training and Sience Education, UniversitasSebelasMaret Surakarta, E-mail:[email protected]

Abstract: Tourism became a worldwide industry and become a growing business. In Indonesia tourism displaying real position to give an important role to the economic, social and cultural nation. One type of the famous tourist in Indonesia is cultural tourism. This type is most important for foreign tourists who want to know the culture, art and everything that is connected with the customs and life of Indonesian arts and culture. But today's developments disturbed the Indonesian tourism. Tourism in Indonesia suffered a setback, as the impact of various problems that developed in Indonesia. Therefore linkages with public and private government Indonesia in maintaining national stability as an attempt to increase progress in the field of tourism is needed to attract tourists in and outside the country who made visits to various tourist attraction in Indonesia. City of Surakarta is a historic city and cultural nuances, has a proud tradition of Javanese society. A place that will make fascinated by the varied cultural heritage of ancient Java. Serving historical and cultural sights were awesome, one of the benefits of tourism products Surakarta synonymous with cultural uniqueness. As we care about the community Baluwarti Surakarta palace fortress and to provide a vehicle for the uniqueness of the style and culture of the city of Surakarta, trying independently to make village Baluwarti as Cultural Tourism Village which displays a variety distinctive culture of Surakarta. Therefore, this study was conducted to understand more deeply about: (1) the potential of its tourism KampungBaluwarti in order to develop cultural tourism in the city of Surakarta; (2) efforts are made public in developing KampungBaluwarti as cultural tourism demand by tourists; (3) the development plan Baluwarti be based Eko -Kultur tourist village; (4) the activities of public participation in developing the Cultural Tourism Village Baluwarti. The results showed (1) there are various fields of cultural tourism potential owned KampungBaluwarti; (2) there are efforts undertaken Tourism Village board committee business in developing KampungBaluwartiBaluwarti as a cultural tourist village; (3) the concept of development as a tourist village Baluwarti culture; (4) The committee business Baluwarti Village Tourism as a vehicle for public participation in developing Kampung Baluwarti. Key Words: Public Participation , Potential Heritage , Tourism Village.




INTRODUCTION City of Surakarta is a city full history and cultural nuances, have the tradition of Java Bragging society. Its amazing with an place diverse heritage of ancient Javanese culture. Serving history and culture amazingly, with explore the city while seeing the palace, visiting traditional markets, shopping batik and handicraft qualified, seeing attractions dance kraton Surakarta full of glory, puppets, culinary its delicious, and of course communicate directly with the friendly people. City of Surakarta it is the ancient city are built Pakubuwana II. History of this town can not be separated from KeratonKasunanan Surakarta Hadiningrat that is the successor of the Islamic Mataram Kingdom. There are 2 Surakarta Javanese palace that Sunan Surakarta and PangeranMangkunegara. Keraton Surakarta own area of about 500 x 700 meters, surrounded by walls of defense (fortress) called Baluwarti The city of Surakarta with characteristic historical and cultural city is also known as a tourist destination must cultivate and develop cultural potential to become a buffer development of the tourism industry. The development of an area to become a tourist destination, so that tourism can attract potential travelers to visit the various markets in tourism must meet three conditions namely: "something to see", "something to do", "some thing to buy". Until recently, little investment coming to make a thematic art forms associated with the peculiarities of the tourist resorts of Surakarta. There are three important actors that drives tourism system, namely the public, private and governmental. All components must go hand in hand need good coordination and the right to develop tourism in a place (Pitanam and Gayatri, 2005: 96-97) As around the Baluwarti) uniqueness

a form of public concern fortress Keraton Solo (public to provide a vehicle for the of the style and culture of the

city of Solo, society Baluwarti initiative to make KampungBaluwarti as Cultural Tourism Village which features a variety of distinctive culture of Solo include: puppets, Ketoprak , Santi sound , tunings middle , bamboo music , wayangbeber and hold events Cultural Carnival Baluwarti With that background , the study of Public Participation in Potential Development of Cultural Tourism Village in Baluwarti Surakarta important to be able to introduce culture in the city of Surakarta in addition to the tourism potential of the historical and ancient buildings of the palace, which is then expected to be one of the efforts to maintain and further intensify the indigenous culture of Central Java and can promote tourism awareness for Surakarta and surrounding communities , especially the younger generation Surakarta city itself. METHOD This form of qualitative descriptive study, with a single fixed strategy case study. The data sources used are: (1) the source object namely buildings house KampungBaluwarti; (2) in place, namely KampungBaluwarti; (3) the events that Baluwarti Village community preservation activities; (4) The informant, MrLurah and RT Village Baluwarti. Data collection techniques used are: (1) observation of the observation of community activities in KampungBaluwarti; (2) an interview with Mr. LurahBaluwarti and Chairman of the Tourism Village Committee business Baluwarti (PPKWB) Baluwarti; (3) the analysis of historical documents in the library Baluwarti Surakarta and organizational structure of government in KampungBaluwarti. The sampling technique used was snowball sampling. In this study, to look for the validity of the data used two data triangulation techniques and triangulation methods. Data analysis technique used is interactive analysis. DISCUSSION




Baluwarti comes from the Portuguese "Baluarte" meaning the fort, in the Java language means palace walls. Baluwarti is the limit palace in which there are palaces and residences king and his family (royal cemetery) and the courtiers closest to the king. Baluwarti region that became a research study of settlements located within the fortress walls Kraton (Jeron fortress), its existence among Kedhaton castle with battlements Baluwarti, excluding DalemKraton. Baluwarti existence associated with the conception of the past Javanese town, KampungBaluwarti can be interpreted as "Kutha" Sala. Understanding Kutha in Javanese society largely symbolic, is a residential neighborhood located within the walls of Fortress residence area or state leader. This literally means Kutha residential area protected by a wall built around a square shape). KampungBaluwarti be unique because of the environment of houses inside the walls of the palace with a thickness of 2 m and a height of 6 m, as well as almost all the traditional architectural form of the building is characterized by typical Baluwarti influenced Javanese architecture, China and Europe with the pattern of a typical room. In addition to its architecture, the village Baluwarti also still holds firm in terms of customs, habits, manners and culture of the people. Residential neighborhood KampungBaluwartiregol are typical with parapet yard. With the existence of this wall as if to hide the houses in it, blocking the view out to the occupants. This peculiarity makes residential neighborhood located in Baluwarti included in the heritage area in the city of Surakarta, and is a valuable relic of history. In adminitratif, Baluwarti Village area is an area of a Village (KampungBaluwarti). ± an area of 40.70 hectares, covering five villages, namely KampungGambuhan, Hordenasan, Wirengan, Carangan, and Tamtaman.

Baluwarti urban village is divided into 12 RukunWarga (RW) and 38 RT, with a population of 7478 inhabitants (Monograph report in March 2015). The structure of neighborhoods in KampungBaluwarti formed by elements of residential areas by grouping activities and settlement functions. This is related because of the role its inhabitants historically. Grouping neighborhoods in KampungBaluwarti further divided into two regions, which occurred because of the status of its inhabitants, namely: 1) occupancy aristocracy, 2) occupancy Abdi Dalem. Occupancy aristocracy which houses pangeranan having a lineage of kings. Occupancy of the aristocracy were the first layer surrounds the palace. The occupancy of houses (ndalem), which is surrounded by walls around the yard. Noble residence houses the exclusive, gated (regol) is oriented to the main road. The structure is a homogeneous society, because all the occupantsndalem is a layer of high-class society (pangeranan). It thus revealed the names of the occupants were used as the designation for each of the palace, with the suffix -an behind the name of the prince who inhabit the palace, like Mloyokusuman, Ngabean, Suryohamijayan. Region-forming elements are circles refers to the understanding of the house belonging to the prince who has a pavilion shaped Joglo, in the form of a complex surrounded by a wall, and relatively large compared to house courtiers. The nature of the complexity of the palace, from the spatial plan can be seen on the completeness of the division semi-public zone (tuft, pendhapa, pakiwan), private zone (pringgitan, palace, gandhok). Occupancy Abdi Dalemie residence courtiers. Courtiers of the king appointed an employee of the royal appropriate expertise, such as soldiers, art, religion, and others. Region courtiers was the dwelling place of people who won the trust the king or has no place in the Kingdom. This region has a spatial pattern




does not vary much from the region aristocracy , namely closed and solid forms . This residential neighborhood , located next Timut , south and west of Kraton, have a tangible physical identity wall on the front wall outside, directly adjacent to the main ring road that surrounds the palace . Occupancy of these courtiers are in the next tier , surround the palace , after the residential estate royalty. The dwelling environment fence wall made of massive walls, with the only road from the outside (the main street) in the form regol. The wall has a uniform shape on each dwelling. Given this high fence, the appearance of a residential building from the outside is not visible. Only seen limited to the top cover of the building of the house, thus giving the impression of occupancy in the region covered in this

Gerebeg ceremony by bringing mountains of Kedhaton to Masjid Agung c. Gandarasan, for housing around NyaiLurahGandarasa d. Sekulanggen, once the seat is used to store grain that is destined courtiers and around NyaiLurahSekulanggi e. LumbungSilayur, once the seat is used to store grain that is destined courtiers f. Langensari, residence earmarked blind courtiers who used to play music langensari(keroncong). g. Purwodiningratan, for housing around Regent NayokoPurwodiningrat. h. Mangkubumen, last inhabited by a Regent Nayoko KPH Mangkubumi son PB X i. Hordenasan, formerly a place to stay courtiers Hordenas (courtiers who served to help the coachman in running trains grebes King during the Netherlands) so that the place is known by the name Hordenasan j. JabangBayen, first place was no flow of the river leading to the palace and the ground has been found dead baby as much as three people who drift in the river (Kalilarangan) by local residents swept away but the baby was not buried in that place so that people around the place was known as Jabangbayen k. Kestalan, places to impound saddler pangerananKraton Surakarta l. Mangkuyudan, formerly residence (palace) regent architect named Mangkuyuda m.Mloyokusuman, for housing around Prince Mloyokusuma n. Gambuhan, the township's courtiers Gambuh, most of which have expertise as a musician or an artist Kraton o.

Potential KampungBaluwarti KampungBaluwarti as the historic village heritage area has a variety of potential cultural tourism and local knowledge that until now has not been developed optimally and efficiently, here are some potential of cultural tourism village Baluwarti: 1. Unique names in KampungBaluwarti, when the royal government (PB X), in Baluwarti reside some prince's son, prince cemetery, the other nobles, including relatives of the king, some regents nayaka, soldiers and other courtiers. The names of the main occupants used as a place name or a housing complex, who live around the main house. An example is the following: a. Tamtaman and Carangan, to mention residential areas courtiers and soldiers enlisted soldier carangan, which is tasked with defending the security of the king and the palace. b. Wirengan, the township's courtiers Wireng, which has the task of taking care of dances and puppets, in addition to the task in




2. Historic buildings in KampungBaluwarti, generally the names of historic residential complex in the region corresponding to the name Baluwarti nobles who reside in the region coupled with the suffix "an", for example: a. nDalemSasanaMulya, earlier namednDalemNgabean built by Sri Susuhunan PB IV to IV PB P. Hangabei son who later became king of the title PB VIII (18581861). P. Hangabei last occupant was the son of PB X (which later became the NT XI) together with KanjengRatuBendoro son PB VIII (PB-law IX). At that time the son Hangabei P. The X PB has a son named BRM SuryoGuritno born in nDalemNgabean) Sasonomulyo. P. Hangabei PB X's son succeeding his father (after PB X's death) became king of the title PB XI (1939-1945), and mengalihfungsikannDalemNgabea n be Sasonomulyo (Sasonopanghargyan). BRM Suryo PB XI Guritno son who was born in the pavilion nDalemNgabean later became king of the title PB XII (1945 - present) replaces PB XI, who died in 1945 (just before receiving the crown prince's throne graduated into P. AdipatiAnom). b. nDalemMloyokusuman, first built by PB III for his son RM Sahid (P. Sambernyowo) a Prince and Senopati Surakarta which later became the ruler of KadipatenMangkuNegaran title KGPAA MangkuNagoro I, but the question already own their own home (palace occupant information / relatives Mloyokusuman). KPH Mloyokusumo last inhabited by the son of PB IX and Senopati Surakarta, then inherited by his son RMP Sunaryo with names elderly KPH Mloyohamiluhur, a psychic respected in Surakarta.

c. nDalemNgabean, inhabited by a Regent Nayoko KTMT Wuryaningrat X PB-law, that is known as DalemWuryaningratan. In the reign of PB PB X XI government into changing their use nDalemNgabean, to be occupied by P. Ngabehi d. nDalemBrotodiningratan, last inhabited by a Regent Nayoko named KRMT Brotodiningrat son PB X e. nDalemMangkubumen last inhabited by a Regent Nayoko KPH Mangkubumi son PB X. f. nDalemPurwodiningratan, built during the reign of His Majesty Sri PB IV last inhabited by a BupatiNayoko named KRMTH Purwodiningrat VI diwaris of his father KRMTH Purwodiningrat V (son of PB IX) which is also BupatiNayoko, now inhabited by his descendants. g. nDalemSuyaHamijayan, was built during the reign of Sri Susuhunan PB IV last inhabited by a BupatiNayoko KPH Suryohamijoyo son PB X, has now changed hands to the family of former President Soeharto 3. Culture Product DiversityBaluwarti village, the village has the advantages Baluwarti distinctively cultural products. There are several kinds of cultural products KampungBaluwarti advantages, among others, as follows: kris, Tosanaji, wayangbeber, fiddlemaking, clothing Java. 4. Local Cultural Arts KampungBaluwarti, other than products of culture, society KampungBaluwarti in art has a unique local culture. This is due to the community of KampungBaluwarti more or less inherited cultural arts sourced from Kraton environment, as for other forms of local cultural arts village Baluwarti can be found in the form: studios, dance, musical, kethoprak, macapat, kroncong classic, percussion joglo




5. Cultural performances KampungBaluwarti, cultural performances in KampungBaluwarti often organized, this is due to the customs of Kraton Surakarta in terms of activities concerning the interests of the king and the palace accompanied by cultural performing arts. Cultural performances to have the intent to show the king's charisma and grandeur Kraton Surakarta, following another display of cultural performances KampungBaluwarti: suraloka, ballet ArjunaWiwaha 6. Culinary Typical KampungBaluwarti, Village community Baluwarti has high taste and unique in terms of diet, in accordance with the customs of the courtiers in the neighborhood KampungBaluwarti who have expertise in presenting dining delights and unique to the king and the pangerananKraton Surakarta, following is a list of culinary typical of villages Baluwarti: beraskencur (from Tamtaman), ledrendog (from Wirengan), geplakjahe (from Gambuhan), ampyangjahe (from carangan), sekullanggi (from Sekolanggen), wedangndongo (from LumbungWetan), wajikklethik (from Tamtaman and from Wirengan), penyon (from Mloyokusuman), jenangsuran (from Tamtaman)

Non Tangible action: Village community Baluwarti embodies the concept of development with the steps of procurement events as a form of action of non-physical Baluwarti. Expected actions of non-physical spirit Baluwarti as Baluwarti toward Based Eco-Tourism Village Kultur, the following non-physical forms of action Baluwarti 1. Development Concept Baluwarti As Cultural Tourism Village a. Baluwarti position towards the center of the city of Surakarta, KampungBaluwarti a traditional village historic heritage (Urban Heritage) and as one of the cultural environment can still be seen of its existence, has a high historical value (Historical Urban Center). On the other hand recent development shows that KampungBaluwarti into dense neighborhoods. The condition is seen with a rapidly growing population as well as buildings in the region. Conception of Javanese culture that should be realized in all aspects of community life in KampungBaluwarti slowly but surely began to fade. Viscosity traditional culture that a lot of symbolic significance have occurred in the complex at the time of the reign Baluwarti based Royal. In today's life, the culture has been largely abandoned by the inhabitants of the village of Baluwarti.

Public Participation in the Development of Tourism Village Baluwarti To support and strengthen the development process KampungBaluwarti as a cultural tourism destination Surakarta, KampungBaluwarti officials, leaders and all the people in KampungBaluwarti perform various steps synergies and compact are as follows:

Conveniently located in the center of the city of Surakarta, KampungBaluwarti can be reached from the four directions of winds. From the north KampungBaluwarti achieved through a gate door Kori BrajanalaLor (North); from the south can be reached via Kori BrajanalaKidul (South); from the west reached via LawangGapitKulon (West); from the east complex

Tangible action: Village community activities Baluwarti make information tool; Baluwarti Pocket Book, cruise map Baluwarti, Baluwarti EPublication, consists of Blog, Fan Page, Group Face Book, Twitter.




KampungBaluwarti can be achieved through GapitLawangWetan (East)

activities PPKWB is established partnerships with various elements to support the development process Baluwarti leading cultural tourist village

b. Correlation Baluwarti hometown of Surakarta, KampungBaluwarti are included in the Keraton Surakarta also have administrative ties with the central government outside the Keraton Surakarta. When viewed from the distance between the center of another government, then Baluwarti has a distance of 0.5 Km sub-district administrative center, administrative center of the City of administrative or 0 Km, from the center of the capital of the District / Sub regency of 0.5 km, from the center of the provincial capital provincial, 102 km and the central government of the country 585 km c. Organization Committee Business Baluwarti Tourism Village Baluwarti (PPKWB) Village community participation Baluwarti seen in organizations Organization Committee business Baluwarti Tourism Village Baluwarti (PPKWB). PPKWB organization formed through Musrenbangkel in January 2014. The purpose of the organization of

CONCLUSSION From the results of research on Public Participation in the Development of Cultural Tourism Village Potential Baluwarti Surakarta be observed about a tangible manifestation of consciousness and love of society for historical relics ancestral nation. This can be observed with the spirit of the people, leaders, the village Baluwarti to promote a variety of historical, historical heritage, cultural products which characterizes and mainstay Kampung Baluwarti. Organization Committee Business Baluwarti Tourism Village Baluwarti (PPKWB)) is a means of community organizations that effectively and efficiently promote the potential range typical in Kampung Baluwarti that can be transformed into tourist village culture. It required the cooperation among the three parties, namely the relevant agencies of the Department of Culture and Tourism; Village of Baluwarti and Cultural Tourism Village committee business to be optimized increase Baluwarti village development activities towards a culture based on the potential tourist village typically owned Kampung Baluwarti.

REFERENCE Conyers, Diana. (1991). “An Introduction To Social Planning In The Third World”. By Jhon Wiley & Sons Ltd.1994.Terjemahan Drs.Susetiawan SU:”PerencanaanSosial di DuniaKetiga: SuatuPengantar”. Yogyakarta: GadjahMada University Press. (xi, 335 hal). Cohen and Uphoff. (1977). Rural Development Participation. New York: Cornel University. Darmadjati, R.S. (1995). Istilah-istilahDuniaPariwisata. Jakarta: Gramedia. Koentjaraningrat. (2002). PengantarIlmuAntropologi. Jakarta: PT. RinekaCipta. ParsudiSuparlan. (1984). Kemiskinan di Perkotaan. Jakarta: Penerbit Bhumi Aksara.




Pendit, Nyoman S. (1986). IlmuPariwisataSebuahPengantarSederhana. Jakarta: PT. PradnyaParamita. Pitana, I Gde, &Putu G, Gayatri. (2005). SosiologiPariwisata. Yogyakarta Andi Offset. Sammeng, A.M. (2001). CakrawalaPariwisata. Jakarta: AkademiPariwisataTrisakti. Soedjito, Sosrodiharjo.(1987). AspekBudayadalam Pembangunan Pedesaan. Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana. Sujali. (1989). GeografiPariwisatadanKepariwisataan. Yogyakarta: UGM Press. Suwantoro, Gamal. (1997). Dasar-dasarPariwisata. Yogyakarta: ANDI.




Training in the Emergency Situation of Disaster Evacuation in the Informal Sector

Haris Setyawan1, Ipop Sjarifah1 Occupational Health and Safety Department, Medical Faculty of Sebelas Maret University Jl. Kolonel Sutarto 150k Jebres, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia [email protected] Abstract: Background: A workplace emergency is an unforeseen situation that threatens for the workers, customers, or the public, disrupts or shuts down the operations, or causes physical or environmental damage. The emergency action plan covers designated actions employers and employees must take to ensure employee safety from fire and other emergencies. Industrial sectors in sragen especially in the informal production of batik that located on the riverside are prone with the flood, one method that can be effective to prevented and controlled it is by implementated the disaster preparedness and evacuation tecnique. The training and simulation is important to faces the types of emergencies that may happen in the activity of batik industry i.e floods, fires and accidents in the workplaces. Method : The Respondents in this studies are 37 batik workers that working in batik industry of Pilang Village in Sragen. The extension method performed by providing education and training for disaster preparedness and evacuation tecnique. Result : There was an increase in knowledge and practice of the batik workers who received the disaster training and evacuation tecnique in Pilang village sragen Keywords: Training, Emergency Situation, Disaster Evacuation, Informal Sector

INTRODUCTION

S

ome of Indonesian territory are vulnerable to catastrophic events, whether natural or non-natural and social disaster. The disasters can cause loss of life, loss of property and damage to public facilities and infrastructure (Ramli, 2010). Catastrophic events can cause an

emergency that must be carried out into the prevention and control of safe and secure conditions. Emergency is abnormal and dangerous situations that threaten or require quick action to control, fixed and restored it to the safety condition (OHSAS 18001, 2007). Geographically, Sragen is located near the Bengawan Solo River that




are prone to face emergencies and disasters i.e floods, fires and accidents. Since 2007, at this location frequent series of floods in the rainy season that is difficult to overcome and need to be addressed immediately, especially the implementation of emergency response during an emergency flood or other emergency. A workplace emergency is an unforeseen situation that threatens your employees, customers, or the public; disrupts or shuts down your operations; or causes physical or environmental damage. Emergencies may be natural or manmade and include the following: (OSHA 3038, 2006). The training on emergency response and disasters evacuation has not been implemented adequately for Informal Sector espicialy Batik Industri in Sragen. The purpose of this study is educated the informal sector through the emergency evacuation training, fire fighting, and fire aid techniques especially in the batik industry in the village Pilang.

METHOD The Respondents in this studies are 37 batik workers that working in 3 places of home batik industry of Pilang Village in Sragen. The extension method performed by providing education and training for disaster preparedness and evacuation tecnique. The studies used the pre and post test to measured the increasing of the knowledge and practices in disaster preparedness and evacuation technique.

DISCUSSION

This research was conducted at 3 places of batik Industry Pilang Sragen. The questionare using 4 catagories in knowledge and practice i.e flood evacuation techniques, fire emergency and preparedness, first aid techniques, fire fighting techniques. Table 1. The pre and post test training score

No

Questionare

The The Average of Increase in Training Score Knowledge (%) and Practices P P (%) RE OST

Flood 1 Evacuation Techniques 27.03 Fire 2 Emergency And Preparedness Plan 24.32 First 3 Aid Techniques 21.62 Fire 4 Fighting Techniques 21.62 Flood Evacuation Techniques Early warning is communicated to all prospective victims, especially to the workers that have potentially affected by the floods. This step is necessary to alert the workers about the disaster that would occur before the flood event came to their workplace. The tools that can be applied in early warning of floods are mosque toa,

N

3 72.97

45.95

7 3

75.68

51.35

7 3

78.38

56.76

7 3

78.38

56.76

7

gong or alarm that can be the first warning the flood was coming. In this training, workers in Batik industry simulated the first step to deal with emergency situations. Based on the pre and post test training, there was increased 45,95% in knowledge and practice in flood evacuation techniques. Knowledge and attitudes related to each other in the




formation of the ability to perform a particular practice. The changes will affect the attitude of knowledge and ability in carrying out the practice, so unwittingly with changing one component can then also change a person's ability to carry out specific practices. To improve fire safety in the workplace, roles and responsibilities of personnel is important in the process of firefighting and rescuing victims (Ru Kang, Gui Fua, June Yanc, 2016). To face the floods, the workers must be trained and simulated in technique of evacuation. After the alarm or Toa ringing, the workers must go to safe place or called assembly point until the aider comes to rescued the workers, the ERTs call police department, hospital, fire department, national board of disaster to ask help for evacuation and medication. Before that, the teacher must providing the buoys or tires that can be used to help the students that snared in school when flood was coming. The number that can be dialed is 110/112 for police department, ambulance and rescue at 118, fire department 113, medical emergencies 119, 115 for SAR and evacuation.



Clearly identifying the maintenance regime of the fire service installations;



Recording any changes to the fire safety arrangement/procedures (e.g. due to refurbishment works or change in personnel/management hierarchy)

Based on the pre and post test training, there was increased 51,35% in fire emergency and preparedness plan knowledge and practices.Prevention practice of fires will not only protect the property of the company but also protect the human beings involved in it workplace (Jiang J et al, 2015). The batik workers in Sragen has difference number of working period, it is one predisposing factor that can make the behavior of worker better as mentioned in the theory of the behavior by Lawrence Green (Green, 2005), but the working period without any procedures and emergency response training will not gain optimal results in improvement to prevent the incident at the workplace (Kelvin HW, Da-yong X, 2014)

First Aid Techniques Fire Emergency And Preparedness Plan The fire management plan shall contain actions and procedures that are aimed at reducing the risk of a fire and protecting the life safety of the building occupants. It will also record the most current fire safety arrangement of the buildings. The objectives include: (HW Kelvin, X Da-yong, 2014) 

Ensuring that all staff know their dayto-day roles and responsibilities regarding fire safety;



Clearly identifying the fire prevention activities;



Ensuring that all staff know what to do during a fire emergency;



Clearly describing the emergency procedures to ensure safe evacuation of occupants and unobstructed access by fire authority

First aid refers to medical attention that is usually administered immediately after the injury occurs and at the location where it occurred. It often consists of a one-time, short-term treatment and requires little technology or training to administer. First aid can include cleaning minor cuts, scrapes, or scratches; treating a minor burn; applying bandages and dressings; the use of non-prescription medicine; draining blisters; removing debris from the eyes; massage; and drinking fluids to relieve heat stress (OSHA, 2016). Based on the pre and post test training, there was increased 56,76% in first aid knowledge and practices.A good knowledge of fire evacuation and safety devices play an important role in the evacuation efforts fires and emergencies in the workplace Knowledge of fire safety can be obtained through training and




simulation of disasters in the workplace, that can be scheduled periodically. The domain knowledge is very important for the based person behaviour, because of behavior based on knowledge will be more lasting than the behavior that is not based knowledge (Notoadmojo, 2003). There are 3 step for first aid training, i.e : (American Red Cross, 2016) 



1. Pull the pin. Hold the extinguisher with the nozzle pointing away from you, and release the locking mechanism. 2. Aim low

First Step (opening respons scenario) Instructor engages participants with an opening emergency scenario

Point the extinguisher at the base of the fire.

Second Step (Hands-on Skill Practice)

3. Squeeze the lever slowly and evenly

Participants divide into 5 different teams and select a skill station, At that skill station, participants select a cue card featuring one of nine total available scenarios 

To operate a fire extinguisher, the batik workers can remember the word PASS: (NFPA, 2012)

Third step (Role Play & Assess) Assign roles; everyone has an opportunity to act as a responder, Role play the scenario, Instructor assesses performance; provides feedback and assistance, Move to next skill station

Fire Fighting Techniques Training Fire Protection Equipment, by its name, focuses on mitigating the effects of fire on people, property and the environment. The scope of Fire Protection Equipment thus includes, fire dynamics and modeling, fire detection technologie, fire suppression systems, smoke control, egress systems, human behavior during fire events and similar emergencies, structural fire protection, assessing the response of materials to fire exposure and fire risk analysis. (Chen H et al, 2015) The fire protection equipment that used in this training is Fire Extinguisher. It can be used when the fire is confined to a small area at the workplace, the techniques that can be effective to extinguish the fire is use a portable fire extinguisher (APAR).

4. Sweep the nozzle from side-toside A portable fire extinguisher can save lives and property by putting out a small fire or containing it until the fire department arrives; but portable extinguishers have limitations. Because fire grows and spreads so rapidly, the number one priority for residents is to get out safely (NFPA, 2012). Based on the results of the pre and post test, the knowledge and practice in fire fighting techniques has been increased 56.76%. Attitude is very important in a safety management system especially in the field of fire prevention in both the prevention and alleviation of cooperation during a fire CONCLUSION There was an increase in knowledge and practice of the batik workers who received the disaster training and evacuation tecnique in Pilang village sragen. Each of hazard or disaster can be determinate and control to reduce the risk of the consequences, one way to do determinate it is training and simulating on emergency response program.. This program can be effective if its implemented periodically to inure the importance of the prevention of accidents and disasters.




REFERENCES Ramli (2010) Disaster Management. Jakarta. Dian Rakyat. OHSAS 18001 (2007). Health and Safety Management System Requirement. OSHA (2006)Best Practices Guide Fundamentals of a Workplace First-Aid Program. US Department of Labor OSHA (2016) First Aid Kit. Occupational Safety & Health Administration 200 Constitution Ave., NW Washington Ru Kang, Gui Fua, Jun Yanc (2016) Analysis of the case of fire fighters casualties in the building collapse, Procedia Engginering 135, 342-347 HW Kelvin, X Da-yong (2014) Fire Safety Management Strategy of Complex Developments, Procedia Engineering 71, 410 – 420 Jiang J et al (2015) Fire Safety Assessment Of Super Tall Buildings: A Case Study On Shanghai Tower, Case Studies in Fire Safety 4, 28–38 Green, L.W. and Kreuter, M.W.(2005) Health Program Planning: An Educational and Ecological Approach. 4th edition. NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education Notoatmojo S (2003) Education and Health Behaviour, Jakarta, Rineka Cipta American Red Cross (2016),Team First Aid Exercises, NW Washington Chen H et al (2015) Integration of process safety engineering and fire protection engineering for better safety performance, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 37, 74-81 Spearpoint MJ (2015) Fire Load Energy Densities for Risk-based Design of Car Parking Buildings, Case Studies in Fire Safety 3, 44–50 Baker J, Bouchlaghem D, Emmitt S (2013) Categorisation of fire safety management: Results of a Delphi Panel, Fire Safety Journal 59, 37–46 Wonju L et al (2013) Development of building fire safety system with automatic security firm monitoring capability, Fire Safety Journal 58, 65–73 NFPA

(2012) Fire Extinguishers. http://www.nfpa.org/safety-information/forconsumers/fire-and-safety-equipment/fire-extinguishers







The Useof Local Culturesto Increasethe Students’ Thematic Learning Outcomes in Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Islamiyah (Islamic Elementary School) Of Karang Pakel Boyolali, Central Java

Suwardi Student of Doctoral Program at Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta, Indonesia andlecturer at Institut Agama Islam Negeri Salatiga, Indonesia email: [email protected]

Abstract: The students of Madrasah Ibtidaiyah (MI)-Islamic Elementary School-who are 7-12 years old have a holistic way of thinking as their childhood characteristic. Therefore, Indonesian government instructs that the learning process for those students applies the thematic learning approach. It is hoped that the thematic learning approach is able to improve the students’ competence of Islamic Elementary School. Meanwhile, the thematic learning outcomes of the first graders of MI Islamiyah Karang Pakel, Klego, Boyolali needs to be improved. Based on the document of the students’ formative tests, there are only 13 students or 65% can pass the passing grades, however, the teaching and learning can be assumed that it is successful if there are more than 80% students are able to achive the passing grades. Therefore, to improve the thematic learning’s result, the teachers can use local cultures namely traditional games and songs. This is a Classroom Action Research. It is conducted through three cycles and each includes planning, action, observation, and reflection. The subjects are 20 students of the first grde from MI Islamiyah Karang Pakel, Klego, Boyolali, Central Java, consisting of 11 male and 9 female students. In collecting data, this research uses observation and test. The results of this research demonstrate that the implementation of local cultures can improve the thematic learning outcomes of the first graders of MI Islamiyah Karang Pakel, Klego, Boyolali, Central Java. In the first cycle, 70% of the students are able to pass the passing grades. In the second cycle, the number increases to 75%. Then in the third cycle, it again increases to 90%. Key words: Local cultures, traditional songs, tradional games, the thematic learning process 1. BACKGROUND

T

he Indonesian government instructs Elementary Schools/Islamic Elementary Schools to apply the integrated thematic learning approach. The

policy is intended to SD (Sekolah Dasar)Elementary School-or MI (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah) which uses the School Based Curriculum (KTSP) as well as Curriculum 2013. The difference is that for those using KTSP, the integrated thematic learning is




required for the 1st to the 3rd grads, while for those using curriculum 2013, it is required for all grades from 1st to 6th. This policy is very appropriate, because SD/MI students are between 6 to 13 years old. Generally, children at these ages have unique mindset characteristics. Their mindset has not been able to understand anything partially. They still understand something holistically. Integrated thematic learning is a learning approach that combines several subjects through a specific theme. The theme serves as the connecting material from somesubjects taught by teachers. Through the theme, the learning process starts from general to specific concepts. It means that teachers in implementing the learning activities should start from the general concepts in the theme, and then it is continued with a special emphasis on the concept of individual subjects. Based on the daily test score, the integrated thematic learning outcomes of the first graders of MI Islamiyah Coral Pakel, Boyolali, Central Java still needs an improvement. It is proved by the daily test results achieved by students. Based on the score, it is known that students who achieve Kriteria Ketuntasan Minimal (KKM) or Minimum Completeness Criteria which is 65 are 13 students or 65%. Whereas learning is considered successful if the students achieving KKM are more than 80%. Looking at the data above, the researcher tries to find the cause of the students’ low level of learning mastery at MI Islamiyah Coral Pakel, Boyolali, Central Java. By observing the implementation of the integrated thematic learning, the researcher finally finds 3 factors causing the low level of learning mastery. The first, teachers often use the lecture method. This problem causes the teachers-centered learning and less learning to enable students as subjects. The second, many teachers conduct the learning process only in classroom. This problem causes the studentsquickly saturated in the learning process. The third,

the teachers have not been much use available sources in the environment both as a method and materials. The researcher attempts to solve the problems by implementing traditional game as a method of integrated thematic learning. The selection of traditional game method as a solution to the problems is based on several reasons. The first, the implementation of traditional game method can make students feel happy and excited in participating in learning. The second, the implementation of traditional game method will make students able to participate actively in the learning process. The fact shows that Indonesian children still enjoy playing the traditional game. The third, the implementation of traditional game method is very easy for students, because the life of Indonesian children is very familiar with traditional games. The fourth, the implementation of traditional method game method is appropriateto the characteristics of children’s psychological development that enjoy playing games. The fifth, the implementation of the traditionalgame methodis very cheap.

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1. Design This research was designed as Classroom Action Research (CAR). CAR is a scrutiny of the learning activities in the form of an action, which is deliberately raised and occurs in a class (Arikunto, 2006: 3). The research is carried through three cycles. Each cycle consists of planning, action, observation, and reflection. The cycle dismissal is based on the achievement of the target of this research, which is 80% of students have reached specified Minimum Completeness Criteria. This research is conducted by means of collaboration between teachers and the researcher.

2.2. Setting




This research is conducted at MI Islamiyah Karangpakel, Klego, Boyolali, Central Java. The subjects are 20 students of first graders consisting 11 males and 9 females.

2.3. Objective The objective of this research is to improve the outcomes of an integrated thematic learning in the theme of environtment. The improvement of learning outcomes is based on 80% of students who have reached the KKM. The KKM sets out in this study is 65.

2.4. Type of Strategy To improve the outcomes of integrated thematic, the researcher implements traditional game as a strategy. Traditional game are chosen based on several reasons: 1) traditional games are in accordance; 2) students can participate actively while playing traditional games in the learning process; 3) traditional games can create fun learning environment and stimulate students to participate more; 4) traditional games are easily played by both students and teachers; 5) the use of traditional games are cost; and 6) traditional games are friendly environment as a learning resource.

2.5. Method of Collecting Data For data collection, the researcher uses observation and achievement test methods. Observation is used to obtain data on the implementation learning process at the time of the action. Achievement test is used to obtain data about the learning outcomes. The test is used at the end of lesson for each cycle to get the students’ score.

2.6. Data Analysis The collected data is analyzed with descriptive statistics in mean percentile formula. This is conducted to determine

the percentage of students achieving the target of KKM in each cycle. Furthermore, the result of per cycle percentage analysis is used to look at the success rate of learning. Finally, the learning outcomes do comparisons between cycles as a basis for making a conclusion whether the learning outcomes have improved or diminished.

2.7. Theoritical Basis 2.7.1. Local Culture Every society has own culture which has been local culture. Koentjaraningrat (1974: 19) defines“budaya” (culture) comes from Sanskrit budhayah as a plural form budhi; it means mind or intelligence. In English language, “budaya” means culture which is from Latin colere; it means all the energy and effort of human to convert nature. After checking to the word “budaya”, according to Kontjaraningrat “budaya” means the entire of ideas and creativities that should become habit by learning, along with the output of ideas and creativities. According to Kotter & Heskett (1992: 4), the term “budaya” can be translated as “behaviour’s totality, art, belief, organization and other products from creativity and human thought that mark out a society or citizen which transmitted together”. Local culture can be created as traditional games and songs.The term traditional game is a combination of two words: game and traditional. According to the dictionary, the game is a noun that means 1) an activity that you take part in for amusement; 2) a competitive activity or sport played According to some rules; 3) a meeting for sporting competitions (Hawker, 2014: 285). The term traditional comes from the word tradition. According to dictionary, tradition is a noun that means: 1) the passing on of customs or beliefs from generation to generation; 2) a long established customs or beliefs passed on in this way (Hawker, 2014: 743). Based on the understanding of the dictionary, then the traditional game is defined as a




game that is passed down from generation to generation aiming to entertain.Traditional song is a local song which has good value on education.

2.7.2. Integrated Thematic Learning Integrated thematic learning is a learning approach that is deliberately linking several aspects in terms of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor between subjects. With thematic learning students will gain intact experience and meaningful learning. Intact meansthe wholeness of knowledge and skills so that learning becomes more meaningful for students. Meaningful learning means that students are encouraged to understand the concepts they learn through direct and real experience. Compared with conventional approaches, integrated thematic learning emphasis more on the involvement of students, so that students are actively involved in the learning process, Wilujeng (2013: 2) Curriculum Centre Ministry of National Education (2006: 4-5), integrated thematic learning is an integrated learning that uses the theme to link several subjects for the learning process provides a meaningful experience to the students. Learning integrated with theme has many advantages. Integrated thematic learning will make students easy to focus on a specific theme. Integrated thematic learning will help students to understand the subject matter. Integrated thematic learning can also give students a deep impression because the subject matter is presented contextually. There are three models of integrated learning which are relevant to the learning process in primary school (Fatchurrohman, 2014: 36). They are connected model, webbed model and integrated model. Connected model is a teaching that presents the relationship between the materials in a subject. Basically the connected model is an attempt to link one topic of study with another into one discipline. Webbed model is learning that

combines materials from several subjects through a specific theme. Integrated model is a model of learning that combines competences from some subjects. National Education Standards Agency (2006: 10), connected model, webbed model, and integrated model have their strengths and weaknesses. The strength of integrated model is that students can more fully understand the concepts and the learning activitiy is more efficient and contextual. The weakness of integrated models is that the learned competencies are often on different semesters, even there are competencies that are on different grade levels. The other weakness is that integrated model requires extensive mastery of the material. The strenghthof webbed model is that students can more fully understand the concept, contextual, and they can choose the interesting themes in their life. Webbed model's weakness is that it is not easy to find the right theme connector. The strength of connected models is that students can see the problem from various subjects’ point of view. The weakness of the model is the domination of materials by one particular subject. Integrated thematic learning has a philosophical and theoretical foundation. The philosophical foundation of integrated thematic learning is the philosophy of progressivism and the philosophy of constructivism. Then the theoretical foundation of integrated thematic learning is Gestalt theory.Philosopher John Dewey is a progressivist. This school holds that humans have natural abilities to face and solve problems that are pressing and threatening them, (Barnadib, 1994: 28). It views that learners have sense and intelligence. Humans have exellences compared with other creatures. With their intelligence, humans have a dynamic and creative nature. That intelligence is equipped to face and solve the issues faced. Education has a major task to improve the intelligence. Learners are seen as the unity of body and spirit manifested in behavior and




actions. Education has a duty to develop the physical and spiritual abilities, particularly intelligence. Learners should be given the opportunity to freely and as much as possible take part in the events that take place around him so that the educative learning environment appear inside or outside the school. Vico Giambatista an Italian epistemolog is the pioneer of constructivism. In 1710 he wrote the book De Antiquissima Italorum Sapientia. He expresses his philosophy by saying that God is the creator of universe and human beings are masters of creation, (Suparno, 1997: 24). Vico argues that a person is declared that he understands something if he knows how to make it. Someone is considered to know something if he knows the elements shaping it. Human being can only know anything after he construct knowledge. Knowledge can not be detached from the subject who knows it. Cognitive constructive philosophy which appears at the time is presented by Mark Baldwin. Then cognitive constructive is developed by Piaget through the theory of cognitive development. Knowledge gained through continuous interaction process between the individual and the environment, (Gredler, 1991: 301). Piaget states that the knowledge is gained from a person's adaptation of cognitive structure to the environment. The new knowlede is an intellectual adaptation process between the experiences possessed and new idea, (Suparno, 1997: 33). Piaget argues that cognitive development is influenced by three basic processes, namely: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation is the integration of the new data with the current available cognitive structures. Accommodation is the cognitive structure adjustment to a new situation. While equilibration is the continuous readjusment performed between assimilation and accommodation. Rorti, constructivism is one form of pragmatism, especially aboutknowledge

and truth. The reason is that constructivism is concerned with the use of knowledge. Von Glasersfeld in Suparno (1997: 25-27), constructivism is classified into three groups: 1), radical constructivism; 2), hypothesis realism; 3), ordinary constructivism. Radical constructivism rules out the relationship between knowledge and reality as the criterion of truth. Hypothesis realism argues that knowledge is the hypothesis of the structure of reality extending further towards true knowledge. Constructivism usually statesthat knowledge is a picture of reality formed from reality of an object into itself. Gestalt theory is the main theory used as the basis of integrated thematic learning. Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka are three figures of gestalt theory, (Rumini, 1993: 83). Max Wertheimer is a Germany psycholog pioneering the Gestalt theory. The term is derived from the Germany Gestalt which means the configuration or organization. Gestalt has a meaningful overall meaning. Man can not go deeply into the stimuli separately, but the stimulus are lived up together simultaneously into meaningful configurations. According to Gestalt theory, the whole is not just a collection of parts, but it is the unity of the meaningful parts. Gestalt theory has two main laws; the pragnanz law and the law of nature versus nurture. Pragnanz law states that mental symptoms tend to be intact, simple, and meaningful. law of nature versus nurture states that the human mind is active in receiving information and not just an information gatherer. The human mind processes sensory information into meaningful and organized information.

2.7.3. The Characteristics Students

of

MI

Piaget states the human cognitive development through four stages in line with his age, (Scunk, 2012: 332). In the




first stage called sensoricmotor phase that occurs at the age of 0 -2 years old. The second stage is called pre-operational stage that occurs at the age of 2-7 years old. The third stage is called the stage of concrete operation that occurs at the age of 7-11 years old. The fourth stage is called the formal operational stage that occurs at age 11-adult. Based on the opinion of Piaget, MI students whose ages are between the 7-12 years old are at the concrete operation stage. Cognitive growth in the concrete operation stage experiences tremendous growth. Concrete operational stage is in the formative stage of school education. In this stage, the development of language and skill grows very quickly and dramatically. There, children begin to eliminate egocentric thinking. Piaget's cognitive development theory implicates the eduction implementation that teachers need to consider. The first implication, teachers need to understand the level of children cognitive development. The second implication, teachers need to create a learning environment that enables students to actively participate in the learning process. The third implication, teachers need to control the inaropriate atmosphere to the children cognitive development. The fourth implication, teachers need to use social interaction as a learning resource. Curriculum Centre (2006: 3), the tendency of learning for the age of SD/MI has three characteristics, which are concrete, integrative, and hierarchical. Thinking concretely implies a learning process is moving from concrete things which can be seen, heard, smelled, touched and held. This way of thinking shows the importance of using the environment that generates the learning process more meaningful and valuable. In lessons, students need to face the actual and natural events and circumstances to be more real, more factual, more meaningful, and the truth is more accountable.

Thinking integratively that implies that children at the age of SD/MI look at something which is learned as a whole. They have not been able to sort and separate the concepts from different disciplines. It depicts the way children think deductively which is from common to each part. Thinking hierarchicaly implies that children at the age of SD/MI have developing way of learning gradually from simple to more complex things. Therefore, learning materials need to be arranged logically in a sequence. Teachers need to link the materials by observing their breadth and depth.

3. DISCUSSION

3.1. The Research Result and Discussion of Cycle I The Implementation of the first cycle includes four stages, which are planning, action, observation and reflection stages. In the planning stage, researcher and the teacher prepare lesson plans that includes: 1) the subjects taught consist of Mathematics, Sports, Arts, Culture and Skill, and Indonesian language; 2) The traditional game used is Betengan-a game which needs two groups. Every group has a castle (made from stone) to protect the team; 3) arranging learning steps; 4) the tools used in the game are card backs and objects around the school; 5) the test tool used to measure the learning success is questions based on indicators of each subject; 6) the study is carried out on the playground and in the classroom. In the action stage, collaborative research is conducted between researcher and teacher. Researcher is as an observer, while teacher acts as the one who does the measure. In the observation stage, researcher observes teacher and students activities through observation sheet. From the observation to the teacher activities, researcher concludes that learning implementation is in accordance with the lesson plan, but the




game instruction from the teacher is less clear. From the observation to student activities, it can be concluded that 1) all students participate actively; 2) the grouping needsto separate the sexes, since boys tend to run than girls, 3) the placement of stationery to record the jersey number should be determined, 4) students enjoy the game too much, so the learning time is not sufficient. The reflection stageis carried out jointly between teacher and researcher. Based on the results of reflection, then it is decidedthat the observationneeds a follow up to the second cycle. Analysis of the research results to find the improvement of the integrated thematic learning outcomes is done by comparing the scores of pre-cycle to the score of first cycle. Based on daily test score as a pre cycle data, it is known that students who achieve KKM are 13 students or 65%. Then students who achieve KKM in the first cycle are 14 students or 70%. The outcomes of cycle I also note that the average post-test score are 68.6. Based on pre cycle and first cycle data, it is seen that the number of students achievingKKM has increased by 5%, from 65% to 70%. Although there has been a learning outcomes improvement, but the results do not meet the learning standards set by 80%. Therefore, the implementation of the research should be continued to the second cycle.

3.2. The Research’s Result and Discussion of Cycle II Based on the learning outcomes of the first cycle which have not reached the standards set, then the study is continued to the second cycle. Implementation of the four stages of the research in the second cycle can be described as follows: Research planning stage in the second cycle is conducted between researcher and teacher. Based on the reflection results in the first cycle, the second cycle planning contains; 1) subjects taught are the same with the first cycle by

continuing indicator of competence contained in each subjects; 2) traditional game used is still Betengan- a game which needs two groups. Every group has a castle (made from stone) to protect the team; 3) before the game steps, it is needed to add explanation of the rules of game; 4) the equipments used in the game are card backs and objects around the school. The difference is that each card back in the first cycle consists of syllables and number, while in the second cycle the card backs are made of two types which are the card back of syllable and card backs of number. The syllable card backs are for Bahasa Indonesia, and the number card backs are for Mathematics;5) The test tool to measure the success of learning is questions set based on the indicators of each subject; 6) the study is carried out on the playground and in the classroom; 7) stationery are placed in the middle of the game area, so that both groups have the same distance. Placement of the tools can also be used as a subject matter related to the competence of calculating the distance; 8) the grouping considers the sex of the students; 9) the time of the game is based on the allocation given before the game. The action stage is done collaboratively between researchers and teachers. Researcher role is as an observer, while teacher is one who acts the measure. In the second cycle, the teacher asks the researcher to give a special code when the teacher tells the game instruction. Observation stage is conducted by researcher with the instruments of observation. Things that researcher observes include the activities of students and teachers. Based on the observation of the student activity, the data obtained are; 1) students participate actively; 2) grouping by sex can support learning;3) Running zig-zag as competence is still difficult to do; 4) taking a note done while playing the game disrupts the learning atmosphere. From the observation of the teacher activity,the data obtained are: 1) teacher has been implementing learning based on the lesson plans; 2) The game




instruction given by teacher is clear; 3) the allocation of time in every step of learning is not in accordance with lesson plan.Reflection stage is conducted by researcher with the teacher. The results of the reflection in this cycle are; 1) a game other than zigzag is needed to ease the achievement of sport subject; 2) it is necessary to make a player team and an enumerator team alternately. When one team plays the game, another team records the materials and jersey number; 3) the allocation of time in each step of learning needs a careful planning. The result of the second cycle is based on the post test score. To determine the learning outcomes, a comparation of first cycle post test and second cycle post test is done. The second cycle post test shows that the average score is 69, 2. The students achieving KKM are 15 students or 75%. Comparing the the post-test score of the fist and second cycle, it is concluded that the number of students achieving minimum completeness criteria increase by 5%, from 70% to 75%. Based on this data, the improvement of integrated thematic learning outcomes has not met the standard of learning success or KKM for 80%. Therefore, this research still needs to be followed by the third cycle

3.3. The Research Result and Discussion of Cycle III The Implementation of the third cycle of study includes four stages, which are planning, action, observation and reflection stages. The implementation of each stage can be described as follow: The planning cycle is established by considering the results of the second cycle reflection. The third cycle’s planning includes; 1) continuing competence indicator contained in each subjects; 2) the third cycle uses sudah mandah and Gundul-gundul Pacul(traditional songs for kids). It is done to avoid students’s boredom on one type of game; 3) The learning steps, tools, place and time allocation are same to the second cycle; 4)

tests question to measure the success of learning is set based on indicator of each subject; 5) Teacher needs to consider the allocation of game time so that the learning activities can be completed on time. The implementation stage is done collaboratively between researcher and teacher. Researche is as an observer, while teacher is one who implements the measures.Observationstage is conducted by researcher by usingobservation instrument. Things observed by researcher are students and teachers activity. Based on the observation, the data obtained are 1) students participate actively; 2) teachers and students carry out the study more easily, so that learning can be implemented on time; 3) students take note the subject matter more easily. The Reflection stage is conducted by researcher with the teacher. From the results of reflection, it can be concluded that: 1) recording material alternately between the teams greatly assists students; 2) Game variations stimulate students in following the learning. The result of the third cycle in this research is based on the post-test score. The data shows that the average score is 69.2. The students achieving KKM are 18 students or 90%. By comparing the post test of cycle II and cycle III, it is seen that students achieving KKM increase by 15%, from 75% to 90%. It means that the number of students achieving KKM has met the standard of learning success, so that the research activities can be terminated.

4. CONCLUSION Based on the research result, it can be concluded that local culturecan improve the integrated thematic learning outcomes on the first graders of MI Islamiyah Karang Pakel, Klego, Boyolali, Central Java. In the first cycle, the students achieving learning mastery as are 14 students or 70%. If the first cycle score is compared to the pre-cycle, then there is a 5% increase from 65% to 70%. In the




second cycle, the students achieving learning mastery are 15 students or 75%, it means that there is 5% increase from 70% in the first cycle to 75% in the second cycle. In the third cycle, the students achieving learning mastery as are 18 students or 90%, it means that in the third

cycle there is a 15% increase compared to the second cycle result of learning. Based on the result of the third cycle in which students achieving KKM are 90%, it can be concluded that the learning outcomes have been successful.

REFERENCES Arikunto, S. (2006). Penelitian Tindakan Kelas. Jakarta, Bumi Aksara Barnadib, I. (1994). Filsafat Pendidikan: Sistem dan Metode. Yogyakarta, Andi Offset. Fatchurrohman, (2014). Pembelajaran Tematik Integratif. Salatiga, STAIN Salatiga press Hawker, S. (2006).Litle Oxford Rnglish Dictionary. New Delhi, India, Oxford University Press. Pusat Kurikulum Badan Litbang Depdiknas. 2006) Model Pembelajaran Tematik.Jakarta, Depdiknas Rumini, S.(1993). Psikologi Pendidikan. Yogyakarta, UPP IKIP Yogyakarta Schunk, D.H. (Translate) Hamidah E, Fajar R. (2012). Learning Theories An Educational Persfective. (Sixth Edition).Boston, Pearson Education Suparno, P. (1997). Filsafat Konstruktivisme dalam Pendidikan. Yogyakarta, Kanisius. Wilujeng, E.R. (2013). Penerapan Pendekatan CTL dalam Pembelajaran Tematik Tema Lingkungan untuk Meningkatkan Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas II SDN Klampis Ngasem IV No 560 Surabaya. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar. 1 (1),







Text Concretization “Thauqul-Chamāmah Fil-Ilfah Wal-Ullāf” Work of Ibnu Chazm Al-Andalusy

Eva Farhah, Nur Hidayah, Moh. Yunus Anis, Abdul Malik

Abstract: This research reveals “Thauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullāf”text to become concrete text in relation with hiprogram dan tranformation works. This research used theory of literary reception that is concerning the function of reader in concretization literary work text. It is means that the reader is the important factor for giving the meaning of literary work. This research used the critic method and intertextuality method. The result of this research is giving facilities for readers society, particularly the readers of arabic literary works and helpfully for human life according to the spirit of age. Keywords: Text Concretization,theory of literary reception, critic method, ThauqulChamāmah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullāf

1 . Background of Analysis Problems

entitled “Az-Zahrah”.

Ibnu Chazm Al-Andalusy’s “Thauqul-Chamamah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullaf” is an avant-garde or masterpiece if it is compared to others with the same theme or the ones created in the same period. The superiority of this work is the internal harmony in its structure and the ability to express universal human condition. Furthermore, the reason why this literary work is chosen as the object of the research is that it has already criticized by several Arabic literature critics and the result shows that the masterpiece by Andalusy is a high-grade literary work (Palencia, 2008).

Dozy (in Palencia, 2008: 251) argues that the book of “ThauqulChamāmah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullāf”contains love themes which are in accordance with Islamic rules. One of the love themes is broken heart, which is actually experienced by Ibnu Chazm himself. When love is revealed by someone (a lover) is not responded by the other person (the beloved one), so the person revealing the feeling will be the broken haearted one. Dozy agree that broken heart is a common thing and actually the nature of human that happens to Ibnu Chazm that is descended from Cristian family.

In addition, this masterpiece is widely influential in Europe proven by Standal’s “De L’amour” that is similar to the work (Thaha Husain in Aid, 2006:522). Then, Ahmad Amin and Zakariya Ibrahim (in ‘Aid, 2006:520) also state that the book of “Thauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah walUllāf”is a work of literature that reveals love straightly out and is appreciated to be better rather than the previous work

Dozy’s analysis is objected by several literary critics, one of them is Prof. Migual Asin Palacios. He argues that what is experienced by Ibnu Chazm is not broken heart, but it is kind of demeanor based on “kezuhudan” of young man and his ‘iffah (bounding shelf-chastity in relation with the opposite sex). These zuhud and iffah attitudes are the strong evidents of the character of young moslem




in Andalusia in his period to do islamic rules. It means that he practiced islamic rules which are sourced from Quran and

Hadith (Prophet sayings) that is obvious in the following quotation:

-‫وهوبعدصبييافع‬-‫وقدتعلقأبومحمدبنحزم‬ ..... ‫فطوىن‬،‫ولمتظهرلهقطمنالقبولمايفسحلهفيمجاالألملفيها‬،‫فتمنعتعليه‬،‫بفتاةذاتحسنكانأبواهقدحضناهاوقامعلىتربيتها‬ .‫فسهعلىآالمهذاالهوى‬ .‫وعللهبمايقالمنأنابنحزمينحدرمنأصلنصراني‬،‫وقدنسبدوزيتولعابنحزمبهذاالهوىالعذريإلىطبعمتأصلفيجنسه‬ ‫والعفةالزوجيةعندمسلمياألندلسفينفسا‬،‫وأتىبأمثلةكثيرةمنهذاالحبالعذري‬،‫وقدنقضاألستاذآسينبالثيوسرأىدوزيهذا‬ :‫وقال‬،‫وردهذهالظاهرةإلىمافياإلسالممننوازعزهدية‬ .‫لعصرالذيعاشفيهابنحزم‬ ‫كانالناسينكرونهاعليهاإلىذلكالحين‬،‫إنوجودهادليلقاطععلىمايمكنفينفوسالشعوباإلسالميةمنمثاليةعظيمة‬ .)251 :2008،‫(أيإلىعصردوزي) (بالنثيا‬ Meaning: In his adolescent -after his childhood- Ibnu Chazm is in relation with a beautiful girl that is bringing up and educated by Ibnu Chazm parents, but the girl refuse Ibnu Chazm’s love. This refusal hurts Ibnu Chazm because she does not show the signs to accept his love. Then, Ibnu Chazm is heavy laden. He feels the pain of broken heart. Dozy analyzes that broken heart is a common thing and the nature of human, it is not something special, especially because Chazm was born in a Cristian family. Prof. Migua Asin Palencia againts Dozy’s analysis as he states that Chazm’s experience is not broken heart, but it is based on his (Ibnu Chazm’s) Zuhud attitude as well as his iffah in relation with other sex. Prof. Migual Asin gives several illustrations on how young moslems in Andalusia in that periode are not too different with Ibnu Chazm in expressing their love, involving Zuhud and ‘iffah. These attitudes are suitable and based on islamic rules. Prof. Migual Asin Palacios adds that Ibnu Chazm’s Zuhud and ‘iffah are the strong evidents of the character of young moslem devoting their life to Islam (Palencia, 2008:251). The rise of many responses from those researchers as what have been explained previously motivates the researchers to examine the text by concritizing it in order to make it easier to understand by the readers related to its elaboration with al’Quran, hadith, and other sciences, so it can be the role model for human life after the concretization. 2. The Problem

Formulation

of

the

According to the background of the study elaborated previously, the formulation of the problem is based on the absurd meaning consisted in the text of “Thauqul-Chamāmah Fil-Ilfah Wal-Ullāf”. Then, the researchers focus only on the concretization of the text (how to

concretize the text of “ThauqulChamāmah Fil-Ilfah Wal-Ullāf” to make the readers understand it because every text produces meaning). 3. The Research Method Literary reception theory is a discipline that look on the role of the readers in literary text concretization. It means that the readers are the significant factor to give certain meaning toward certain literary texts that they read (Jauss, 1983:20). Discussing literary reception or the reader’s way to read, to respond and to understand literary text can refer to Iser’s theory. According to Iser, a literary text can be defined as an indeterminacy areas (Iser, 1987:24; Segers, 1978:40-41;




Sangidu, 2008:14). Indeterminacy areas are “the empty parts” or “the open spaces” (leerstellen, open plek) that demand the readers to fill them. It happens as literature has poly-interpretability (Pradopo, 1995:235; Sangidu, 2008:14). In case of filling “the empty spaces” (the unconcretized or uninterpretated spaces) in the literary text,the concretization (making the text becomes concrete and meaningful) process occurs. In the concretization process, the readers usually involved to dialog and communicate with the literary text that is read. In the literary communication, the both sides text and readers interact. From the interaction is produced concrete text (Iser, 1978:20, 107), a text that has been percieved by the readers. The concrete text is the reception (response) and interpretation that is different from one reader to another because each has what is called repertoire, experience and knowledge background, that is also distinctive from one individual to another one. Meanwhile, the first reception method is experimental method which is a method of the presentation of certain text to certain readers individually or collective to courage them giving responses. This kind of research is possible to be conducted by giving questionaire/ list of prepared questions (Teeuw, 1984:208; Sangidu, 2004:23). The second one is text criticism method that is defined as a method that tracks the improvement of the readers’ responses through review, criticism, coment, analysis or researches in the form of thesis, or disertation (Teeuw, 1984:210; Chamamah-Soeratno, 1991:22; Sangidu, 2004:23). The third is intertextual method that is a method that tracks the reception through another text that responds the text itself, for instance by proceeding, edging up to, rebelling or deconstructing, or rewriting the text. These things can be conducted by copying, adapting, or translating (Teeuw, 1984:213; Chamamah Soeratno, 1991:22; Sangidu, 2004:23). To conduct the research

onThauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah walUllāftext, the researchers used text criticism and intertextual. 4. the Result of Analysis 4.1 Text Concretization of Ibnu Chazm al-Andalusy’s Thauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah walUllāf “Thauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullāf“ text is classified into 4 (four) parts. The first classification is UshȗlulChubb (the basic of love), the second is A`rādhul-Chubb wa Shifātuhu (phenomena of love and its characters), the third AlAfātud-Dākhilah àlal-Chubb (things that destroy love), and the fourth is FadhlutTa’affufi (the importance of keeping the love pureness). In this research focuses only on the first classification, the discussion of Ushūlul-Chubb (the basic of love) as elaborated in the following section. The analysis of Ushūlul-Chubb (the basic of love) elaborated into 10 (ten) discussions as follows: a. Al-Kalām fī Māhiyatil-Chubb (the nature of love) Ibnu Chazm says: “love is initially infliction and finally sincerity”. The nature of love cannot be understood unless by understanding the meaning. Love is not prohibited in religion and it is not objected by the rules. Love is related with saparated souls. In addition, the souls that look alike drew closer to each other and unite, and different souls will go away and be apart. The feeling of love in Ibnu Chazm’s point of view varies in several types, they are love the family, friends, friendship, love goodness, love that is followed by the greedy attitude toward the sweetheart’s popularity, and the love between two people that loves each other, two different secrets are united and disguised by love. In addition, there is also love to come biological satisfaction, love with longing feeling and the most lofty love is the love




of people that love for the sake of Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālā(Al-Andalusy, 2001:19).Every beat of the feeling will end as the time goes, so does the reasons why the love arises. The eternal love abadi (alchubbul-khālid) is the love that lasts until the death of someone that lives in the engagement of love, and it is love with honest yearning and always kept in the soul. Ibnu Chazm al-Andalusy argues that the nature of love cannot be find except by means of Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālā. Love (al-Chubb) is not a matter that is against by the religion, and it is not a thing that is banned by the syari’at or rules

because love is a heart matter. In addition, heart belongs to Allah and in Allah’s protection (Al-Andalusy, 2001:19). Although Ibnu Chazm al-Andalusy states his difficulty to reveal the nature of love, as there are many things related to love that are need to know, so the following discussion conveys several figures who write and express love. one of those figures is Ubaidillah bin Abdullah bin Utbah bin Mas’ud, one out of seven Madinat fiqh expert, who is famous with the predicate “bachran minal-buchūr fil-‘ilmi”(he is one of the sea of knowledge). He has written the lyrical poetry that describes his heart:

I keep this love in disguise, so you suffer by me They scold you, and they are such foul Your enemy keep provoking; you loving Becoming a slander No let the love burried deep You are beautiful tiger dead painfully On the foot of Hindun or hurted lips I avoid my beloved one because afraid of sin But keeping away from paramour is sinful Feel how you avoid your sweetheart that you mean wise, Maybe it is a lie (Al-Andalusy, 2001:20). Ibnu Chazm’s explanation about love above can be understood as a man’s love to a woman or the love of fellow being. This is similar to what happened to Prophet Ibrahim a.s. with his family as quoted in al Quran Q.S. Ibrahim (14):37 as follows:

.)37 [Rabbanā innī askantu min dzurriyyatī biwādin ghairi dzī zar’in ‘inda baitikal-Mucharrami rabbanā liyuqīmush-Shalāta faj’al af-idatan minan-Nāsi tahwī ilaihim warzuqhum minatsTsamarāti la’allahum yasykurūn (Q.S. Ibrāhīm [14]:37)].

‫ربّناإنّيأسكنتمنذريتىبوادٍغيرذىزرعٍعندبيتكالمح‬ ‫ّرمربّناليقيواالصلوة َفاجعألفئدةًمنالناستهوىإليهم‬ :14 ،‫وارزقهممنالثّمرتلعلهميشكرون (القرآن‬

Meaning:




My Lord, actually I have settled some of my generation in valleys that have no plants near Your respected home (Baitullah). My Lord, it is the reason why they have to pray. Therefore, make some of their hearts love them and give them favor of fruits, and hopefully they are grateful (Q.S. Ibrāhīm [14]:37). All al-Quran Mufassir agree that Prophet Ibrahim Graceful pray is adressed to his son, Ismail, and Ismail’s mother, Hajar. In that time, Ibrahim left them in a dry and empty dale. The explanation of Allah Subchanhu wata’ala saying: so, make their heart love them is that Ibrahim askedAllah Subchanhu wata’ala to engraft love and interest in human’s heart as well as longing feeling to come to the dale (Mekkah), so the prosperity of the place will rise to their descendant from generation to generation(Muhammad, 2005:33-34).

human soul. He insists that Allah Subchanu wata’alaapplies the word qalband its derivation to several parts of the Al-Quran that means the human soul. Nicholson argues that the term qalb meaning ‘human soul” is mentioned in 144 (a hundred and forty four) places. Al-Ghazali explains about human soul according to al-quran and hadith. Among Ghazali’s ideas is his confirmation that in order to succeed in liberating and purifying the heart, human should consider qalb as an independent essence of the soul that have to submissive to the mind authority. Because desire tend to lead to bad thing as stated in al-Quran verse as follow: ‫ّيغفوررحيم‬ ‫إنّرب‬،‫إنّالنّفسأل ّمارةبالسوءإالّمارحمربّي‬ ٌ .)53 :12 ‫(القرآن‬ Innan-Nafsa la-ammāratun bis-Sū’i illā mā rachima Rabbī, inna Rabbī ghafūrun rachīm (Q.S. Yusuf [12]:53).

Another data is from Ibnu’Abbas r.a. he says that he do not need anything else but love, so he says: : ‫( هذاقتياللهوىالعقلوالقود‬Hādzā qatīlul-hawā lā‘aqla wa lā quwwada; this is the thing that is killed by love, witless and unorganized love) (Al-Andalusy, 2001:2021). The expression above illustrates the condition of an individual that is insane because of love. A falling in love individual feels that he or she does not need anything except someone that he or she loves because the present of the beloved one calms the heart. This situation is considered illogical for people that are not in love because the existance of the love itself is unthinkable (non sense) and cannot be understood logically (unorganized) and the tendency inside the heart. In this context, R.A. Nicholson (Muhammad, 2005:24) via his book entitled “Studies in Islamic Mysticism” states that Al-Quran begins the study of

Meaning: actually desire always order for wickedness, except the desire that is blessed by God. The truth is that the God is merciful (Q.S. Yusuf [12]:53). Al-Qalb as it is used in Al-Quran shows that human soul which means the conscious sould side, not its unconscious one as it is experience by Ibnu ‘Abbas r.a. when he does not need a thing but passionate love (Muhammad, 2005:24). b. ‘Alāmātul-Chubb (the signs of love) Furthermore, the signs of a falling in love individual is elaborated. Among the signs of love is the addiction to stare at the beloved one and to follow wherever he or she is.He or she will respond and listen to what the beloved one says and agree whatever said by the sweetheart althoug he or she possibly tells a lie. Another sign of




love is visible from the body movement of a falling love individual, the rise of doubt and happiness once meet with the admiration, doing things that commonly done by the idol, flooded with fun feeling, revealing things or topics that are actually reverse to the real purposes in order to test the commitment of the mate. Besides, someone who is falling in love, usually he or she wants to hear the name of the adorable one. He or she prefers to be alone, stay up all night,and love the family, relatives, and friends of the sweetheart (AlAndalusy, 2001:27-34). Moreover, in this part, the main figure (Ibnu Chazm) tells about the social fact occurs among the society that is a person that is falling in love. He sits in a tavern, alone, and the dejection is visible from the face. Then, Ibnu Chazm, Ismail bin Yunus, and Mujahid bin al-Husain alQaisy indentify him as an individual that is falling in love according to the signs of love attributed to him (Al-Andalusy, 2001:35). In al-Quran, it is also well explained about the behaviour of a falling in love individual that tends to have desire to love the worldly and priors the secular matter rather than the hereafter life as follow:

desire, so heaven is their home (Q.S. An-Nazi’at [79]:37-41). The verse above explains about an individual that is able to hold his desire, including the one that is falling in love, that is flooded by the sensation of love, because heaven will be his place. Meanwhile, the people that follow their desire and neglect God’s orders and do not care about the end of the world and the day of reckoning will go to Jahim hell. Therefore, people that are falling in love must be able to control their desire.

c. Man Achabba fin-Nawmi (individual that is falling in love because seeing in the dream) There are many factors causing the feeling of love comes to someone; the first is because of dream, or in other words falling in love through dream. This factor is very rare to happen or rising the feeling of love. However, in the reality, it ever happened. As what have been stated by Ibnu Chazm about Abu Sirry ‘Ammar bin Ziyad, he is Hisyam II’ slave or alMuayyad as follows: “One day I visited to my friend’s home named Abu Sirry ‘AmmarbinZiyad, Hisyam II’ slave of al-Muayyad, and I found him deeply in contemplation. Then, I asked him about his condition. He kept silence for a while and did not answer directly. Then, he said: I have strange experience that I have not ever heard it before. I asked him: what is that? He answered: one night I dreamt seeing a girl, and then I was woken up. My heart is stolen by her, my mind is full of her, and now I am in the most difficult stage because I love her.”

/‫وءاثرالحيوةالدنيا‬

/‫فأمامنطغى‬ /‫فإنّالجحيمهىالمأوى‬ /‫وأمامنخافمقامربهونهىالنفسعنالهوى‬ .)41-37 :79 ‫فإنالجنةهىالمأوى (القرآن‬

[Fa-ammā man thaghā/ Wa ātsaral-Chayātad-Dunyā/ FainnalJachīma hiyal-Ma’wā/ Wa amma man khāfa maqāma rabbihi wanahan-Nafsa ‘anil-Hawā/ Fa innal-Jannata hiyal-Ma’wā (Q.S. An-Nazi’at [79]:37-41)]. Meaning: Actually the intemperat people and prioritizing worldly matter, so hell is the home. Then, people that is afraid of God’s almighty and able to hold their

“Day to days became a month. There was nothing to help




him out to miss out his dejection unless his expectation comes true. Then I persuaded him and said: this is a very big mistake as you stir up yourself with something that is not concrete and you owe your hope toward something that does not exist, not tangible. Do you know who is her? He answered: for the sake of God I do not know who is her. I said: You are such a short thought and sight man.You love a girl that you have not seen even once, and there is no one that even have seen her exists in this world. If you adore one of the wall decoration in the bathroom, then I will understand and will always understand till you feel bored” (Al-Andalusy, 2001:36-37). The occurance experienced by Abu Sirry ‘Amar bin Ziyad is a real fact that rises love inside him.However, he cannot hang his life on the phenomena. this is because first, he, Abu Sirry bin Ziyad,do not know who is exactly the woman in his dream, second, Abu Sirry bin Ziyad have not ever met the girl in his dream in the reality, third, the appearance of the woman that he never met before causes his time and life wasted for nothing, and the last is that there is no one that is able to help Abu Sirry bin Ziyad to meet the woman in the dreamTherefore, the causal factor of falling in love through dream is a thing that is far from possibility in the reality. the desire to love someone coming in the dream or love in fantasy is a deviated expectation as explained in Quran: /ً‫أفأنتتكونعليهوكيال‬ ‫أمتحسبأنّأكثرهميسمعونأويعقلونإنهمإالّكاألنعام‬ .)44-43 :25 ‫بلهمأضلُّسبيالً (القرآن‬ [Afa-anta takūnu ‘alaihi wakīlā/ Am tachsabu anna aktsarahum yasma’ūna aw ya’qilūn, in hum illā kal-An’ām, bal hum adhallu sabīlā (Q.S. Al-

Furqan [25]:43-44)]. Meaning: Do you see people that make their desire as God?...or do you think that most of them listen to or understand? They are no more but cattle, and they even more deviated (compared to the cattle) (Q.S. Al-Furqan [25]:4344). Qutaiby (Muhammad, 2005:25), a mufassir, says that whoever follows the desire, it means that he or she respects it and make it as God. In other words, he or she avoid the right track that is the one blessed by Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālā.

d. (someone who is falling in love because knowing the characters of the beloved one) The next factor of falling in love is knowing the good characters of the beloved one as other people telling purposively or not, so it rises the sentiment of love in the heart of people listening to it. This phenomenon often happens till this very day. In Ibnu Chazm al-Andalusy’s point of view about someone falling in love because of hearing the characters of the beloved one is kind of fragile love that will change through times. Someone that waste the time to think and love someone whom never met and communicate before, so the one will only guess what the one must look like. Then, the one falling in love will create the imagination of the person in mind according to the expectation. Therefore, the lover will get two possibilities whether the beloved one will be the same with the expectation or not (Al-Andalusy, 2001:38). In Ibnu Chazm period, this kind of love often occurs to the women in the palace because they are isolated and




commonly women’s heart is easy to positively respond this kind of love. Recently, it still happens to many women which are isolated from the world outside, a love that grows because of hearing other’s telling. Eyes become the guidance and heart becomes the courager and guidance. The first is, eyeshave the bliss of sight, and, second, eyes have the bliss of achievement in the life (Al-Jawziyyah, 2007:91). Then, there is the meeting between the lover and the beloved ond. In this stage, it is very possible to achieve happiness because the story told is suitable with the reality after the eyes saw everything. On the other hand, it is also possible that eyes object all the reality that has been heard. It happens as the person telling the story did not mention the truth whether because of the teller unwillingly to do it, maybe he or she tend to not tell the bad side directly, or the teller could have been forget the detail of the beloved one. one of human instinct is to listen and then feel to love or not what has been told. Related to this human instinct, there is a verse in al-Quran: ٌ‫أفلميسيروافياألرضفتكونلهمقلوبٌيعقلونبهاأوءاذان‬ ‫يسمعونبهافإنهاالتعمىاألبصرولكنتعمىالقلوبالّتىف‬ .)46 :22 ‫صدور (القرآن‬ ّ ‫يال‬ [Afalam yasīru fil-Ardli fatakūna lahum qulūbun ya’qilūna bihā aw ādzānun yasma’ūna bihā fainnahā lā ta’mal-Abshāru walākin ta’mal-Qulūb al-Latī fishShudūr (Q.S. Al-Chajj [22]:46)]. Meaning: So, are they not walking on the earth, and don’t they have heart to understand and ears to listen to? Because it is not the eyes that are blind, but the heart is the one(Q.S. Al-Chajj [22]:46).

The word qulūb in the verse means mind. Therefore, it is obvious that there isstrong relation between desire and mind. Desire as what has been mentioned previously in Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālāverse always orders for evil thing while the common sense functions as the ruler, supervisor, and preventer of those deviated desire and the illogical ones (Muhammad, 2005:50).

e.

Man Achabba min-Nadzratin Wāchidah (someone that falling in love in the first sight)

Falling in love in the first sight is kind of love that is caused by seeing other in the first time. Without knowing in advance, without knowing the name, and without knowing the background. In contrast, the is a type of falling in love in the first time seeing with the background of the name and the parentage. Then, the one will walk out with the one seen by then. According to Ibnu Chazm, this condition can lead him to two possibilities. The first, every easy to grow and to improve thing will be easy to broke and dead. The second, a thing that needs time to grow or the adoration is not easy to rise, so it will last. The first condition mirrors that the individual falling in love is impatient as he does not able to control the desire to reveal the love till he or she find out the truth of the feeling to the one that is just beloved, and easily to jeremiad means no time to take contemplation.In addition, this condition usually brings him to two conditions as wel; right and wrong. This can be that he is an easy to be weary man because before he met the woman, he must have met another woman, but as he sees the new woman, he falls in love with her. Then, the second character shows that the man is the patient one as he is able to hold his willingness to assure whom he is falling in love with, and he will reveal it little by little. Being hard to reveal everything means the feeling of not easy to adore new thing that is still unknown or




maybe it is still hard to know the thing itself. He tends to be cautious, and he also takes deep contemplation till the time comes to reveal the feeling, and he is not an easy to weary man meaning that he is capable to observe the new woman continously. Related to this story, Ibnu Chazm has an experience (Al-Andalusy, 2001:4142). Recited by Abu Bakar Muhammad bin Achmad bin Ischaq from Al-Qadhi bin AlKhida’ about Yusuf bin Harun Ar-Ramadi: one day, ar-Ramadi took a walk along the way in Al –‘Atharin in Cordoba. Al – ‘Atharin is famous as the place where women are gathered around. That time, his eyes stopped to a girl, and he feels that he like the girl successfully stealing his heart. Then, Ar-Ramadi followed the girl that he is falling in love with till the coastal area of Rabadh. When the girl reached a park owned by Marwan Dinasty in the Marwan’s cemetery, she payed attention to ar-Ramadi and asked him why he followed her from the beginning. in his conversation with the new girl, ar-Ramadi gained an information that the girl’s name is Khalwah, a servant, and Ar-Ramadi knew that he could see and meet her in the same place and time as he met her in the first time. After the meeting, ar-Ramadi did not see her anymore, and he does not know where to look for the girl he loves because there is no one acknowledged about the existance of the girl. Started from the experience, Ar-Ramadi always mention the name of Khalwah in his poems. Sebagaimana disebutkan dalam firman Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālā:Eyes sight or eyes to see and ears to listen are Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālā grace to the creature as what have been recited in Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālā saying:

Meaning: Actually, hearing, vision, and heart will be asked for their responsibility (Q.S. Al-Isrā’ [17]:36). Based on the verse above, it can be told that the grace of hearing, vision, and feeling owned by human will be asked for the responsibility. Then, if human misuse these grace, then it can be implied that human is more foolish than animal (Muhammad, 2005:56). This is all what happened to ar-Ramadi, because of his vision, so he fallen in love with a girl that he saw, and finally surrender because he cannot see her anymore. Therefore, human is supposed to save the vision.

f.

Man lā Yuchibbu illā ma’alMuthāwalah (individual that fall in love after observing)

there are so many individuals that are not easy to fall in love except he or she has already observed the condition of the one stealing the heart. This is the love that is stated by Ibnu Chazm al-Andalusy to be the one that is strong and long lasting. In addition, this is what Ibnu Chazm experienced once in his life. Related to the way individual falling in love after observing, this attitude belongs to the proper love. This is because falling in love is not simply seeing in the dream or hearing the story about the beloved one. In the Prophet sayings, there is mentioned to love someone properly. “Abdullah tells us, he said: Marwan bin Mu’awiyah had told us, he said: Mihammad bin Ubaid al-Kindi from his father, he said: I heard Ali talks to Ibnu Kawa’, do you know what is firstly said by our Prophet? That is:...”

ّ ً‫ّمعوالبصروالفؤادكألولئككانعنهمسئوال‬ ‫إنّالس‬ .)36 :17 ‫(القرآن‬ [Innas-Sam’a wal-Bashara wal-Fuāda kullu ulāika kāna ‘anhu mas-ulā (Q.S. Al-Isrā’ [17]:36)].




‫وأبغ‬،‫عسىأنيكونبغيضكيوماًما‬،‫أحببحبيبكهوناًما‬ ‫عسىأنيكونحبيبكيوماًما‬،‫ضبغيضكهوناًما‬ .)494-493 :2005 ،‫(رواهالترميذعندالبخار‬ [Achbib chabībaka hawnan mā, ‘asā an yakuna baghīdhaka yawman mā, wa abghidh baghīdhaka hawnan mā, ‘asā an yakuna chabībaka yawman mā (Diriwayatkan oleh At-Tirmidzi dalam Al-Bukhari, 2005:493494)]. Meaning: Love your sweetheart mildly, who knows that later he or she will be your enemy, and hate the hateful people mildly too, who knows that later they will be your beloved ones (told by At-Tirmidzi in al-Bukhari, 2005: 493-494). This woman love attitude is also mentioned in al-Quran as follows: ‫زيّنللناسحبّالشهوتمنالنساءوالبنينوالقناطيرالمقن‬ ‫طرةمنالذهبوالفضةوالخياللمسومةواألنعاموال‬ ‫واللهعندهحسنمئاب‬،‫حرثذلكمتعالحيوةالدنيا‬ .)14 :3 ‫(القرآن‬ [Zuyyina lin-Nāsi chubbusySyahawāti minan-Nisā’i walBanīna wal-QanāthirilMuqantharati minadz-Dzahabi wal-Fidhdhati wal-KhaililMusawwamati wal-An’āmi walChartsi dzālika matā’ul-ChayātidDunyā wal-lāhu ‘indahu chusnu ma’āb (Q.S. Al-Imran [3]:14)]. Meaning: It is created to be beautiful in human sight to love what is want like women, kids, wealth like gold, bronze, fine horses, cattle, and field. That is all worldly grace and Allah is a good place to go (heaven) (Q.S. Al-Imran [3]:14).

According to the verse above, especially woman adoration, as what have been elaborated by Ibnu Chazm alAndalusy is an allowed thing as it is human nature. However, Al-Quran and Hadith have already bounded the not love and hate too much and to practice religion rules is recommended. g. Man achabba shifatunlam Yastachsin Ba’dahā Ghairuhā(someone that is falling in love with the adoration because of the characters) falling in love because of the characters of the beloved one is a kind of love that is hard to avoid or obstructed.There are many people experiencing this thing, adoring someone because of the adorable characters, tend to always praise the one that is far away, or other people might tell that he or she has bad characters or there are some others better, but still a falling in love individual will only choose the one that he or she falls in love with. This things will happen at anytime, anywhere, and to any person. Not excepted is Ibnu Chazm, he also experienced this kind of love as told in the following story.Ibnu Chazm in his childhood lived in a palace. He loved a woman servant with blonde hair. Started from that time, he does not like any woman with black hair although she maybe lots more better. That is the reason why he understands his adoration to any woman with blonde hair wherever going, and a woman with blonde hair is prominent for him. Besides, the admiration to woman with blonde hair is his father’s character. Until his death, his father as always with a woman with blonde hair, his mother. The next experience is about the Bani Marwan Caliph that has the tendency toward women with blonde hair. One of them is an-Nashir that loves a woman with blonde hair, beautiful appearance and shining blue eyes. It happens because he is




also a blonde haired man. Almost all the descendant of an-Nashir are blonde haired because their mother is a blonde woman like al-Chakam al-Mustanshir, Hisyam alMuayyad, Muhammad al-Mahdi, and Abdurrahman al-Murtadha. Finally, it is the genetics that inherit them. There is only one from an-Nashir that has black hair and beard, he is Sulaiman Adz-Dzafir (AlAndalusiy, 2001:48-49). Back to the first problem, people that are falling in love because of the characters owned by the beloved one like blonde hair, blue eyes, beautiful appearance, or bright skin is unavoidable thing and it cannot be skipped to another. This is the description of people that love their lover. A lover is free and given the righht to proud of his or her beloved one. Although others have different point of view like the beloved one is not beautiful or she is an It happens as love or adoration toward a thing is a spiritual experience and a non sensed thing while every concrete thing is sensed, and it can be said as the bridge and completion of admiration rising in someone’s heart that love the beloved one. It is possible for an individual to fall in love after hearing the voice, or because of the goodness to others, or the lover predicts the future life of the beloved one. Love because of the character of the beloved one as what have been elaborated by Ibnu Chazm is hereditary love. This is a permitted thing as told in the following hadith: “Bisyr Muhammad had told us, he said: Abdullah has told us, he said: Muchammad bin Abdurragman from Fulan bin Thalchach from Abu Bakan bin Chazm from one of the Prophet’s friends told us, he said...”

told by ath-Thabrani, al-Bukhari in his book at-Tarikh, and by al-Chakim. According to Al-Albani, this hadith is dha’if in his book entitled Silsilah ahadits adh-Dha’ifah (Al-Bukhari,2005). h. At-Ta’rīdh bil-Qawli (Expressing love with conotative words) When an individual has desire, then he or she will reveal or express it. Then, it also happens to an individual that wants to express the love, so he or she will reveal the feeling through connotative words, metaphor, modifying poem, modifying song lyric, subjunctive, enigma, or making joke. In addition, the one adressed by the expression will have different responses. Some of them will accept it with positive thinking and some will accept it with negative thinking, everything depends on the level of intellegency of the adressee. Therefore, after revealing the feeling whether trough connotative words, modifying poem and song, although him or herself likes it, he or she has to wait till the one gives the response. Further, the response could be in the form of words directly expressed, or mimic expression, or shown body language. One of the expression forms is connotative words. Connotative words are basically words that physically reverse to the reality. This connotative words will be only understand by the adresser and adressee. The use of connotative words in feeling expression belongs to saying with not real meaning. This expression tends to tell a lie because the non-explicit character, so it has various interpretation from the adressee as mentioned in the following hadith. “Hasan bin Umar has told us, he said: Ibnu Umar from Umar - about what I see- that he said: “ this is enough for people to be told lying if they retell every single thing that they heard”. He said,

It is enough for you with Rasulullah Shallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam saying: love is hereditary (H.R. Al-Bukhari, 2005:64). The above hadith is a dha’if one




Umar said: “actually in the use of connotative language, a lie is an easy thing to do for moslem (H.R. al-Bukhari, 2005:353).

destiny although it exists, he sees the dung on friend's eyes, but he cannot see in his own eyes, he reveals the malevolent of his friend, but he does not reveal it from himself. if I told someone about my secret and I scold him as he spreaded it, then how I can scold him since I am myself not able to keep it secret” (H.R. alBukhari, 2005:353).

another hadith says: “Adam had told us, he said: Syu’ban from Qatadah, from Mutharrif bin Abdullah Syukhair has told us, he said: I accompanied Imran bin Hashain to Bashrah, and there is no exception as he read is a poem and said “actually the use of connotative language gives the chance to lie” (H.R. al-Bukhari, 2005:353). The first hadith is a Sachich mauquf. Al-Baihaqi ties the hadith in his book As-Sunah from Imran bin Chashain with marfu’ level, “actually in every poem performance is easy to lie”. This thing is also mentioned in Musnad Syihab. Al – Albani said in his Takhrijul-AdabilMufrad; the level of this hadith is Shachich mauquf. In addition, the next hadith is a Shachich one as told by Muslim and AlHakim (Al-Bukhari, 2005:353). According to the two hadiths mentioned above, it can be understood that the use of connotative language, whether in a poem or not in a poem, there is a chance to lie, or it is potential to lie. Thing thing is like what has been done by a lover, a female singer, as revealed above. For people that not understand with the thing happening, they will only appreciate that she sings with beautiful language. However, for Ibnu Chazm, the one that knows the thing happens to the singer, the expression in connotative language is a form of blasphemy from the female singer to the beloved one. Through the connotative language, she reveals and spreads the bad attitude of her beloved man as a form of warning. This is in line with what is said in the following hadith. “Abdullah bin Shalih had told us, he said: Musa bin Ali from his father, from Amr bin 'Ash told me, he said: I am surprised by someone that escape from the

this is a sachich hadith told by AlAjaluni in his book entitled KasyfulKhafa’, Al-Hafidza mentions it in his book Fatchul-Bari, andAl-Albani makes it sachich in his book Takhrijul-AdabiMufrad (Al-Bukhari, 2005:353-354). According to the hadith, it can be told that a thing called “a secret” is a thing that is known by himself. A secret is not a thing that is known by others. Therefore, if one day there is a person knowing the secret, so he has no right to scold the one spreading the secret.

i. Al-Isyārah bil-‘Aini(expressing love through eyes-signal) Expressing love through eyes signal means revealing the desire through the sign on the eyes. Eyes signal has important role in expressing love. It is because eyes are able to deliver message throught sight, they are able to decide, to unite, to refuse, to give and etc. There are some kinds of eyes signal to deliver the message. Eyes signal by moving the eyeball up means objecting order and moving the eyeball down means accepting. Long eye-sight means sympathic or sad. winking the eyes means happy. Then, the signal made by moving the eye lid means threat. Moving the eyeball to one direction and then moving it back to other direction means that there is another attraction that makes him or her turns. Eyes ignal by directing the tip of the eyes means questioning. moving the eyeball from the center to the inner corner




quickly means refusal. Glaring the eyes means prohibition. Beside of those signals, it is hard to tell except experience it directly (Al-Andalusy, 2001:54). The following Quran verse explains about the glory of human with the perfection, and eyes are Allah Subchānahu wa ta’ālā’s grace, so it can be told that human is perfect as he or she has sight (eyes), hearing (ears), smelling (nose), and other organs. ‫منابنىءادموحملناهمفيالبروالبحرورزقناه‬ ‫ولقدكر‬ ّ ّ ّ ‫ممنالطيّباتوفضّلنهمعلىكثير ّم ّمنخلقناتفضيال‬ .)70 :17 ‫(القرآن‬ [Wa laqad karramnā banīādama wa chamalnāhum filbarri wal-bachri wa razaqnāhum minath-thayyibāt wa fadhdhalnāhum ‘alā katsīrim-mimman khalaqnā tafdhīlā (Q.S. al-Isrā’ [17]:70)]. Meaning: And really We have glorify the son of Adam (human) and We take them to the land and ocean, and We give them good wealth and We really glorify them more than any other creatures that We create them perfectly (Q.S. al-Isrā’ [17]:70).

Meaning: Tell it to the faithful man: “they are supposed to hold the sight and keep the private, this is more purified for them, actually Allah knows everything that they made” (Q.S. an-Nur [24]:30)].

j. Al-Murāsalah(expressing love through love letter) Another way to express the desire is through letter. A letter that expresses someone’s love to another one is called a love letter because the letter contains the love expression. The responses of the people receiving the love letter are varied. Those responses are receiving the letter with smile happily and put the letter all over the face, and there are people embracing the love letter gladly, and there are also people that choose to hidden in purpose so he or she could find a save place to read to letter, there are also people tha tear the letter, put it into the water till destroyed and also scratch the letter (AlAndalusy, 2001:56). The Discussion expressing love through written text (letter) is not prohibited in Islam as explained in a hadith below. “Ibnu Rafi' had told us, he said: Abu Usamah has told me, he said: Musa bin Abdullah has told us, he said: Aisyah binti Thachach has told me, she said: as in the Aisyah's bedroom, there were people coming from all over the place, there were old people rushing to where I stood still and the young ones also walked to me, gave me prizes, and from many places they also sent me letters, and I said to Aisyah: " Khalah, this letter and prize are from Fulan". aisyah answered: "my son, answer the letter and the prize, if you do not have any to give him back, I will give some and you give them

This is all Allag grace in the form of eyes and other organs of the body that are functional to bridge the love expression. Eventhough, human is supposed to keep the eyes and sight both man and woman in order to avoid calumny as explained in the following verse. ‫قلللمؤمنينيغضّوامنأبصارهمويحفظواف‬ ‫روجهمذلكأزكىلهمإنّاللهخبيربمايصنعون‬ .)30 :24 ‫(القرآن‬ [Qul lil-Mu’minīna yaghudrih-dhū min abshārihim wa yachfadzū furūjahum dzālika azkā lahum innallāha khabīrun bimā yashna’ūn (Q.S. an-Nur [24]:30)].



to him” 2005:435).


(H.R.

al-Bukhari,

The hadith mentioned above belongs to Chasan hadith. According to alAlbani in the book of Shachichul-AdabilMufrad mentions the position of the hadith that is possible to be a reference to decide and to face any problem in the society and even country (Al-Bukhari, 2005:435). Based on the chasan hadith, an individual is suggested to repay any letter and prize – the form of others’ generousity- suitable to the ability as what have been explained by Ibnu Chazm al-Andalusy that there are people responding the letter badly like throwing away the letter. Tearing it up and etc.

4.2 Conclusion Based on the analysis that is conducted by the researcher, it can be concluded that in concretizing the text of Thauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullāf by Ibnu Chazm al-Andalusy discussing: a. AlKalām fī Māhiyatil-Chubb (The nature of

love), b. ‘Alāmātul-Chubb (The signs of love), c. Man Achabba fin-Nawmi (Individual that falls in love through dream), d. Man Achabba bil-Washfi (Individual that falls in love because of hearing the characters of the beloved ones), e . Man Achabba min-Nadzratin Wāchidah (Individual that falls in love from the first sight), f. Man lā Yuchibbu illā ma’al-Muthāwalah (Individual that falls in love after observing), g. Man achabba shifatunlam Yastachsin Ba’dahā Ghairuhā (Individual that fallsin love because of the characters of the beloved one), h. At-Ta’rīdh bil-Qawli (Expressing love through connotative language), i. AlIsyārah bil-‘Aini (Expressing love through eyes signal), dan j. Al-Mburāsalah (Expressing love through love letter) can be conducted by filling the empty parts in the text by collaborating with al Quran, hadith, figures' thought, and other sciences. Therefore, the text of Thauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullāf can be understood by the readers (researchers), universal readers, and the message delivered by the author is fully accepted.

REFERENCES Al-Andalusy, Ibnu Chazm, Abu Muhammad Ali bin Ahmad. 2001. Thauqul-Chamāmah fil-Ilfah wal-Ullāf, tachqiq by Thahir Achmad Makky. Ath-Thabàh al-Ūlā. Dār al-Charam lil-Turāts, Sūrul-Azbakiyyah: Cairo. Al-Bukhari, Imam. 2005. Adabul-Mufrad. Translated by Moh. Suri Sudahri, from the original title Al-Adab Al-Mufrad. Pustaka al-Kautsar: Jakarta. Al-Jawziyyah, Syamsuddin bin Qayyim. 2007. Raudhatul-Muchibbīnwa NuzhatulMusytaqqīn. Maktabah ats-Tsaqāfah ad-Diniyyah: Kairo. Chamamah-Soeratno, Siti. 1991. Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain Analisis Resepsi. Balai Pustaka: Jakarta. Iser, Wolfgang. 1978. The Act of Reading A Theori of Aesthetic Response. The John Hopkins Press Ltd: London. Jauss, Hans Robert. 1982. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis. Muchammad, Ahsin Sakho. 2005. Ensiklopedi Tematis Al-Qur’an. Translated from the original title: Al-Mausū’ah al-Qur’āniyyah, by Muchammad Kamil Chasan alMahami. PT Kharisma Ilmu: Jakarta. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 222



Palencia, Angel Gonzalez. 2008. Tārīkhul-Fikril-Andalusiy. Maktabah Tsaqāfah adDīniyyah: Kairo. Pradopo, Rachmat Djoko. 1995. Beberapa Teori Sastra, Metode, Kritik, dan Penerapannya. Pustaka Pelajar: Yogyakarta. Sangidu. 2008. Wachdatul Wujud: Polemik Pemikiran antara Hamzah Fansuri dan Syamsuddin as-Samatrani dengan Nuruddin ar-Raniri. Gama Media: Yogyakarta. _______. 2004. Penelitian Sastra: Pendekatan, Teori, Metode, Teknik, dan Kiat. The unit of publishing Western Asian the Faculty of Language and Culture UGM: Yogyakarta Segers, Rien T. 1978. The Evaluatuin of Text. Lisse: The Peter de Ridder Press. Teeuw. 1984. Sastra dan Ilmu Sastra. PT Dunia Pustaka Jaya: Jakarta.







The Discourse of Friday Sermon in Indonesia: A Socio-Cultural Aspects and Language Function Studies

Kundharu Saddhono1, Yusuf Muflikh Raharjo2 and Rio Devilito3 1,2,3Sebelas Maret University Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A Surakarta 57126, kundharu.uns2gmail.com

Abstract: This research aims to explain the Friday sermon by analyzing the structure of its discourse, the selection and composing of its topics, the functions of its codes and code switching, the function of its speech acts, and the characteristics of its language and specific terms. The method used is descriptive and qualitative. This research considers the speech components of the sermon and approaches it contextually. The analysis of the speech acts is based on Kreidler’s theory, while that of the characteristics of the language is based on the Dell Hymes’s theory. The data were collected in Indonesia and several of its mosques assuming the representativeness of the city and the location of the mosques. The analysis and presentation of the data have led to the following conclusions: The Friday sermon contains oral discourse which has regular and typical structure; the strategies of the composition of the topics include quotation, storytelling, use of popular expressions; the forms of the codes and code switching involve Arabic, Indonesian, local languages [Javanese], and English languages; the utterances of the sermon contain all forms of speech acts; various terms appear in the sermons indicating that the Friday sermon functions as a register or usage of language in a particular field. Key Words: Friday sermon, discourse, Indonesia, Sosiolinguistic, socio-cultural language used . 1. INTRODUCTION

F

riday sermon is a special and unique verbal occurrence. It is explained in some researches of Friday preaching viewed from various perspectives (Ma’ruf, 1999; Hidayat, 1999), Hadisaputra, 2005; Saddhono, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015). Based on the researcher's observation, Friday preaching’s in Surakarta was delivered in at least three medium languages, i.e. Javanese, Indonesian and Arabian language. Generally, Javanese language is

utilized in rural area and a small part of town. Indonesian language usage is common in urban area. This is because in urban area, the Friday worship's audience come from numerous backgrounds of education, culture or profession. Arabian language for Friday sermon is employed in some certain mosques. Other than the three languages, there is Friday preaching using English as the medium language in an Islamic boarding school in a particular time.




As a verbal discourse, Friday sermon has utilized language characteristics, indeed. The emergence of register forms is influenced by non-lingual factors. There are some factors in determining Friday preaching register, as Hymes (1974: 112) formulated by acronym of SPEAKING, i.e. (1) Setting and Scene which means the location and situation where a speech takes place, (2) Participants meaning the speech participants, (3) Ends or the verbal objective, (4) Acts implying the method of speech presentation, (5) Keys meaning the speech tone, (6) Instrumentalities or speech devices, (7) Norms and (8) Genres or speech types (Suwito, 1985: 32; Wardhaugh, 1998: 153; Fasold, 1993: 44; Chaer, 1995: 62). The understanding toward speech components is important considering that linguistic codes which are taken for this study object can be interpreted by examining and observing social and cultural context as what is contained in the speech component concept as well as concerning Javanese culture context which is dominant in Surakarta. 2. RESEARCH METHOD The research is to study the language utilization of Friday sermon based on context and situation. The type of the research is descriptive qualitative with natural setting which essentially describes in words qualitatively, instead of mathematic numbers or statistic (Lindlof, 1994: 21). Data for the study is Friday sermon in Indonesia comprising of five districts and five mosque environments. Friday sermon taken as the study sample is in the period of 2014-2015. The sample drawing technique is purposive sampling. Friday sermon discourses which was taken as the sample is data having characteristics corresponding to the writer's required data and considered to be able to represent as a whole (Subroto, 2009; 32). The data were collected by using recording technique. Some points that

should be noted are (1) time and place of the verbal occurrence, (2) verbal manifestation, (3) the identity of the addresser and society or the addressee and (4) the speech objective or the content (Saddhono, 2010: 54). Besides, data were collected by in-depth interviewing the khotib concerning to the matter of Friday preaching language. The study employed matching method to examine and determine the identity of particular lingual unit by utilizing determining device of nonlingual, aside from language and apart of the corresponding language (Sudaryanto, 1995: 13). Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo stated that linguistic research is basically a contextual research. Contextual research is a research of verbal manifestation (language) with respect to social context following the verbal occurrence (Raharjo, 2001: 20). In the data analysis, the social context of speech components will be considered. The speech components in the study data analysis are (1) the addresser, (2) the addressee, (3) speech situation, (4) speech objective and (5) the speech content. It shows that language analysis in this research is conducted by considering elements outside language such as social, situational and cultural factor (Markhamah, 2001: 11). 3. RESULT OF THE RESEARCH AND STUDY Speech Component In Friday Preaching Speech Setting and Scene Setting and scene is one of the factors influencing language usage. Setting is more physical which includes time and place of the verbal occurrence. Scene refers to the situation and time of the verbal occurrence. This situation is a psychological background which refers to psychological situation following verbal occurrence. Different time, places and situation can generate different language variation. It is the factor of background and situation which raises the formal and




sacred style in Friday preaching. It is called formal because the speech delivered by the speaker is message or advice in order to improve the piety. Sacred refers to the definition that Friday preaching is a range of prayers containing certain requisition and pillars. Consequently, when the requisition and pillars are not completed, Friday preaching is unauthorized. Related to setting, the discourse of Friday preaching is conducted in the afternoon or at around 12.00 p.m. of local time. It was held in mosques of five districts in Surakarta to represent the mosque environment. The scene is the serious audiences wherefore Friday preaching is a range of Friday prayers. However, most of them were sleepy or even sleeping during the preaching. It occurred due to preaching was held at noon recess in which the audiences who have been doing activities since morning, was exhausted. With that condition, they had to listen to the preaching which possibly made them even more sleepy caused by khotib's speech style was not interesting. At the same time, khotib was ready to preach to engage the audiences to perform good deeds. This is when a key role of khotib is needed that he had to know the physical and psychological condition of his audiences so that the preaching he delivered meets the objectives as expected. Participants Participants are people involved in the direct and indirect conversation. The speech participants are the speaker and the listener, the addresser and the addressee, and the sender and the receiver. Subject correlated to participants are age, education and social background. Besides, social status also highly determines the range of language used. The participants in Friday preaching are khotib as the addresser and audiences as the addressee. Khotib plays important role in determining speech because it is

monologue. The relationship between khotib and his audiences influences the existing speech type. Khotib whose role is to preach has to be concerned about the language he uses by seeing the audiences condition. Such factor is related to the speech level because preaching takes place in Surakarta utilizing Javanese as their daily language. Generally, a khotib has to possess deep knowledge of religious and meet the particular requirements which one of them is able to recite Al Quran fluently. Most of khotibs in Friday preaching have higher education and strong Javanese culture. No wonder that Javanese culture appears in the series of Friday preaching. Meanwhile, most of the addressees were male and baliq (adults) with varying education levels. The education level was identified by seeing the mosque environment. For example, most of the addressees are highly educated as the location of the mosque is in a campus area. The majority of addressee's cultural backgrounds are Javanese, but some are not, as in the academic and social environment.

The Ends (the Speech Objective) The ends are the results or responses from a conversation as expected by the addresser (ends as outcomes) and the final objective of the conversation (ends in view goals). In other words, the ends are the speech intention and objective comprising the topic which is influential in language utilization. Friday preaching has the ends to spread the orders of piety and the knowledge or comprehension toward the Al Quran verses and the words of Prophet Muhammad SAW in hadith. Such factors make Friday preaching a special speech. The verbal occurrence causes the language possessing special characteristics, as the language in the sphere of law, trading, military, etc. The obligation of khotib is to deliver the message of piety and that of the audiences is to listen and pay attention to the speech. Therefore, it is forbidden for the audiences




to talk or sleep during the speech for a reason that it causes the Friday worship unauthorized. Sequence of Act (Method of Presentation) Sequence of act consists of message form and message content. It refers to the form, sequence and the content of the discourse. It is how the addresser begins the speech, delivers the message and closes the speech. The speech forms have to do with the choice of words, how it is used and the relevance between what is said and the speech. In pragmatic study, the form includes locution, illocution and per locution. The speech form in preaching, daily conversation and the process of learning and teaching are different subject. This factor is closely related to the monologue khotib with the addressee passively participating. This condition causes particular act of speech so that the speech will be well delivered to the audiences. Most of Friday preaching is delivered in Indonesian. Some of them are presented in Arabian in respect to the demand of the Friday preaching pillars. The sequences of Friday preaching begin with salaam (Islamic greeting), azan (call for Muslim to sign the time to start praying), hamdalah, syahadat, shalawat, message of devotion, preaching material and prayers for the first preaching. The second preaching begins with salaam, hamdalah, syahadat, shalawat, message of devotion, conclusion and closing prayer.

The Keys/Speech Tone The keys are the spirit in verbalizing the speech. The spirit of speech is casually serious in utilizing language. In other words, the factor of keys is the language style and tone in speech. Because Friday preaching is a worship series in Friday worship occurring in formal and sacred situation, the language in speech is prim and proper. Furthermore, not any kinds of humour are allowed to be inserted in the speech for the reason that it interfere the

sacredness of worship. Stated in hadith, as someone is talking during preaching, his prayer is futile. Khotib’s tone, attitude and the way he preaches, has specialties based on several things like the ideology and location of mosques. As a messenger, his preaching is serious without any humour inserted. The Speech Device / Instrumentalities Instrumentalities are devices/means exercised in the speech. It is the way the preaching is delivered either by oral or written. It is also about the media to spread the speech including by letters or radio. Instrumentalities have to do with the means referring to the language articulated by the addresser embracing speech code such as dialect or register. Friday preaching is delivered orally. In preaching in podium in front of the audiences, some khotibs perform it spontaneously, but the remaining do by reading text. As quoting Al Quran, they have to recite it because the reading should be right in line with what is stated in it. In the speech, khotibs use Indonesian and Arabian language as the requirement in Friday speech. They generally use loudspeaker so that the audiences in a large number are expected to be able to listen to the preaching.

Norms of Interaction and Interpretation Norms of interaction and interpretation point to a norm or regulation which bounds the speech, for example: what may be delivered and may not, how to deliver it: soft, rude, open, immoral and so on. These norms also aim on the interaction norms between addresser and addressee and discourse interpretation used and obeyed by both sides. In Friday preaching, it is clear that the speech is only delivered by khotib and the audiences are only listeners. The addressees only listen to the preaching, answer salaam, and say ‘amen’ for prayer.




During the preaching, the audiences may not talk because it will cause Friday prayer to be not wholly perfect. If we see closely, there is uniqueness in Friday preaching where addresser of the preaching is not only the khotib, but also muazin, person who peals azan. The structure of Friday preaching begins with opening salaam and ends with closing greet plus pray. In conclusion, addresser in Friday preaching consists of two persons: khotib and muazin, while addressees are all audiences who give passive response when khotib greets them and prays. Similar thing is performed by addressees when muazin peals azan.

Speech Genres Genres are types or forms of delivering discourse. This directly points to delivered discourse types, for example telephone discourse, newspaper discourse, preaching discourse and so on. Friday preaching is included into speech genre, preaching or sermon in particular.Khotbah (preaching) is speech which particularly explains religious moral (KBBI, 1999). Many expressions in Arabic appear in Friday preaching for it is a series of Islamic worship where the language is often employed. Friday preaching is particular and unique verbal occurrences because it has special characteristics. Prevailed verbal occurrences can be divided into religious proselytizing, recitation, seven minutes preaching events and so on.

Terms In Friday Preaching Friday preaching is an established discourse type and it has been known by society. Once a khotib does not follow those structural norms, he will get negative reaction from his audiences. Related to this, there are in fact several main entities that need to be considered, among them are discourse classification and the function of language in society. Generally, discourse can be divided into three

important points: (1) type of discourse according to its language function which communicative in nature, (2) type of discourse according to its language function which sacred in nature, and (3) type of discourse according to its language function which expressive in nature (Poedjosoedarmo, 2010). Study about these types of discourse is often challenged with border line problems. Since language is continuum in nature and continually stretched, thus making firm classification is difficult to do. In border line, there are types of mix discourse which is expressive-communicative, expressivesacred, sacred-communicative in characters and so forth. Types of discourse is included into language variation. The term discourse is compared to register. In Linguistics Dictionary, register is compared to language variations of manner of discourse, key, and keyword which have different language variation meaning according to usage: discussed topics, speakers’ relationship, speaking partner and subject of speaking, medium of speaking (Purwo, 2008: 206). This type of discourse will be different from one another because of dissimilar meaning or will exist on addresser when addressing discourse. The most important factors to determine types of discourse are item, structure, and variant determiner. Thus, in approaching some language variation we must take two steps, they are: (1) highlighting type of variety from language point of view, and (2) highlighting type of variety from other type used in observed variation (Poedjosoedarmo,: 37-38). Observed point in this study is term or special vocabulary appears in Friday preaching occurred in city of Surakarta. Term is word or phrase which accurately reveals a meaning, concept, process, and condition or special character in certain subject. If we comprehend further, vocabularies in Friday preaching can be classified into ideological dialect. State of situation in Indonesia with various religions can cause employed language




variations. There are special terms appear in Friday preaching because its discourse is special one. The terms among all are sitting between two preaching, khotib, tsaniyah preaching, ula preaching, mukhatab, podium of preaching stick and message of devotion (Saddhono, 2011: 276-278). Diction In Friday Preaching Diction means special vocabularies appear in every mosque with different environment. Speech location in sociolinguistics or pragmatics study exceedingly determines addresser in employing his language. Someone may speak differently at home, office or mosque. Vocabularies appear in every of those place will be different as well. In this study, vocabularies in every mosque with different environment will appear differently. Friday preaching occurred in family environment is chosen from Surakarta Hadiningrat Palace. This choice is based on the assumption that Javanese culture is still dominant than that in outside the palace. The determining factor is utterance location, addresser and addressee. Javanese language that appears, for instance are eman-eman (too bad, unfortunate),mampir ngombe (to stop by for drinking), wong-wong sing (those who), manungso-manungso (humans),rekoso (misery), mumpung (as long as),sulak,and direwangi (being added with extra effort). This thing shows that speech location affects khotib to choose his vocabulary. The emergence of Javanese vocabularies is also affected by addresser who has Javanese culture as his background and most of addressees with same Javanese background. Problems or topics are also related to things matter in society. For example problems related to human’s life: (1) happiness in the world and afterlife, (2) being happy in the world but get misery in afterlife, (3) being unhappy in the world but happy in afterlife, and (4) unhappy both in the world

and afterlife. In each category, khotib gives example from nearest happening in the society. Instances for number (2), khotib illustrate it by a person who asks for BOS (School Operational Aid) money and health card for poor people. Example for number (3) is legends of Korun and King Pharaoh, legends that are already known among society. Example for number (4) is beggar or street musician who spends their money on gambling and drinking. Researcher took Friday preaching of religious environment in Islamic boarding school in Laweyan Sub-District. The reason was that in this kind of environment researcher might find employment many of Islamic terms, for instance: al 'adlu fil mu’āmalah ma’anās, adlika, fahminta, falukta, ya Umar, al-‘adlu fil qaul, and many more. Following expressions in Islam are also often used by khotib: Alhamdulillah, Subhanallah, Allah subhānahu wata’ālā, and insyāallāh. Something different from Friday preaching in this religious surrounding are (1) short preaching material and (2) no material in second preaching. If we take a closer look, Friday preaching in this neighborhood is generally short and brief. It follows Prophet Muhammad’s hadith which states that shorten Friday preaching is a good thing. This might also refer to Friday preaching in Saudi Arabia which is short and brief yet meaningful. Topics or materials in the preaching also seem heavier, related to fairness issue. In giving illustration, khotib speaks in Arabic later directly translated. It shows how vast is the knowledge possessed by khotib. Many examples delivered are taken from the era of Prophecy, such as the story of Muhammad’s companion Umar bin Khatab who was just in commanding. Friday preaching in academic environment was taken in Sebelas Maret University. Addresser in this preaching has a great knowledge, both spiritually and academically. This is related to khotib’s profession as lecturer and his position in religious organization. To be sure is that there are many academic vocabularies




appear, such as introspeksi (introspection), logika (logic), rasional (rational), civitas, efektif (effective), individu (individual), investasi (investment), revisi (revision), konstruksi (construction) and so forth. English is also employed by khotib such as fun, food, and fashion, as well as Arabic, for example alḥamdulillāh, subḥānallāh, astagfirullah, insyālllāh, wallahu a’lam, māyāallāh, amar ma’ruf nahi munkar, etc. Other employments of Arabic language by khotib are: shalat qabliyah dan ba’diyah, subhat, aurat, haram, malikulḥasanah, jihat, syaiţan, syiar, takbiratul ikhram, khalifah, khulafaurrasyidin and so on. Khotib uses Javanese language in order to explain or emphasis a meaning, for example polok (ankle), bakoh (tight), and nuwun sewu (excuse me). One special characteristic in Friday preaching in academic environment is greeting expression employed by khotib. Every topic turnover, khotib will greet his audiences by jamaah rahimakumullah. Topic is also delivered with various explanations. Principal contents of Friday preaching in this environment are related to any tragedy happened in Indonesia which occurred because of its people’s own mistakes. Therefore, we should soon repent and intensify our worship toward Allah SWT. There are many Al-Quran verses and hadiths quoted to give emphasis on the delivered topics. Khotib even provides story about prophets, their companions and today’s events to describe the topics. Examples of these are the story about Umar bin Khattab, Sayyidina Ali, Usman bin Affan, Imam Syafi’i as well as phenomena happened in the society nowadays such as natural disaster occurred in Indonesia and any other issues in the middle of society. Friday preaching in networking environment is taken in a market and surrounded by several both government and private offices. Accordingly, most of audiences are workers from above places. Appeared vocabularies are influenced by the addresser and speech location. Addresser is a khotib who has various

experiences and has moved into places several times. This makes variation in language use. Javanese language certainly appears because the khotib’s self-effect and the speech location. The vocabularies which often appear are: kepengen (wish to), dilem (being praised), tetep (stay, still), sangu (provision), dibales (being replied, countered), dikemah-kemah (chewing) and so on. This also shows close continuity between local culture and religious activity. The use of Javanese language is generally as an emphasizing explanation toward something. Betawi dialect form appears, too, like the word dikata-katain (being mocked with words). This is an influence originated from the background of the addresser who once lived in Jakarta. The khotib, who is well-educated in religion, makes many Arabic language employed, too, such as: muadzin, magfiroh (mercy), infaq (religious alms) and so on. The point of Friday preaching in this networking environment is increasing belief toward Allah SWT after completing fasting in Ramadan month. Khotib is able to sort the problem out by taking example on the phenomena occurred in the society, makes his preaching give a lot more meaning to all of his audiences. Khotib quotes hadith and delivers stories from Muhammad’s prophecy to give details and emphasis on the message delivered. It appears because the topic is closely related to the stories and khotib’s knowledge background in religion. Many Al-Quran verses are quoted, showing that khotib really has the ability about the preaching material and gives consideration toward addressees in delivering material. Friday preaching in social environment exists around stalls and shopping centre, located right in city centre. With such location, the place is assumed to have audiences with various backgrounds in culture. Related to that, things determining the use of vocabularies are addresser, addressees and utterance location. Addresser is a person who has high education both in religion and general knowledge. With such background, it is




proper that arabic vocabularies often appear in speech, for example: siraṭal mustaqim, amaliyah, itqumminannar, jannah, sadaqah, maghrib, ‘isya, ramadhan, riya’, narukallah or arabic expressions like dakwah bilḥal, al jannatu mustaqatum, dinul islami, etc. Javanese language also appears in this friday preaching, for instance kumanthil-manthil (resonated) and mumpung (while). This relates to addresser’s cultural background and utterance location which is Java 4. CLOSING Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that there are terms appear in Friday sermon. This is rooted from the existence of preaching as a register or language employment in certain subject, in this case is preaching in sphere of Islam. Since speech take place in Islamic sphere, thus terms which frequently appear are originated from

Arabic. It is because preaching is part of Friday prayer series in Islam hence creates sacred situation. This situation later stipulates the subsistence of Arabic language in its utterance as one of the provisions. Related to characteristic of vocabulary usage, this research is based on several mosque environments, they are: family, religiosity, academic, networking and social environments. Each mosque environment affects on the Friday preaching speech language, vocabularies and diction. These social factors make Friday preaching in those five distinct locations different. Factors from addresser, addressees, speech location and speech topic give influence toward language usage and its vocabularies. Although Friday preaching has clear norms yet addresser factor may affect the utterance. Addresser or khotib has autonomy in preaching with his language style but there are still prevailed norms exist.

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Hidayat, Dudung Rahmat. Pemakaian bahasa Indonesia Ragam Lisan oleh Para Khotib di Kotamadya Bandung: Studi Deskriptif Terhadap Ragam dan Fungsi Bahasa. Bandung: Program Pascasarjana Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. 1999 Hymes, Dell. Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 1974 Kridalaksana, Harimurti. Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia. 2008 Lindlof, Thomas R. Qualitative Communication Research Methods.Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publiser. 1994 Markhamah. Etnik Cina: Kajian Linguistis Muhammadiyah Surakarta Press. 2001

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Ma’ruf, Amir. Wacana Khotbah Jumat: Studi Kasus Empat Masjid di Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada. 1999 Moeliono, Anton M. (ed.). Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. 1999 Poedjosoedarmo, Soepomo. Sosiolinguistik. Yogyakarta: Naskah Buku. 2010. Saddhono, Kundharu. “Analisis Wacana Khotbah Jumat: Pendekatan Mikro dan Makrostruktural”. Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University. 2005 Saddhono, Kundharu. Etnik Madura: Perspektif Integrasi Linguistis Kultural. Surakarta: Pustaka Cakra. 2009 Saddhono, Kundharu. Wacana Khotbah Jumat di Kota Surakarta (Sebuah Kajian Sosiopragmatik). Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University. 2011 Saddhono, Kundharu. “The discourse of Friday Sermon in Surakarta: A Socio-pragmatic Study” in Wacana: Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia Vol. 14 No. 1 (April 2012), p. 145-153. 2012 Saddhono, Kundharu. “Bentuk dan Fungsi Kode dalam Wacana Khotbah Jumat (Studi Kasus di Kota Surakarta)” in Adabiyyat: Jurnal Bahasa dan Sastra Vol, XI No. 1, Juni 2012, p. 71-92. 2012 Subroto, Edi. Pengantar Metode Penelitian Linguistik Struktural. Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University Press. 2009 Sudaryanto. Linguistik: Identitasnya, Cara Penanganan Obyeknya, dan Hasil Kajiannya. Yoyakarta: Duta Wacana University Press. 1995 Suwito. Sosiolinguistik. Surakarta: Faculty of Letter Sebelas Maret University. 1985 Syam, Yunus Hanis. Titian menuju takwa. Yogyakarta: Cahaya Hikmah. 2003 Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: BasilBlackwell. 1998







The Concept of Gnosis And The Function Of Syattariyah Text

Dr. H. Istadiyantha, M.S. Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Universitas Sebelas Maret, Surakarta [email protected]

Abstract: Syattariyah (Syaththariyyah) manuscript is one of Syeh Abdurrauf Assingkeli's works. He was welIknown to be a scholar of mystic sect of Islam (Ulama sufi) and a leader of Tarekat Syattariyah in the Nusantara. The Tarekat Syattariyah was one of the name of available 161 tarekats. The name of this tarekat was relevant to the name of its first leader, Syeh Abdullah Syattari (Syaththari), a leader of mystic sect of Islam from India who had died in 1428. In the text is an explanation that the specific goal of this tarekat is to reach makrifat to God, for reaching this degree, someone must pass some levels of syariat, tarekat,hakikat. and makrifatis meant as the “introduction of the greatness of God trough spiritual comprehension by seriously doing religious ritual.This article is expected to give a useful contribution for spiritual foundation. Key words: Syattariyah text, gnosis, analysis of function.

1. INTRODUCTION

I

th

th

n the 16 and 17 centuries, we knew some scholars (Ulama) of Sufi in Aceh who gave his great ideas for Islamic spreading and Malay Literature. They are Hamzah Fansuri, Syamsudin Assamatrani, Nuruddin Arraniri, and Abdurrauf Assingkeli. The last stated person wrote some books, such as; Terjemahan Baidhawi’s Tafsir into Malay, Daqa’iqu‘IHuruf ‘Umdatu ‘l-Muhtajin ila Suluk Maslaki‘l-Mufradin, Mir’atu‘t-Tullab, AtTariqatu ‘sy-Syattariyah, Bayan Tajalli Hidayatu‘l-Balighah (Peunoh Daly in Siti Baroroh Baried, 1985:297; Liaw Yock Fang, 1975: 197-198). Those works are believed to enrich inventory of religious knowledge and Malay’s Literature. The works of Syeh Abdurrauf which is titled Syattariyah as taken as an

object of this research. Syattariah was written by Syeh Abdurraufbased on suggestion of Queen Shafiyyatu d-Din who ruled Aceh in 1641-1675. Besidesthat, The Queen also asked him to guide her to do tarekat and tasaufbelief. The participation of Queen Shafiyyatu d-Din, in Tarekat Syattariyah especially and in tasauf generally, could strengthen the position of belief brought by Syeh Abdurrauf. In this discussion, the term of Syattariyah is seen from two point of views; the first, Syattariyah as a name of tarekat sect; and the second, Syattariyah as the title of a script. As the name of tarekat sect, it is frequently discussed, but Syattariyah as the title of the script until now has not been many in discussion. It may be caused by two causes. The first, the limitation of the researcher compared




to the existing Malay’s scripts so that many scripts have not been researched yet. The second, tarekat Syattariyah is often claimed as a sect that is out of Islamic belief (Snouck Hurgronje, 1894: 17-18; Schrieke, 1973; 24-27) so that it is predicted that there is a reluctance of the researchers to discuss it. In other side, there some people said that the content of this tarekat is not out of the border of the Islamic belief. About the truth of tarekat Syattariyah, if it is viewed from syariat (Islamic rules), it mostly got great attention from the observers. Some of them said that it is out of the syariat, but the others said that it is not out of rule of Islam. Ulama who said that it is not out of syariat considered two things. The first, they (the ulama) are from this tarekat so their point of view is subjective. The second, ulama who said it is out of Islamic rules see it by differing between the tarekat belief and its followers, with the assumption that the belief is still considered as true belief (not out of Islamic belief) but the followers are considered that they have been influenced by other religion’s rules.According to those arguments above, it is necessary to discuss script of Sattariyah with the hope that this discussion of the content of the script will be useful for building spiritual aspect.

2. METHODOLOGY This article is written based on data obtained from the study of Syattariyah texts and references from literature and it is analyzed deductively. A deductive study is a rule of thinking stemming from common things, and then, it is concluded to be a special rule. Initially, author explains about particulars of the texts and teachings of Tarekat Syattariyah. Further, author describes understandings of shari'a, tarekat, hakikat and makrifat. Next, Author also expounds meaning of makrifat according to concepts expressed in the Syattariyah texts. With the understandings of makrifat based on the Syattaariyah texts

and the understanding of makrifat in general, then a complete explanation of makrifat will be obtained, namely makrifat in general and one understood by public at large.

3. ANALYSIS OF FUNCTION Kind of literature is an eye of chain that connects individual literature work to its literature world (Scholes, 1977: 128). Kind of literature shows specific variety according to the underlying convention. The kinds of literature are poem, drama, and prose (Literature Faculty UGM, 1982: 83). Sastra Kitab (literature book) is included in prose as Abrams stated that prose is a literature work that does not use pattern of rhyme (id.: 183). At the beginning, those who called Kitab as a literature variety are Hooykaas, Emeis, and Brakel (id.: 149-150). A. Majid Ibrahim, in his preface in republishing of Abdurrauf’s works, more clearly stated that the works are Islamic works. They are religious kitab grouped in kesusasteraan kitab ((literature book) id.: 150)). Structure of sastra kitab has specific characteristic. The structure here means narration structure of sastra kitab, as the structure of text presentation (id.: 152-153) that covers manggala or introduction, content, and closing. Philology does a research of characteristics of literature texts in order to know how the texts are functioned in the society. Philology in here is philology in general (Luxemburg, 1984: 2). Studying literature’s characteristics systematically will help us to understand the texts. The literature’s characteristics are specific ones contained in every kinds of literature related to their functions in the society. Among the definitions of function, there are some suitable definitions for this discussion e.g. Ekadjati, Braginsky, and Horatius. According to Ekadjati, function is what the writer wants to go in his/her writing. It is about what the writer means




in writing the text and what the functions of the text are in whole (1980/1981: 21).

give baiat to others in order to accept Tarekat Syattariyah beliefs.

Braginsky in his research of Malay’s works underlined three circles of function, i.e. function circle of esthetic; function circle of usage; and function circle of soul perfection (Imran Teuku Abdullah, 1988: 76). Horatius stated that duty and function of poetries are to give benefit and entertainment or utile et dulce (Teeuw, 1984: 183-184). Teeuw had a question about which one of them must be the priority, utile or dulce. Until now it has not been known explicitly about Indonesian traditional point of view of function of literature, but implicitly it is known that moral aspect is more in priority than esthetic aspect.

Another name (alias) of Abbdurrauf Assingkeli is Abbdurrauf bin Ali Al-Fansuri (Hawash Abdullah, 1980: 49-50). This name made many questions from some people because the additional names of “Fansuri” behind his name seemed that there is a relative relationship with Haman Fansuri (Snock Hurgronje, 1894: 19). The addition of the name might show the region of Abdurrauf, usually called Assingkeli (from Singkel) changed into Fabsuri (from Fansur). Both places are located in Aceh (Siti Baroroh Baried, 1985: 297).

4. BIOGRAPHY OF SYEH ABDURAUF AND THE CONTENT OF TAREKAT SYATTARIYAH BELIEF 4.1. Biography of Syeh Abbdurauf The biography of Syeh Abbdurauf can be known from some sources e.g. in his own writing titled Umdatu l-Muhtajin ila Suluk Maslaki l-Mufradin in the summary. It can also be known from the dissertation of Rinkes titled Abdoerraoef van Singkel (Liaw Yock Fang, 1975: 198).Abdurauf (1615-1693) (Hasan Shadily, 1980: 55) was known by people as famous Ulama, Sufi, and writer. He studied in some Arab countries especially in Mecca and Yemen for 19 years (id.: 56). He studied to some experts such as 15 teachers, 27 famous Ulama, and 15 wellknown Sufi (Snouck Hurgronje, 1894: 16). One of his teachers is Syeh Shafiuddin Ahmad Ad-Dajjani Al Qusyasyi who lived in 1583-1660 (Hawash Abdullah, 1980: 49-50). He accepted baiat of Syattariyah from Al-Qusyasyi and Khirqah of it, a sign that he had graduated in doing Tarekat’s rituals through suluk discussion. The sign is a white selendang (a kind of long cloth) given by his teacher (id.: 50), it means that he had been able to

Syeh Abdurrauf was passed away in 1693 and buried in Kuala Aceh. Until now his grave is frequently visited by many people (Hasan Shadily, 1980: 56). Then he is called famously of Tengku in Kuala (Winstedt, 1969: 177) or Syeh in Kuala. Now the name is adopted as the name of University in Banda Aceh, University of Syah Kuala, to respect him. 4.2The Content Syattariyah Belief

of

Tarekat

The discussion of the belief of Tarekat Syattariyah detailed here will be limited about the belief contained in Syattatilt (Istadiyantha, 1989: 65-73). Queen Shafiyyatu d-Din begged to Syeh Abbdurrauf in order to be guided to do Sufi’s belief. This order was fulfilled after Syeh Abdurrauf did Sholat Istikharah in order to be given Allah’s guidance in doing the belief (pages 2-3). According to Sattariyah, the relationship between God and nature is that at the beginning this nature was created by Allah by Nur Muhammad. Before something created by Allah, he was in Allah’s hand (Ilmu Allah) named A’yan Tsabitah (page 4). He is shadow of Dzat Allah (page 5). After that A’yan Tsabitah changed into A’yan Khrijiyah (a fact that God is out there), so A’yan Khrijiyah is shadow for Something whose shadow; and he was God only (page 5).




The detail of the explanation above can be explained through examples below. First, when someone sees his/her self in the mirror; in the mirror, the right side is actually a reflection of the left side, vise versa (id.: 5). And when someone faces some mirrors, so in those mirrors it looks there are some people there, in fact those people are just reflections of one person (page 5). The second, the relationship between hand and the move of hands, actually, the move of hands is not hands but it is hand itself (pages 5-6). The third, about someone named Zaid whose knowledge of Arabic letters. Before someone writes a letter on the board, the letter is fixed (tsabit) in the knowledge (page 6). The knowledge stands on its dzat and erased in its one (id.). In fact, Arabic letters is not the essential of the Zaid (Even though the letters are exsisted in the knowledge): in which the letters are still letters and Zaid is still Zaid. According to Fa l-kullu Huwa l-Haqq principle, it means that the existence of everything is actually the manifestation of Allah the Great (id.). In the text, it is stated about the procedure and format of zikir (pages 8-9). The ritual of zikir for the followers of Tarekat Syattariyah is divided into three stages, i.e. mubtadi, mutawasitah, and muntahi (page 10). Mubtadi means the beginning stage; mutawasitah means middle stage; and muntahi means the last stage. Especially for the last stage, in the text it is discussed in details. It is explained that this stage can be reached by someone who is able to collect two makfirat, i.e. makfirat tanziyyah and makfirat tasybiyyah (page 15). Makfirat tanziyyah is an iktikad that Allah can not be compared by others. In this makfirat, everything is seen from the view of batiniah/hakikat (heart/the essential) (pages 15-16. And makfirat tasybiyyah means knowing and indicating that Allah sees and hears everything (the most in seeing and hearing everything). In this makfirat, something is seen from the view of lahiriyah (physic) (page 15). In the end of the text of Syattariyah, it is stated that the silsilah

(structural trees) of Syattariyah and Qadiriyah (pages 18-20). Syeh Abdullah Syattari as the founder of Tarekat Syattariyah in the list as the 15th pioneer (page 18). And Syeh Abdul Qadir AlJailani stated is stated in the 16th position of Tarekat Qadiriyah (page 20). The Script was copied completely on Ahad (Sunday) in Dhuha (Afternoon), without month and year stated, from Muhammad Sa’id (a teacher of script copier) (page 20).

5. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SYARIAT AND TAREKAT SYATTARIYAH Before we explain about the relationship between syariat and tarekat Syattariyah, it is necessary to know better about the meaning of syariat and tarekat. Ulamamutaakhirin (famous ulama, after 3rd century of Hijriah) said that a term of syariat is the same as fikih law (Hasan Shadily, 1984: 3.405), i.e. the law determined by Allah for Moslems based on Al-Quran, Hadis, Ijma’ and Kias’ (Hasbi Ash-Shiddieqy, 1980: 31-35). The law was set in details related to ritual, moral principles, life principles and also law of something allowed to do in order to know the wrong and the truth (Abul A’la Maududi, 1970: 142). Etymologically, tarekat comes from Arabic term of “Tariqatun” that means “way or mazab’ (Al-Yasu’i, 1956: 465) or “method” (Gibb and Kramersa, 1953: 573). Beside tarekat meant as a system or guidance in doing religious ritual to have ridha (permit) of Allah with the guidance of a teacher/guru/mursyid whose relative relationship to the Prophet of Muhammad (Barmawie Umarie, 1961: 116; Abubakar Aceh: 1985: 67). Ritual experiences in tarekat knowledge focuses more on batiniah (spiritual aspect) than lahiriah (physic aspect) through doing a lot of zikir (remember) to Allah. Therefore, tarekat is a method of technical application to reach the essentials of tauhid in haqqul yakin (LIMTI, 1989: 59).




For the next discussion, it is about the relationship between syariat and tarekat Syattariyah. In this case, we will have limitation on three things, i.e;

with Allah, if you could not do it, be with someone who is close to Allah, he will guide you to the Allah’s way. (LIMTI, 1985: 33).

1) Review of beliefs of tarekat Syattariyah according to Syariat point of view

c. Al-Quran: “Whoever is mislead by Allah, he/she will not get ‘Waliyyam Mursyida (spiritual guide).” (Q.S. Al-Kahfi 17).

Basically, tarekat Syattariyah teaches about methods of zikir rituals (pages 8-15). In Al-Quran, there are more verses explaining about zikir than verses explaining about sholat, zakat and so on. It shows that the performance of zikir (in general) has an important position compared to other religious rituals. The performance of zikir in tarekat Syattariyah done by jahar (producing voice or orally) and sirri/khafi (in the heart or silently). The reading zikir orally is usual ritual and every Moslems knows the basic guidance. While, for zikir performance in the heart or silently it is not wellknown by Moslem generally, and it is based on Allah’s words: “Do zikir with your heartin noble and fear, zikir is not stated orally’(Q.S. Al A’raf 205).And based on HadisNabi told by Baihaqi as follow; Zikir that are not heard by Angel of Hafazhah is better than zikir done orally with the comparison of one compared seventy (Adz-dzikru l-ladzi la tasma’u hu l-Hafazhatu yazidu ‘ala dzidzikri ‘-ladzi tasma’u hu l-Hafazhatu bi sab’ina dhi’fa) (LIMTI, 1985: 45). 2) Review of teachers (ulama) of tarekat Syattariyah according to Syariat point of view Dalil (basic reason) that strengthens the roles of teacher or ulama can be explained as follow; a. Maa laa Syaikhum Mursyidun lahu fa Mursyidu hu ‘sy-syaithaan means “Whoever does not have teacher in Mursyid degree, so he/she is guided by Satan”(Abu Yazid Al-Busthami in LIMTI, 1985: 112). b. Hadis Nabi: Kun ma’a’ l-Laah fa in lam takun ma’a ‘I-Laah fa kun ma’a man ma’a ‘I-Laah fa innahu yuushiluka ilaa ‘I-Laah means“You should always be

d. Al-Quran: “Hi people who believed in God, obey truly to Allah and find ‘Al-Wasilah’ (Channel functioned as guidance, not media), be serious in that way wishing you to be successful” (Q.S. Al-Maidah 35). 3) Review of tarekat Syattariyah according to Syariat point of view The goals of zikir in tarekat Syattariyah is to reach insan kamil degree (page 13-15), i.e. a level of perfection (the level according to human perception). This level can be reached by someone if he/she can have two makfirat, i.e. makfirat tanziyyah and makfirat tasybiyyah, (understanding deeply about something physically and spiritually). It base on Allah’s words in Al-Quran in Al-Hadid verse 11: “Allah is The Most First Dzat and The Most Last, The Most in Physic and The Most in Spiritual” (page 17).

6. ANALYSIS OF FUNCTIONS In the discussion before, it was stated that the analysis of function that will be explained here contains three aspects; i.e. function in structural relationship, general function, and specific function. For the details, it can be explained as follow; 6.1 Relationship

Function

in

Structural

Based on the specific characteristic in literature of kitab (book), we know that the structure contained in it is different in varieties of literature in general. The meaning of structure here is narration structure, i.e. presentation structure that is one of the structural elements in whole, also including linguistic elements (Faculty of Literature of Gadjah Mada University,




1982: 152). Nevertheless, this paper will not discuss the aspects related to linguistic elements. In the text presentation structure in the literature of kitab, it can be similar to the presentation structure in the fiction literature works that are plot or scheme of story (id.: 152). Plot is a presentation structure (Wellek and Warren, 1956: 216). Plot is built from smaller elements (id.: 217) or they are structural elements (Holman, 1972: 513). The meaning of structure as meant in the explanation above can be seen in the text of Syattariyah that in its parts includes I. Introduction; II. The Content; and III. The Closing (Istadiyantha, 1989: 89-100). Furthermore, the order of the content seems to have similarities to the procedures of the order used in the procedures of tarekat education in general. This part can be simplified into three subs; i.e.: The first, it is functioned as the

information related to the discussion of God; the second, it is the ritual procedures of zikir; and the third, it is the result gained after doing zikir. The explanation of makrifat and the relative scheme of tarekat are presented in aside; it is suited to tarekat education procedures, i.e. makrifat and the relative scheme of tarekat are usually gained by a student after receiving explanation about tauhid and zikir performance with tests by using methods of suluk/riyadhah/mujahadah. The closing presents about the word of tammat, hopes from writer for the script in order to the readers can apply the belief (zikir); and the origin of the scripts. In the end of the text of Syattariyah, there is details outside the script structure, i.e. colophon. According to the procedures of problems presented in the text, it can be broken down as follow:

INTRODUCTION The Students apply

The Teachers accept*

The Teachers Explain

THE CONTENT The Students graduate, reach makrifat The Students and know Do the tarekat relative scheme

*) Teachers do sholat istikharah before accepting the students

Tammat

THE CLOSING Dakwah

Colophone Located outside the structure

6.2 General Function

relation between slave and his/her employer.

Before continuing to the next discussion, we firstly discuss about kinds of ritual motivations and its relationship to the functions that will be discussed further. Imam Yahya An-Nawawi divided good amal (behavior) into three (Ali Usman, 1976: 261):

b. Amal of businessmen, i.e. amal done because forced to get benefit/profit or because have specific reward. c. Amal of free men, i.e. amal done because there is a consciousness to do the obligation, loyalty, and thanking to God.

a. Amal of slaves, i.e. amal done because it is forced by fear of God, it is analogized as the




In this discussion the relation of those amal above to the general function and specific

function can be figured out as follow;

a. Amal of slaves

General Function

b. Amal of businessmen c. Amal of free men In the table, we can see that number 1 and t shows general function and number 3 specific general. Some notes contained in the text of Syattariyah shows the existing general function as follow; a. “ Doing ZikirLaa ilaaha illaaI-laah and Allah huwa have benefit on them (page 8)” b. “If you do zikirahlu I-Laah in the quite place until it passes through the heart, it is actually loved and enjoyable (page 12).” c. “If zikir is done when you are sitting or walking or when you are going to sleep, there is big benefit in doing it. (page 12)” The notes states that the result of the zikir has big benefit, but it is not stated explicitly. Basically, the general function here is a benefit taking of a religious ritual for physical aspect that is still limited in Islam, e.g. in medicine, mystic, and so on (There are medicine and mystic that are suited to syariat Islam but there are also some that can not be accepted in syariat (see Istadiyantha, 1989: 111-117).

Specific Function tarekat before, and to complete the discussion we will present the meaning of hakikat and makrifat. Hakikat comes from Arabic of “haqqiiqatun” meant “truth”, this word can be related to the word of “haqq” that is also meant “truth”. Al-Haqq means ‘God’; so hakikat is meant as the truth related to the God. Besides, Ibnu Arabi said that actually hakikat of everything maujud is one which is located in reality (jauhar) and God’s Dzat. If it is viewed from God’s dzat, it can be said that that is the truth, but if it is viewed from the name and its characters, there are some possibilities, i.e. creature and nature (Abubakar Aceh, 1984: 67). Therefore, hakikat is an absolute truth in physic and spiritual (Istadiyantha, 1988: 11). Makrifat comes from Arabic word of “ma’rifatun” meant “knowledge introduction”. In tasauf, makrifat is meant as the “introduction of the greatness of God trough spiritual comprehension by seriously doing religious ritual in sabar (patient) and ikhlas (no hope for any reward)”. Some meanings of makrifat are jnanasandhi meant “secret of knowledge” (Sri Mulyono, 1983: 62), and gnosis meant “knowledge of spirit (batin/gaib) or tasawuf.” According to Al-Gazali, makrifat is divided into two (Abubakar Aceh, 1984: 69-70; AlTaftazani, 1985: 174-175):

6.3 Specific Function In the text of Syattariyah there is an explanation that the specific goal of this tarekat is to reach makrifat to God (page 15-17). For reaching this degree, someone must pass some levels of syariat, tarekat and hakikat. We have discussed about the meaning of syariat and

a. Ilmu Adna, it is knowledge got by reading or studying (physical knowledge through education), so the truth must be obtained by scientific proofing.




1) Mubtadī; 2)Mutawāsitah; 3) Muntahī (p. 10)

b. Ilmu Laduni, it is knowledge about the secret of God’s Greatness obtained spiritually based on Allah’s gifts only.

Mubtadī means 'starting level'; mutawāsitah means 'middle level'; and muntahī means ‘last level'. the latter is described at length in the Syattariyah text. The text said that the muntahī level will be achieved by an individual who is successfully unifying two types of makrifat, namely Makrifat Tanziyyah and Makrifat Tasybiyyah (p. 15).

The second meaning of makrifat explained above is similar to the meaning of makrifat in the text of Syattariyah. Dalil in Al-Quran and Hadis that are suitable to the meaning of Ilmu Ladunni/makrifat are as follow: a. Al-Quran Surah Al Kahfi: 65: “So, he (Prophet of Moses) met Our messenger (Prophet of Khidzir) i.e. a messenger of Our messenger who had had rahmat and knowledge (Ilmu Ladunni, writer) form Our side”. In that Prophet of Khidzir was able to see in distance (something that will happen, clairvoyance).

Definitions of each makrifat are as follows: Makrifat Tanziyyah is a faith that God cannot be compared to anything whatsoever, to put forward proposition of Laisa mitslihi syai'un ka, meaning ‘(God) cannot be equated to anything' (Hadith) (p. 15). According to makrifat, everything is seen in terms of inner aspect, so with attention to the inner can be seen that the A'yan Tsābitah (a fix reality) is vanish in His Oneness or Ahādiyyah (p. 16). Makrifat Tasybiyyah is recognizing and determining that Allah is the Supreme Seer and Hearer, in this makrifat everything is seen in terms of physical aspect (p. 15).

b. Hadis of Abu Abdirrahman Assalam from Abu Hurairah: “Actually Ilmu Ladduni is a secret knowledge (tightly closed), it is not easy to understand except by people who have makrifat to Allah. If there are people talking about it, they are tricked that are far from God, so it is difficult to understand. Therefore, do not disregard people who have this knowledge; because God does not disregard them, it is proven that He gave them the knowledge to them (Al-Gazali in Ismail Yakub, 1979: 97-98).

An individual who understands Makrifat Tanziyyah only, the person’s makrifat is considered less complete, and if he only understands Makrifat Tasybiyyah, then it is said that it will be misguided according to the sect’s rules. And, he can unify the two makrifat, he will have a right to call as an imam for those who Makrifat /wise to Allah (P.16). The opinion is reinforced by arguments of the words of God: Huwa'l-Awwalu wa 'l-Ākhiru wa' zh-Zhāhiru wa 'lBātinu meaning 'He is The Supreme First and Supreme Later, Supreme Physic and Supreme Inner' (Surah Al- Hadid: 3).

7. TEXT OF SYATTARIYAH AND THE MEANING OF MAKRIFAT 7.1 Implementation of Tarekat syattariyah Implementation of dzikir of the Syattariyah tarekat followers can be grouped into three levels, namely:




The relationship between God and nature in the view of Syattariyah is described as follows: at the beginning, this universe was created by Allah from Nur Muhammad. Before everything was created by Allah, he was in the knowledge of Allah which is called as A'yan Tsābitah (p.4). Tsābitah A'yan is as a shadow for the Essence of Allah (p.5). After the Tsābitah A'yan is incarnated in A'yan Khārijiyyah (external reality of the God), then the A'yan Khārijiyyah is a shadow of The Shadow Owner; but it was none other than His (p.5) Rationale showing that He is not as the case can be shown analogically in a man in front of a mirror. It is seen the mirror that the right hand appears to be part of the left, and vice versa (id.5). If the man faces several mirrors, then several images can be seen that actually is reflections of one man. It is said further such explanation is made in order to make a reader is able to understands it easily (p.5). The existence of relationship between God and nature can be exemplified as follows: first, a relationship between "hand" with "hand movement". It is said that actually the "hand movement" is not a "hand" itself, but the "gestures" was really the "hand" itself (p. 5-6). Secondly, about a man named Zaid writing his name letters on a blackboard, the letters are permanent (sābit) in his knowledge (p. 6). Knowledge stands at His Dzāt and it vanishes in His Oneness (id.6). The text said that the nature of Arabic letters is not the essence of Zaid (although the letters are in his knowledge): the letters remain as letters and Zaid remains as Zaid. Understanding Fa 'l-kullu Huwa' l-Haqq meaning that 'The existence of everything is nothing but manifestation of His Righteous', such faith is thus considered valid if the person has reached the Ahādiyyah level (united, in a sense, along with Allah) (id.6).

7.2 The Meaning of Gnosis of the Syattariyah Text In the text of Syattariyah, it is stated that there are three meanings of ma’rifat as follow: 1) Makrifat Tanziyyah, it is makrifat knowledge got by observing/studying everything from the spiritual/hakikat views. People who have makrifat think that Allah can not be compared to anything. It is based on (Q.S. Asy-Syura: 11). 2) Makrifat Tasybiyyah, it is makrifat got by learning everything from physical views. In this makrifat, they think that Allah has characters for The Great Listener and The Great Watcher (Q.S. Asy-Syura: 11). 3) The combination of Makrifat Tanziyyah and Tasybiyyah, i.e. makrifat gained by Sufis by learning everything from physical and spiritual views. This makrifat is claimed as the most perfect by Sufis; it is because of Allah’s words that “He (The Most Powerful) covered everything in physic and spirit (Q.S. AlHadid: 3). This argument is supported by Syeh Abu S’id Al-Harazi that “Hakikat of God can be known through the guidance from two contrary things” (page 18). Based on the details above, we can know that the specific function of the text of Syattariyah is to give explanation to the reader about tauhid and makrifat. 8. SUMMARY/ CLOSING Script of Syattariyah is one of the works of Syeh Abdurrauf Assingkeli (16151693) that can be categorized into sastra kitab (literature of kitab). The script was written by Abdurrauf based on the suggestion from Queen Shafiyyatu d-Din who ruled in Aceh about 1641-1675. The Queen asked Syeh Abdurrauf to guide them in doing tasafuf. The appearance of Queen Shaffiyatu d-Din in the writing of the script and tasafuf that he brought can strengthen the position of Syeh Abdurrauf




in the aspect of the acceptance of the tasafuf’s belief in society. Discussion about Syattariyah’s beliefs, there are some people claim that the belief is out of syariat and some other said that this sect is not out of Islamic syariat. Based on the anaphases of the text of Syattariyah, it can be known that this tarekat belief is still being be able to acceptable according to the syariat.

Function analysis in this discussion consists of three things, i.e. function in the structure of relationship, general function and specific function. In the text, it seems that among a part and others are related each other and arranged systematically, except in the colophon that is located outside the structure. General function discusses of religious ritual aspect on physical view, while specific function discusses of religious ritual aspect on spiritual aspect.

.

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Application of Learning Model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in Learning IPS for Improving Motivation and Learning Achievement Student Class V Madrasah Ibtidaiyah PSM Bendo Barat

Syaiful Jazil Maftukhan Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta, Indonesia Abstract: This research was conducted aimed to describe: (1) the application of the model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning IPS, (2) application of the model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning IPS can increase students' motivation in class V MI PSM BendoBarat in second semester the school year 2015/2016, (3) application of the model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning IPS can improve student achievement class V MI PSM BendoBarat in the second semester of the academic year 2015/2016. This research used a Class Action Research. The subjects were students of class V MI PSM BendoBarat. Data collection technique used interviews, tests, observations, and questionnaires. Mechanical examiner validity of the data was using triangulation. Source triangulation obtained from different sources to obtain the necessary information through interviews, while triangulation methods wereusing questionnaires and observation. The data were analyzed and conclusions drawn. Research was carried out in three cycles. Each cycle includes the stages of action planning, action, observation and reflection. The results of research showed that: (1) the application of the model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning IPS proven effective performance in the classroom, (2) application of the model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning IPS can increase students' motivation in class V MI PSM BendoBarat, (3) application of the model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning IPS can improve student achievement class V MI PSM BendoBarat. Increasing students' motivation can be observed through the acquisition of learning motivation questionnaire results after the implementation of the action. In the first cycle of 47.4%, the second cycle increased to 68.4%, and the third cycle reached 84.2%. While student achievement at the time of initial conditions shows an average score of 69.03 with classical completeness 52.6%, after the first cycle carried out an increase in the average score of 85.26 with classical completeness 73.7%, after the second cycle score increased to 87.89 with classical completeness 78.9%, and after the third cycle the average score of students again showed an increase to 88.68 with classical completeness of 89.5%. Keywords: Learning Model Numbered Head Together (NHT), IPS Learning, Learning Motivation, Learning Achievement.




INTRODUCTION aw Number 20 Year 2003 about National Education System is mentioning that the national education has a function to develop the ability and character development and civilization of the nation's dignity in the context of the intellectual life of the nation. Education aims to develop students' potentials to become a man of faith and fear of God Almighty, noble, healthy, knowledgeable, skilled, creative, independent, and become citizens of a democratic and responsible (Trianto, 2009: 1). According to Law Number 20 Year 2003 on National Education System Chapter I Article 1 (1) Education is “conscious and deliberate effort to create an atmosphere of learning and the learning process so that learners are developing actively of her potential, society, nation and state” (Muhibbin, 2013: 1).

L

The main problem in learning in formal education (school) today is still low absorptive capacity of learners. This is evident from the average learning outcomes of students who always still very concerned (Trianto, 2009: 5). For that all educators need to develop a strategy to improve the processing and learning outcomes. Hamdani (2011) argues that the strategy can mean an attempt was made by a person or organization to reach the goal. In Big Indonesian Dictionary, strategy is a careful plan of the activities to achieve specific goals (desired). As quoted phrase John Hamdani (2011) defines a strategy that is a procedure that is used to provide an atmosphere conducive to the students in order to achieve the learning objectives. In a study, learning strategy plays a role very urgent. How not, because of the mature and well-planned strategy will be able to create learners who are their achievement. Meaning strategy itself was originally used in the military is interpreted as a way of use across the military power to win the war. But in this case Kemp (in Abdul Majid: 2013)

explains that the strategy of learning is a learning activity that must be done teachers and learners to the learning objectives can be achieved effectively and efficiently. But the fact the in the field shows that there are still many schools that still apply the traditional learning model is monotonous. None other than the intended learning model is a model lecture. In schools from elementary school to high school learning model still dominate discourse and like no other learning models. Though there are so many models of learning are very worthy to be tested so that both teachers and pupils at the school became invigorated with learning models that change. It's like we are dealing with a dining table that we see is always rice and a piece of chicken. Breakfast, lunch, dinner always so then it would cause boredom and boredom. Unlike the case when presented at the dinner table its side dish changeable with colorful unsightly. One of the subjects that cannot be separated from the usage model of learning by lecture method is social sciences. By simply by using the lecture method so that the perception in the minds of the students that these subjects are not interesting anymore. The material presented is always boring. Embedded in the minds of students that social science just memorizing a series of fact events along the years that must be memorized. Moreover, of those years serving the material presented is always the same so it seemed very monotonous and nothing interesting again. One of the learning that emphasizes full student involvement in the learning process is using the type cooperative model Numbered Head Together (NHT). This study is the first developer Spenser Kagen in 1993. This was done in hopes to involve more students in reviewing the material covered in the lesson and check their understanding of the lesson content.




In a social sciences learning, is a must not only emphasize the material sense of the IPS, but far more important is how to improve the quality of the learning process and improve the output result of learning that makes learning really alive. By using a cooperative approach certainly the subject of social science matter learned by students not only memorizes and recall, but they can also help children and coordinate with each other to solve a problem that increases the sense of solidarity among the learners. RESEARCH METHODS To know the concept of classroom action research (CAR), which in English is called classroom action research (CAR) clearly need to put forward a number of restrictions on such research. According to Dave Ebbutt, as quoted by Hopkins (1993) states that action research is a systematic review of practices to improve the quality of education by the community through practical actions that they did, and through reflection on the results of those actions. Meanwhile, according to Kemmis and McTanggart (in Soly Abimanyu, 1995), action research is a study done to improve yourself, but implemented in a systematic, planned, and with an attitude of introspection. As a form of practical research, in education, research, this action refers to what the teachers to improve the teaching process which it is responsible (Kelvin, 2009: 9). According to Jean Mc Niff (via Suroso, 2009: 29), Class Action Research is a form of reflective research conducted by teachers themselves. The results of this study can be useful tools such as curriculum development, school and teaching skills (ACEP, 2012: 7). Kasbolah (2009) cites the opinion of Kemmis and Mc Tanggart (1982) Class Action Research is a form of dynamic process in which all four aspects, namely planning, action, observation, and reflection must be understood not as the steps are static, resolved by itself, but rather the moments

in a spiral shape associated with planning, action, observation, and reflection. Rochiati (2014) cites the opinion of Hopkins (1993) Definition of action research is to identify class research, is research that combines the research procedure with substantive action, an action taken in the disciplinary inquiry, or a business person to understand what is happening, while engage in a process of improvement and change. In this study used the type of classroom action research (Classroom Action Research). E. Mulyasa (2011: 10) defines a Class Action Research (CAR) as an action research (action research) done with the aim to improve the quality of processes and outcomes of learning a group of learners. In the class definition is not limited to the four walls of the classroom or classrooms, but rather on their learning activities of two or more students. According to Drs. Suaidin (in Asmani, 2011) CAR is a form of reflective assessment by teachers as perpetrators of measures aimed to increase the stability of the rational in implementing the tasks it’s the teacher, deepen understanding of their actions and improve their lessons. Meanwhile, Prof Suharsimi Arikunto (2006: 3) defines the CAR is accurate the learning activities in the form of a deliberate action that caused that occurs in a class simultaneously. CAR is a vetting process of reflection on learning activities undertaken by teachers themselves to improve the quality of teaching and improve student learning outcomes (Jasman, 2014: 6). Meanwhile, according to Arikunto, et al (2006) in a paper for Education and Training Professional Teachers (PLPG Operator Certification of Teacher Rayon 24 State University of Makassar) means that a Class Action Research as a scrutiny of the learning activities in the form of an action, which is deliberately raised and occur in a classroom together. Therefore, action




research conducted by teachers devoted to improving learning situations which they are responsible. On the other hand Suharsimi, Suhardjono, and Supardi (2006) describe the CAR by separating the words incorporated in it, namely: Research + action + Class, with exposure to the following: 1. Research examine activity refers to an object, by using the ways and rules specific methodology to obtain data or information useful in a matter of interest and importance to researchers.

directly in the interaction between teachers and students who are learning.

RESEARCH RESULT 1)

Application of Cooperative Learning Model Numbered Heads Together (NHT) in the Learning Social Science When done observations social science learning activities in class V in MI PSM Bendo Barat researchers noticed that in the implementation of teaching and learning activities in class still dominated by the teacher. Things seem monotonous at all in which students are placed as objects of teaching and learning activities and the teacher is the main character. Teachers use the lecture method of teaching so that teaching and learning takes place only in one direction only. Such a condition is quite alarming, because of the effects that arise are quickly bored student, sleepy in class, and less learning outcomes achieved.

2. Acton refers to a deliberate motion activity with a specific purpose. In a study in sets of cycle of activities for learners. 3. Class in this case is not bound to the terms of the classroom, but in terms of being more specific. As has long been known in the field of education and teaching. What is meant by the term class is a group of learners in the same time, receiving the same lesson from the same teacher as well.

On the basis of these problems, researchers created a plan of action which aims to improve the expectations child's interest in social sciences so that the future of children has higher achievement. Thus the results of social sciences they became more complete and satisfying. Using the proper method of learning is useful to involve the activity of students in the learning process. The cooperation between students and between teachers and students were able to help each individual student to gain an understanding of the subject matter and higher achievement. Cooperative learning model Numbered Heads Together (NHT) is an alternative learning that researchers try to apply in this study. With this model the researchers hope to help

Based on the understanding of three key words, we can conclude that: a classroom action research is an attempt to examine a group of learners and learning activities to give an action (treatment) are deliberately raised. The actions carried out by the teacher together learners, or by students under the guidance and direction of the teacher, with a view to improving and enhancing the quality of learning (E. Mulyasa, 2011: 11). This is evident from CAR goal is to solve the problems faced by teachers in the classroom as well as to improve the quality of learning in the classroom. This opinion is in line with Suhardjono (in Suharsimi Arikunto, et al, 2012: 60) that is essentially CAR aims to improve a variety of real and practical issues in enhancing the quality of learning in the classroom is experienced




students so that they get a more meaningful learning.

to be able to conclude that the material has been equally studied.Second, teachers give assignments to students for posttest done respectively. Teacher told the material to be studied further to all students. Learning activities ended with greetings.

Broadly speaking, the action will be implemented by cooperative learning model Numbered Heads Together (NHT) is as follows: 1. Introduction At this stage the first thing to do is say hello to the teacher, to pray together, check the cleanliness class and straight. Teachers stimulate students' knowledge by asking questions early appropriate material to be studied. Teachers deliver objectives learning.The teacher is explaining of learning phases activities with NHT. 2. Main Activities These main activities are the first to do a teacher explains the material briefly and teachers divide students into groups of 4-5 people and give them the number for each student, so each student in the group has a different number (step 1 NHT: Numbering). Second, the teacher asked a question in the form of student worksheets to each group of related materials that have been submitted (step 2 NHT: Questioning). Thirdly, the students think about the questions posed by the teacher together in one group (step 3 NHT: Head Together). Fourth, the teacher calls the numbers at random and students from each group that holds the number dialed raised his hand, and then the students answer questions the teacher for the class addressed another group (step 4 NHT: Answering), if the answer is correct students are welcome returned to his seat, but if it's still one of the teachers responsible for giving the correct answer. 3. Cover In this concluding phase of the first teachers do, to direct the students

Based on the observation of the implementation process of learning social studies in the first cycle, obtained a description as follows: (1) when the preliminary activities of the teacher has not associate the material prior to the material that will be explained. (2) The teacher has not carried out steps 1 NHT Numbering wisely. Teachers do not share numbers in an orderly manner. So students do noisier as the division number. (3) The teacher has not carried out step 3 NHT Head Together with optimal. Teachers are not watching in earnest when the group discussions held so rowdy students in the classroom. Another effect that occurs is still dependent student answer to his question. (4) The teacher has not carried out step 4 NHT Answering to the fullest. Teachers do not give a positive spirit to the students. The impact of students was shy in delivering answers. The curiosity of the students has not been encouraged when the discussion was conducted. (5) Management of time when post-test still does not fit, so some students lack the time to complete the task. (6) In the closing activity of teachers have not delivered material that will be discussed at the next meeting. Based on this it is known that learning in the cycle I have not managed to achieve the target that needs to be taken to the second cycle with some improvements. Observation of the second cycle, based on observation of the implementation of the learning process of social sciences on the second cycle have shown positive changes as follows: (1) When the preliminary activities of teachers has linked material prior to the material being taught. (2) The teacher has fully implemented measures in accordance with the planning NHT. Step 1 NHT Answering teacher has divided the number orderly and




prevent rowdy students in the classroom. Step 3 NHT Head Together successful by teacher. This is evident when teachers actually watching the activities of a group discussion. Teachers helped guide the students in need when discussions take place. By monitoring the teacher, the student who originally hung answers to friends’ nascent consciousness for answers themselves. The answers are discussed to a friend in the group so that each student will understand the answers to four 2) questions provided. (3) The post-test has been successfully carried out exactly as the time allotted is 20 minutes,(4) In the closing activity of teachers has delivered what material will be discussed at the next meeting. But that is still an obstacle is in step 4 NHT Answering teachers still not up and meet the constraints within sensitize students to actively argue when after the submission of the answers by one of the groups that developed in front of the class. Lack of proper time management is also an obstacle that occurs in this second cycle. When the process of the appointment the numbers and transmission of results discussion are still in a hurry, because of the time constraints that exist. Due to be finished within 20 minutes but what happens is 25 minutes. To obtain maximum learning outcomes researcher proceed to the third cycle. Based on the observation of the collaborators on the implementation of teaching in the third cycle was obtained records positive change compared to the second cycle: (1) Teacher has run step 4 NHT Answering to the fullest. This is evident from the efforts of teachers in the courage students to stimulate students' confidence when it advanced to the front of the class. This has an impact on the students' sense of inferiority in the previous cycle is still greater then successfully minimized so that students feel confident when answering questions. The students also dare to express their opinions in response to the group advanced. (2) Teachers successfully run the learning activities appropriate allocation of time. In the second cycle time of designation numbers and transmission

of results discussion groups of teachers still lack of time, which should be completed within a 20-minute delay to 25 minutes. This is not the case when the third cycle because teachers have targeted learning activities in accordance with strict time allocation had been planned in advance. Based on the analysis of this third cycle of observation, it was decided not to proceed further to the next cycle. Application of Cooperative Learning Model Numbered Heads Together (NHT) in Social Sciences Learning to Improve Student Motivation After their NHT learning model application in the social sciences study showed that the students' motivation to increase each cycle. In the first cycle obtained the average score of 126.9 or 79.3%, with the details of students who received a score of ≥ 80% as many as 18 students or only 47.4%, whereas that obtained a score below 80% as many as 20 students or 52.6%. Traditionally students' motivation in the first cycle, which reached ≥ 80% of only 47.4%. The motivation of students in the second cycle increased by an average score of 130.26, or 81.3%. This represents an increase compared to the first cycle, which only reached 126.9 or 47.4%. In this second cycle, students who received a score of ≥ 80%, there are 26 students or reached 68.4%, whereas that obtained a score below ≥ 80% as many as 12 students or 31.6%. Despite the increase, but in the classical motivation of students in the second cycle which reached ≥ 80% only amounted to 68.4%, the scores have not reached the targets set ≥ 80%. Student motivation in the third cycle back to increase, with the average score reached reached 130.9 or 81.8%. This represents an increase compared to the second cycle which only reached 130.3 or 81.3%. In the third cycle of students who received a score of ≥ 80% as many as 32




students or 84.2%, whereas that obtained a score below ≥80% as many as 6 people or 15.8%. Thus classically increased motivation of students who achieve 80% to

No

84.2%, and has surpassed the target set. V grade students' motivation MI PSM Bendo Barat from the first cycle to the third cycle can be seen in the following table:

Table Comparison of Student Motivation In Cycle I, II and III Illustration Cycle I Cycle II Cycle III

1

The average score

126,9

130,3

130,9

2

classical completeness

47,4%

68,4%

84,2%

3

The number of students who achieve a ≥ 80% 18 student 26 student

3) Application of Cooperative Learning Model Numbered Heads Together (NHT) in Social Sciences Learning to Increase Student Achievement The implementation of cooperative learning model Numbered Heads Together (NHT) in learning Social Sciences proven to improve student achievement in grade V MI PSM Bendo Barat. Student achievement on the initial conditions showed that the average value of the entire fifth grade students totaling 38 students amounted to 69.03 with classical completeness of 52.6%. After the first cycle measures the value of students has increased sharply with an average value of 85.26 with classical completeness of 73.7%. Despite increased learning achievement of the initial conditions to the

32 student

first cycle, but the results are yet to reach the target of classical completeness is determined by 80%. Student achievement on the second cycle increased with an average value of 87.89 with classical completeness of 78.9%. Nevertheless in this second cycle of student achievement in the classical still not thoroughly studied or has not reached the target with classical completeness of ≥ 80%. Student achievement in the third cycle increased with the average value reached 88.68 with classical completeness reached 89.5%. Based on the learning achievement of the third cycle in the classical graders V MI PSM Bendo Barat has been thoroughly studied. Class V student achievement MI PSM Bendo Barat from baseline to the end can be seen in the following table:

Table Comparison of Student Achievement In the Initial Condition, Cycle I, II and III No 1 2 3

Illustration The average score classical completeness

First Condition 69,03 52,6%

Cycle I

Cycle II

Cycle III

85,26

87,89

88,68

73,7%

78,9%

89,5%

The number of students who 14 student 28 student achieve a ≥ 80%

30 student

34 student

CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 253



(NHT) in learning of social sciences proven to improve student achievement in grade V MI PSM Bendo Barat. Each cycle of increasing student achievement. Student achievement on the initial conditions showed that the average value of 69.03 with classical completeness of 52.6%. After the action on the first cycle, the value of students has increased by an average value of 85.26 with classical completeness 73.7%. in the second cycle, the value of students has increased by an average value of 87.89 with classical completeness 78.9%. the third cycle, the value of students has increased again with an average value of 88.68 with classical completeness of 89.5%.

A. Conclusion Based on the results of research and discussion in the previous chapter, some conclusions can be drawn as follows: 1. The application of the model Numbered Head Together (NHT), which is one of cooperative learning in practice always with the distribution group in one class. Each member in the group getting different numbers. When you get an assignment from a teacher, each student's work on the problems by number he had. When a student is having difficulty she can ask for help to friends who know the group. When a teacher calls completed work on the problems one student with the same number, the teacher pointed to one of them. If the answer is considered correct, advanced students who may be seated.

B. Implications The implementation of cooperative learning model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning social sciences carried out in three cycles shown to increase motivation and student achievement class V MI PSM Bendo Barat.

2. The implementation of cooperative learning model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in learning of social sciences proven to improve students' motivation in class V MI PSM Bendo barat. Each Cycle of learning social sciences have increased motivation to learn. The results of students' learning motivation questionnaire on the first cycle showed student achievement is only 47.4%, and the third cycle increased to 84.2%.

Educators (in this case the teacher) who are able to select and implement specific learning model in a class will get its own atmosphere in the classroom. In the sense not just lecture course in the classroom, but the classroom atmosphere will be more lively and conducive to implementing one model of cooperative learning. By implementing cooperative learning model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in social sciences make students feel happier and more enthusiastic in following the

3. The implementation of cooperative learning model Numbered Head Together




teaching and learning process. By applying this model makes the students better appreciate the opinions of others, work together in groups, and also minimize the personal ego in the sense that students who participated clever willing to share intelligence to friends who are less intelligent.

different learning models that aim to improve the quality of learning. With the increase in the quality of learning will be obtained students and teachers who can be a role model. Madrasah in the community so that the image is getting better and do not even rule out the possibility of citizens’ madrasah can be emulated by the surrounding community

By applying the learning model NHT in the classroom to improve the quality of learning. This is evident through the increased motivation of students who can be seen from the results of the questionnaire acquisition of learning and student achievement that can be seen from the results of post-test.

3. Suggestions for Department of Education

the

Had the Department of Education is able to organize training programs professionalism of teachers in implementing their knowledge in the field of education. Particularly with regard to the implementation of training learning models. After that the knowledge gained from the training teachers can be practiced in Madrasah.

C. Suggestion Related to the research that has researchers do, there are some suggestions to be conveyed. The suggestions are as follows: 1. Suggestions for Teachers Teachers should be more varied in the running process teaching and learning activities usually only emphasizes and relies on the model of lecture and question and answer. NHT learning model is an alternative option that can be applied in the teaching and learning activities. The final result expected is that motivation and achievement of learners increased so that the quality of learning, the better.

2. Suggestions for Principals Principals need training to teachers in Madrasah about Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 255






Puppet Golek Cepak Tegalan in the Shaping of Nation Personality

Kresna Hendrawan, S. Pd Post Graduate Student at the March University [email protected] Abstract: Puppet is a form of original culture of Indonesia that has attached long in the personality of the people of Indonesia. Puppet is one of the main teaching tool that is widely used since before the existence of modern schools in Indonesia. Puppet show as part of a purification ceremony to provide instruction for the younger generation. Traditional arts can be a social learning process that allows individuals to understand and appreciate other people, including various peculiarities and differences inherent in other individuals, without compulsion and tension. Traditional arts in addition to containing a view of life, values, local wisdom, strategies socialization, and internalization of values, as well as social learning strategy neighbor relations and development of the individual. As known, the formation of personality, which is one of the subsystems in the national education, can be done through education culture that is characterized by the dimensions of expressive art contained in the education of art appreciation puppet golek cepak tegalan. Puppet golek cepak tegalan is a puppet show typical of the city tegal which is a culture relevant to do as supporting the formation of the nation personality. This study uses literature study and interviews. The purpose of this study was to determine: (1) values, (2) local wisdom, (3) strategies socialization, (4) the internalization of the values contained in the traditional media puppet golek cepak tegalan. The results showed that the traditional media puppet golek cepak tegalan have some: (1) values, (2) local wisdom, (3) strategies socialization, (4) internalization of values that can support the formation of the nation personality. Keywords: Puppet Golek Cepak Tegalan, Nation Personality

I. Introduction A. Background

C

ulture as a national personality has a very vital role in maintaining the existence and integration of a civilized nation. Globalization certainly more distanced the nations of the world from national culture by including the nation of Indonesia through the global culture that looks as if it were a symbol of modernization and the popularity of the

original culture that tekesan fashioned and stodgy, how very memperihatinkanya this country if it has roots fragile nation with a bitter reality that is evident from the displacement of native Indonesian culture to culture globally preferred by our society, especially from the class of our young people who are the backbone of this nation's future. Seeing this phenomenon will require a form of national cultural interest,




is positive, and is able to withstand the swift currents of global culture that hedge negatively on the personality of our nation, form a national culture that can use local cultures given constituent of national culture is a wide variety of local culture Indonesia was one of them puppet golek cepak tegalan. Puppet show performances cropped moor is one of the traditional art form that is attractive and able to survive in the swift currents of the invasion of foreign culture. Popularity puppet golek cepak tegalan 'strong in the hearts of devotees both from local to national level, this is one form of regional cultures that enrich the national culture of Indonesia.

II. A.

Discussion Conflict of Culture and Personality Changing Nation

example is the phenomenon of the pace of development of the positive attitude of students formed through education in schools, not as fast as the rate of the development of students' negative attitudes are formed through the influence of modern entertainment that teaches: hedonism, free sex, consumerism, pragmatism, anarchism, secularism, materialism, and idividulaistis which of course it all does not correspond to our national identity. Seeing this phenomenon will require a form of national cultural interest, is positive, and is able to withstand the swift currents of global culture that hedge negatively on the personality of our nation, form a national culture that can use local cultures given constituent of national culture is a wide variety of local culture Indonesia was one of them puppet golek cepak tegalan.

The era of globalization brings to modernization and westernization that causes a lot of countries in the world lost their identity, is seen from the phenomenon of the emergence of some form of homogeneous culture and consumption. Cultural identity as a nation has a very vital role in maintaining the existence and integration of a civilized nation. Globalization certainly more distanced the nations of the world from their indigenous culture by including the nation of Indonesia through the global culture that looks as if it were a symbol of modernization and the popularity of the original culture that tekesan fashioned and stodgy, how very memperihatinkanya this country if it has roots fragile nation with a bitter reality that is evident from the displacement of native Indonesian culture to culture globally preferred by our society, especially from the class of our young people who are the backbone of this nation's future.

Smacking puppet show is one of the traditional media are attractive and able to survive in the swift currents of the invasion of foreign culture. Popularity puppet golek cepak tegalan 'strong in the hearts of devotees especially the county and town of Tegal, as quoted by the Daily Radar Tegal:

Flow cultural change so quickly due to the influence of cultural globalization, it would threaten the existence of national culture is the identity and the identity of Indonesia, as one

Traditional media puppet golek cepak tegalan which is the original art of Tegal is always in demand by audiences of various backgrounds from both the connoisseurs puppet, lay people, parents,

Art puppet show infinite now growing among the elderly, but reaching young people. Surely it could not be separated from the innovation and creativity goleknya puppet maker and puppeteer when perform it. One of the famous puppeteer who managed to play a puppet show with such delicate human movement, who else if not Ki Enthus Susmono. Ki Enthus with his Puppet Santri succeeded in increasing public appreciation of art puppet show, especially among the younger generation love. Each Wayang Pupils, the audience is always booming (Source: Radar Tegal, March 31, 2015: 9).




adolescents and children, in height audiences on a puppet golek cepak tegalanTegalan caused because the puppet golek cepak tegalanTegalan relative has many advantages properties such as: unique, funny, interesting, creative, innovative, easily accepted, relevant, with the existing culture, entertaining, using local languages, has an element of legitimacy, flexible and communicative (good communication with directions as well, two-way communication).

B.

Internalization of Values and Local Wisdom Marionette Puppet smacking Tegalan

Puppet golek cepak tegalan is one element of Indonesian culture containing the values of art, morals, education, the messages of national development, and the values of valuable knowledge to be studied in depth. A puppet show traditionally cropped moor Java community is the essence of culture is inherited from generation to generation and verbally acknowledged that the core purpose of human life can be seen in the story and the character of the puppet characters. In Javanese puppet, puppet word meaning "shadow". If the terms of the meaning of his philosophy "puppet" can be interpreted as a shadow or a reflection of the traits that exist in the human soul, such as anger, righteousness, greed and others. Puppet is a model or figuratively in human life. Puppet also referred to as a symbolic language that is more spiritual than physical (Purwadi, 2007). Puppet is a puppet made of leather or wood carvings are used to portray the traditional performances and is one of oldest traditional theater, the usual puppet is played by a puppeteer (Supriyo, 2008). Puppet Golek Cepak Tegalan is a puppet created by nature and human behavior (actions) and does not lead to the physical form of a human / bodies. The name comes from the word smacking cepaki / mapaki / approach on the

similarity of character and not on the nature of the bodies. Puppet Golek Cepak Tegalan does not connote bodily but to illustrate lessons faces symbol that shows this is the arrogant, greedy, wise, honest, and others. Here are the figures from the Marionette puppet cepak tegalan which is a symbol of human nature: 1. Panji Puppet character honest, loyal, steadfast in vows and promise mildmannered in human beings symbolizes the first stage of infancy stages of life. 2. Samba Character like children raging like running educational and inquisitive 3. Rumyang / lanyapan As teens are inquisitive by the desire to achieve something with limited capabilities 4. Bugisan / retainer Stubborn character is a character from the adult hard in performing their duties have authority in degrees of rank, wealth examples of regents, mayors, village heads. 5. Kelana Character of the man who has the insolence what he wants to be reached because he is also an authoritative ruler but little anger to achieve its goals. 6. Buta Describing the character of greedy people who want to have everything. Early days of puppet expected to begin in the reign of King Balitung, has no hint of a puppet show, which is contained in Balitung inscription with the year 907 AD, which proclaims that by the time it had been known for their puppet show. This evidence makes the puppets as one of the oldest traditional theater.




According Tasrip origin tegal mastermind puppet show where a crew already there before Islam entered Indonesia hindu 30-40 fairytale story at the beginning of the period of Hindu puppet golek cepak tegalanentertainment only connective night, and during the Islamic kingdoms of the scholars use it as a broadcast media increases 70-80 kingdom of Demak century until right now utilized as a straight line hiburannkolaborasi development era thrived in Demak royal era. Smacking art puppet show today is more famous in Cirebon, but is actually a puppet cepak tegalanis the original art of Tegal. In fact, if it is pulled from the roots of the history-making puppet show that is now growing in West Java, from the city of Tegal. If the call golek smacking, community artisans puppet and puppeteers in western Java recognize if golek smacking coming from Tegal. (Daily Radar Tegal, March 31, 2015: 16). This opinion can be proved through research reports Nisfiyanti (2005), which tells the origins of marionettes Sundanese: Birth puppet show initiated by Dalem Karang Anyar (Wiranata Koesoemah III) during the end of his term. At that time Dalem ordered Ki Darman (penyungging leather puppets from Tegal) living in Cibiru, Edge Berung, make puppets out of wood. Forms of puppets he made initially shaped and patterned squashed the puppets. However, on further developments, at the instigation of Dalem, Ki Darman create a rounded puppet show is not much different with the puppet show now. Priangan itself known in the early 19th century. Introduction of Sundanese people with the puppet show is made possible since the opening Daendels highway linking the coast to the mountainous Priangan. At first puppet show in Priangan using the Java language. However, after the Sundanese clever puppetry, the language used is Sundanese (Yanti, Nisfiyanti. 2005).

According to Sri Waluyo puppeteer from Tegal STSI Solo alumni of the Department of puppetry. State that: Puppet show (Puppet Golek Cepak Tegalan) pesisiran have differences with the puppet show Cirebon. "The difference can be seen on the technique or how to manufacture. "If the puppet show crew cut is made such that can mimic human form. If the puppet show Cirebon made like puppets, "he said (www.koranjakarta.com). Not just any written evidence confirming that the puppet show crew cut is a form of culture that was born in Tegal, is evidenced by the characterizations and the oldest artifacts of the puppet golek cepak tegalanmoor itself. characters that exist in the wayang puppet show soccer fields as described above tend to differ with puppets from India, and artifacts in the town of Tegal belongs tasrip mastermind of origin tegal in the form of masks figure puppet rove oldest one puppet figure puppet golek cropped moor end debate the mastermind of tegal and pasundan. See trending finding sources and the evidence above, it can be said that smacking Tegalan puppet show is the original art Tegal is even more popular in western Java as in Cirebon and other areas of western Java. Though cropped moor puppet show can also be said as a prototype puppet show purwa very famous in jawabarat given the spread of marionettes to the region pasundan pioneered by puppeteer Ki Darman which is the original Tegal.

C. The role of Puppet in Nation Personality Puppet is a form of original culture of the people of Indonesia who have attached very long in the personality of the people of Indonesia. The role of puppet heavily in forming the character of the people from generation to generation, has now been forgotten, but the puppet is one




of the main teaching tool that is widely used since before the existence of modern schools in Indonesia. This is evidenced through opinions Reasser (1959: 152) in the essay titled 'On The origins of the Theatre of Java', with a description of his views on the puppet show as part of a purification ceremony to provide instruction for aspiring beginners new life, implies that the manipulator in it should act as a teacher. However, Rassers not provide clear information about this issue. He pointed to the opinion has often been noted by the Javanese themselves, that Wanyang has a role in educating young people. (Reasser 1959: 152 in Victoria, 1987: 11). The role of puppeteer as a teacher is evidence that the people of Indonesia, especially Java people have long been familiar with the character education forming personality even before their formal schools, it certainly shows that the puppet so is the right to be developed as a means of forming the national identity in modern education, because the puppet is a medium traditional that can be said as an educational tool that is in conformity with the personality of the people of Indonesia. Planting manners can be achieved either through appreciation and art activities, for example through a puppet show. Various scattered Indonesian puppet show puppet Uwong eg, skin, beber, Krucil, Gedhong, dupara, suket, sadat, deer, klithik, torches, middle, show, and other kinds of puppets that might be popping up along with the artist's creativity. However, diantra various types of puppet shadow play MKA, wong, and show which is very popular presence in the community, terutma Java. Although wayang wong and this doll, her life began to ebb compared puppet show. (Rianto Jaka, et al, 2010: 1) Traditional arts can be a social learning process that allows individuals to understand and appreciate other people, including various peculiarities and differences inherent in other individuals, without compulsion and tension.

Traditional arts in addition to containing a view of life, values, local knowledge, strategies socialization, and internalization of values, as well as social learning strategy neighbor relations and development of the individual. As known, the formation of personality, which is one of the subsystems in the national education, can be done through education culture that is characterized by expressive dimensions of art. Thus the education of cultural appreciation of art as relevant to do as supporting the formation of the personality of the nation.

D. The importance of Processing Feel In Formations Nation Personality The formation of personality, which is one of the subsystems in the national education, can be done through education culture that is characterized by expressive dimensions of art. Thus the education of cultural appreciation of art as relevant to do as supporting the formation of the personality of the nation. Father of National Education, Ki Hadjar Dewantara, makes sense as the pivot of the trilogy of education in the expanse of thought (copyright) -Feelinitiative (a willingness to apply) is an important consideration. Ki Hadjar Dewantara consistently emphasized the importance of Feel as well though if thought (copyright) and sports. If the Feel becomes important because of the sensitivity Feeling is that makes human beings who think (to creations of) superior and tough to initiative will not act arbitrarily on the other. (Prawitasari E. Johana, 2011: 35-36). The Feel in the science of beauty of Javanese culture is defined as the proverbial idea of being led by a series of reasonable sense, with the acceptance of the senses is expressed by the form, motion, or sound pattern that symbolizes a certain sense. Rasa is an art concept that proved to survive as a key concept. Through various analytical exposure is stated that, the Feel is the ultimate target of




the artistic expression. In this case Edi Sedyawati conclude that Feel is an experience and appreciation of art in which the readiness of mind, mind, and emotions combine to realize the enjoyment of art. Key to achieving a sense is the presence of elements of accuracy and appropriateness in a work. So that must be observed is the propriety of the pattern to represent a sense, and accuracy of use of a pattern to describe a particular character or a particular atmosphere. The Feel can be expressed spontaneously when the soul is in a state of silence and the whole strength of feeling centered (pameleng) (Sunardi, 2013: 114). Art is a form of thrill. Thrill that is manifested through certain media accompanied by actions that take into account all the elements of beauty for them. Kesenin can arise because there is a feeling (pangrasa) specific, for example; moved (sank) or happy (sengsem), accompanied by the love of beauty which is then expressed in the form of art (Beautiful Sulastri 2005 in Soetarno et al, 2007: 15). Art for the Java community is symbolic of the turmoil repesentasi their inner lives. A symbolic representation expressed through a variety of media such as: language (literary arts Java), sound (musical arts Java), motion (Javanese dance), multi-element / media such as, literature, sound, rhythm, movement, chisel, sungging / color (art, batik, chisel, decoration, painting) and so forth, which has lasted for centuries, and became a pattern / shape mentradisi. Like the Java community spirit known fully flexible and tolerant (Anderson, 2000), the art form was run in accordance with the spirit of the times that surrounded him. Java community who are in the community revealed that the artistic life; prerequisite to evoke a sense of the art are: (1) the power to cause a sense of certain goods things / objects / particular form (perceived); and (2) the ability to receive the balance of goods belongs in the hearts of those who experienced / felt (Idah

Sulastri, 2005). In hakekatny Feel caused by; thrill rapprochement with the balance of goods, in the Java language; 'Djumbuhing sense dirasaake kang lan' (Long puppetry, 1959). The statement explained that the Feel is something that has existed in the mind of each individual. The flavors do with art activities is that the Feel will appear through the stimulation of the art form. When the thrill is in the individual is able to come into contact with a form of art and instead, it creates a communication / interaction that creates a feeling, that as a result of events be symbolic communication in art (or often called communication flavors) (Soetarno et al, 2007: 15). Traditional media puppet golek cepak tegalan course very well what when used as a communications medium flavor for the puppet show crew cut is one of the traditional forms of media which in the opinion of the experts of traditional media such as Ranganath (1976) and Dissayanake (1977) quoted canteen waluyo states the nature -sifat general traditional media are accepted model, relevant, with the existing culture, entertaining, using local languages, has an element of legitimacy, flexible, have the ability to repeat the messages it carries, two-way communication, and so on. The function of traditional media as a means of entertainment, educational facilities, means of social control, a means of dissemination of information, means of preservation and development of cultural values of the nation and the adhesive means of national unity (Waluyo Kanti et al, 2011: 3).

E. Strategies Socialization Performances Wayag Puppet smacking moor has been held in various regions in Indonesia with the mastermind of the famous Ki Enthus Susmono but the existence of a puppet golek cepak tegalan rated less felt by considering the general public in Indonesia even tegal himself thought that the puppet golek cepak tegalan is art that is not born in tegal area




given previously cropped puppet show ever drowned lost dengang foreign culture and the general public often considers a puppet show moor smacking together with puppet show purwa from west Java more popular than the puppet show crew cut but they have many differences. Socialization strategy that has been done by the community and local government Tegal Tegal is through: 1. Through Performances A puppet golek cepak tegalan is one way of introducing a puppet golek cepak tegalan usually done by the mastermind both in itself and in the region tegals other regions in Indonesia. 2. Adding contemporary figures Puppet golek cepak tegalanconsidered as a form of art that is very interesting because the character is presented not only the original figure alone but is often coupled with a contemporary character who is usually a facial imitation of famous people both national and international levels to be able to not give the impression of humor is very entertaining. 3. Introduce moral values contained Efforts to introduce the values contained in a crew cut puppet show is expected to bring the love of society tehadap cropped moor puppet show is usually done from show puppet itself or even through writing and discussion forums either done by society and government. Government region cities tegal have been seeking recognition through forum meetings the students to introduce the values contained in the puppet golek cepak tegalanas Socialisation of Youth, Sports, Culture and Tourism Tegal cooperation with Wahyo the creator of the puppet To the representatives of the Student of schools in Tegal.

III. Cover

A. Conclusions Media Traditional puppet golek cepak tegalan media is traditionally rich in values that can survive and is in great demand at the local level to the national level, akantetapi existence puppet golek cepak tegalanmoor at the national level is less known by the public because people do not know that the puppet golek cepak tegalan is the original art of tegal areas, people are more familiar with Sundanese puppet show (wayang puppet prototype) and assume that the puppet show crew cut is the same as the puppet show prototype of western Java. Fame puppet golek cepak tegalan had dimmed and fame may reappear on the merit tegal puppeteers who have creatively innovate puppet golek cepak tegalan up to love the community on a puppet golek cepak tegalan reappear. Puppet golek cepak tegalan is now beginning to return its fame in the local and national levels commonly dimaikan by famous puppeteer Ki Enthus Susmono in various regions in Indonesia and through television stations nationwide. The role of the puppet golek cepak tegalan in the formation of national identity is still relatively small, but in the future is expected to further enrich the national culture so as to be one means of forming personality mainstay of the Indonesian nation. B. Suggestions Promotion puppet golek cepak tegalan as typical art Tegal needs to be improved so that the puppet show crew cut became more widely known so as to change the false assumption of the public that the puppet golek cepak tegalan at ith puppet golek cepak tegalan so as to enhance the role of puppet golek cepak tegalanas forming the national identity Indonesia. Promotion at the local level, national, and even international needs to be done which can certainly increase the sale value of the puppet golek




cepak tegalan as a superior product distinctive culture of the area and craft products typical art area to be able to make .

art puppet golek cepak tegalan increasingly in demand both at the local, national, and even international.

REFERENCE Prawitasari E. Johana, 2011 Psikologi Terapan Melintas Batas Disiplin Ilmu. Jakarta: Erlangga publisher Purwadi.2006. Journal of Javanese culture: Budi Character Education in the Art of Puppets). Yogyakarta: Narassi. Rianto Jaka, et al, 2010. Handbook of Praktik Pakeliran Golek Padat. Surkarta: ISI Press Solo Soetarno dkk, 2007 Estetika Pedalangan. Surakarta: ISI. Sunardi, 2013. Nuksma dan Mungguh: konsep dasar estetika pertunjukan wayang Surakarta:ISI Press. Supriyo, et al. 2008. puppetry: Volume 1. Jakarta: Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education Victoria M. Clara van Groenendel, 1987. Dalang Behind Wayang. Jakarta: PT Pustaka Utama Grafiti. Waluyo, Kanti, 2011. Wayang Sebagai Media Komunikasi Tradisional dalam Diseminasi Informasi. Jakatrta: Ministry of Communications and Information Directorate General of Information and Communication Publik.2003, Media Education, Jakarta: Ministry of National Education General Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education Personnel Directorate. Yanti, Nisfiyanti. 2005. Wayang Media Sosialisasi Nilai-Nilai Budaya pada Masyarakat Sunda (Research Report) Newspaper Ekodhanto Frans, 2014. Menghidupkan Lagi Wayang Golek Pesisir Jakarta: The Jakarta. Website:http://www.koranjakarta.com/?13126menghidupkan%20(lagi)%20wayang%20golek%20pesisir downloaded on date: December 5, 2015. Radar Tegal, March 31, 2015. Wahyo, Salah Seorangperajin Wayang Golek Cepak Tegalan.Tegal: Radar Tegal. Website: http://infoTegal.com/2015/04/wahyo-salahseorangperajin-wayang-golek-cepak-Tegalan/ downloaded on date: December 5, 2015.

Interview With Resource Persons: 1. Name Tasrip / Ki Bogem Profession: Dalang Place and date of birth Tegal, December 5, 1953 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 264



Address: Sumur Panggang village. RT 03/1. Margadana excl. Tegal city. 2. Name: Wahyo Profession: Record Marionette Puppet golek cepak Tegalan Tegal, 29 April 1978







The Historical Study of Relationship Between the Design and Media

Lalita Gilang [email protected] (Magister Desain- Bandung Institute of Technology/ITB)

Abstract: Based on historical paradigm, media growing more rapidly in the practice of human communication. The development of these media go hand in hand with the development of the design. At first, the media merely verbal form. Since prehistoric times humans have known the design and media. Design and media is manifested by visual communication. The form of visual communication and media design needs of the era such example is the pictogram. A very significant change occurs when the advent of paper and printing technology. With the development of human creativity, writing flourish again. The development of writing into forms more attractive and communicative and become effective communication media. Key words: historical, relationship, design, media. I.

T

INTRODUCTION

indicates the relationship between design and media at a practical level, in this case as the design and design practice as the product.

he relationship between design and media expressed in this short paper is devoted to the relationship between the design of visual communication and mass media. The II. THEORETICAL REVIEW relation between visual communication Media develops more rapidly in the design and media is a relation to one another to have a close relationship. The practice of human communication. The closeness of this relationship is development of these media go hand in complementary. Is said to be hand with the development of the design. complementary for the design of visual At first, the media merely verbal form. communication and mass media What is meant by verbal here is, in this complement each other respectively. This case the communication used is limited to communication. In such complementary nature gives meaning verbal between design and media support each circumstances, the design does not have any influence. But then when the media other and need each other. began to change the state of technology From the above explanation media, then desainpun change. closeness of the relationship between Design and media development can design and media can be presented in the be seen in the presence of design and form of a discussion of such examples of media developments that have an impact media that have existed since time on the development of the design. It also immemorial. Since prehistoric times Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 267



humans have known the design and media. Design and media is manifested by visual communication. The form of visual communication and media design needs of the era such example is the pictogram. Pictogram used to tell an everyday occurrence in the Age cave or Cave Age (Al-Al-Faruqi & Faruqi, 1998: 411). Other forms of design and media developments are hieroglyphics used by the Egyptians. Then, along with the progress of time and human expertise, forms of this turning into a form of writing, which can be seen in the birth of historic inscriptions (Al-Al-Faruqi & Faruqi, 1998: 418). A very significant change occurs when the advent of paper and printing technology Johann Gutenberg (Olson, 2006). The changes that have occurred since it was a book can be made quickly and more cheaply. Through books and other print forms like newspapers, pamphlets, and so on. Furthermore, in the form of words written in paper media becomes the primary way to store and pass on their knowledge and ideas. With the development of human creativity, writing flourish again. The development of writing into forms more attractive and communicative. This development can be seen for example on the stage and drama arts, such as Ramayana Ballet and puppet art, which until today is still an effective medium of communication. In its development, the field of design as explained above can complement a variety of fields, including in the field of media, such as advertising, design magazines and newspapers that show these ads (McQuail, 2007). The man who works as a designer in the end part of the group in the field of media and embodied in the forms of communication, advertising, magazine and newspaper publishing, marketing and public relations (PR), and book publishing. From the explanation of the development of design and media relations, will be more clearly followed by

an explanation of the purpose of design and media relations. II. METHOD Research was conducted in MayDecember, 2105. The research method used of research libraries. Library use is a library relating to the history, design, and media. This research aims to discover and explain the history of design and media are useful for the development of design and media in the future. Data obtained from the literature search. As for the validity of the data maintained by triangulation theory. Data analysis was performed with data presentation, discussion of the data, and conclusions. This analysis included in the analysis flow.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As mentioned in the earlier discussion that when Johann Gutenberg invented the printing press, then design a product has entered the realm of reason. This occurs because of the idea to mass produce a variety of messages, stories, and a variety of mystical symbols that began to grow. Coupled with the advent of print media such as newspapers. The emergence of media can ultimately provide a strong influence on the development of human thought. Development of human thought developed into a very strong starting situation was evolving human being human illiterate literate (Purwani & Ginting, 2015). In this situation the idea began to grow far and wide, ideas could be disseminated widely, ranging from the idea of science, to art, through the press, and it's all a form design as practical. As a practical design, which is characterized by the occurrence of fairly rapid growth, especially in the field of typography. Typography was originally a form of hieroglyph form the images as a form of representation of verbal language that is used to form the alphabet used by humans until now (Lupton & Phillips, 2008). It is a rapid progress in the




development of knowledge and including the field of design. If until now there is no alphabet it is very difficult for humans to read and write as it is now. The discovery of the audio media is also an impact on product design. In this case, the resulting product design was to reproduce the human voice. It's very different in principle than the previous findings. In the prior art product design reproduces the writing increases, so it becomes reproduce the human voice. As a practical design also changed. Namely amendment of the form of the written word being said recorded. Desainpun products continues to grow with the discovery of the film. The discovery marks the film began the introduction of visual products to the public. Film is a great revolution of visual products. Visual products previously only in the form of a static image such as photography. Their producers changed the design of products in the form of the action and speak. A practical design is also more and more developed. It is characterized by a situation which photography serves as a medium for people to remember the event or events. Film is growing in the community because of the presence of television. This television until now serves as a unique medium. The spotlight is, these media being involved establishing a culture that materialistic and superficial. Based on the opinion of Key (1989: 13), is no doubt that television has an impact on human behavior. However, the media have an impact on human behavior, not just television. Other forms such as shape representation of religious texts written on the historical relics of the past is written in the temples, to novels in circulation until the present. Back to the television media, in fact, served impressions television prepared in text form. However, the text can be termed as a product design and media that is not innovative. This is in

contrast with the texts of a religious nature in temples. Television only create events that strengthen consumer attitudes and the tendency to popularize lifestyle of luxury. This occurs because of the presence of television for commercial purposes. The owners of television stations more to implement and recycle such tendency than spreading innovation. If only spread innovation the television station owner will bear the commercial risks (Effendy, 2003). For this purpose, the design plays an important role. Associated with the presence of the television media, the design can be seen not only produce objects, but also gives an influence that shape lifestyle. This lifestyle was later embraced by the community. Design began providing other deeper values in human life. Not only put a value on the visual field by observers of the media, but also provide other value that imaging (Effendy, 2003). This is a form of a separate innovation that illustrates the relationship between design and media. Design and media relations are also marked by a sharp jump from the fields of design, namely with the invention of the computer. Computers equipped with hardware and software that, begin to radically change the system and method or procedure in bringing about the ongoing human mass communication. This means that the presence of computers form the cultural order significantly in nearly every culture around the world. A personal computer today is able to store data equivalent to thousands of books. Almost every text that is meaningful or functional, at the time can now be transferred into a computer's memory system. This is a very rapid development in the world of design and media show their relationships. In earlier times, the printing technology had opened the chance discovery of world civilization. But now, computer technology can bring the possibility of change and development of




the world civilization is getting closer to be realized (Diamond, 2007). Coupled with the internet media which opens up the minds of the more widely without limits of space and time. The presence of internet media presents information from all over the world can be explored or accessible only with a mini-screen. It is at this present moment into a form of mass communication that is very spectacular, especially their values are very informative which can be obtained from the internet media. With the media information without the limits of time and space are presented via the Internet, human interaction was also increasingly widespread and sophisticated. There is a change that makes the relationship between people and the media are also being changed. The change is indicated by the formation of a heterogeneous culture can be homogeneous. Cultures were originally heterogeneous occur due to human relations limited in space and time are the same, so that between a man separated by space and time can not happen relations, while culture is homogeneous occur due to human relations in space and time differently can make relationships, due to .

facilities internet media existence is supported by the presence of the design. The use of internet media whose existence supported the design goal is not just to meet the needs of communication, but it has led to the imaging destination, it can even lead to the prestige of the interaction. This is regarded as the relationship between people and media that supported its existence designs.

IV. CONCLUSION Media development provides a wide impact on the relation between media and design. This indicates that the design is a discipline that has an open nature, evident from their relationship with the media. This relation occurs at a practical level, namely design as a practice and as a product design. It can be seen from the previous communication can only be done by two people with a form of oral communication only, which later developed into a communication mass communication. Mass communication is growing as a result of design innovation. All of that is the impact of the development of the mass media is the influence of product design.

REFERENCE Al-Faruqi, Ismai’il R. & Al-Faruqi, Lois Lamya. 1998. Peradaban Gemilang. Bandung: Penerbit Mizan

Atlas Budaya Menjelajah

Diamond, Jared. 2007. Collapse: Runtuhnya Peradaban-peradaban Dunia. Jakarta: Penerbit Gramedia. Effendy, Onong Uchjan. 2003. Televisi Siaran Teori dan Praktek. Bandung: Penerbit PT. Citra Adutya Bakti. Key, Wilson. B.1989.The Age of Manipulation. New York: Holt and Rinehart Publ. Lupton, Ellen &, Phillips, Jennifer C. 2008. Graphic Design Theory Reading From The Field. New York: Princeton Architecture Publisher. McQuail, Denis. 2007. Teori Komunikasi Massa Suatu Pengantar. terj. Agus Dharma dan Aminuddin Ram. Jakarta: Erlangga. Olson, Kay M. 2006. Johann Gutenberg and the Printing Press Inventions and Discovery. Albany: SUNY Press. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 270



Purwani, Indah & Ginting, Mariana. 2015. Katalog Koleksi Bahan Perpustakaan EResource.http://pusbangkol.perpusnas.go.id. Diakses pada 21 Oktober 2015.







Developing Teachers’ Professional Competence in Designing Teaching Material Through Collaborative Study Group (CSG) Lanjar Utami (Lanjar Utami : MAN Karanganyar) [email protected]

Abstract: The objective of the research is to explain the implementation of Collaborative Study Group (CSG) to develop teachers’ professional competence in designing teaching material. Besides, the research is also designed to study what happens when collaborative study group is applied to develop the teachers’ professional competence in designing teaching material. The research was carried out at Madrasah Aliyah Negeri (MAN) Karanganyar Central Java, from May to August 2015 employing participatory action research. The subject of the research is seven English teachers at MAN Karanganyar. The data were obtained from several techniques including test, participant observation, in-depth interview, questionnaires and document analysis. The writer applied a descriptive statistics to analyze the quantitative data and constant comparative method to analyze the qualitative ones. The findings reveal that collaborative study group can develop teachers’ professional competence in designing teaching material. It implies that collaborative study group is very important in developing teacher professional competence. Therefore, it is recommended that English teachers should be actively involved in collaboraative study group in order to improve their professional competence. Key Words: teachers’ professional competence, collaborative study group.

1. Introduction

T

eachers are regarded as a very important aspect in education because it is the teachers who conduct a learning–teaching process, which is the core of the educational activity. Even, they play more important roles than other aspects, like curriculumnor learning materials, learning facilities, and school building. Therefore, teachers need to have adequate professional competences to realize their tasks (Whitehead, in McNiff, 1992). The explanation of Law

Number 14 of 2005, chapter III, article 7, states that professional competence is defined as a competence in mastering subject matter in broad and deep understanding. In accordance with the definition of professional competence above, the same idea is also stated in the Govermental Regulation Number 19 of 2005. It says that: Kompetensi professional merupakan penguasaan materi pembelajaran secara luas dan




mendalam, yang mencakup penguasaan materi kurikulum mata pelajaran di sekolah dan substansi keilmuan yang menaungi materinya, serta penguasaan terhadap struktur dan metodologi keilmuannya. In relation the important competence above, the teachers should have great awareness to awaken their spirits to develop themselves to be professional teachers to ascertain the quality of education, as their part of professional duties. The professional teachers are those mastering the six dimensions of teaching which include (1) theories of teaching, (2) teaching skills, (3) communication skills and language proficiency, (4) subject matter knowledge, (5) pedagogical reasoning skills and decision making, and (6) contextual knowledge (Cambridge University, 1991: 14). As additional characteristics of professional teachers, Brophy (1991: 9) proposes some psychological aspects which should be possessed by them. They include high moral character, compassionate and caring, enthusiastic, motivated, energetic and optimistic, and flexible. From the explanation above it can be seen that one of the characteristics of professional teachers is the teachers’ mastery of subject matter knowledge. It refers to what the teachers need to know about what they teach. It includes the specialized concepts, theories, and disciplinary knowledge that constitute a theoretical basis for the field of foreign language teaching, rather than what they know about the teaching itself, and constitutes knowledge that would not be shared with teachers of other subjects areas, or indeed with non-teachers (Cohcran, DeRuiter, and King, in Cambridge University, 1993: 9). Referring to the subject matter knowledge above, Freeman and Cazden (1991: 9) contribute an additional dimension of subject matter knowledge. They consider it as the specialized

discourse or register that language teachers use to talk about the discipline serving as a social/referential function which allows the teachers to make themselves part of the discourse community as they use it and as a cognitive one which enables them to identify aspects of their experience and thus to organize and to develop their conceptions of teaching. In relation to what Freeman and Cazden state, Roberts (1998: 35) conceptualizes the nature of teacher knowledge and skill which become the core components in teaching. They include (1) Practical knowledge: the teacher’s repertoire of classroom techniques and strategies; (2) Content knowledge: the teacher’s understanding of the subject of TEFL (e.g. pedagogical grammar, phonology, teaching theories, language acquisition, as well as the specialized discourse and terminology of language teaching); (3) Contextual knowledge: familiarity with the school or institutional context, school norms, and knowledge of the learners, including cultural and other relevant information; (4) Pedagogical knowledge: ability to restructure content knowledge for teaching purposes, and to plant, adapt, and improvise; (5) Personal knowledge: the teacher’s personal beliefs and principles and his or her individual approach to teaching; and (6) Reflective knowledge: the teacher’s capacity to reflect on and assess his or her own practice. However, the fact says that most English teachers at MAN Karanganyar can’t reach the ideal characteristics above, yet. They encounter a problem in designing teaching reading materials presented in scientific approach. The indicator is that among the 12 genres in the curriculum, four of them are considered as the most difficult reading texts. They are analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, discussion, and explanation. Based on the result of writer’s depth interview, it was found that the problem is due to (1) the unsimultaneous implementation of Curriculum 2013 for




MAN in Central Java that makes the teachers have no enough good will to apply it, (2) the opportunities provided by the authority for teacher professional development is insufficient and beyond the teachers’ expectation, (3) the materials in the Curriculum 2013 are almost interchangable with those in the previous curriculum especially dealing with genres/English text-types besides the approach in teaching, (4) the source books discussing the material applying scientific approach have not been available and adequate, (5) the workshops and seminars the teachers have followed are not effective., (6) the teachers’ creativity, involvement and participation in professional development are not optimal, and (7) the teachers’ readiness and awareness to learn new things is not so high. To respond the school’s policy to improve the teacher professional competence in designing teaching reading materials or reading texts, there are a number of ways to develop teacher professionalism related to content knowledge/subject matter knowledge. One of them is collaborative study group (Diaz–Maggioli,2003: 5). According to Diaz-Maggioli (2003: 8) “a collaborative study group” is a group of colleagues (not more than 10 persons) who get together on a regular, long term basis to explore issues of teaching and learning. In so doing the teachers support each other at the personal and professional levels and create new learning opportunities from within the profession. To be meaningful, the strategy the writer will apply to overcome the problem should: (1) involve teachers’ teaching tasks in their real daily teaching, (2) be based on the problems the teachers face in teaching, (3) be collaboratively, involving some colleagues, (4) relate to the teachers’ tasks and students’ and comprehend the subject matter they teach and their methods of teaching, (5) be intensive and continuous, accompanied with modelling, supervising, problem solving of local and contextual

matters and (6) relate to some changing aspects of school policy (DarlingHammond, 1998: 6). Collaborative study group is considered appropriate to improve the teachers’ professional development because of the following reasons. Firstly, CSG provides a set of meaningful activities with effective strategies enhancing teachers’ professional development as suggested by DarlingHammond (1998: 6). One of its characteristics is that it is collaborative, involving a sharing of knowledge among educators. It will enhance the teachers to help each other on the basis of responsibility to develop their own knowledge. Secondly, CSG trains leadership to the teachers. Leadership in collaborative study group is shared. Even though the group as a whole decides on the agenda, participants take turns chairing the meetings. Every session has a predetermined schedule, and three participants play the three key roles: facilitator, recorder and char person. Thirdly, CSG enhances the teachers’ professional development especially to develop their knowledge or mastery on English text-types intensively by adopting principles of adult learner reflected in the whole activities (pre activity, main activity, post activity) because the teachers of MAN are adult learners (Brookfield, 1986; Vella, 1994; Knowles, Holton, and Swanson, 1998 in Diaz-Maggioli, 2003: 8). From the background above the writer formulates research questions as follows: (a) How is the implememntation of collaborative study group to develop the teacher professional competence in designing teaching reading materials/texts? (b) What happens when collaborative study group is applied to develop the teacher professional competence? Traditionally, teacher professional development is defined as the acquisition of subject or content knowledge and teaching skills which is usually done through as a series of unrelated, short term




workshop and presentation with little follow-up or guidance for implementations and separated from day-to-day tasks of education (Craft, 1996; Laferriere, 1999). The concept of teacher professional development above seems to have similar idea to the one proposed by Day (1999: 2) identifying that: professional development includes the largely private, unaided learning from experiences through which most teachers learn to survive, become competent and develop in classroom and schools, as well as informal development opportunities in school and the more formal” accelerated” learning opportunities available through internally and externally generated in service education and training activities. Dale Lange, (1990: 250) who has worked for many years in pre-service foreign language teacher education in the United States also defines “Teacher development as a process of continual intellectual, experiential, and attitudinal growth of teachers certainly occurring in pre-service and growth both before and throughout a career”. He adds that “the intent here is to suggest that teachers continue to evolve in the use, adaptation, and application of their art and craft”. Like the definitions stated by Fullan, Richard and Lockhard, Day, and Dale Langue, Andy Curtis (2001: 4) considers teacher professional development as a lifelong process. Gabriel H. Diaz-Maggioli (2003: 3) defines collaborative study group as a small group (not more than 10 participants) of colleagues who get together on a regular basis (at least once a month for an academic year) to explore issues of teaching and learning. In so doing, they support each other at the personal and professional levels and create new learning opportunities from within the profession.

professional development which have similar characteristics to CSG. They are mentoring, peer coaching and clinical supervision. To give detail information about them, the writer will explain each technique. Firstly, Eisenman and Thornton (1999: 80-81), proposes different technique of PD, mentoring. Mentoring is defined as an interpersonal, ongoing, situated, supportive, and informative professional relationship between two (or more) individuals, one of whom (the mentor) has more experience in the profession, craft, or skill in question. In language teaching, a mentor is typically a more experienced teacher working with a novice or a teacher new to a particular program. Although it is an unequal power relationship of sorts, mentoring is not supervisorial in nature. That is, in the professional development of teachers, mentors should not serve the supervisorial function of evaluation on behalf of the management of a school or program. Based on the analysis of the definitions above, CSG is in line with mentoring, peer coaching and clinical supervision especially alternative supervision, collaborative supervision and non-directive supervision. In this study she proposes a new definition of Collaborative Study Group (CSG) by combining some different terms of the same concept of it. She defines CSG as a group of colleagues (not more than 10 persons) who get together to establish sharing relationship on a regular, long term basis to explore issues of teaching-learning process, to resolve problematic situations in instruction, to learn to provide feedback to one another as they experiment with the skills, to help each other transfer new knowledge or skills. In so doing the teachers support each other at the personal and professional levels and create new learning opportunities from within the profession

To support the definition above, there are some techniques for teacher Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 276



2. The Method of Research In this study, the writer uses Participatory Action Research (PAR). PAR is “an approach to social research in which the people being studied are given control over the purpose and procedures of the research; intended as a counter to the implicit view that the researchers are superior to those they study” (Babbie, 2004: 296-297). In PAR, the people being studied define their problems, define the remedies desired, and take the lead in designing the research that will help them realize their aims. Meanwhile, the researcher’s function is to serve as a resource to those being studied. Another similar definition of PAR is given by Kemmis and McTaggart (1988: 5) saying that participatory action research can be defined as "collective, self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order improve the rationality and justice of their own social...practices". PAR includes four moments of action: planning, action, observation and reflection (Kemmis and McTaggart, 1982). These research moments exist interdependently and follow each other in a spiral or cycle form. In the planning step, the group holds regular discussions talking the issues in the classroom and categorizing the problems. We, identify and discuss the problems based on their urgency then decide which one to be overcome in advance. We also analyze the problems by using the technique of interview, observation, test, and questionnaires. Based on the analysis of the problem, the group decide the problem they encounter to be solved and describe the factors causing it. The teachers’ difficulty (problem) is in fact, mastering the text type especially descriptive text (Analytical Exposition, Hortatory Exposition, Discussion). Having a clear problem, the group plan to undertake one model of professional development : collaborative study group with the following planning activities: (1) decide the problems on text

types and prepare material for presentations; (2) set 3 key roles in CSG: facilitator, recorder and chairperson and describe their jobs; (4) prepare the materials and action plan for the discussion and (5) prepare and decide the agenda of activities in CSG The action step is the implementation of the plan. Action happens when the plan is put into place and the hope for improvement to the social situation occurs. This action will be deliberate and strategic (Grundy, 1986: 28). It is here PAR differs from other research methods in that the action or change is happening in reality and not as an experiment 'just to see if it works'. The third is observation step. Observation in PAR is the research portion of PAR, where the changes as outlined in the Plan are observed for its effects and the context of the situation (Kemmis and McTaggart 1988: 13). In this moment research tools such as questionnaires can be utilized to ensure that proper scientific methods are followed and results have meaning. Observation and action often occur simultaneously. This involves a new set teaching strategies and activities and a recycling back into a period of further data collection. The fourth step is reflection. This is the time to reflect or review everything having been done in the implementation of the action. It evaluates the process, problems, effect, and successful or unsuccessful action. The participants discuss all of the aspects during the implementation of the action. In this case the research participants examine and construct, then evaluate and reconstruct their concerns (Grundy, 1986: 28). Reflection includes the pre-emptive discussion of participants where they identify a shared concern or problem. The research was carried out at Madrasah Alyah Negeri (MAN) Karanganyar Central Java, from May to August 2015. The subject of the research is seven English teachers of MAN




Karanganyar. The data were obtained from several techniques including test, participant observation, in-depth interview, questionnaires and document analysis. To analyse the quantitative data, the writer applied a descriptive statistics and constant comparative method.

3. Discussion The research findings state that collaborative study group can develop teacher professional competence in designing teaching materials especially in English text. Besides, collaborative study group can raise self-awareness for professional development and establish personal competence, social competence, and leadership competences and values. The description of the findings include the following: 3.1. The improvement of professional competence CSG can develop professional competence very effectively. The indicators is that the teachers understand the meaning of English texts, their social function, their generic structure, and their linguistic features needed for teaching need. Being seen from the result of the teachers’ works in creating text judged by two experts, in general the mastery of English text type improved proportionally and significantly especially in the aspects of compositional organization, cohesion and vocabulary. The aspects being judged in the writing text included compositional organization of text, relevance and adequacy of content, cohesion, adequacy of vocabulary for purpose, grammar, and mechanical accuracy (Weir, Cyril J, 1998: 69-70).

The fact that CSG can develop teacher professional competence is relevant with theories proposed by Wallace (1991: 13) saying that the type of teachers’ professional development which is designed, done, and evaluated collaboratively based on the teachers’ needs in doing their instructional tasks will result in better achievement and success compared to that provided by the authority using the craft model where the trainees only do what the trainer teach. This practice is not effective and has been practiced for years in Indonesia. In this case, CSG provides the needs of teachers for professional development of which ultimate goal is acquiring professional competence. The principle of conducting CSG is in accordance with that of conducting the ‘reflective model’ of professional development in which the process of professional education/development is divided as follows (Wallace, 1991: 48-58): Stage 1: The pre-training stage is the stage when one decided to undertake professional training or development before the beginning of the process. The ‘trainee’ may be pre-service, or may already be engaged in the profession (in-service or selfdevelopment). Stage

2: The stage of professional education or development is the stage where two elements of ‘received knowledge’ and ‘experiential knowledge’ are highlighted.

Stage 3: It is what the professional aspires to, namely (increased) professional competence or the goal.

The reflective model for teacher education or professional development can be seen from figure 1.

Received Train knowledge ee’s existing conceptual Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) schemata or and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University mental constructs 278



Experienti al knowledge

Pract ice

Reflecti on

PROFESSI ONAL COMPETE NCE

Stage 1 (Pre-training)

Stage 2 (Professional education/development)

Reflective Cycle

‘Reflective cycle’ Figure 1. Reflective Practice Model of professional educational development . 3.2. The raising of self-awareness for professional development CSG can raise self-awareness for professional development as individuals or as a member of a group most intensively and significantly. Awareness in this study is defined as the capacity to recognize and to monitor the attention one is giving or has given to something. It is very essential ingredient, even prerequisite for professional development because it constitutes a cornerstone of all professional development that can trigger and monitor attention to attitude, knowledge and skills of teachers (Freeman, 2010: 22-23). Hobbs says that self-awareness is at the core of professional development.

them to have positive attitude and to be open to change. They can develop their self-awareness through two dimensions: individual and group, internal and external. Based on the result of journal analysis of two dimensions of techniques, the participants can understand their strengths and weaknesses and this leads to the selfregulation to seek professional development. In the concept of professional development, self-awareness is very important even it is the prerequisite for it. Freeman (2001: 23) also comments about the awareness component in the professional development. It is stated: I cannot make an informed choice unless I am aware that one exists. Awareness requires that I give attention to some aspects of my behavior or the situation I find myself in. Once that aspect my attention, I must also view it with detachment, with objectivity, for only then will I become aware of alternative ways of behaving, or alternative ways of viewing the situation, and only then will I have a choice to make.

The indicator that CSG can raise self-awareness for professional development is that they welcome the program of CSG, feel enjoyable, and have high motivation and interest to join the CSG to get knowledge of discussion text. During the stages, the participants learn, record, write, and look for sources by themselves besides learning from other participants and the experts. They then record all their views and experience in the journals during participating the CSG. They can also build up respect, empathy, and trust to work collaboratively that allow


GOAL



Freeman’s model (2001: 24) portrays the relationship among the four key constituents: (1) Awareness serves the function of triggering our attention to attitude, skills, and knowledge, (2) Attitude is described as a “stance toward self, activity, and others”, (3) Skills, which constitutes ‘the how of teaching,” include our methods, techniques, activities, materials, and other tools, (4) Knowledge embodies “the what of teaching,” which includes our subject matter and our knowledge of the students, as well as the socio-cultural and institutional context. In other words, by becoming aware, and by developing language with which to discuss that awareness, we find opportunities for professional development and even professional emancipation.

3.3. The Establishment of Personal Competence CSG can develop the personal competence very effectively. (Personal competence in this study refers to personal competence characterized by some indicators such as emotional awareness, self-confidence, self-control, trustworthiness, adaptability, innovativeness, self-motivation, commitment, initiative and optimism, initiative, empathy, trust-building and personal discipline It is also connected to emotional intelligence (EI).) Is is in accordance with the Govermental Regulation Number 19 of 2005. It says that: Kompetensi kepribadian merupakan kemampuan personal yang mencerminkan kepribadian yang mantap, stabil, dewasa, arif, dan berwibawa, menjadi teladan bagi peserta didik, dan berakhlak mulia. And one of the essential indicators of its sub-competence highlights that: Subkompetensi akhlak mulia dan dapat menjadi teladan memiliki indicator esensial: bertindak

sesuai norma religius (iman dan taqwa, jujur, ikhlas, suka menolong), dan memiliki perilaku yang diteladani pewerta didik . The indicators that CSG can develop the personal competence is that the participants of CSG at MAN Karanganyar can get good personal development and have high priorities, such as: (1) ability to work effectively with people of different backgrounds and styles, (2) active listening, (3) effective presentation, (4) networking and coalition building, (5) negotiating ability and managing the limits of the mandate, (6) consensus building, (7) understanding the national standpoints of others, (8) analysing complex subjects and situations, (9) effective participation in meetings, (10) explaining and defending compromise solutions, and (11) self motivation. The development above is much supported by the implementation of principles of adult learning suggested by Brookfield (Maggioli, 2003: 3) covering voluntary participation, mutual respect, collaboration, action and reflection, organizational setting, choice and change, motivation and self-direction. The principles are portrayed in the whole activities.

3.4. The Establishment of Social Competence CSG establishes social competence significantly. It is one of teachers’ competencies which should be mastered by the teachers. It is defined as possessing and using the ability to integrate thinking, feeling and behavior to achieve social tasks and outcomes valued in the host context and culture. In a school setting, these tasks and outcomes would include accessing the school curriculum successfully, meeting associated personal social and emotional needs, and developing transferable skills and attitudes of value beyond school.




The other idea of social competence is also stated by Lord (1995: 25). He says that: Perceived social competence is an individual's perception of self or another's ability to initiate, respond to, and/or maintain interactions with peers; the ability to recognize and respond to another's viewpoint or perspective; and the ability to share, cooperate and problemsolve with others. Perception is reality, both for the individual and others who perceive that individual. Individuals may perceive themselves as socially competent, yet those with whom they interact may experience social discomfort or see them as socially inept. In addition, it is stated in the ‘PP NO.19/ 2005” that: Kompetensi sosial merupakan kemampuan guru untuk berkomunikasi dan bergaul secara efektif dengan peserta didik, sesame pendidik, tenaga kependidikan, oranguta/wali peserta didik, dan masyarakat sekitar. And one of the essential indicators of its sub-competence highlights as perceived by the others that: Mampu berkomunikasi dan bergaul secara efektif dengan sesame pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan. Social competence is developed significantly through the interaction and communication in the process of CSG. It is clearly seen that how the participants act toward and are treated by their colleagues in the CSG (cooperatively or aggressively, helpfully or demandingly, etc.) appears to have a substantial impact on the relationships they develop. It reflects the participants’ feeling, behavior or personal competence. The overall effective activities as described in chapter IV enable

the participants develop their social competence such as conflict management, cooperation and collaboration, empathy, communication and team capabilities. The idea above is in line with the idea of Hartup (1992: 9) noting that peer relationships in particular contribute a great deal to both social and cognitive development and to the effectiveness with which we function as adults. Communication plays a role in the satisfaction of physiological and psychological needs. Communication provides a vehicle for exploring relationships with people and objects, and serves a function in play, self-stimulation, self-regulation, and self-reinforcement. In the process of CSG, the participants can develop their social competences through (1) team building, (2) relationship building, and (3) small talks and schmoozing during CSG. The description of the points as follows: 3.4.1. Building confidence Confidence is the trait that underpins good social skills. Although there isn't a shortcut to acquiring confidence, one can work on specific areas to improve it especially as it comes across in how one speak, dress and carry oneself. There are no shortage of courses available that address many of these areas from public speaking and presenting skills to assertiveness and improving self-image. Volunteering for tasks that take you into new areas and where one will meet new people will also build confidence. 3.4.2 Relationship building HR may not be a customer-facing department, but one does provide an internal service and the entire workforce is the client base. Like any good service provider, he/she needs to present an excellent image and provide high levels of service. In addition to networking and being able to communicate at all levels, he/she needs to listen acutely to his/her customers and be able to build trust. Tact, empathy and reassurance are the hallmarks




of the function and are vital components of relationship building. Individuals who are emotionally intelligent tend to excel in these areas. 3.4.3. Small talk and schmoozing While highly superficial in some respects, the ability to network at events and talk to anyone about anything is a valuable skill in its own right. Being able to initiate a conversation means one is more likely to come into contact with people who may well turn out to be invaluable contacts. Some of us find small talk difficult but as long as we come armed with a few stock questions and a willingness to try, we can't go far wrong.

3.5. The establishment of Leadership Competencies and Values CSG can establish leadership competence and values. Leadership in this CSG means the ability of an individual to set an example for others and lead from the front. It is an attitude that influences the environment around us. House (1994: 66) defines "leadership" organizationally and narrowly as "the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members". Organizationally, leadership directly impacts the effectiveness of costs, revenue generation, service, satisfaction, earnings, market value, share price, social capital, motivation, engagement, and sustainability. Narrowly, leadership is the ability of an individual to set an example for others and lead from the front. It is an attitude that influences the environment around us. Referring to the leadership above, Hersey and Blanchard (in Freeman, 2001: 209) define leadership style as the behavior…a person exhibits when attempting to influence the activities of others. According to the situational leadership model, effective leaders are flexible in their use of relationship behavior and task behavior. The

relationship behavior is the extent to which leaders are likely to maintain personal relationship between themselves and members of the group (followers) by opening up channels of communication and providing socio-emotional support. While the task behavior is the extent to which leaders are likely to organize and define the roles of the members of their groups (followers); to explain what activities each is to do, and when, here and how tasks are to be accomplished. Leadership competencies and values are shared in the CSG by the rotation of taking turns in chairing the meetings. They share the rotation of the key roles to all the members of the group to have the same opportunities for chairing the meetings. The roles are facilitator, chairperson and recorder. Even though the group as a whole decides on the agenda, all participants take turns chairing the meetings. Every session has a predetermined schedule and three participants play the following key roles. The first role is a facilitator. The leadership competences of facilitator can be reflected through the following jobs of facilitator as suggested by Heartfield (1994: 99) including: (1) introduce the session, (2) encourage discussion, (3) encourage involvement, (4) deal correctly with sensitive issues, (5) build rapport, empathize, (6) avoid being placed in the role of expert, (7) control the rhythm of the meeting, but in an unobtrusive way, (8) take time at the end of the meeting to summarize, check for agreement and thank the participants, and (9) listen for additional comments and spontaneous discussions which occur after the meeting has been closed. Second role is the recorder. The recorder’s competences in the CSG are reflected from her/his duties in the process of CSG. The recorder is the group’s memory, recording what is said in the discussion then prioritising and synthesizing key points, which are forwarded to all of group participants after meeting. The recorder is also responsible




for recording the lessons learnt from the meeting in the group’s log. This is a log where the outcomes of each meeting are entered; it serves as a measure of group progress. Not getting involved in the discussion allows the recorder to objectively appraise contributions and then sort them for the benefit of the whole group. In doing so, the recorder is able to keep a record of the content of the discussion as well as emotional reactions and important aspects of group interaction. Assessment of the emotional tone of the meeting and the group process will enable us to judge the validity of the information collected during the CSG. That is why the recorder should include the items to be recorded such as (1) date, time, place; (2) names and characteristics of participants; (3) general description of the group dynamics (level of participation, presence of a dominant participant, level of interest); (4) opinions of participants, recorded as much as possible in their own words, especially for key statements; (5) emotional aspects (e.g., reluctance, strong feelings attached to certain opinions); (6) vocabulary used - particularly in CSG that are intended to assist in developing questionnaires or health education materials; and (7) spontaneous relevant discussions during breaks or after the meeting has been closed. Considering the recorder’s job, it is highly recommended that a taperecorder be used to assist in capturing information. Even if a tape-recorder is used, notes should be taken as well, in case the machine malfunctions and so that information will be available immediately after the session for discussion. If there is no reliable tape-recorder available, it is advisable to have two recorders. The leadership competence of a recorder is also reflected in the supplementary role to assist the facilitator (if necessary) by drawing his or her attention to (1) missed comments from participants and (2) missed topics (the recorder should have a copy of the

discussion guide during the CSG). If necessary, the recorder could also help resolve conflict situations within the group that the facilitator finds difficult to handle on her own. The third role is chairperson. The leadership of a chairperson is also reflected through his/her duties in chairing the meeting of CSG. Unlike the facilitators and the recorder, the chairperson plays an active role in the sessions. The designated chairperson for the session works with facilitator prior to the meeting to develop a suitable agenda. During the meeting, he or she trains the power for decision making and has the authority to alter the agenda, if needed. Toward the end of the meeting, he or she makes sure that everyone is informed of what needs to be done before the next meeting, what materials will be needed, and who will take on the key roles in the future. 4. Conclusion The major conclusion of the study is that the implementation of CSG is successful in some ways. First, CSG can develop professional competence very effectively. The competence includes the mastery in dsigning teaching materials especially of English text-types especially on discussion, exposition, explanation, linguistic elements, and other micro-skills for writing. The competence above can be achieved through all activities in CSG which involve all teachers as participants who explore the issues of teaching by themselves and define the solution by themselves. Second, CSG can raise selfawareness for professional development as individuals or as a member of a group most intensively and significantly. Selfawareness is the core of professional development. It can be developed through activities in CSG applying the stages of Genre-Based Approach (GBA) including BKOF, MOT, JCOT, and ICOT besides the inclusion of Focus Group Discussion (FGD) at the end of the stage. The inclusion of stages in GBA and FGD allow




the participants to develop their selfawareness individually and jointly. Third, CSG can develop the personal competence very effectively. The establishment of the personal competence in CSG is developed through the active involvement of participants in the whole program implemented the principles of adult learning. It has been mentioned that the activities of CSG is established collaboratively by exploring the teaching issues to be the topic of the discussion. The participants voluntarily participate in the program and decide the solution and the reflection of it. They make the record of activity and write it in the journals or diaries as the mirror of themselves then analyze them. That means they need to get independent feedback to gain greater insight into their behaviors and performance. Fourth, CSG improves social competence significantly. Social competence is developed significantly through the interaction and communication in the process of CSG. It is clearly seen that how the participants act toward and are treated by their colleagues in the CSG (cooperatively or aggressively, helpfully or demandingly, etc.) appears to have a substantial impact on the relationships they develop. Fifth, CSG can develop leadership competencies and values by the rotation of taking turns in chairing the meetings. The Participants have the same opportunities for chairing the meetings. In the rotation, every group member has a chance to take turn chairing the meeting by playing three key roles: facilitator, recorder (secretary) and chairperson. Unless the participants understand the concept of CSG and the job descriptions of the roles well, they can not get good leadership experience. Understanding and taking the same opportunity to play the roles are very necessary unless they know nothing in running the discussion get no leadership competences and values.

Realizing that CSG is very essential in developing teachers’ professionalism, the teachers are recommended to be actively involved in the professional development to improve their mastery of subject matter especially English text-types through CSG. There are some tips to do by the teachers in conducting CSG. Firstly, to conduct an ideal CSG especially to develop the mastery of English text-types as one technique for professional development, it is suggested that the number of colleagues is not more than 10 persons. It allows the participants to take active participation in the discussion and it becomes alive because three persons plays the key roles, one person serves as a presenter and 6 other participants become the members who can share a lot of ideas. Secondly, the induction of the CSG program and its agenda should be made early. The teachers, as participants, should make all colleagues well informed of what CSG is, the key roles to be played in each session, the agenda accompanied with its joint topic, and some matters related to the implementation of CSG. When every participant has understood the essence of CSG completed with the principles of adult learning, the CSG can run smoothly and fruitfully. Otherwise, the program will get stuck. It is an embarrassing thing to see the stagnancy of CSG due to the less understanding of technical preparation. Thirdly, to master the genre material in curriculum in particular, it is recommended that the mastery of micro skills for reading, writing, listening and speaking should not be separated. Moreover the teachers should master the use or teaching of English grammar in authentic use of language and focus on aspects of language that enable students to use the language for different purposes and contexts. A greater component of writing should also be mastered, which can lead to their independence in writing different genres, for different purposes and audiences.




Fourthly, it is suggested that Focus Group Discussion (FGD) at the end of CSG is worth conducting. Its purpose is to evaluate what has happened during the CSG and to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions and ideas of the group about the topic. A FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction. The idea is that the group members talk freely and spontaneously about a certain topic among themselves, with the guidance of facilitator and observed by the expert. Fifthly, the attendance of the expert in the CSG is a must. Realizing that creating/writing a text is a complex process and learning to write requires writing, the teachers can not be expected to master complex process if they seldom practice it, or without experts' correction

and feedbacks. It means then if the teachers are to be writing frequently and receiving frequent corrections and responses from experts they will be able to master the subject matter deeply. That is why the attendance of experts in the CSG is badly needed to give the feed backs both written through their created texts and directly spoken after observing the process of CSG. Finally, it is suggested to apply the principles of adult learner suggested by Maggioli (2004: 3) including: (1) voluntary participation, (2) Mutual respect, (3) Collaboration, (4) Action and reflection (praxis), (5) Organizational setting, (6) Choice and change, (7) Motivation, and (8) Self-direction.

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Lange, Dale E. (1990). A blueprint for tacher development. In JackC. Richards and David Nunan. Second language teacher education. New York: Cambridge University Press. McNiff, Jean, P. Lomax and J. Whitehead. (1996). You are and your action research project. London: Routledge. McTaggart, Robin, 1997. Participatory Action Research : International Contexts and Consequences, State University of New York Press, Albany. Soedijarto. (1993a). Memantapkan Sistem Pendidikan Nasional. Jakarta: Gramedia Widiarsa Indonesia. Soedijarto. (1993b). Menuju Pendidikan yang relevan dan bermutu. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka. Wright, Andrew, Ur, Penny, 1992. Five Minute Activities, A resource book of short activities, Cambridge University Press. Weir, Cyril J, 1998. Communicative Language Testing. English Language Teaching. Prentice Hall. New York.




Improving Junior High School Students’ Character Through The Colestvia Learning Model

Leo Agung S. Lectore Sebelas Maret University Jl. Ir. Sutami No. 36 A, Kentingan, Surakarta, Indonesia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract: This research aimed (1) to develop the COLESTVIA model as a tool to improve the teaching of social science and (2) to test the effectiveness of the COLESTVIA model in the teaching of the subject. This paper was conducted with research and development approach which consisted of three stages: preliminary studies, model development and model testing. The data were collected through observations, interviews, questioners and documentations. The data collected from the preliminary studies were analyzed using qualitative analysis. Then, the data collected from the model testing stage were analyzed using quantitative analysis. This research used t-test to measure the different level of effectiveness between teaching using the COLESTVIA model and lecturing model. This research concluded that (1) the COLESTVIA model which was validated by experts and tested in SMP 19 could be implemented in other schools. After being tested in quasi experiment in SMP 2 and SMP AL Muayyad, students who were taught using the COLESTVIA model successfully improved their cognitive and affective skills. They acquired better scores than those taught using the lecturing model. (2) The effectiveness test, which was carried out in SMP 9, SMP 24 and SMP Kristen 1 Surakarta, showed that again, if compared to the lecturing model, the COLESTVIA model more significantly improved the students’ academic skills and strengthen their characters. Thus, it could be concluded that the COLESTVIA model is more effective than the lecturing model. Keywords: social science learning, learning models, competence, characters and identity

Introduction

L

aw No. 20/2003 on the National Education System (2007: 8) rules that the national education functions to develop the students’ skill and character so that in the future they can become citizens who have faith in God and

have noble personal qualities. The national education system is also expected to prepare students to be citizens who are smart, creative, independent, responsible and democratic. The law, indeed, provides noble ideals of the national education system. However, in reality, the ideals




have yet to be achieved. There are still abundant moral injustices as well as problems concerning the nation’s social, political, economical and cultural sector. In addition, currently, the nation also faces a crisis of identity. This reality check signifies that the current Indonesian national education system still fails functioning as expected by the aforementioned law (Rokhman, Nurhadi & Muhsinatun, 2006: 116). Scholars have argued that the Indonesian education system is oriented only to develop students’ cognitive skills. Thus, it has failed to develop the student’s moral (Suyanto, 2000: 153). This is proven by much social illness emerging in the society including drugs abuse, free sex, crimes and violence among other things (Lubis, 2009: v). The current group of young generation also has failed to behave accordingly in front of the older generation. The younger generation is losing the grip of the nation’s cultural identity, for example politeness, tolerance, humbleness and helpfulness among others (Supriyoko, 2003: 3). The failure of the national education system as argued above specifically illustrates the failure of social science teaching in Indonesia because besides serving as an academic instrument, social science is supposed to function to equip students with knowledge to solve social problems. Social science, for instance, should provide students with knowledge concerning on moral education, independence, responsibility, discipline and it should nurture entrepreneurship souls on students (Rokhman, Nurhadi & Muhsinatun, 2006: 117). Therefore, teachers have the responsibility in not only transferring the knowledge but also transferring the values. Teachers should not only focus on the cognitive education but also in skill and morality education so that students may become better future citizens (Sardiman, 2002: 123). In a bid to achieve a better social science teaching, scholars have called for a better paradigm in social science teaching.

Cholisin and Hisyam (2006) for instance have argued that social science’s curriculum should develop student’s behavior, attitude, skill and knowledge (BASK). The paradigm of social science teaching should be changed from behaviorist to constructivist. According to Vygostky, knowledge could be built based on interaction with others. This notion provides the ground for the development of the COLESTVIA cooperative model of learning. This model incorporates Student Team Achievement Division (STAD) and Team-Games-Tournaments (TGT) as well as Values Inculcation Approach (VIA). The cooperative learning method, which is characterized by group cooperation model, is expected to improve students’ activity and creativity, increasing their interpersonal relations and improve their achievement. Then, the VIA can be used to internalize moral education to students. This research was conducted in some junior high schools (SMP) in Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia because since 2011/2012 academic year, all educational institutions in the city were supposed to implement character education in their daily learning process (Widiastuti, 2011: 4). Research Methodology This study used research and development approach. This research developed COLESTVIA as a learning model that incorporates character education in the teaching of social science at SMP level. This research tweaked a theory coined by Borg and Gall (2007). Instead of following their 10 steps of research, this research simplified them into only three steps of research which included exploration, model development and testing model’s effectiveness. The subject of this research included all teachers of state and private SMPs in Surakarta. The sample included state SMPs, namely SMPN 2, SMPN 9, SMPN 19 and SMPN 24, and private SMPs, namely SMP AL Muayyad and




SMP Kristen 1 Kota Surakarta. This research used a random sampling, choosing a random class in each school. This research also used quantitative analysis in treating the data obtained from experiments. In conducting the experiment, this research employed the Classroom Action Research experiment. This research also used quasi experiment to test the impact and the effectiveness of the COLESTVIA model. The results of the experiments were finally calculated using the t - test.

Results and Discussion The learning process of social science of students at the SMP level in Surakarta mostly focused only in transferring the knowledge. This fact defied the national curriculum as well as the aim of the national education system i.e. striving to develop not only students’ knowledge but also their behavior, attitude and skill (BASK). Therefore, this research proposed to experiment the COLESTVIA learning methodology as a potential instrument to bring back the teaching of social science to its designated aim set by the curriculum and the national education system. The COLESTVIA learning methodology is basically a cooperative learning model which incorporates two learning strategies namely the Student :

Team Achievement Division (STAD) and the Team-Games-Tournaments (TGT). In addition to them, the COLESTVIA model incorporates the Values Inculcation Approach (VIA), an educational approach aiming to instill certain values in students. Such values include religious, nationalism, honest and hardworking. The other values are expected to make students able to respect others’ values and achievements, love reading, being critical thinkers, being disciplines and independent individuals. These should be integrated in social science’s syllabus and the Learning Implementation Plan (RPP) so that teachers can conduct the Integrated Social Science teaching. In the preliminary step of research, the draft of the COLESTVIA learning model went through the PTK experiment in which experts on character education and educational technology as well as social science teachers in various junior high schools in Surakarta were asked for opinions on the drafted model. After reviewing the draft, they deemed that the COLESTVIA model could improve the teaching and learning quality of social science subject. They considered that the COLESTVIA model could a) improve students’ cognitive skills and b) improve students’ affective achievements including their skills and behaviors. The result of PTK experiment is illustrated below.

Cognitive Aspect a. Cycle

Average Scores

Notes

I

70.69

Good

II

77.42

Good

b.

Affective Aspect




Cycle

Average Scores

Notes

I

3.86

Good

II

4.46

Excellent

Then, the research entered the next step i.e. the quasi experiment in SMP 2 and SMP AL Muayyad in Surakarta. After being tested at the schools, the COLESTVIA model was proven to significantly improve the quality of the knowledge being transferred and improve the skills and behavior of the students. This is illustrated in the average scores obtained by students at the experiment group which collected 74.70 as compared

to 63.35, score obtained by those at control group. The experiment group recorded an average of 4.47 in affective aspect and 4.36 in psychomotor aspect. Meanwhile, the control group only recorded 3.70 and 3.60 for those two respective aspects. The result below indicates that the tested COLESTVIA model could indeed improve both students’ cognitive and affective aspects.

a. Group

Cognitive Aspect Average Scores

Notes

Experiment

76.57

Good

Control

65.55

Moderate

b.

Affective Aspect

Group

Average Scores

Experiment

4.47

Notes

4.36

Excelle nt

Control

3.70

The research also tested the effectiveness of the COLESTVIA learning model in SMP 19, SMP 24 and SMP 9. The result showed that if compared to the existing lecturing model, the COLESTVIA model significantly improved students’ achievement (cognitive aspect) and strengthened their characters (affective aspect and skill). The average score of academic achievement of students taught using COLESTVIA model reached 74.70, higher than the average score of students taught using lecturing model at 64.35. The

3.67

Good

same pattern is also found in the average scores in affective aspects. One experiment group achieved average score at 4.45, higher than the control group which only achieved 3.65. The other two experiments groups achieved average scores at affective aspects at 4.08 and 4.45, higher than the remaining control groups which secured 3.45 and 3.70.

a.

Cognitive Aspect




Group

Average Scores

Notes

Experiment

74.70

Good

Control

64.35

Moderate

b.

Affective Aspect

Group

Average Scores

Notes

Experi

4.45

4.08

4.45

Excellent

Control

3.65

3.45

3.70

Good

ment

Based on the table above, this paper argues that compared to lecturing model, the COLESTVIA model is better at improving students’ achievements as well as making them internalize the values they have learned. Thus, this paper argues that the COLESTVIA model is more effective than the lecturing model. The COLESTVIA learning model has various advantages compared to other learning model or strategies. In this model, the teachers can implement cooperative learning strategy which combines both STAD and TGT strategies as well as the VIA approach to instill values they teach to students. The teachers also can conduct the Integrated Social Science teaching as mandated by the curriculum developed by each school (KTSP). The teachers, who employed the COLESTVIA learning model, can evaluate their students from various aspects, including not only their intellectual or cognitive aspects but also their behavior (affective aspect) and skills. Besides, the COLESTVIA model also paves ways for students to develop their own creativity and activity in studying social science. The COLESTVIA model was developed based on various theoretical studies, frameworks as well as findings from other researchers. The model was developed by incorporating the STAD cooperative and Tournament learning strategies as well as values incorporation

through the VIA approach. The cooperative learning strategy consists of seven stages that include 1) achieving goals and motivating students, 2) giving information and holding question and answer sections, 3) organizing study groups, 4) guiding a group of students to study and work, 5) holding Games Tournament, 6) holding evaluations and 7) giving rewards. According to Krathwohl (1964), there are five stages to shape students’ characters that include 1) receiving, 2) responding, 3) respecting values, 4) organizing assessment system and 5) characterization, a last stage in which students are expected to have internalized all values teachers have taught them. However, these stages in practices can be simplified in three stages that include 1) receiving and understanding the values transferred in social science teaching, 2) accepting those values and 3) actualizing and practicing the values in their daily activities in school, family and society. A study by Mattar and Khalil (2010) has stated that there is a significant relationship between character education and the changes in people’s behavior. Character education can help students solidify their self identity. Character education also helps students get a better academic achievement. Character education can also boost students’ skills. The last, but not least, is that character




education influences students’ behavior. In align with Mattar and Khalil’s argument, Gervanis (2006) has stated that sociodrama can be used as a methodology to implement character education practices in students at junior high school levels. The developed COLESTVIA model implements three main stages in the learning process. They include 1) introduction, 2) main activities that encompass exploration, collaboration and confirmation and 3) closing. In the introduction stage, which is also called as apperception stage, teachers must provide information to students of materials they are going to learn. The materials include not only the academic contents but also models, values and characters that the teachers try to transfer. As stated, the main stage is divided into three sections. The first section is exploration which requires teachers to divide students into groups. In the groups, students will discuss about how to accept and implement values and characters they have learned. The next section in the main stage is elaboration which refers to students’ activity while discussing their materials in the groups. In confirmation section, the last part of the main stage, students start engaging themselves in tournament activities. In this last section, the groups compete among each other about the mastery of their assigned materials. The result of this competition will determine whether a group belongs to the super group, champion group or good group. In the last stage i.e. closing, teachers will announce the scores and results of each group competing in the tournament activities. The COLESTVIA learning model will make teachers be more creative in presenting their materials to their students. It will enable teachers to conduct an integrated learning model as stipulated by the existing curriculum. The COLESTVIA model is a cooperative learning model which makes students have to learn together to understand a given subject. Such a model is designed to ease students to achieve the goal of the lesson.

According to Cheong (2010), in cooperative learning students in a class are divided into groups of 5 or 6. Each group is assigned to discuss a different material. This kind of learning strategy is expected to make students more active, independent and able to grasp the concept of the materials they are learning. The prevailing common perception holds that understanding of local values is essential to shape students’ character, preparing them to be more humane and civilized persons. Thus, failure in understanding the values will lead students to be corrupt persons in the future. Therefore, according to Suparno et. al. (2007: 75), moral and value education should be prioritized because, as stated by Sidi (2001: 103), they play crucial roles in building and shaping the characters of the students. The reformation spirit that has sparked in the nation since 1998 should be used as a momentum to reform Indonesia’s education system. The system should be brought back to its philosophical orientation i.e. education should not only touch the cognitive domain (or the knowledge) but also should touch moral and social action. This reformation is important because education on the moral and social action will prepare students to be future good and responsible citizens. This is the ultimate goal of the nation’s education system (Suyanto, 2006: 140). Sumaatmadja (2005) has argued that character education is an instrument to prepare younger generations to be pious and morally good future generations, to be tolerant to others and to make them to be future obedient citizen to both their own country and the whole world. The National Education Ministry (2010: 11-22) has asserted that cultural and character education should be implicated in the teaching of social science. The ministry’s idea is supported by Golemen (2001) who has stated that having enough intelligence quotient is useless if not equipped with having adequate both emotional and spiritual quotients. Thus, having said that, character education will help individuals to




recognize what is good, to love the good to desire the good and to act the good. These four factors, according to Lickona (2000: 7), are essentials prerequisites in every educational process. These four terms are known as the 4G. Understanding the cognitive aspects is not the end line for character education as it has to internalize the real experience of students that they encounter in family and society in general. This concept is in align with a concept coined by Ki Hajar Dewantara which is called “Tringa” that copes ngerti (understand), ngrasa (feel) and nglakoni (act). This will remind people that we all need to really understand, feel and act according to the good deeds we all have learned along the way (Wardani, 2010). Supardi and Saliman’s research (2010) shows that for so long, teachers just teach social values that include nationalism, a sense of sacrifice, perseverance, honesty, creative, hardworking, critical and discipline through lectures. This is not enough. Thus, to develop the social science teaching in the country, Sardiman (2010) has argued that the teaching should also be supported by these factors: a) setting an example, b) a more active/participative and creative/innovative learning model, c) a more conducive/educative learning environment (which can be obtained by, for example, placing motivating slogans in the classrooms), d) a cooperation between the school, parents and surrounding

environment and e) a political will from the government.

Conclusion The learning process of social science in various junior high schools in Surakarta has been carried out in many variations. However, they have been too focused in the transfer of knowledge. This contradicts with the nature of social science itself i.e. developing behavior, attitude, skill and knowledge. Therefore, to bring the teaching of social science back to its nature, this paper has argued that the COLESTVIA learning strategy should be implemented. The COLESTVIA learning strategy is a cooperative learning methodology which incorporates the STAD and Tournament learning methodologies and the VIA approach. This model has been developed based on the Regulation of the National Education Minister Number 41/2007 which divides learning process in three stages: introduction, main activity and closing. The results of experiments, quasi experiment, large scale experiment and effectiveness test of the COLESTVIA model show that it can improve students’ academic achievement and simultaneously develop their characters. The COLESTVIA model has been proven to be more effective than the lecturing model that is being used.

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Co-Modification of Pracimayasa Building in Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta Sunarmi

Student of Doctorate Program in Cultural Study of Postgraduate Program of UNS Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum. Prof. Dr. Pande Made Sukerta, S.Kar., M.Si. Dr. Titis Srimuda Pitana, ST., M. Trop.Arch.

Abstract: Sunarmi, 2016, T151408002, CO-MODIFICATION OF PRACIMAYASA BUILDING IN PURA MANGKUNEGARAN SURAKARTA, Dissertation, Cultural Study Program, Doctorate Program, Sebelas Maret University. Modernization present to befall city as its arena leads Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta to changes as well, Pracimayasa building to be co-modified. Comodification phenomenon occurs due to the capitalists’ spirit of monetary economy to get profit. Therefore, the focus of problem in this research was Pracimayasa building co-modification occurring. The discussion focused on the attempt of investigating the capitalists’ entry into Indonesian archipelago, particularly Mangkunegaran. This study was a cultural study. Data derived from information directly from informant, library study, written document, and archive. Techniques of collecting data used were interview, observation, and documentation. Data was analyzed using an interactive model of analysis encompassing data reduction, data display, conclusion drawing, and verification. The result of research showed that Co-modification practice in Pracimayasa Building was the transformation of product and service formerly not commodity into commodity due to what to be given to market. Pracimayasa building co-modification was inseparable from the Mangkunegaran’s long history that it was established owing to colonial intervention. The colonial capitalistic spirit in Indonesian Archipelago colored event by event in Indonesian Archipelago including in Mangkunegaran related to money earning in capitalistic concept thereby creating capitalistic restriction. Capitalistic restriction rolled on naturally since colonialism age until today in the management of cultural pledge in Mangkunegaran. Keywords: Co-modification, Pracimayasa, Interior, capitalistic restriction A. Introduction

M

odernity is present in any risk befalling city as its arena, leading to social and cultural transformation amid urban society. The

transformation resulting from globalization runs on the spirit and morality based on mind, empirical truth, universality, and progress reasons very partial to material activity interest (Giddens, 2001: 14). All of




city activity in this system was then conceived as running in the way it is, practically and dehumanizing, even without objective, benefit. City as the face of world civilization and modernization locomotive arena ever changes and is deconstructed through a variety of new concepts. Surakarta City, as a portrait of developing one, changes physically, socially, economically and culturally as well. Such the changes are apparent in a variety of social cultural life aspects, including building and/or area, including cultural pledge in Mangkunegaran building complex, particularly Pracimayasa existing within it. Pracimayasa is a building existing in Pura Mangkunegaran complex, established in 1918, during Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya (KGPAA) Mangkunegaran VII’s reign (Pringgodigdo, 1987: 9). Pracimayasa is manifested as a private place for consort of king’s residence/keputren and for receiving family guest (Sunarmi, 2006: 37; see also Pringgodigdo, 1987: 7-11). This building is assessed as a high-valued art work from former Kadipaten Mangkunegaran constituting an evidence of lifestyle existence (Scoppert, 1997: 8788). The uniqueness of architecture, room, and interior elements of Pracimayasa is assessed as parallel with some other buildings, including Pendapa in both Mangkunegaran and Kasunanan Surakarta as the representative of interior style in Java. In a book entitled Keraton of Jawa the Research and Publication of This Manuscript, Tourism, Post and Telecommunication Minister (1991: 14) explained that in the middle of Pura Mangkunegaran there is Mangkunegaran family’s residence behind Dalem Ageng (Mansion) with quiet circumstance like rural houses; it is Pracimayasa. As the time progresses, Pracimayasa building no longer functions as keputren or as place for receiving family house, but as tourism asset in Mangkunegaran.

Pracimayasa is a cultural pledge building as mentioned in Republic of Indonesia’s Law Number 11 of 2010. In chapter I Article I clause 22 of this Law, it is mentioned that cultural pledge object should obligatorily be preserved. The recommendation of cultural pledge building preservation action is governed as well in Public Work and People Housing Minister’s Regulation (Permen PU dan PR) No. 01/PRT/M/2015 about the Preserved Cultural Pledge Building Construction. Such the Minister’s regulation is the reference for cultural pledge building organizer in the preservation attempt. Particularly in Surakarta, the form of cultural pledge building preservation is put as well in Local Regulation (Perda) of Surakarta City No.10 of 2013, governing Cultural Pledge Preservation. Provincial and Local Governments are in charge of and authorized to be not only overseer, monitor, and evaluator but also obligatorily participate in developing and implementing policy concerning the preservation of cultural pledge object. Government gives subsidy monthly for the maintenance of cultural pledge buildings. Mangkunegaran management is obliged to maintain cultural pledge buildings without exception, to assume most building maintenance and operating costs. On the other hand, Mangkunegaran is responsible for the welfare of all abdi dalems who are still loyal until today. It is not an easy task for Mangkunegaran that has no productive asset but cultural pledge building and a number of abdi dalems preserving Javanese culture loyally in Mangkunegaran environment after Indonesian independence. Amid the debate concerning tradition and modernity, and changing authority for Mangkunegaran, cultural bargaining is inevitable. Unconsciously, new mindset has arisen in the term of cultural pledge management in Mangkunegaran, particularly Pracimayasa building. Pracimayasa building is now




included into dinner and lunch tour packages for the tourists visiting Surakarta City. Pracimayasa building is keputren room for receiving family’s and court’s guests. For Javanese people, keputren is a private place into which not everyone can enter; nevertheless it becomes public place now, sold in tour package. Tourists can enter into and enjoy sitting down and having meal in dinning room and organize meeting in the living room of Pracimayasa building. Food, music instrument, and dance performance can enter into Pracimayasa building to accompany tourist visit. The practice of including Pracimayasa building into urban tour package means changing the object formerly not sold into the sold one. The process of changing a non money-oriented object into the money-oriented one is comodification process. Co-modification is defined as a process of changing something having no commodity value into the one with commodity value (Piliang, 2012:17). Max Weber explained that this co-modification phenomenon occurs due to the presence of money economic spirit to get profit (Turner, 1992: 115-138). Economic value becomes main objective in co-modification. Meanwhile, Pracimayasa building is a historical one with cultural meaning about privatization of Mangkunegaran family. Cultural meaning contained in Pracimayasa building is a private place, special place for keputren, family meeting, and court guest. The specialization of room due to status, for Javanese people, has been tradition for Javanese people just like the differentiation of house shapes by social status. Javanese people highly appreciate the presence of different statuses as the form of ethics. The difference of position level existing within society is defined as the difference of role and responsibility. The awareness of such the difference is one way the Javanese people use in creating their life balance and harmony (Suseno, 2008: 40). Pracimayasa is a private place, the building specialized for

keputren as the form of respect to the princesses for life harmony in former kadipaten environment. The changing of Pracimayasa building’s function into sold public place generates the following question, “Why does Mangkunegaran do that?” The change of Pracimayasa building’s allotment from private place into public place in Pura Mangkunegaran should be defined as the form of cultural reproduction. Cultural product should be understood in its relation to cultural practice and social and historical structures. The culture created by its adherents through social constructions, individuals, and group (society) create and interpreted culture (Kleden, 2006: 3). Pracimayasa building becomes tour package meaning that it is a reality of creation (production, construction) or recreated (reproduction, reconstruction), or in other words, a new reality construction resulting from previous reality construction deconstructed by a variety of agents as relation. Reality is a text containing value, precondition, ideology, truth, and certain objective through a creating relation that should be understood critically. The journey of Mangkunegaran under Mangkunegara IX’s reign was inseparable from long journey under previous Mangkunegaran. Is there any role of history in co-modification of Pracimayasa building. For that reason, a critical study on Pracimayasa building comodification is feasible holistically and should be conducted immediately. It is a study that can deliver an understanding on meaning building on contradictions so far hidden behind the event of Pracimayasa building co-modification. Considering the elaboration in background section above, to guide the research, the problem statement of current research is “why does co-modification of Pracimayasa building occur in Pura Mangkunegaran? Discussion of problem would be focused on the attempt of investigating the position of Mangkunegaran position since colonial




age until today, so that Pracimayasa building co-modification occurs. It is based on an assumption that the presence of colonial was the beginning of capitalism entry into Indonesian Archipelago.

any sign and meaning inherent, form the one formerly not commodity to the commodity one. Pracimayasa, according to Bausastra Jawa dictionary, derived from two words: pracima and yasa. Pracima means kulon (west) and yasa means gedhong or omah (building or house) (Atmodjo, 1994: 57). The word Pracima is used to explain about kiblat (direction) through dialog between Ismaya and Manikmaya in Serat Pramayoga. Ismaya explains about kiblat for Javanese people: purwa (east), nawitri (southwest), utara (north), narasurya (northeast), pracima (west), byabya (southeast), raksira.duksina (south), kaneya (northwest), gegana (above) and pratala (below) (in Endraswara, 2006: 8). Referring to Bausastra Jawa and Serat Pramayoga, the word Pracimayasa is defined as omah kulon or gedhong kulon (west house or west building), or the house located in the west. Pracimayasa in this study refers to a name of building located in Pura Mangkunegaran, meaning omah kulon or gedhong kulon, or the house in the west in the structure or layout of buildings in Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta. Pracimayasa is the name of building in the west or dalem kilen or gedhong kulon or bangunan kulon in Pura Mangkunegaran.

B. Discussion 1. Concept Limitation and Theoretical Foundation Co-modification is the process of changing product and service valued for its use into the commodity valued for what it will give to market (Mosco, 2009: 129). Similarly, Piliang (2012: 7) explained that comodification is defined as the process of making formerly non-commodity object the commodity one currently. Based on the two statements, comodification is the process of transforming formerly non-commodity object into the valued commodity due to what it will give to market. Meanwhile, Barker (2005: 87) defined co-modification as the process associated with capitalism in which object, quality, and sign are changed into commodity, something intended predominantly to be sold in the market. Max Weber explained that this co-modification phenomenon occurs due to the presence of money economic spirit to get profit (Turner, 1992: 115-138). Furthermore, it is explained that co-modification is the process of making something having any meaning produced to be traded. It is the product of work made not only to be used, but also to be traded because of exchange value presence. Commodity is defined as an object with monetary value or exchange value other than use value. Object, quality, and sign are made commodity. Considering Barker and Fairclough’s perspective above, in this research, comodification is defined as the process of organizing and conceptualizing commodity production, distribution, and consumption from the object with

Pura Mangkunegara as one of society’s configuration object and lifestyle in Surakarta is inseparable from shift and change resulting from modernization. In line with modernization, society’s interpretation and perception on the existence of Pura Mangkunegaran affect directly the definition of form and function of rooms existing in Pura Mangkunegaran. For that reason, in the attempt of understanding, either conceptually or visually, the shift of buildings’ function in Pura Mangkunegaran, it should be realized as an integral part of cultural element.




The aspect of value interpretation contained in Pura Mangkunegaran buildings should be reasonably viewed as a cultural phenomenon and inseparable from social-cultural change dynamics. A study on the change of building function in Pura Mangkunegaran in the form of comodification is inseparable from local culture. As the society develops, culture moves dynamically as the guideline. Culture has created a belief that culture is a blueprint that has been a compass in human life trip (Abdullah, 2010: 1). From this definition, culture encounters process hereditarily because it is the pattern of meanings linked comprehensively in the symbols transmitted historically. Cultural practices will always encounter reproduction, reconstruction, deconstruction, and even co-modification process or risk of modernity rolling.

the co-modification of Pracimayasa building in Pura Mangkunegaran in modernity era. Co-modification theory is used to explain the process of Pracimayasa building co-modification formerly serving as private place (keputren), for receiving family’s guest, and official guest of Mangkunegaran Palace as well as the values contained within it, then becoming commodity with exchange value in the market.

2. Research Method The research was positioned onto critical thinking system. By its research type, opened to cultural study, the eclectics in theory use is acquired through process. Approach or point of view used here was hermeneutic philosophical one. The research was taken place in Pura Mangkunegaran, particularly in Pracimayasa building. Data derived from direct information related to co-modification event in Pracimayasa building of Mangkunegaran with various supporting documents. Empirical data obtained from the field was required to understand the object studied comprehensively, because basically research is an individual’s attempt of approaching, understanding, elaborating, and explaining the phenomenon related to specific object (Kleden, 1987: 60). Written data was obtained from data sources including books, journals, documents, and previous studies related to comodification or Pracimayasa building in Pura Mangkunegaran.

Deconstruction is a social cultural process pertaining to cultural domination and subordination process, occurring dynamically enabling individuals to explain the cultural dynamic in-depth at social level. Deconstruction process builds on the actor’s social action in defining the social space. The objective of deconstruction is not to be a form of revision later, correction, or to look for the correct one. It is because deconstruction refuses an idea that truth can absolutely be found. There is no absolute answer, only interpretation, many studies and discourses. In other words, only those becoming phenomena that will be deconstructed by deconstructionist. Text and language is the subject of deconstruction and reinterpretation, so there is no single truth containing data interpretation deriving from those diverse texts and languages.

In this research, the analysis was conducted using an interactive model of data analysis. This technique included preparation, data collection, data reduction, raw data simplification, data display and processing and data verification processes. Interactive data analysis process consisted of three activities occurring simultaneously:

Deconstruction theory focuses on understanding the meaning behind



data reduction, data conclusion drawing.


display

and

Indonesian people is called traditionalistic community, the simple economy embraced by indigenous people. After the Western nations’ entry, capitalist becomes the ruler’s economic characteristic. This economic system is adopted from West world with the motive to get profit. The transition of traditional to capitalistic economic characteristics occurred when Western countries colonized Indonesia. But postcolonialism, there is a balance between capitalistic and traditional economies. Two economies live adjacently with different characteristics, called dualistic economic system/ dualistische economie (Soetrisno, 1984: 121).

3. Result and Discussion In modern age, a group’s existence is emphasized more on its ability of building economy. Mangkunegaran as the confirmation of a former Kadipaten that has ever been in glory time during colonialism period, that wants to keep existing despite no administrative authority. Generally, society builds its economic building gradually, starting from the simplest to the most advanced one. Economic advance in community can be measured through reasoning use aspect, capital product used, product exchange medium, and motivation supporting the economic activities (Soetrisno, 1984: 117). Sombart divides economic system into three stages: pre-capitalism, capitalism, and post-capitalism (Soetrisno, 1984: 118). In pre-capitalism stage, the strongest motivation encouraging the community to do economic activity is to meet life needs. Then in capitalism stage, economic activity is encouraged to look for profit. Capitalism stage is divided into three stages: beginning, higher, and end levels. At beginning level, the motive is to look for profit as much as possible in as short as possible time during product selling transaction. Meanwhile, the motive of high-level capitalism is to expand product selling by increasing the number of industrial branches throughout world in the objectives of helping promote education, alleviating poverty and improving public infrastructure, in addition to look for profit. In end-level capitalism, economic activity has focused on the public interest (Soetrisno, 1984: 119120).

Typical characteristic of Javanese people in economic activities at that time can be seen from their habits such as planting rice. Van Moll stated that Javanese community’s habit and custom at colonial time was characterized with any activities requiring special management of rice plant and done by women, in which planting seedling and reaping the ripe rice stems became their tasks (Kano, 1996: 84). In Javanese rural areas, there are only two classes of society: land owner and labor. The patronclient relation colored social life in Java. Not all farmers had land; thus for they to survive, they worked as labor of land master. Result of farm production was usually shared between farmer worker and land master. Traditional economic activity is closely related to traditional market, they exchange products they have to get intended product (Malano, 2011: 1). The economic activity habit of Javanese people included not only technological practice but also religious ceremonial rite related to ancient custom (slametan) as the essence of all activities (Kano, 1996: 84). Slametan is the expression of gratitude for livelihood the God has

Before the presence of capitalistic economic characteristic, the economic characteristic of




given. Javanese community’s ethos, that is submission, departed from causal relationship of what they do. As a result, they work as the way they do. Whatever the result, they keep expressing their gratitude.

the starting point of the shift of Javanese economy from traditional to capitalistic one affected by Western nations. Gianti Agreement ended the sovereignty of Mataram local king. Nevertheless, the people’s loyalty to the king did not change. Rural feudalistic relation pattern and domination centers keep running in which villages gave tribute or their harvest product to the king. Through such relation, VOC could benefit from the trade with local kings and elites. Gianti and Salatiga agreement also became the stating point of Dutch colonialism in Java. In this stage, Netherland developed Beginning capitalism, by getting as much as possible profit at as short as possible time.

European revival in the middle centuries impacted on European trading expansion to Southeast Asian countries. After Malacca had fell down into Portugal’s hand, Demak’s ruler named Pati Unus, attempted to expel Portuguese from that area, but the invasion conducted in 1513 failed with the demise of Demak King and impacted on the destruction of Demak trade economy (such as Javanese chili, tamarind, cardamom, rice, and vegetable) formerly considered as very sold-out in Malaka market (Pires, 2014: 258). Before that invasion, Demak was getting weaker and as a result, a dispute occurred between kingdoms below Demak.

Second stage of capitalism is also called high-level capitalism characterized with the expansion of product selling by increasing the number of industrial branches. The foundation of Javanese industrial integration, among others, is the construction of a giant infrastructure called Jalan Raya Pos (Post Highway). The road is the manifestation of Dutch interests in economic, military and area administration sectors. Road construction is the attempt of ecological transformation and Javanese political-economic system became more capitalistic (Ahmady, 2010: 66).

After Pati Unus’ leaving, no Javanese King continued his struggle bravely. They preferred fighting against small kingdom, the split of Majapahit, to expand their domination. Thus, at that time, Java became a wide battle arena until the winner came, Mataram Kingdom (Ahmady, 2010: 63). After Sultan Agung’s leaving, Mataram began to be broken. The conflict between Mataram relatives who wanted to become Mataram’s ruler was utilized by VOC to solidify its power in Java through Gianti Agreement in 1755 (Ahmady, 2010: 64). Kasunanan Surakarta was split more after Raden Mas Said rebelled continuously against VOC, and his rebellions ended after the reconciliation with VOC, Surakarta, and Yogyakarta through Salatiga Agreement in 1757. The dissension between Mataram kingdoms was Dutch’s attempt of breaking down the government in Indonesian archipelago in order to be mastered easily. The collapse of Mataram’s sovereignty was

Industrial revolution encouraged by the invention of steam engine and new economic capital over free labor and market economy underlay the trade competition between European countries. The trade competition impacted on Indonesian society life. Marschalk Herman William Daendels was a Dutch military officer assigned by Dutch King to maintain Java Island from English invasion. Then, he restructured VOC-inherited political system to




prevent his government from being inhibited by Javanese kings and adipatis’ power. The king’s power autonomous in nature during VOC began to be changed into centered one with Civil Servant model. Kings or area rulers were no longer allowed to collect crop from people, but the one authorized to do that at that time was Dutch administrator (Ahmady, 2010: 67).

occurs as a result of land, labor, and farm production commercialization and co-modification. It characterized polarization and proletariatization phenomena occurring in Javanese rural areas (Kano, 1996: 295). Those elaborations above are socio-historical ones affecting the continued capitalism in some Javanese areas, particularly during Adipati Mangkunegaran’s reign.

The relationship between Daendels and indigenous rulers was no longer related to trading activity, but the one between master and his accomplices. Indigenous kings and territorial rulers were made waged servants that should be obedient and subjected to their employers (masters). Through this system, Daendels was entitled to instruct Regents throughout Java to supply people labor to be involuntary labors.

Java has been a political and cultural power center in Indonesian Archipelago since Hindu-Buddha period. One of the centers was located in Surakarta, the area on which two political powers had ever established: Kasunanan and Mangkunegaran. In the term of managing government and developing culture, Mangkunegaran was more modern, meaning that it was more affected by Western countries, particularly Netherlands. This character was chosen by Mangkunegaran as the way of showing its existence before Sunan, Sultan, and Netherlands.

Post-Daendels, the attempt of industrial expansion under Dutch East Indies’ administration was conducted systematically. After Raffles had relieved Java in 1819-1830 period constituting Javanese industrialization period, in 1830, Van Den Bosch reign inherited abundant debt from its predecessor. The shattered economic condition of Dutch kingdom due to war required the Dutch East Indies’ government to find a way to rebuild Dutch economy. For that reason, Van den Bosch applied cultur stelsel or called coerced cultivation system. The succession of old patron (king) by new patron (capitalist) resulted in new demands in rural economy. Coerced cultivation system and various obligation demanded by factory overburdened people (Lindblad, 1998: 272). The implementation of coerced cultivation system impacted on the expansion of plantation land. The need for land and labor in various areas affected the shift of subsistent rural farm into plantation farm managed by foreign capital. The structural shift

Returning to the discussion concerning coerced cultivation, it indeed occurred in Vorstnlanden area, but plantation kept belonging to kingdom areas. Before Mangkunegaran IV’s reign, some of Praja Mangkunegaran-owned lands were given to bourgeois and kingdom officials as their salary. This land is called lungguh land. Although legally this land belonged to king, but its working on became the land (lungguh) holder’s right. When agrarian liberalization was applied in Dutch East Indies, many lungguh lands were rented to foreigners. As a result, many bourgeois lost their income. This lungguh land was used by investors as plantation. Because the renting system was not profitable, the kings attempted to take back its land to manage it themselves through terminating the west investor’s contract period over that land (Wasino, 2008: 52).




people’s needs. The development of sugar industry in Mangkunegaran affected positively the development of trade, and the change of social and political circumstances at local level. Mangkunegaran sugar industry had successfully improved education and health quality. However, on the other hand, these benefits have resulted in social diseases such as stealing, opium use, and prostitution, as well. It indicated that sugarcane plantation economy had symbiotic bond with rural economy.

In 19th century, sugar was the sold-out commodity in addition to coffee. To increase guilder amounts, Mangkunegara IV intended to construct sugar plant (factory). Along with the sugar plant construction plan, lungguh land just mastered successfully became the asset of sugar industrial capital, sugarcane plantation development. Mangkunegara IV’s dream to establish Colomadu sugar plant had been realized. Through a good management and adequate equipment, premier harvest in 1862 could yield 6,000 pikuls (equivalent to 137 lbs) of sugar from 135 baus of farmland. Such the result had belonged to good category at that time because it could be equal to that of sugar plants that had been established previously (Wasino, 2008: 54-27).

Javanese government bureaucracy generally considered power as feudal, traditional and hierarchical bureaucratic; Mangkunegaran is one of Javanese power center that was aristodemocratic in nature with its modern and simple bureaucratic order. Actually, when drawn from the archipelago’s historical period, the entrepreneur profession among bourgeois is not new. Trade sector had proliferated in 15th century and Javanese Kingdoms operated in crossisland commerce. However, in Islamic Mataram era, industrialist elites were bankrupted due to Sultan Agung’s political centralization failure and VOC trade partnership collapse, contributing to decreasing sea commerce. Then, a myth developed about job separation between bourgeois and ordinary people.

In 20th century, capitalists not only concerned more with their business, but also think of surrounding people’s interest. In this century, capitalism entered into high level. In this stage, the objective of capitalism changed, namely, in addition to get profit, it should be accompanied with social affairs by helping promote education, alleviating poverty, and public infrastructure. During ethical political period, Praja Mangkunegara as local capitalists attempted to build non-government sector such as infrastructure development, agricultural and land development, forestry development and education and cultural development (Wasino, 2014: 161).

Mangkunegaran IV (18531881) attempted to break this myth. Soon after holding the power, he built modern economic basis, in the form of coffee plantation and sugar industry. The land formerly rented to European entrepreneurs by lungguh (post land) holders for plantation industry was taken over and developed itself as the basis of Praja (kingdom)’s basis. There were three factors leading Mangkunegaran IV to developing onderneming (plantation) industry. Firstly, sugar is a sold-out exported

Capitalism conducted by Mangkunegaran sugar industry above was different from European capitalism. The form of capitalism in Mangkunegaran sugar industry was priyayi capitalism. This capitalism was characterized with main feature: profit obtained from capital reproduction result, in addition to capital development, was also used to meet the all of its trah (lineage)’s and




product in market. Secondly, sugarcane plant had been planted usually in a number of Surakarta areas. Thirdly, the kingdom’s income from tax collection could not meet the bourgeois’ life need.

Mangkunegaran is the kingdom inheriting trade tradition from its trah’s next generations that are successful in business. Since Mangkunegara I’s reign, it was mentioned that Praja Mangkunegaran began to yield product sold to VOC, and asked VOC to give instruction about paper and indigo planting. Then, coffee plantation, Colomadu and Tasikmadu Sugar Plants, Mojogedang pineapple fiber Company, house rent in Pindrikan Semarang, Solo, Wonogiri, hotel in Karangpandang, and Moyoretno rice milling company developed continuously.

The social change of Surakarta community due to sugar industrial presence could be seen from the community’s more advanced perspective because they could study at school with sugar plant’s tuition grant budgeted by the ruler. Health facility constituting polyclinic in factory environment had improved standard life quality of population. The community was taught to live healthily by constructing latrines. The advance of plantation had led to the advanced Surakarta areas, generally. Transportation and trade network in urban and rural areas, in this case train (rail) to transport sugar and coffee product in fact opened the isolation of villages surrounding plantation. Similarly, the development of highway opened job opportunity in transportation service sector.

Such priyayi capitalism became business ideology later in Mangkunegaran, thereby not only improving larger capital but also paying attention to family’s and society’s welfare. This trend corporate social responsibility had begun to be applied at that time. After independence day, all Mangkunegaran’s property was nationalized taken over by Indonesian Government. President Soeharto’s style at that time seemed to be identical with Mangkunegara VII’s leadership style, such as scholarship provision for people through its founded foundation. Soeharto’s intuition in business was considered as fairly strong; however it was conducted while holding power. Just like quasi-capitalism, he was successful in property and throne but his life was simple. However, this property is enjoyed by his children, trah (lineage) and proponents.

However, the negative excess is inevitable as well. The expansion of sugarcane capitalism had resulted in social cleavage that in turn resulted in dissatisfaction among marginalized community groups. As a result, political effect of Surakarta City center developing in 20th century led to social conflict in Mangkunegaran sugarcane villages. Kecu, koyok and begal are social pathology resulting in restlessness among the members of plantation. From this situation, it can be seen that co-modification of various buildings existing in Mangkunegaran had occurred since Mangkunegaran began to be capitalized with Western thought; thereby it is reasonable for Mangkunegaran to repeat the romanticism of Western capitalization. As a consequence, Mangkunegaran grows and develops with high trading intuition referring to historical reality.

Considering this social condition, the co-modification of Pracimayasa building in Pura Mangkunegaran conducted by Mangkunegara IX can reasonably be concluded for its correlation. There are some facts indicating that Mangkunegaran is one of Javanese capitalistic actors developing until today post-independence. After




Indonesia has been independent, Mangkunegaran is positioned as cultural pledge likely to be developed in both local and national tourism industry. The Pracimayasa building known as Paviliun Gusti Nurul in Mangkunegaran is constructed predominantly by an architect named Thomas Karsten, just like other buildings. Karsten’s works, in addition to those in Mangkunegaran, can be found in Surakarta: Manahan Stadium, Banjarsari Villapark, Ex-house of Surakarta Resident, Balapan Railway Station of Surakarta, Pendhapa and Gapuro (Gate) of Pura Mangkunegaran, Ex-Office of Surakarta Municipal’s DPU (Public Work Department). From those findings above, it can be said that Thomas Karsten was one of Dutch architects very skillful in designing market. The markets he made still stand sturdily, for example, Jatingaleh and Johar Markets in Semarang, Ilir Market in Palembang and Gede Market in Surakarta. The preservation of cultural pledge building in Surakarta is inseparable from building intervened with by Karsten. The preservation of cultural pledge building referred to Law No.28/2002 and Indonesian Literature Preservation Charter in Article 1.7 of Law No.28/2002 and accomplished by RI’s Law no.11 of 2010 in which preservation is an activity of maintaining, renovating, and maintaining building and its environment to recover the condition of building into original one. When observed closely, entire design of Thomas Karsten’s building is identical with the typical characteristic of colonial building. Holistically, it can be viewed that he is a market architect and the logic of market is .

consumerism; therefore since he was given an opportunity of entering into Solo by Pakubuwana X, it was possible for Karsten to project his design for market interest and consumerism tour comfort. Architect Thomas Karsten adopted highly the city layout of Netherlands, the windmill country; it indicates that Netherland now will hegemonize Java through the construction design by Karsten.

C. Conclusion Considering the explanation in result and discussion section, the following conclusions can be drawn. The practice of Pracimayasa building co-modification is the process of changing product and service valued for its use into the commodity valued for what it will give to market. Comodification occurs due to the capitalists’ spirit of monetary economy to get profit. The co-modified Pracimayasa building is a product of reproduction to be traded due to the presence of exchange value. Object, quality, and sign of Pracimayasa building are tradable commodities. Co-modification of Pracimayasa building is inseparable from the long history that it was established owing to colonial intervention. The colonial capitalistic spirit in Indonesian Archipelago colored event by event in Indonesian Archipelago including in Mangkunegaran related to money earning in capitalistic concept thereby creating capitalistic restriction. Capitalistic restriction rolled on naturally since colonialism age until today in the management of cultural pledge in Mangkunegaran.




REFERENCES Ahmady, Irhash. 2010. Java Collapse: Dari Kerja Paksa Hingga Lumpur Lapindo. Yogyakarta: INSIST Press. Bungin, Burhan. 2001. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Aktualisasi Metodologis ke Arah Ragam Varian Kontemporer. Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada. Depdikbud. 1978. Sejarah Daerah Jawa Timur. Jakarta: Depdikbud (Education and Cultural Department). Gideens, Antony. 2001. Runaway World: Bagaimana Globalisasi Merombak Kehidupan kita. Jakarta: Gramedia. Fairclough, N. 1995. Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press. Kano, Hiroyosi. 1996. Di Bawah Asap Pabrik Gula: Masyarakat Desa di Pesisir Jawa Sepanjang Abad Ke-20. Yogyakarta: Akatiga and Gadjah Mada University Press. Lindblad, J. Thomas. 1998. Sejarah Ekonomi Modern Indonesia: Berbagai Tantangan Baru. Jakarta: LP3ES. Malano, Herman. 2011. Selamatkan Pasar Tradisional. Jakarta: Kompas Gramedia. Piliang, Yasraf Amir. 1999. Hiperrealitas Kebudayaan. Bandung: LKiS. Pitana, Titis Srimuda. 2006. Estetika Arsitektur Jawa: Religiusitas Bentuk dan Ruang. Dharmastri – Journal of Religious Science and Culture, Religious Science and Culture Master Program of Indonesian Hindu University, Vol. IV No. 8/October 2006, pp. 140-153. Pires, Tome. 2014. Suma Oriental: Perjalanan Dari Laut Merah ke Cina & Buku Francisco Rodrigues. Yogyakarta: Ombak. Pringgodigdo, RMAK. 1950. Geschiedenis der Ondernemingen van het Mangkoenagorosche Rijk. Translated by R.T. Muh. Husodo Pringgokusumo. SGravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff. Soetrisno. 1984. Kapita Selekta Ekonomi Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Andi Offset. Sosialismanto, Duto. 2001. Hegemoni Negara: Ekonomi Politik Pedesaan Jawa. Yogyakarta: Lapera Pustaka Utama. Wasino. 2008. Berjuang Menjadi Wirausahawan: Sejarah Kehidupan Kapitalis Bumi Putra Indonesia. Semarang: Semarang State University Press. ________. 2014. Modernisasi di Jantung Budaya Jawa: Mangkunegaran 1896-1944. Jakarta: Kompas.




Transformation and Preservation of Cultural Values Through Filmzation of Indonesian Child Story

Karkono, Bani Sudardi 1. Karkono, S.S.,M.A. Cultural Studies Departement Sebelas Maret University, [email protected] 2. Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum, Cultural Studies Departement Sebelas Maret University, [email protected] Abstract: The attempt to maintain the existence of the stories that exist in Indonesia in order not to lose with stories from the outside is very necessary. In addition to the efforts of the improved quality of the content and format of the presentation, other businesses that can be done is to lift these stories into films. With the medium of film, people of various ages and social status would be closer to the original stories Indonesia such as the enjoyment of different shapes. Pouring the writing or oral story into a film means to innovate in order to transform the positive values contained in the story can be delivered effectively. In addition, over this transformation gives color to participate in the world of creative industries in Indonesia which does arguably not make stories that exist in Indonesia as the main material of the story. Indonesia has many stories that contain educational values were urged to be introduced to contemporary readers, especially children. Preserving stories that exist in Indonesia meaningfully participate in the preservation of culture. Key Words: Transformation of values, filmization, children stories, cultural preservation.

INTRODUCTION

R

eading is a process that is carried and used by readers to get the message to be conveyed by the author through the medium of words or written language (Tarigan, 1979:10). Meanwhile, Kridalaksana (1984:122) argues that "reading is the information from the text, either in the form of text or from a picture or diagram or a combination of it all". Departing from both these definitions, we can conclude that reading is a very important activity. Through reading, a person will get a lot of information and knowledge. The more often read, will be

more information they share. Naturally, if someone wants to be smart and know a lot of things, someone spent a lot of time to read. However, be aware of the type of reading what is read. Not all reading materials appropriate to the age of human development, especially children. If the reading material selected to be less appropriate, may be adversely affects a person's psychological development. Not the positive benefits of reading, in fact quite the opposite. This is due to a very strong reading material effect on the mindset and psychological condition of a




person. Sobur (1987:179) says that "a person's intellect will not grow perfectly healthy without read material that is enough. Reading is just as important as the food was eaten. As food has a direct influence on the development of character and intellect growth, so too does the reading ". Childhood is a time of many important because it will determine the development in the next phase. What happened or happen to someone in their teens or adults, are most likely affected what he experienced or received as a child. Not a few facts on the ground show, there are many things you read, seen and heard by children who are less appropriate to their age. Incompatibility developmental age and consumption of readings and songs could have an effect on the mindset of the next. For example in the case of the songs, nowadays a lot of children are fluently singing songs that are not in accordance with the age and developmental level of their souls. Elementary school children are already singing songs about love. One of the factors that influence is the media freely publish these songs with frequencies very often. Plus, the repertory of songs children can also be said to be very less. Children are the wealth of a nation because of their potential that will continue to run the government. Therefore, how the condition of the children is very important to note. Suyanto (2011: 47) states that, "One determinant element of a nation's character quality is a portrait of the nation as a form of morality is the basis for the development of future generations." Globalization is something that can not be avoided. One consequence is the entry of foreign literary works into Indonesia, including the translation of literary works for children's consumption. The one hand, the phenomenon can be enriched Indonesian literature. It makes the availability of abundant and children reading with so many choices. However, on the other hand it can shift the position of the original literary work of Indonesia in

the eyes of readers. Indonesian children may be more familiar with Winnie The Pooh, Lilo and Stitch, or Cinderella story than Timun Mas, Keong Mas, or Bawang Putih Bawang Merah Indonesia which is the original story. Haryanti (2013:149) says that, "Indonesia Fairytale is non material cultural wealth. It will continue to live if it is constantly introduced and passed down to each generation. However, if children today are less familiar with Indonesia traditional tales, there is one thing that needs to be examined and repaired. " Facing the phenomenon, many efforts have been made by the writer and the publisher is to hold a variation of a children's story in various forms. Call it a children's story with charming illustrations, comics, and also attractive shape (design) of packaging as well. Likewise, in terms of story material, it is already many in the market children reading books raised Indonesia original stories ladening positive value. It is a business that should be appreciated. However, preventing the flow of foreign stories into Indonesia is certainly not the right step. Improving the quality of the content and appearance in order to compete with the readings from the outside is a smart move. Addressing the needs of reading for children is not a simple thing. Lukens (2003:8-9) says that "Admission to the reading child is very dependent on the ability and capacity of children to enjoy the experience of living in it. To that end, it should be noted that reading children should be able to give pleasure and understanding (enjoyment and understanding), as well as reading for adults. However, children have limited understanding of an idea, given the experience of those who are still a little bit ". To that end, the efforts need creativity to the fulfillment of reading for children and the corresponding requirements are met as well as their condition. Reading to children is should not just contain entertainment. Containing a charge of morality is certainly better.




Morality includes touching in terms of psychiatric problems. High literary work is a literary work that is able to build the power of conscience and give encouragement to live. In other words, a superb literary work is being able to offer wisdoms and values religiosity. Through literary work was a sense of history and religiosity appreciation implanted deep in the depths of the heart. The phrase is similar to this was expressed by Paul Goodman, with a very straightforward as cited by historians as well as humanist, Koentowijoyo, on poems thus including literature, "This is a way for me to serve God and the homeland," (Koentowijoyo 2006:31). Sequentially, this article contains the description of (1) the Indonesia traditional fairy tale, (2) filmzation of Indonesian children story, (3) ecranisation: effective over ride, and (4) the losing. Learn described as follows.

INDONESIAN TRADITIONAL FAIRY One thing about Indonesian state which is recognized by the world community is its cultural richness. State of Indonesia which consists of thousands of islands turned out to be directly proportional to the many cultures that grow in it. Culture is in the form of very diverse regional languages, dances, ceremonies and religious ceremonies, and no less important are the stories of the people are scattered in various areas. The folk tales mostly oral stories told for generations. Before knowing the writing, folklore that exist in Indonesia has grown for generations by word of mouth. However, after people familiar with any writing, the stories of the people who originally transmitted orally that does not necessarily fade. The oral tradition continues to grow in tandem with the written tradition. Meanwhile, many people are less clear between oral literature and oral tradition. Both are sometimes considered to be the same thing. In fact, oral literature

is part of the oral tradition. As expressed by Sedyawati (1996:5) that the oral tradition is "all discourse delivered orally, follow in the traditions that have patternized in a society". Moisture content of the discourse may include many different things: different types of stories, or various types of ceremonial and ritual expressions. The stories were made orally, it ranged from the description of genealogical myths, legends, fairy tales, to the various stories of heroism. Departing from that perspective, the oral tradition can be interpreted very widely, not just in a story or literature. Oral tradition can be a wide range of knowledge and customs that hereditary delivered orally which includes not only the form of folktale, legend, or myth, but also deals with the history, customary law, traditional ceremonies, religious ceremonies, traditional medicine, and treatment. All that can be said as an oral tradition when that tradition with the distribution process is said/uttered. Danandjaja (2007:2) states that "folktale is the culture of a collective, which is inherited from generation to generation, in the collective range of what is traditionally in different versions, either verbally or examples are accompanied by gesture or tools reminders". Meanwhile, one of the many and diverse genres of folktale is folklore. Folklore by William Bascom (in Danandjaja, 2007:50) is a prose which consists of myths, legends, and fairy tales. Mite is folklore in prose that is by the owner community is believed to be the events that actually happened in the days of yore. Legend is folklore in prose, which, like the myth, be considered truly happen, either by the narrator or listeners, but when it happens at younger ages, when the world is like today. Legends can be secular or sacred and the characters are human. Meanwhile, Jan. Harold Brunvand (Danandjaja, 2007:67) distinguishes legend into four kinds, namely religious legend (religious legends), a legend occult (supernatural legends), a legend of individual (personal legends), and local legends (local legends).




Fairy tales are folklore in prose that is regarded as fictitious, contrary to myth and legend that is considered a story that really happened. Sungkowati and Seha states that are not considered a form of fairy tales or historical dogma and do not question the truth about the incident and the event. Although it is often said to be only for entertainment, fairy tales have an important function as suggested by fairytale containing advice. Fairy tale is not bound by space and time, can happen anytime and anywhere, (Sungkowati and Seha, 2008:13). Folklore, as one of the forms of culture and the source of history, considered as the story is rich moral and education across generations. The nature of folklore is spoken. The orality determined by over-generationly told that characterizes itself for Indonesian literary oral tradition. Distance aesthetics, age range, and spatial temporal background story make folktales told differently and graded according to the geographical area in which the speaker and the story is told, (Mustafa, 2010:182-183). Regardless of how the origin (source) of folklore in Indonesia, whether originating from the oral or written tradition, which needs to be considered is how these stories can continue to evolve over time. Rescue and retention of these stories should be continued. One of the efforts that have been and continue to be done by experts or scientists is to document the stories of the native Indonesia in book form. With the media book, young people or children right now who may rarely receive oral folklore technique (described or didongengi) can still enjoy (or just to know) folktales by reading a book. Books that there are now very varied if observed. For example if for consumption of children, books available in book form folklore modified with various images and an attractive design. In essence, the rescue efforts of folklore have been done which one of them by documenting in book form. It deserves a high appreciation for indeed a noble

attempt to keep the rescue and preserve the cultural heritage adi superb in the onslaught of unstoppable globalization. FILMZATION INDONESIAN CHILD STORY Original Indonesia children's story rescue efforts in the form of a book has been done as mentioned above. However, there are still some loopholes that can be undertaken to develop original stories Indonesia, which is indeed very much. Original Indonesia children's stories is actually very possible to for inspiration in the writing of the screenplay the film. With the film media (sound and moving image continuous), not only children, but people of all ages and social status would be closer to the original Indonesia stories for different forms of enjoyment of that movie offerings. Ponofsky (in Bluestone, 1968: 6) explains that the pleasure derived from watching 'living pictures' in the movie was actually not from the material, but from sensation when viewed objects are moving. This movement brings the illusion that everything is real. This is what gave birth to the sensation of joy! Viewers as they witnessed a series of moving pictures in front of the eyes (carnival sideshows). The effort of Indonesia children's story filmzation is very worth doing as part of efforts to rescue the original folktales Indonesia. By no means shrink the role of researcher/scientist who already do business with documenting folklore in book form, but poured folklore in the form of a film means to innovate and provide a different room for the contemporary reader. The scope of the book is the scope of the writers and readers. While in the world of the film is the scope of the filmmakers and the audience. The filmmakers also had the opportunity to be creative through their field at the same party to preserving the stories of the people of Indonesia. In addition to the above, this effort participates and gives color to the world of creative industries in Indonesia which are




arguably not make original stories Indonesia as the main material of the story. The source of inspiration in the writing of the script of the film is certainly very much and one that is very probably excavated is the source of children's stories/ Indonesia fairy tale. The fact now, not a few films in Indonesia less lift fairy tale treasures of Indonesia. One that stands out from Indonesian films are the themes more on horror wrapped in comedy or sexist packaging. Although, not a few filmmakers who try to lift the natural and cultural richness of Indonesia in their film work. Some examples that we can see and worthy of our appreciation is Denias movie that tells about the nature and culture of Papua. There are also films Tanah Air Beta set in natural conditions and culture in the border area between Indonesia and Timor Leste, or film King who managed to combine culture and nature of Indonesia with the story of Indonesian hero in the world of sport. The third film was produced by the writer pillowcase Alenia Productions, a production house run by a couple Nia Zulkarnain and Ari Sihasale. A film that received a positive response from the public is the film Laskar Pelangi, directed by Riri Reza. The film is in addition to the theme of the condition of education in Indonesia, also featuring the stunning natural beauty of Indonesia, namely in the area of Bangka Belitung (Belitong). There is also a soldier beetle movie taking place on the island of Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara (NTB). Elements of education and culture is also very strong. Outside the film that the writer mentioned, there are also other films that tried to lift the local wisdom that exist in Indonesia. However, once again the number is certainly very little when compared to the level of productivity of an existing movie. Meanwhile, in the stage repertoire in Indonesia, such as ballet, puppets, or wayang kulit, the main material that often raised is the story of the Mahabharata and Ramayana. We know that the story of the

Mahabharata and Ramayana are not native to Indonesia. In fact, many original stories Indonesia worldwide but less known to the Indonesian people themselves. One example is the story of Panji InukertapatiSekartaji. Panji tale itself comes from Kediri, East Java. In its development, Panji story has many variants and lowers other stories like andhe-andhe Lumut, Keong Emas, Panji Laras, and etc. In addition Panji stories relating to the history, the stories of other purely oral story in Indonesia is still many. In fact, virtually every area bound by the province has its own folklore. In addition, beside Sekartaji-Panji story, East Java region still has Damarwulan-Menakjingga story. In Central Java, for example there is the story Jaka Tarub, Timun Emas, Rawa Pening, Rara Mendut, Arya Penangsang and others. Which is quite famous in West Java, there are Sangkuriang and Kasarung. Not to mention the area of Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and other regions. Many treasures owned by Indonesian folklore is not necessarily known by the people of Indonesia, especially the younger generation. If the stories are often staged in the realm of the performing arts traditions, is certainly plenty of choice stories that can be enjoyed. By producing films based on folklore / fairy tales, it will bring the positive synergy. On the one hand, it does rescue the folklore of native Indonesia, on the other hand, it makes the film as a means of transformation of values. Film is very effective to transform the value once the identity of a nation.

ECRANISATION: EFFECTIVE MEDIA TRANSFORMATION Lifting the written stories in the form of books or still mere oral stories into film involves shifting of media that can be enjoyed by the technique of reading, into a medium that is enjoyed by watchinghearing. This kind of process is not new.




Basically, an adaptation of one particular media into another form in creating the work is often done by the artists. For example, from a radio play into a movie has already happened in Indonesia when the radio play, Saur Sepuh Niki Kosasih, appointed to work in the film and directed by Imam Tantowi. From poetry inducted into a song, for example, the poetry of Taufik Ismail was appointed to the songs and music performed by the group Bimbo. Hadiansyah (2006:1) states that in the history of world cinema-especially Hollywood-ninety percent of the work of film and television screenplay comes from the adaptation process. Call it Harry Potter movie which is an adaptation of the novel by J.K. Rowling, entitled Harry Potter, The Lord of the Rings adaptation of the novel The Lord of the Rings Tolkien's works in 1954, the film Doctor Zhivago adaptation of the novel by Boris Pasternak, entitled Doctor Zhivago, Malcom X (autobiography), and much more , Meanwhile, many films are sold in the market that was adapted from a fairy tale. Enchanted is one of the classic fairy tale world embodied in the film. Before that, there was Beauty and the Beast (1991, 2010) who was appointed from La Belle et La Bete by Charles Perrault. Then there is also a much-loved movie entitled Alice in The Worderland (1951, 2010) by Lewis Carroll. The latest, which was produced in 2012 and is the film Snow White and The huntsmen work of the brothers Grimm. The process of adaptation of the novel into film form in Eneste (1991:60) called ecranisation. Eneste explained, is ecranisation is the transfer of a novel into a film (ecran in French means the screen). Pujiati (2009:76) states that the dynamic transformation of the work (from text to film and from film to text) shelter in adaptation, the film is also a land of novelisation in it. In USA, the transformation of literature into films is known as cinematic adaption. Since 2005 books theories on the adaptation of literature to movies (and vice versa) sprung back in the United States, among

which are the titles as follows: A Companion to Literature and Film (2005) and Literature and Film: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Film Adaptation (2005) a series of volumes of the book was written by Robert Stam alongside Alessandro Raengo, and Robert Stam himself wrote Literature through Film: Realism, Magic, and the Art of Adaptation (2005) and Linda Hutchon launched A Theory of Adaptation (2006), and Christine Garaghty New publish a Major Motion Picture Film adaptations of Literature and Drama (2007). In Indonesia itself, ecranisation is not new. Karkono (2009:1-2) states that at least in 1951 the process of adaptation in the work already begun is when the director filmed the drama works precariously Armijn Pane entitled Between Earth and Sky. Furthermore, although it can be said not too often, but this adaptation process continues to be done, not only of drama into the film (widescreen) but also from novel to film and soap operas (screen). When an original tales passed down orally, documented in book form, it would be easier to be appointed in the form of a film. The idea for a story Indonesian children into the medium of film would be very operational (and not merely conceptual) because it could be analogous to the process ecranisation on a novel into a movie. The assumption is that if the children's story books are filmed, most likely also would potentially suck up a lot of spectators and more effective in transforming the educational value. When examined, the success of the films were produced based on the novel, of course preceded the success of the novel first. The novel readers tend to be curious to prove fantasy/imagination while reading the novel, when the novel was filmed. Therefore, so that when it is filmed, many people will watch, it needs to be a business that books containing children's story is also successful in the market first. Another advantage possessed children's stories, a lot of people who already understand a




fairy tale without having read the book because it was their oral tradition. Very likely, when one hears about to produced films based on fairy tales, was interested in seeing the film because it has an attachment with a story that is already known. If the novel can be successful when raised in the film, it is not impossible when a fairy tale (which has also been known by the public) could potentially gain success when it was filmed. This is an opportunity. The challenge for filmmakers, producers, or workers of art is how these tales can pack so it, so that it becomes interesting spectacle presentation and sale value. Not only for commercial purposes, but more important than it is to color in the world of film art by exploring the original stories Indonesia which so many at once introduced him to contemporary society, especially young people and children.

CONCLUSION The entry of foreign literary works into Indonesia-including children's literature-is the logical consequence of globalization. Popularity foreign literature or the translation is possible to shift the position of original stories in the country. Effort is needed from all concerned to maintain the existence of the original story of Indonesia, especially for children. So far, already visible effort of the author or the publisher improves the quality of the original story of Indonesia in

order to compete with foreign literature, for example, in terms of packaging. Variations publishing original story for Indonesia not only in content, but also in terms of the form to see from time to time to show progress. Book with charming illustrations to comics with characters taken from a fairy tale is now easy to find. Rescue and preservation of traditional stories Indonesia requires the scope and means of a more diverse in order to run as expected. One alternative that could be targeted is the art of film. Movie is assumed to reach a wider audience and more effective to transform the great value, especially for children. Producing films based on the stories of the Indonesian people means doing two strategic actions at once. One side, the stories of the people who could be categorized as part of oral literature and is one of our oral traditions need to be preserved. One of the conservation measures in question is to introduce genuine Indonesia folktales, both of which have been documented in book form and which is still in the form of oral history, into a form of film presentation. Transforming from Indonesia to the film folklore means doing business to provide color in the film treasures in Indonesia and do business recognition, preservation, and preservation of original folklore Indonesia to the latest generation, and to provide space in the transformation of the nation's cultural values which are more diversified.

REFERENCES Bluestone, G.1968. Novel Into Film. Los Angeles: University of California Press. Danandjaja, J. 2007. Folklor Indonesia: Ilmu Gosip, Dongeng, dan Lain-lain. Jakarta:Grafiti Press. Eneste, P. 1991. Novel dan Film. Flores: Nusa Indah.




Hadiyansyah, F. 2006. Adapatasi Novel Biola Tak Berdawai ke dalam Film: Kajian Perbandimgan. Jakarta: Pascasarjana Universitas Indonesia. Haryanti, R. 2013. “Sahabat Anak Indonesia: Cinderella atau Timun Mas”. Bandung: Prosiding Seminar Internasional Sastra Bandung, Unpad Press. Karkono. 2009. Ayat-Ayat Cinta: Kajian Ekranisasi. Yogyakarta: Pascasarjana Universitas Gadjah Mada. T Kridalaksana, H. 1984. Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: Gramedia Koentowijoyo. 2006. Maklumat Sastra Profetik. Yogyakarta: Grafindo Litera Media. Lukens, R. J. 2003. A Critical Handbook of Children Leterature. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Mustofa, A. 2010. “Sayembara sebagai Bentuk Resistensi Perempuan terhadap Hegemoni Laki-laki dalam Tiga Cerita Rakyat: Roro Jonggrang, Roro Mendut, dan Sangkuriang.” Surabaya: Jurnal Atavisme Balai Bahasa Surabaya No 256 Pujiati, H. 2009. “Cerita Cinta Tentang Dia; Transformasi Ideologis dari Cerpen ke Film Kajian Ekranisasi.” Yogyakarta: Jurnal Bulak volume 4 Sedyawati, E. 1996. "Kedudukan Tradisi Lisan dalam Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu-Ilmu Budaya". Jakarta: Jurnal Pengetahuan dan Komunikasi Peneliti dan Pernerhati Tradisi Lisan. Edisi II Maret. Sobur, A. 1987. Butir-Butir Mutiara Rumah Tangga. Jakarta: BPK Gunung Mulia. Sungkowati, Y. dan Seha, N. 2008. Potensi Cerita Rakyat Dewi Rengganis. Surabaya: Balai Bahasa Surabaya. Suyatno. 2011. “Potret Moralitas Pribadi dalam Novel Karya Anak.” Malang: Jurnal Bahasa dan Seni Tahun 39, Nomor 1. Tarigan, H.G. 1979. Membaca Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa. Bandung: Angkasa




Culture of Cooperation: IWAYO, Kebaya, PKBI. The Dynamic Interaction between NGOs Working for Well Being/Empowerment of the Waria

Megawati Irawan Alumni of International Relations Department, Hasanuddin University, [email protected]

Abstract: Waria is minority in Indonesia’s society. In order to pursue a better life, Waria in Yogjakarta built their organization based on the mutual identity and aims. The organizations are IWAYO (Ikatan Waria Yogjakarta/Yogjakarta Waria’s bond), and KEBAYA (Keluarga Besar Waria Yogjakarta/Yogjakarta Waria’s Big Family).There also PKBI Yogjakarta (Perkumpulan Keluarga Berencana Indonesia/ Indonesian Family Planning Association) which was taking part and giving part for Waria and its issues. This research aimed to discover the cooperation of those three organizations, conflicts that emerge, and Waria’s reflection in their organizational life. Research method is qualitative, particularly through participant observation method. Researcher actively involved in every Waria’s activity and its organizations. Primary data are collected by formal and informal interview. The dynamic interaction of Waria’s Non Governmental Organizations can’t be detached from cooperation and conflicts, as well as challenges. All those NGO has similarity that consist Waria as the members and fight for their well being. Yet it motivates them to collaborate in various fields. Unfortunately there are also disparity of each foundation of the organizations, and variance of system in terms to running the organizations. Hence, this tree organization cannot be united. However, they keep cooperate. Another significant factor in Waria’s organization life is their internal social interaction; competition of influence, and rivalry at individual level of the key person in organization. It has a considerable impact in culture of cooperation of organization’s who works for empowering Waria in Yogjakarta. Key words: culture, cooperation, Interaction, conflict, Waria, Yogjakarta

INTRODUCTION Background

T

wo years ago, I made a project plan for Waria in Makassar. At that time I was in rush to reach the project deadline submission in order to obtain

fund from an organization under the United Nations. It caused me not pay attention accurately for the most important thing in my project, the transvestites itself. I understand Waria at that moment as people who fight for their rights in life. As human being, Waria have their rights to




improve their economic condition, in order to avoid living the street life as sex worker. My spirit towards running the project is important but I missed something that is more important. It is a process to understand them well as well as recognize the way they think and their perspectives. I had done a small research previously, but it was not enough. It was only a small conversation with an organization that focused in LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) issues. On the other hand, I also did not talk about the transvestites directly, that has become one of the reasons why the LGBT activists in the organization were not very welcome with my project plan, other than my project plan being a very sensitive issue. Furthermore, I decided to cancel the project because of my lacking of knowledge about Waria. At that time, I did not know about ethnography and field research. Considering that my background study is International Relations, it makes me realize that I need more time to understand the field research and find the right way to socialize with the Waria. Learning it more theoretically does not stop me to gain some information and try to have a conversation with Waria. My research has then been postponed for a year until I met with a Waria from Makassar who works in the United States of America and has published a book about her reflection as Waria in many perspectives in life. She gave me her book that she wrote. There is a sense of truth in that book that makes me happy as well as help me gain new knowledge about waria’s way of thinking. It makes me more interested in knowing them. I have many unanswered questions about waria and I believe a lot of people want to know more the reason behind being a waria. Out of my expectation, when I joined tridem research there are researches about waria then I straightly chose that topic of research. My research takes Jogjakarta’s waria as sample. It has been a big happiness for me to conduct a formal research about waria. In addition I

had to have lots of interaction with Jogjakarta’s waria and collaborate with two of my researcher partners.Researching with friends from different majors has been a challenge of its own, but on the other hand it is enriching our knowledge through different perspectives that we have. My researcher friends are Monika Swastyastu from Anthropology major in Gadjah Mada University and Mira from Anthropology major in Albert-Ludwig University. Coming from different places makes us have a different understanding about waria yet it is very helpful for our research. Waria have been called with different names in Indonesia. There is no exact English equivalent for the Indonesian word waria. “Waria” is a combination of the words “wanita”- woman, and “pria”man. One might be tempted to label waria as transgender, however, as Tom Boellstorff points out, “transgender” is often used to suggest transcending gender, and this doesn’t quite fit the waria subject position. For the same reason, Boellstorff also argues against earlier claims that waria are part of a third gender.“Transexual” waria are not; the word usually implies genital change surgery, which is very uncommon and certainly not what it means to be waria. In writing this report I use the term ‘Waria’. Like any group of people, waria come in many shapes and sizes. Some wear tight tops and short skirts, some wear t-shirts and fitted jeans, some wear dresses, some look androgynous, some even wear the jilbab. Many wear make-up, some wear fake eyelashes, some paint their eyebrows. Many have long hair, though some of them do not. Most have breasts, either from a stuffed bra, self-prescribed hormone therapy (birth control pills), or more recently by silicone injection (Boellstorff 2007). Waria are male-bodied individuals who generally dress and act in a normatively feminine manner on a daily basis. Waria are often self-described as having the body of a man, but the soul of a




woman (Boelstorff, 2007). “To bring the body into alignment with the soul by wearing women’s clothes, make up, and so on is a source of pleasure for warias” (Boellstorff, 2007). In several cultures and history there have been story about male who has look, behavior, and grown as female. It proves that waria have existed since our ancestor time. In some of our cultures, Waria hold a respectful and important position. In the eastern part of Indonesia especially in Sulawesi’s Bugis custom there have been Waria that are known as Bissu. Bissu is a guardian of kingdom’s heritage and advisor for the king. Bissu is a choosen male raised as a female. They are also associated with magic and sorcery. In Bali there is also Gandrung who is a male that dresses as a female. East Java also has traditional arts show called Ludruk who is played by Waria and it still has regular performance in Jogjakarta. In Reok Ponorogo arts, there is gemblak that has role as a maid and also to fulfill their host (warok) sexual desire. Gemblak is a male that is treated as a female. In Yogyakarta Waria are visible in daily life- in markets, in salons, on the street, in neighborhoods. Waria have sex with normal men, not gay men and never other waria. “Their desire is generally understood as “the desire of femininity for masculinity- that is, as heterosexual desire” (Boellstorff, 2007). Jogjakarta is known for its deep rooted and long lasting culture and transvestites have its own place in it. Compared to other places in Indonesia, Jogjakarta is a city that is benignant about transvestites’s existence. They have various jobs in Jogjakarta and it is what differentiates them with transvestites in other places. There are some of them who have succeded in business, being a sex worker, beauty shop worker, and etc. In transvestites daily life they have their own way of life compared with common people. They have their own language among their people. Commonly it is a slang Indonesian language.

Focus and Problem It has become an interesting subject when Waria gather and form an organization. There are also interactions and communications happen in their organization. They have their own ways of interacting between each other which reflects their organization life. Waria in Yogyakarta join a regional community based on their areas and job environment and they gather in an organization. There is also a NGO (nongovernmental organization) founded by Waria which is focused on transgenders’ health problem, there also exist other NGO that is not founded by the Waria but involves Waria in their work. At first this research focused on one transgender organization in Yogyakarta namely IWAYO (Ikatan Waria Yogyakarta). After doing some observations, we found that IWAYO has a strong tie with other organizations such as PKBI (Persatuan Keluara Berencana Indonesia) and Kebaya (Keluarga Besar Waria Yogyakarta). Besides, there is also an Islamic boarding school chaired by IWAYO’s leader. Therefore, it widens this research focus. At the beginning, this research only focused on interaction and communication inside IWAYO itself. Then the focus is widened to see how these different organizations work together for the well being of Waria with the IWAYO as the centerpoint. In case of culture of cooperation, we researched on the pattern of their interaction with the same identity in different organizations/communities, Waria perspective of their own social political life in organization, and how they share vision and goal as their connection beside their identity, challenge, also regional and international network influence to the organization. Based on these reasons, the main question of this researh is how do the Waria NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) interact among them in working for the well being and empowerment of the Waria?




Theoretical Approach In writing this report, I use Collective Identity theory to analyze in order to answer the research question.

in speaking of identity we are not referring to an autonomous object, nor to a property of social actors; we mean, rather, the process by which social actors recognize themselves – and are recognized by other actors – as part of broader grouping and develop emotional attachments to them (Melucci, 1995) Based on what Melucci has mentioned above, if speaking about identity, it will usually be referred to the process that happens between the actors. Actors who are involved in this research are Waria, NGOs, and individual or groups who know themselves for having the same identity as the waria and then do the rpocess together. In particular, they tell us about the intersection of collective involvement and personal engagement which characterizes so much collective action (Melucci) . Therefore, it is in this process where the image of culture of cooperation happens, which is through the interaction, cooperation, and relations that happen between them either emotional relation between the individuals or formal relation through the organization. In the following chapter we discuss about the characterictic of identity construction. We show, first, that identity production is an essential component of collective action, through the cooperation and the conflict happens among them and the establishment of connections linking events from different periods. Consistent with what has long been asserted both sociological (Touraine 1981; Pizzorno 1978; Melucci, 1996) and sociopsychological (Moscovici 1979; Drury and Reicher 2000; Howard 2000) perspectives on collective action, we regard identity as neither a thing one can own, nor a property of actors, but as the

process through which individual and/or collective actors, in interaction with other social actors, attribute a specific meaning to their traits, their life occurrences, and the systems of social relations in which they are embedded. Furthermore, to see the whole dynamic interaction we have to describe several things. First, the similarities that make them work together and the difference that could be a challenge in the interaction process conflict between the organizations. “actors who are similar in some traits/attitudes/experiences may differ substansially in other dimension (simmel 1955, Diani 2000)” According to that theory, eventhough the actors, which are waria NGOs in Yogyakarta, have similarities; it doesn’t close the opportunity for them to have differences. This dimension of differences would be their point of view, history, perspective to see each other and et cetera. In order to write about dynamic interaction, I will utilize this theory to see the differences between the NGOs and what impact do they have that may come up later as challenges that the NGOs should face in implementing their own programs. METHODOLOGY In conducting research, methodology that I used is participant observation. Before having an interview with the key persons, Mira, one of my research partners was already in contact with some waria from her research before in Indonesia and we tried to re-contact them again. Afterwards we introduced our selves formally and informally as researchers to the other waria members in the organization. Every person in the team worked together and we also gained help in doing our research from our partner, PKBI13. We joined every activities of the 13

Anna and her mother, our partner that become volunteer in PKBI. During the research both of them help researcher to




organization, such as attending their meetings or events, doing voluntary work and hanging out together with the waria to have informal conversation. The latter, the informal conversation, shows more data that we were not expecting before.

different to each other. It is influence by their emotional attachment to each other and commonly they also compete with each other to show who is more prominent among them. Hence, the lives of Waria are not free from jealousy and arrogances of each other. “Karna kan di waria itu, kalau di waria HIV, aids itu bukan hanya apa ya Immunie Deficiency Syndrome tapi juga AIDS itu Angkuh, Iri, Dengki dan Sirik. Itu berlaku di waria. Saya pikir juga berlaku di komunitas lain juga ya. Tapi di waria sangat menonjol itu.”17 (because in our world HIV, AIDS do not only mean Immunie Deficiency Syndrome but also refers to Arrogancy, Malicious and Jealousy. That happens between the Waria. I think it also happens in other communities. But in Warias’ world, it is very dominant)

DISCUSSION A. NGOs Waria in Yogyakarta Waria have their personal images between them. Personal images that they agreed with have different level in their community. It makes them have their social formation in their community. There are some categories that make some waria have higher level than other waria. First, the person that they call mami or Ibu refers to waria that is mature and already has more experience. By experience means more times in the street as a sex worker which now makes her not do nyebong14 anymore because she already has a big income for herself. Some experienced waria become germo15 and some become entrepreneurs. “yang itu mami beda, dia ngga nyebong, dia kan bisa dibilang udah jadi germonya aku jadi dia beda, sudah diatas dan ngga gabung-gabug lah istilah sama kita”16 (that mami is different, she is not doing prostitution, we could say she has been my pimp, she is already on top and so she does not join us) This phenomenon creates their own structure between them in their community. It makes the waria who are in high status, or in other word experienced, gain more respect from other waria. Also the personal image of each waria is connect with Waria Community and organization in Yogjakarta. They have good relation to waria since Anna become volunteer at PKBI in 2012. 14 Doing prostitution in the street, usually at night and they have special spot. 15 Pimp, the leader or the one that sell and organize the prostitute. 16 Informal conversation with waria A, September 15th 2014

Secondly, they are already trusted by other, because for waria to trust other waria is difficult. Only few that could be trusted persons, for example the key person that becomes the head or the leader like Mami V and Ibu S. The position as the head or the leader makes them have big roles and influence in the NGOs. Not all Waria in Yogyakarta originally come from Yogyakarta or Java Island. Yogyakarta becomes the transit point for Waria from Surabaya and around before heading to Jakarta.18 In the other hand, there are also some Waria who have been living in Yogyakarta for a long time then decided to stay in Yogyakarta eventhough they might not be from Java Island. Therefore, the diaspora of tribe between Waria in Yogyakarta is diverse. The case above influences the number of Waria in Yogyakarta. Certainly, according to Kebaya database there are 450 waria in Yogyakarta. But, the number 17

Interview with Mami V, Head of Kebaya, September 16th 2014 18In interview with Mami V, September 16 th 2014




might change everyday depending on the waria who come and leave the city. Most of the Waria do not have identity card because, firstly it is illegal to write Waria under the gender section in Identity Card. Secondly, most of the Waria are not living with their family19. They leave their family and go somewhere else and come to live there.

besar. Ee mayoritas temen-temen waria itu di salon, pekerja seks dan.. emm apa namanya dan ngamen. Dan strip singer itu. karna memang fenomenanya itu seperti itu. Jadi ketika dia sebuah keluarga ada tumbuh ada seorang warianya ketika dia mau mengeskpresikan dirinya kan.. ada penolakkan di keluarga. Karna penolakan ini keras. Mereka temen-temen waria ini banyak yang kemudian melarikan diri dari rumahnya. Ya kan, nah, kemudian mereka mencari tempat yang bisa menerima. Misalnya di Jogja….bahwa keadaan waria itu kita ini terdiskriminasi oleh pekerjaan. karna apa kita hanya bisa mengakses pekerjaan yang non formal. Ya akhirnya ya itu tadi.”21 (Because Waria are powerless. Which means waria do not have capital (to start a business) and a lot of them have low educational background. So with that state, what could be the result? It is obviously they likely have jobs that do not need skills nor capital, like street singing or prostitution. These kinds of jobs do not need skills and capital, that is why our waria friends mostly do street singing or prostitute. When they get money from singing in the street or being a prostitute, they could then have a beauty course or start a beauty shop. So basically there are three big jobs (for waria). The majority of them work at a beauty shop, as prostitutes, and street musicians. And strip-singers because the phenomena is just like that. So when in one family, there is a waria that wants to express herself but then she gets a hard denial from her family, she will run away from her house and find a place that could accept her for what she wants to be. For instance, (they run away to Yogya and) in Yogya, the condition of the waria being discriminated by their jobs

Most of Waria in Yogya have low education level. A chance to pursue higher education is not high due to their status as waria that is not commonly acceptable within the society. “waktu aku berubah jadi gini (waria), temen-temen kampusku berubah, udah aku ngga mau lagi kekampus (When I changed myself to be like this (waria), my friend changed and so I quitted university)”20 This is one of many challenges they face when they want to have higher education. It implicates the lack of knowledge in social, political, religion and economy context. For example, most of them have a low life by working as sex worker, street musician, all the jobs that have small incomes. It then makes them stay under the poverty line. “Karna waria itu benar-benar kurang berdaya. Artinya temen-temen waria itu satu tidak punya modal, pendidikannya banyak yang rendah. Jadi dengan keadaaan seperti itu apa? hasilnya pekerjaan yang tidak memerlukan skill dan tidak memerlukan modal, yaitu ngamen dan prostitusi. Nah ini kan tidak memerlukan keahlian dan modal. makanya mayoritas temen-temen waria itu ngamen dan prosititusi. Ketika mereka dari ngamen dan prostitusi ini sudah mendapatkan uang.. mereka bisa kursus salon, mendirikan salon. Nah seperti itu. Jadi memang ada tiga pekerjaan 19

To make an identity card must include family card with our name on it. 20 Informal conversation with Waria A, September 21, 2014

21

Interview with Ibu S, Head of IWAYO, September 19th 2014




makes them only able to access nonformal jobs. So that’s why it’s like I have mentioned before (they are powerless.) Nonetheless, Waria in Yogyakarta have their differences. They live alongside in society as the marginal community does not close the access to interact with other society and has social life among people. Eventhough, they do not get along with their own original family. “Dulu design pembangunan.. design pembentukan IWayo itu didesign secara dengan apa ya.. dengan prinsip lebih cultural. Lebih membudaya. Dengan sisi-sisi apa keseniannya kebudayaannya. Kemudian pengembangan ekonominya. Oleh karena itulah mereka dengan masyarakat sangat dekat sekali.” (The formation design of IWAYO was designed with a more cultural principle. With art and cultural sides. Then its economic development. That’s why they are very close with the society)22 A.1. IWAYO (Ikatan Waria Yogyakarta)23 Waria in Yogyakarta gather in an organization called IWAYO (Yogyakarta Transgender Association). IWAYO serves as an umbrella-komunital transgender community in Yogyakarta. It was first established in 1982 with a total of 62 members from all corners of Yogyakarta. At that time, IWAYO was only for doing social activities engaged in the empowerment of human resources, with the help of BKKKS, under the auspices of the Social Service DIY. In line with the development of activities, sports became an important part to popularize IWAYO name among the people of Yogyakarta. In 1986, IWAYO got various facilities of IPPA DIY activities include: assembly hall, secretariat, motivational activities related to IMS. 22 23

In interview with PKBI, September 8th 2014 Yogjakarta waria’s Bond (translate)

Friction that occurs within IWAYO management in the management of the whole year 1990 - 1992 caused IWAYO to a long break without a coordinated campaign. Friction in question is the existence of differences of opinion among transvestites in the organization that led to the formation of separate groups. This has led to dualism in an organization that led to the long break of the organization itself. Then PKBI DIY took over the coordination of the transgender community through organizing division transvestites. In 2002, the movements of the transgender community began to form again but still under the auspices of the organization's assistance and IPPA. The number of Waria at that time had reached about 200 people, this community was a community formed specifically on the basis of the background equation profession / occupation, residence, interests or hobbies namely Community of Waria Kota Gede which then joined Studio Arts Yogyakarta formed in 2000. Later this Waria community also joined the Islamic boarding school that facilitates Waria in religion and being in the city of Gede, transgender community Sidomulyo, formed based on common residence in RW 04, RT 15 and 16 Sidomulyo, Bener village subdistrict Tegalrejo, Waria Community in Bank Indonesia (BI), are formed based on the similarity of employment / hung, Solo Street Community, formed on the basis of similarity profession as street musician, Badran community, formed on the basis of similarity neighborhoods RT 47 and 48 Badran, Waria community in Bantul, formed on the basis of similarity residence throughout Bantul. On July 15, 2010 IWAYO held the first important event for the history of the Association of Waria Yogyakarta (IWAYO) ever since their long break of formal activities. That day was a turning point that marked the re-birth of IWAYO and the election of the chairman of the organization. Through deliberation representatives of ten (10) transgender communities in Yogyakarta on April 14,




2010, it held a general election to elect the chairman and form its staffs. The existence of IWAYO Ten aims to unite to the transgender community in Yogyakarta, namely: Sidomulyo Transgender Communication Forum (FKWS), Community Jombor Waria, Waria Community Badran, Container Inspiration Waria Bank Indonesia (WIWBI), Studio Arts Waria Yogyakarta, Bantul Waria Association (Iwaba), Solo Street Community, Community Sorogenen transgender, Waria Community Prambanan, Waria Community Kulonprogro (warkop).

PKBI. Ibu S as the head of IWAYO said that their relation with PKBI is very good. She also explained how PKBI helped IWAYO hold their event, by giving donations in community’s regular meeting.

“selain itu PKBI memberikan uang 50 ribu per komunitas, setiap komunitas itu melakukan ada perut, pertemuan rutin. Kita dikasih uang apa ya uang snack lah. Biar mendorong. 50 ribu sebulan. Karna tau Iwayo tidak punya uang ya, jadi komunitas-komunitas ini ketika melakukan pertemuan, nanti dari sana petugas lapangannya datang membuatkan laporan untuk ke PKBI bahwa ini ada pertemuan rutin disini. Jadi sebetulnya apa ya, dari komunitas ini masih mandiri sendiri-sendiri.”24 (besides that, PKBI gives fifty thousand Rupiah per community, everytime the community does a regular meeting, we are given “snack money” to push the people (to join the meeting). Fifty thousand per month. Because (PKBI) knows IWAYO does not have any money, every time these communities do a meeting, their field officer will come to make a report to PKBI that there is a regular meeting here. So actually, this community is still dependent.)

Transgender community that lives and resides in the province so far has the goal to increase the dignity, as well as the standard of living, yet there is a large container that is able to absorb and accommodate the aspirations of the whole community of transvestites who live and reside in the province. To unify the plurality of communities, improve the welfare and equality of recognition by the wider community with a spirit of togetherness, solidarity, and uphold the principle of the family, it takes a large container that can accommodate all aspirations and is able to accommodate most of the needs of the transgender community in DIY with the division of labor and the realm of clear area in accordance with the character and culture of each community there. IWAYO since reformed and become an official non-governmental organizations on the notary deed has a vision and mission. Uniting Mission transgender community performance of the container in the province aims to increase the dignity, and the standard of living of transvestites, and helps promote / increase the capacity of the transgender community in the province. While the vision that carries the realization of the life of waria is acceptable on various aspects of society.

Besides that, in the process of empowering the Waria in Yogyakarta IWAYO also cooperates with social department from government and university student. IWAYO becomes the connecting actor from government to the Waria community. The regular training program from government for waria are fish and duck raising training, saloon skill training, cooking, and sewing training. Most of the trainings that government

In case to pursue their vision and mission, IWAYO has gained their networking. The best partner for them is

24





programmed for waria are to improve their capability and skill.

“Pemberdayaan temen-temen dilatih membatik, dilatih ternak gitu, beternak lele, beternak bebek. Kita ada bantuan dari Dinas Sosial, setiap tahun itu limabelas orang waria dilatih bekerja, buka salon, memasak dan menjahit. Jadi mereka disuruh milih. Itu lima belas orang waria setiap tahun. Kita memilih. Tahun ...em bulan besok. bulan februari kita ada pelatihan lagi. Jadi setiap bulan februari itu limabelas waria dilatih, kemudian dikasih modal. dikasih modal peralatan sama Dinas Sosial. Kalau yang latihan kerja apa, seperti ternak Lele, ternak itu.. kita dapatnya dari Dinas tenaga kerja.”25 (Waria is empowered by being trained on how to make batik, how to breed (animals), such as catfish or duck. We get help from the social service, every year fifteen waria are trained to work, to start a beauty shop, to cook, and to sew. So they are asked to pick one. Next February, we will have another training. So every February, fifteen waria are trained to be then given a capital or tools from the social service depends on what training they undergo.) IWAYO also has cooperated with university students. They got training in membantik 26, journalistic and how to be

25

Interview with Ibu S, Head of IWAYO, September 19th 2014 26 A process to make traditional cloth from Indonesia called batik. Batik can refer to two things. The first is the technique of coloring cloth using the malam (wax) to prevent staining in part of the fabric. In the international literature, this technique is known as wax-resist dyeing. The second notion is the fabric or clothing made with

citizen journalism for waria. The university students also provide a knowledge for IWAYO in their administration. For example in making the event proposal and connect them with the government.

“Kalau pelatihan-pelatihan seperti membatik, pelatihan jurnalis, citizen jurnalism. Nah penulisan itu. Kemudian itu dari temen-temen mahasiswa. Iya. ini juga kita mau ada pelatihan IT. Iya IT. juga dari temen-temen mahasiswa. Tementemen mahasiswa ini bekerja sama dengan Iwayo kemudian membuatkan proposal ke DIkti ke Dirjen Penelitian ya. Kita juga dilatih apa aja ya.. banyake.”27 (For trainings like how to make batik, journalistic training, citizen journalism, and writings, they are from university students. We will also soon have an IT training that is also from university students. These university students cooperate with IWAYO and then make a proposal to DIKTI or Director General of Research. We are trained practically everything, and lots of things...) A.2. PKBI (Perkumpulan Berencana Indonesia)28

Keluarga

The PKBI (Perkumpulan Keluarga Berencana Indonesia) Branch of the city of Yogyakarta has been active since PKBI was established in Yogyakarta. Location of the city of Yogyakarta as the capital city makes PKBI IPPA is synonymous with DIY. As the name implies, PKBI has a very strong campaign of women's rights and the rights of family planning issues that women do not only serve as objects of reproduction fulfillment alone but their these techniques, including the use of certain motifs that have specificity. 27 Interview with Ibu S, Head of IWAYO, September 19th 2014 28Indonesian Family planning association (translate)




safety and health must also be considered. One of the real form of IPPA efforts is to encourage women to be assertive in the family and could compromise in determining the number of children. MMR (Maternal Mortality Rate) and IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) is quite high in Indonesia in the 1960s is clearly a target weight for the PKBI, due to the high MMR and IMR clearly reflects unmet women's rights. In the process, the issues carried by PKBI are not only on family planning births, but started on the rights of reproductive health (RH) of women both EFA (spouses of fertile age) and adolescents, women are also marginalized. In 2006, along with PKBI another branch in the province, the City has PKBI Executive Director of PKBI Cabangselain branch managers that already exist. The program starts is HIVOS program with a focus on assisting communities in five villages; Pringgokusuman and Sosromenduran in District and Sub Gedongtengen Giwangan, Mujamuju, as well as in the District Warungboto Umbulharjo. PKBI City began to bring the issue other than KB and Kespro Women, is the reduction of stigma and discrimination of HIV-AIDS. This program is run until now, although the main focus is on meeting the City PKBI HKSR. PKBI has a vision Competitive Center (Center of Excellence) Program Development and Sexual and Reproductive Health Advocacy an Independent in 2020. And the mission of the center Develop information, education and counseling as well as sexual and reproductive health services focused on family planning service quality, rightsbased and a gender perspective, through increasing the role of PKBI professional, credible, independent and sustainable; Empowering people to be able to make the best decision for himself and behave responsibility in terms of Sexual and Reproductive Health; Influencing policy makers to provide support and commitments for ensuring the fulfillment of the sexual and reproductive rights.

Within the framework of reproductive health activities, there is a special division that handles the health of the male. It continues to be run by the IPPA until this role was replaced by KEBAYA in 2006. However, PKBI still accompany waria through empowerment they do on IWAYO. So the PKBI and IWAYO have a very close relationship. In doing kegiatanya assisting PKBI method, which is accompanied from start to form up an organization / group that they have built can stand independently.

A.3. KEBAYA (Keluarga Besar Waria Yogjakarta)29 Kebaya was founded in desember 18th 2006 that focuses in warias’ health issue. It replaces PKBI rules that previously concern in reproduction health of Waria. Kebaya is an NGO with slogan “Membantu dan Membangun Waria utuk Waria oleh Waria” (help and develop Waria for Waria by Waria). Kebaya’s movement is in prevention and response to HIV and AIDS. Kebaya’s background cannot be separated from Mami V’s30 life. Mami V is the founder of Kebaya when she was in Hivos and working for PKBI. After her project got accepted and got a grant from United Nations Aid, she decided to quit from PKBI and start her own organization that is only focused on health and reproduction for Waria. Kebaya concern is on epidemic rate of HIV and AIDS in Indonesia, particularly in Yogyakarta. Its vision is to reduce the number of HIV infection and handling of AIDS cases between Waria in DIY and its mmission is to increase the living standart of waria as equal as the other citizens in Indonesia. The goals of this organization are to make Kebaya as the canter of waria’s activities that is able to organize the required program, include ODHA31 health Service,

29

Big family of Waria Yogyakarta (translate)

30

The founder and the leader until today. 31 Someone who get infected by HIV




and also to expand team cooperation and respect professionalism. Kebaya’s target is individual or group in waria community at Yogyakarta, especially in group with high risk to get infected by HIV and AIDS. The aims are to provide the information, education, and avocations to waria’s group that have higly risk to get infected by HIV and AIDS. Provide counselling and psycosocial support for group that have highly risk to infect by HIV and waria ODHA. And the last is to Assisting waria’s group. Kebaya activities are to increase the involvement and grow the voluntary spirit between strategic partners; hold Peer Educator training and routine meeting. Increase knowledge improvement and strategic partners awareness to IMS (Infeksi Menular Sexual)32, HIV and AIDS; individu and group outreach for all sexual problem. Empowerment; Study skill for old age Waria. Meeting Violet Community; a support peer group for ODHA community and OHIDHA33 in waria Community in Yogjakarta. Membership in Kebaya is open for everyone from waria community whose concern is in HIV/AIDS. During the first two years of its establishment after being founded, Kebaya was granted a donation from the UN Aid and Global Fund but nowadays, Kebaya has no fund support. It only receives donation from individual/group/company/university partners that they have already cooperated with. Kebaya usually called for become speaker for LGBT health with Mami V as the representative. For example as routine speaker in faculty of medicine in Gajah Mada university, Monash University and in Kirbi Institute, Melbourne, Australia.

B.

32 33

Dynamic Interaction between IWAYO, Kebaya, and PKBI

B.1. Cooperation IWAYO, Kebaya, and PKBI have its own role to empower waria in Yogyakarta. IWAYO according to their characteristics focuses on advocacy, arts and sports. So that IWAYO role is to promote and empower waria in these areas. PKBI focuses on reproductive health, and puts waria as one of the targets of their activities. It also accompanied the establishment and implementation of each activity IWAYO order to become an independent organization and keep in line with the vision and mission of PKBI. PKBI replace by Kebaya in role addressing the reproductive health Since 2006, Kebaya later become more assist the waria in the field of reproductive health and the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases among Waria. IWAYO consists of various waria communities in Yogyakarta and its function is serving to unify the waria community in Yogyakarta. When Waria in Yogyakarta possess a place to gather in a container that is IWAYO the problems associated with their existence can tackle by IWAYO. IWAYO organization has been known as the community and the government. So that waria who are members of IWAYO have a more secure status than those who are not registered as a member IWAYO. Similarly, the Kebaya which has had a big name as one of the organizations focus on waria’s health. For health care and prevention of cases of HIV / AIDS, waria can be a member of Kebaya. Kebaya also provide IMS checks to waria, waria in Yogyakarta that can control their health through Kebaya. Both of these NGOs work together for the better life of waria in Yogyakarta. Both NGOs are very helpful to the waria, one example is when the waria were doing their job, working as sex workers, they got caught by the police and when they showed their identity card as a member of IWAYO waria they could be released immediately.

Sexual deasease infection AIDS Sufferer Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 327



“Nah, kedekatan kita dengan pemerintah ini lah yang mau kita manfaatkan untuk mengurus teman-teman yang tertangkap. Entah itu tertangkap dinas sosial, entah itu tertangkap polpp nah itu, walaupun dia tidak punya ktp. gitu. Intinya itu. jadi kedekatan Iwayo dengan pemerintah itu ya untuk menolong temen-temen ini.”34 (Our proximity with the government is something that we want to utilize to take care of our friends who got caught by the police. Either they were caught by the social services or by the police, eventhough they do not have identity card. The point is, our proximity with the government is to help our friends.) In the case of violence against waria, then IWAYO also act to advocate the legal process that takes place in order not to harm waria. Meanwhile, to maintain and prevent waria who worked as a sex worker Kebaya provide knowledge and prevention from being infected by HIV / AIDS. For those who are HIV-positive waria, kebaya also does regular meetings to provide guidance and care in collaboration with various stakeholders such as the medical faculty from different campuses.

IWAYO position will be stronger. Similarly, when the handler PKBI cases of HIV / AIDS can not be solved by the PKBI it will be submitted to the Kebaya. Where in order to handling and health, Kebaya would be very helpful. There is HIV patients handled by PKBI, he is very severe but he is not waria. So, it will still be accepted by Kebaya to get handle it or his better health care. Also usually Mami V PKBI invited to be a guest speaker in discussions of reproductive health carried out by the PKBI. For kebaya itself, PKBI is just a support because it has the same issue that is in the field of reproductive health. Because the PKBI have been first focus with reproductive health issues, then through the PKBI, Kebaya also established cooperation. One example when the social security for waria are still in PKBI, Kebaya cooperating with PKBI.

“Kalau untuk membantu secara ini enggak. Cuman yang jelas lebih kepada memberikan dukungan saja. Karna kan ketika Mami sudah tidak di PKBI akhirnya Mami kan juga lepas. Tidak kemudian semua dilakukan sendiri. Walaupun pada akhirnya juga kita akhirnya ada bentuk kerjasama gitulo. Salah satu contohnya ketika jaminan kesehatan sosial itu masih di PKBI khusus waria.”35 (Not by helping this way. But they are more like giving us support. Because when I was no longer in PKBI, I eventually moved out (fromt them). But it does not necessarily mean that everything is done by myself, eventually there is a form of cooperation between us, for example is the social health insurance from PKBI specifically for waria.)

PKBI itself is still assisting IWAYO. PKBI always encourages IWAYO to hold programs that include all waria community. PKBI takes rules in arrange the program by join every meeting in IWAYO and donation for the events. PKBI also supports Kebaya but not as much as PKBI to IWAYO. In doing advocacy, IWAYO will be assisted by the PKBI. PKBI helps IWAYO in the administrative process and show the possibility way that can be reached by IWAYO in doing advocacy. When working with the PKBI then 34


35

Interview with Mami V, Head of Kebaya, September 19th 2014




B.2. Contra The discussions about dynamic of the interaction between IWAYO, Kebaya, and PKBI, cannot only be discussed based on the moment when they work together. We shall see the interaction between them that creates so many challenges in which impact their relations among NGOs and their programs. As I explain in the theoretical framework, it is more about the process they are through in doing their social movement.

its direct control to Waria communities. Later, PKBI changed their rule by creating and assisting IWAYO to stay under the same vision. “Dibangkitkan Iwayo dengan visi misi yang kita perbarui juga yang supaya relevan terhadap perkembangan situasi saat ini. Seperti penanggulangan HIV dan Aids terus kekerasan atas nama seksualitas, atas nama keberagaman. Dan juga diskriminasi semacamnya. Kita masukkan. Kita restruktursasi, restruktursasi Iwayo kemudian kita bongkar pemahaman mereka supaya wisi misinya sama dengan kita. Visi misi itu tidak lantas sama dengan kita, hanya karna kita ingin. Enggak tapi itupun atas telaah-telaah yang dihadapkan dengan situasi saat ini. “ 36 (...Raised by IWAYO with vision and mission that we updated in order to be relevant with the development of the situation nowadays. Like the prevention of HIV and AIDS and sexual violence, in the name of diversity and other discriminations and such. We restructure IWAYO and then rip off their understanding so that we have the same vision and mission. Those vision and mission do not become the same with ours just because we want to. It is because of the analysis that has been adjusted with our current condition.)

There is a different perception between the NGOS about how to cooperate with other NGOs. The personal image of the head of NGO, the existency and the dependencies impact the rules of its NGO. For IWAYO itself is very dependent to PKBI, because PKBI provides donations and helps IWAYO reform itself at the beginning. While Kebaya is already independent since it was first founded because it was made as a project result and it accepted a grant from the United Nations. If we compare between IWAYO and Kebaya we will see that; Kebaya are more independent than IWAYO. It has its own fund and has stronger networking, while IWAYO is very dependent to PKBI and has not gained its networking in an international level. For the waria, they are likely to choose to go to Kebaya, because it offers more real programs for their health rather than IWAYO, where they have to give donation by themselves to run the organization’s program. Looking up to each organisation’s vision and mission, Kebaya aims to be the center of waria activities in Yogyakarta while IWAYO declares to be an umbrella of waria regional communities in Yogyakarta and claims waria in Yogyakarta are under their organization. There is overlapping task and it becomes another problem because of this unclear portion of each NGOs. Based on the history when Kebaya was founded. It took over PKBI rules in waria communities and PKBI would lose

Kebaya as an older organization cannot compromise with the vision of IWAYO that includes involvement from PKBI. This is the different dimension that happens between the same collective identity movements. Eventhough the basic movement of this NGOs is to empower waria, but the perception and the way of thinking between the NGOs become other dimension that make them both always together or the same.

36

Interview with PKBI, September 8th 2014




B.3. Challenge Rivalries between the waria and power struggle between the two head of NGOs are the challenges faced by waria communities. Power Struggle is to show which one has more influentnce and existence in Waria communities in Yogyakarta. The desire to be more prominent and attention from the individual itself becomes the roots of the struggle. When in one collective community with the same identity there are two powers from two persons that represent their own organizations, it will be difficult to decide which one shall gain more respect and which one shall not. Power struggle also happens in waria community between Mami V and Ibu S. It is also confusing if we want to search for waria community in Yogyakarta and looking for their representativee. Each communities has their own respective name, Ibu S as the leader of IWAYO that holds all waria regional communities in Yogyakarta, While Mami V has a high concern about wari’s condition, particularly in health issues. Mami V and Ibu S are both waria. Mami V gets and income by being a speaker in health issues of waria and Ibu S has her own bridal costumee rent. They both no longer do nyebong and have their own popularities. Popularityy, high status among other waria, and independency in economy make both of these leaders have their own ego and arrogance. It creates struggle between them that they shall cope with in order to show their respective community which one has more influence than another. This becomes one of the reasons that these two organizations, IWAYO and Kebaya, cannot be unified as one organization.

CONCLUSION The NGOs (IWAYO, Kebaya, PKBI) has their similarities and difference to each other. The similarities could make them willing to work together and the

difference makes them stay on their way. It creates the dynamic of their interaction, cooperation and even conflict sometime. As interaction in order to cooperate, this NGOs share their own fields to take part in waria’s life. It shall minimilize clash between waria either organizations. However, in it history shows that the NGOs are not out side of conflict. The problems happen in level of individual, particularly between key persons. However, this does not preclude parties other than waria to join the move together. Interaction between IWAYO, Kebaya and PKBI is very dynamic. In establishing cooperation, they have the same goal which is to better the lives of waria. This is illustrated by the programs conducted by these organizations. The point is associated with a common identity which they agree to then make their move together. Identity of thinking and agree to concern for the waria life. The cconcern for waria makes these three organizations divide the work and the portion of each, IWAYO on advocacy and capacity-building Waria, Kebaya in the health field, and PKBI IWAYO assisting in the work of the organization. The tasks per division are to avoid a split in the community of waria itself, so that every waria can fight for a better life. However, it cannot be denied that in a culture of cooperation, conflicts could also happen. This gives the colours in the dynamics of waria NGOs. Although they have the same purpose, it does not mean that the dimensions of the organizations’ work and way of thinking are the same. It then becomes an issue to be resolved between the NGOs. Additionally, waria as gender and life among waria have its own characteristic. It also poses a challenge for the actors of the organization, especially the leaders. Rivalry that occurs between leaders is a challenge that must be conquered. However, when this can be discussed and when the solutions can also be found as well, one also has to note that this challenge needs not necessarily be in a




tense of each other relations between .

inside

and

outside

the

organizations

REFERENCE David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeiter Kreisi. 2004. The Blackwell Companion to social Movement. MA-Oxford-Victoria: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Nadia, Zunly.2005. Waria Laknat atau Kodrat!?. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Marwa. Porta, Donatella, and Diani, Mario. 2006. Social Movements An Introduction. Second Edition. MA-Oxford-Victoria: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Sprague, Caroline. Theories of Social Movement: The Gay Right Movement. CaliforniaNew Jersey: Saleem Press. Wendt, Alexander. 1999. Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge-New YorkPort Melbourne: Cambridgr University Press. Zwaan, Lily, "Waria of Yogyakarta: Islam, Gender, and National Identity" (2012). Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 1440. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1440 (20.10.2014) Religiusitas Waria, Studi Fenonemologi terhadap Komunikasi Religius Waria di Kota Bandung – IIP. http://elibraryusa.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo_library/libweb/action/display.d o?tabs=viewOnlineTab&ct=display&fn=search&doc=TN_datacite4024301&indx =3&recIds=TN_datacite4024301&recIdxs=2&elementId=2&renderMode=poppe dOut&displayMode=full&frbrVersion=2&dscnt=0&scp.scps=scope%3A%28%2 2IIP%22%29%2CEbscoLocalIIP%2Cprimo_central_multiple_fe&frbg=&tab=de fault_tab&vl(7347989UI1)=all_items&dstmp=1413873221099&srt=rank&vl(37 37485UI0)=any&mode=Basic&&dum=true&vl(1UIStartWith0)=contains&vl(fre eText0)=waria&vid=IIP (20.10.2014) Sejarah Organisasi | PKBI Kota Jogja. http://pkbikotajogja.wordpress.com/about/sejarah-organisasi/ (20.10.2014) Tentang Kebaya. (21.10.2014)

http://kebaya-jogja.blogspot.com/2008/12/tentang-kebaya.html







The Empowerment of Arabic Javanese Translation Toward Globalization Era

Muhammad Yunus Anis, Abdul Malik, Arifuddin, Afnan Arummi, Tri Yanti Nurul Hidayati Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: Being convinced of the close relation between linguistics and philology, which are often inseparable in the study of older phases of the language, this article tried to provide the data about the empowerment of Arabic – Javanese translation in the books of Islamic Moral Ethics facing the globalization era. Historically, the connection line between Javanese and Arabic language has been discovered from the manuscript and subsequently in books which appeared in the 19th century the common Javanese script is often used, but there are also a number of manuscript in Arabic script (Uhlenbeck, 1964:10). The data of this research is two translation books, from Arabic into Javanese language, such as “Tarjamatu syarchil al- Hikam” written by Ibnu Athaillah As-Sakandary. The book has been translated into Javanese language by Misbahuddin Zainul Mustafa from Tuban, East Java. And also the book of moral ethic written by Imam Al-Ghazali, “Bidayatul Hidayah”, this book has been translated into Javanese Language by Kyai Hammam Nashiruddin from Magelang, Central Java. From the two books of moral ethic, this research will elaborate the messages of translation using the discourse analysis. By reading and contemplating the message and the loyalty from the translation book, the Javanese has been ready facing the globallization era. And also by researching the Javanese – Arabic language, the Javanese people and academician can empower and protect the Javanese language as indigenous language in Indonesia. Keywords: Javanese – Arabic Translation, Islamic Moral Ethics, Globalization Era, Syarah al-Hikam and Kitab Bidayatul Hidayah, Ibnu Athaillah AsSakandary, Imam Al-Ghazali.

I.

Introduction

he college as the main „seedbed‟ of the academia in Indonesia nation (we call it in Javanese language by soko guru bangsa), should develop and expand the sciences and the knowledge continuously. One of the biggest potential properties, to be developed and expanded, belongs to

T

Indonesian people is the existence of indigenous language. The indigenous language (mother language and native language) is the first language mastered by the certain people from the first life using the interaction among the fellow being in their social language, especially their close family (Kridalaksana, 2009:26). The indigenous




language has been developing among the modern people. Thus, it is the main duty for the college as the main part of education to keep the existence of native or mother language. Crystal (2000) had been argued why the people should keep the language (why should we care). We should care the language because of some reasons, such as: (1) because we need diversity, (2) because languages express identity, (3) because languages are repositories of history, (4) because languages contribute to the sum of human knowledge, and the last reason (5) because languages are interesting in themselves. So that, we can extremely conclude that language has the substances of diversity, identity, history, knowledge, and interesting. We will find these elements inside the process of empowering the relation between Arabic and Javanese translation. And how should this relation between two languages and two cultures face beyond the challenges of globalization era which has the involution of multicultural. From the point of number two and four (identity and sum of human knowledge) above, actually, we can conclude that we can elaborate the identity and the sum of human knowledge from the existence of language. One of the human knowledge is the system of moral and ethic. Every human being need the rules of life to make a better life. Moral ethic is an obvious rule of the life. Without the rules or canons, the life is going to become untidy and dissolved. The rules or canons of the life can be implemented from the book of Islamic moral ethic written by Imam Al-Ghazali and Ibnu Athaillah as-Sakandariy. Both of them are the famous scholars in Islamic jurisprudence and mysticism. Many Islamic scholars had been described about the important of moral implementation in human life. One of them is Imam Al-Ghazali. By observing to his book, Bidayatul Hidayah, we can

find how he had described about the Islamic morality. Actually he always reminded the muslim to respect the moral ethic in Islam, especially about the process of enhaching the knowledge. This moral ethic can be transfered into Javanese people by the Arabic – Javanese translation model such as in the statements below. Man-izdāda „ilman wa lam yazdad hudan lam yazdad minallahi illā bu‟dan Sopo wonge tambah sopo man/ apane ilmune/lan ora/ tambah sopo man/ apane‘amale/ mongko ora tambah sopo man/ sangking Gusti Allah/ anging tambah adhohe. (Bidayatul-Hidayah, 1964:17) From this statement at Bidayatul-Hidayah. Imam Al-Ghazali tried to explain about the scientist without the guidance from the God (hidayah). It means that Al-Ghazali very concerned with the moral ethic to get the guidance from the God, by doing the religious services. From the statement above, we can also find how the Arabic language can melt together with the Javanese language. There is a great equivalent between Arabic and Javaense language which had been written by Arabic fonts/ orthography ArabicJavanese (pegon). So that, after looking at the Arabic – Javanese translation, this article will find out the core of Islamic moral ethic in two books using the Arabic – Javanese translation, Bidayatul Hidayah written by Imam Al-Ghazali and Al-Hikam aphorism book written by Ibnu Athaillah As- Sakandariy. The elaboration of moral ethics in both of the Islamic moral ethic books will be analyzed by the discourse analysis, but the important one is how the Arabic –




Javanese model of translation can face the globalization era. We should like to describe about the strategic steps and actions to facing the modern era. To know the core of Islamic moral ethic in the book of Bidayatul Hidayah, first we have to know the autobiography of the writer. What are the findings of the article? And what should the Arabic – Javanese do to facing the globalization era. Foley (2016:146) also defined that translation is very important in globalization era. Javanese language by Javanese people. After that, this research will use the interpretation of the Arabic and Javanese translation texts such as the methodology of out crop sampling and the methodology of grab sampling. Thus, we can observe deeply the texts of Arabic Javanese translation and find the result about the contents and substances of the Arabic – Javanese translation discourses. The innovation that had been elaborated before, about the correlation between Javanese and Melayu translation from Arabic language is the research from Marbawi (1350 H). He was the author of the dictionary Idris al-Marbawi ( ‫يوبرمال صيردإ‬ ‫)شوماق‬. The research about the correlation between Arabic and Javanese also had been done by Junanah (2010) under the title of the loan words of Arabic Language in the Serat Centhini. In the context of modernity, Wibawa (2013) has elaborated about Indonesian to Javanese Machine Translation, he had concluded that translating speech levels of Javanese to Indonesia is more accurate than translating in the opposite direction. Anis (2015) had elaborated and analyzed about the optimal programs of college in Indonesia to conserve the existence of Arabic – Javanese model of

translation using the Semantic analysis. Ewing (2005), in his book under the title “Grammar and Inference in conversation: Identifying Clause Structure in Spoken Javanese”, had elaborated the grammatical problems in the Javanese language. His research has many benefits to this research because we can know clearly the mapping by Ewing toward the types of Javanese language, especially in the spoken language. More sufficient detail, Uhlenbeck (1969) had elaborated in his research about the Javanese and Madura language, which had been focused in the extra-lingual aspects, so that, the reader can find many information about the history of Javanese language and also the elements of Javanese and Islamic culture. The last, the research which correlated with the ancient texts and documents of Javanese and the correlation with the Arabic translation had been done by Drewes (1969) under the title “the Admonitions

of

She Bari:

a

16th Century Javanese Muslim Text Attributed to the Saint Bonan”. Differently with the research had been done before, this research used the object materials from the book of moral ethics in Islam, first is the book written by Imam Al- Ghazali, Bidayatul Hidayah (the beginning of the Guidance of the God) and the second book is AlHikam (wisdom), the book written by Syekh Ibnu Athaillah As-Sakandary. The main reason for choosing the both object materials is the accuracy of the book of Bidayatul Hidayah as the representation of Fiqh in Islam and the accuracy of Al-Hikam book as the representation of Tasawuf in Islam. Both of the books had been translated into Javanese language by Javanese people. AlHikam book had been translated into Javanese language by Javanese people from Tuban, East Java, he is Mishbahuddin Zainil-Mushthafa, and




also Bidayatul Hidayah had been translated into Javanese language by Javanese people from Magelang, he is Kyai Hammam Nashiruddin from Magelang, Central Java. Bidayatul Hidayah is the representation of fiqh. Muslim had known that fiqh almost defined explicitly about the Islamic Jurisprudence. It is the practice of discovering God‟s law (shari’ah) (Newby, 2004:63). But in the other hand, Tasawuf is very dominant about the Sufism in Islam, or many Muslim understand it by the term “Islamic Mysticism” (Newby, 2004:202). The model of translation using by the Javanese translator to translating the Islamic moral ethics book is “word for word” translation. Many translators had the same aims or purposes that the translation strategies laid between two big poles, they are the literal and free. Hatim (2004:11) had concluded that the split between form and content is linked in many ways to the major polar split which has marked the history of western translation theory for two thousand years, between two ways of translating „literal‟ and „free‟. A literal model also described as “word for word” translation, which would serve as an aid to the reader who, it could be assumed, was acquainted with good sense or good manner with the source language. Four centuries later, St Jerome described his Bible translation strategy as „I render not word for word but sense for sense‟. This approach was of particular importance for the translation of such sensitive texts as the Bible, deemed by many to be the repository of truth and the word of God. The literal and free translation strategies can still be seen in texts to the present day.

III. Discussion

Findings and

The strategic ways to empowering the Arabic – Javanese translation are by contemplating and implementing the moral ethics precept. But we will analyze it widely by using the SWOT analysis. In this part (findings and discussion) will be elaborated two main problems. First, the problem about the moral ethic in the Arabic – Javanese translation books had been prepared to facing the globalization era. This problem is analyzed by using the discourse analysis. The data had been taken from the texts of ArabicJavanese translation. The second problem is about the ways to how empower the Arabic-Javanese toward the globalization era. This problem will be solved by using the SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats). Islam had been entered Java archipelago before the 15th century and after that, Islam strongly had been influenced the Javanese people. In the year of 1500, many Javanese people had followed Tasawuf (Hadi, 1995:20). In the 17th century, Arabic language became the main basis for the religious opus. The texts using Arabic language was explained by Melayu language. In this part, Arabic language was very dominant in Inddonesia. The Javanese people expand the Arabic texts in Indonesia. The main Indonesian and Javanese people are Abdur Rauf Singkel, Abdush-Shamad al-Falimbani, Syekh Nawawi Banten, Syeikh Yusuf Makasar, Khatib Sambas, Ismail Minangkabau, Muhammad Garut, and Abdul Gani Bima. To get the substance of moral ethic book in the Arabic Javanese translation book, this research using the simple discourse analysis. Mills




(2004:18) defined for many theorists within main stream linguistics; the term discourse signifies a turning away from sentences, which is examples of the way that language is structured as a system, to a concern with language in use. Machali (2009:171) had an opinion that every single meaning links each other in one discourse. The relation between the words and the socio-cultural problems shows to the reader the point of view belongs to the discourse producer, and after that, the relation changes into the perspective of discourse. For the case study in the book of Bidayatul- Hidayah, Imam AlGhazali has given the term nawāfil (‫ )لفاون‬and farā‟idh (‫ )ضئارف‬in the Arabic language. The word farā‟idh was translated by the translator becomes “iku ono piro- piro fardhu” in Javanese language. And the second word “nawāfil” was translated becomes “lan ono piro-piro sunnah”. As we know that the word “fardhu” and “sunnah” are coming from Arabic language, so that, the translator had been translated both of the terms form Arabic language to Arabic language by using Javanese language. It means that the translator extremely admire the message from the texts, sense by sense not word for word model. The nuance of tasawuf in the book of bidayatul hidayah can be found using the discourse analysis which is focusing to the lexicon in the texts. Badara (2015:54) had concluded that language pictures how the reality of the world was looked for. Giving to someone a chance to control and manage the experiences on the social facts. For an example, the word “pemerkosaan” in Indonesian language can be described by using the words “memerkosa”, “meniduri”, “menggagahi”, dan “memerawani”. It means that there is a same fact but the fact had been pictured with the different terms. The different terms is

an ideology picture belongs to the writer or the speaker, not just about the technique. The different terms will be understood with the different point of view by the audiences. So that, language has prepared the tools how the reality can be understandable by the group of society By looking the terminology of fiqh, we will know the paradigm of fiqh. Religious obligations in Islam are divided between fard ‘ayn, duties incumbent on each individual and fard kifayah, those incumbent on the community. In most circle, fard and wajib is synonymous. But in Hanafi tradition, where fardh refers to those obligations derived directly from the Qur‟an, and wajib to those derived from reason. But if we observe deeply the Arabic Javanese translation, the term fardhu is translated and rendered into the target language by using the term ra’su-māl or the financial capital and the term sunnah refers to “profit”. This definition was very different with the general definition about fard and sunnah. Fardhu is the matter if we do it we will get a merit from the God, but if we didn‟t do it we will get a punishment from the God. Then, sunnah is a matter if we do it we can get the merit or reward from the God, but if we didn‟t do it we just didn‟t get a sin. ‫ةاجنال لصحت هب و ةراجتال لصأ وه‬ ‫و لامال سأر ضرفالف‬

Fal-fardhu ra’sul-māli wa huwa ashlut-tijāarah wa bihi tachshulu an-najāt Thus, fardhu is a financial capital and it has a principal basic




from the trade which product the

salvation.

‫ةاجنلا لصحت هب و ةراجتلا لصأ وه و لاملا سأر ضرفلاف‬ The command of fardhu

Fal-fardhu =

mangka

utawi The genuine of property It is a fund The principal The product commerce The principal

Ra’sul-māli = iku ashli bondho perintah fardhu Wa huwa = utawi ra’sulmāli Figure 2. –Nashiruddin Ashlu iku poko’e(1964:24)

of

Become the product

= ‫ضرف هتنيرف ىوتا اكم‬ ‫ضرفلاف‬ ‫ادنوب ىلصا وكيا = لامال‬ ‫س أر‬

= ‫ىئوكوف وكيا‬

‫لص أ‬

= ‫ناعاكاد‬ ‫ةراجتال‬ ‫ءوكوف ناولك نل‬ = ‫هب و‬ = ‫لصح ىداد‬ ‫لصحت‬ = ‫ةمالس افا‬ ‫ةاجنال‬

At-tijarah = dagangan Wa bihi = lan kelawan pokok Tachshulu = dadi hasil

Salvation

= ‫لامال سأر ىوتا‬ ‫وه و‬

An-najāt = apa salamah

‫تاجردلاب زوفلا هب و حبرلا وه لفنلا و‬ The command of sunnah

Wan-naflu perintah

=

‫لفنال و‬

The profit

Huwa – iku utawi naflu sunnah Ar-ribhu = iku bathi

Or that profit

Wa bihi = lan kelawan

Or it is an-naflu

Salvatory Or some degrees

bathi

‫لفن ىوتا وكيا‬ = ‫وه‬

Al-fauzu = bisa merkoleh

Bid-darrajāt kelawan pira-

= ‫ةنس هتنيرف ىوتا‬

utawi

=

= ‫ىطاب وكيا‬ ‫حبرلا‬ = ‫ىطاب ناولك نل‬ ‫هب و‬ = ‫هيلوكرم اسب‬ ‫زوفال‬ = ‫اريف ناولك‬٢ ‫تاجارد‬ ‫تاجردلاب‬

pira darajat




The second problem is how the substance of moral ethic in the Arabic-Javanese translation can face the globalization era. It needs to the great attention to: (1) the strengths, (2) the weaknesses, (3) the opportunities, and (4) the threats. For the strengths we should look at the fact about the potention of the nation as a heritage. The model of Arabic – Javanese translation using the pegon orthography is the biggest heritage for the academician to preserve it. Many muslim scholar using the Arabic – Javanese translation to transfer the moral ethic to the Javanese people. It means that the potention of the translation model is transfering the substance of moral ethic based on Islamic famos scholar, such as Imam Al- Ghazali and Ibnu Athaillah. The weaknesses are divided into two parts, (1) the respon of the public to ArabicJavanese translation model, and (2) the wrong judgment about oldfashioned model of ArabicJavanese translation model in the modern era. The respon is correlated with the quality of understanding to the pegon orthography in Javanese language. Just a few people can read and write using the pegon orthography. The term of orthography is used for spelling in general and for correct or standard spelling, but in this case orthography is more likely to be used of alphabetic writing than of syllabic writing, and is unlikely to be used of ideographic writing (writing systems). But this weakness can be solved by the scholar to make a guide line for read and write using pegon writing system.

The opportunities how Arabic –Javanese translation in the book of Islamic moral ethic can face the globalization era are correlated with the ability of the modern scholar to get the sum of research about Arabic – Javanese translation until the substance of moral ethic can be delivered to the public to build the better life. The composing of Arabic – Javanese glossary also can be the main opportunities the process of empowering the Arabic Javanese translation. In this case, glossary of Arabic-Javanese can be defined as the brief dictionary and also the list of the lexicon in the certain field using the description. The threats from the Arabic – Javanese translation to face the modernity are divided into two aspects. First, the Javanese as mother language or native language should prepare the challenges in the modernity. Many people prefer to use the English language, bahasa Indonesia, and Chinese language rather than the Javanese language. In fact, Javanese language as the indigenous language should be kept until everlasting. Crystal (2000:2) has remembered us that “for a language is really alive only as long as there is someone to speak it to”. Not only to speak, but also to translate it

IV.

Conclusion

The conclusion from this research we can find that the core of Islamic moral ethic books is balancing between fiqh syari’ah and tasawuf. From the description above and analysis tools, we can conclude that concept of syariat and hakikat, the concept of fiqh and tasawuf had been melted together in the one side. This is the result of observing the discourse




between two books of Islamic moral ethic, Bidayatul Hidayah and AlHikam The Arabic – Javanese translation model should be strongly hold on toward the modernity era, to fortify and to strengthen the quality of moralethic belongs to young generation of

Indonesia nation. To face the modernity and to gain the empowerment of translation model, the Arabic-Javanese translation should care with the four items, such as: strength, a weakness, opportunity, and a hreat.


an



BIBLIOGRAPHY Anis, Muhammad Yunus. 2015. “Optimalasasi Peran Perguruan Tinggi dalam Melestarikan Penerjemahan Arab – Jawa Model Word for Word Translation dalam Buku-buku Kuno Berbahasa Arab: Analisis Semantik Leksikal”. Disampaikan dalam Konferensi Nasional Bahasa Arab I (KONASBARA), Jurusan Sastra Arab, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Negeri Malang, 8 November 2015. Badara, Aris. Analisis Wacana: Teori, Metode, dan Penerapannya pada Wacana Media. Jakarta: Kencana Prenada Media Group, 2012. Crystal, David. 2000. Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Drewes, G.W.J. 1969. The Admonitions of Seh Bari: A 16th Century Javanese Muslim Text Attributed to the Saint of Bonan. Netherlands: Springer. Ewing, Michael C. 2005. Grammar and Inference in Conversation: Identifying Clause Structure in Spoken Javanese. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Foley, J.A. and M.F. Deocampo. 2016. The Use of English as A Lingua Franca in Translation. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Vol. 5 No. 2, January 2016, pp. 146-153. Hadi, Syamsul. 1995. “Bahasa Arab dan Khazanah Sastra Keagamaan di Indonesia”. Jurnal Humaniora, Vol. II, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gadjah Mada: Yogyakarta. Halaman 87-95. Hatim, Basil. and Jeremy Munday. 2004. Translation an Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Junanah. 2010. Kata Serapan Bahasa Arab dalam Serat Centhini. Yogyakarta: Safiria Insania Press. Kridalaksana, Harimurti. 2009. Kamus Linguistik Edisi Keempat. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Marbawi. Muhammad Idris Abdur-Rauf. 1350 H. Qa>mus Idri>s Al-Marbawiy, Arabiy – Mala>yu>. Mesir: Musthafa Al-Ba>ba Al-Chalabiy. Newby, Goordon. 2004. A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. England: Oneworld publications. Simatupang, Maurits D.S. 2000. Pengantar Teori Terjemah. Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi. Sugiyono. 2014. Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R & D. Bandung: Alfabeta. Sulistyorini, Dwi. 2015. Filologi Teori dan Penerapannya. Malang: Penerbit Madani. Suryawinata, Zuchridin. dan Sugeng Hariyanto. 2003. Translation: Bahasa Teori & Penuntun Prkatis Menerjemahkan. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 341



Uhlenbeck, E.M. 1964. A Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Java and Madura. Netherlands: The Hague. Wibawa, Aji.P. dkk. 2013. “Indonesian to Javanese Machine Translation”. International Journal of Innovation Management and Technology. Vol.4, No. 4, August 2013. Page 451-454. Wunderlich, Jens-Uwe. and Meera Warrier. 2010. A Dictionary of Globalization. London: Routledge. Zammit,

Martin R. 2002. A Arabic.Leiden: Brill.

Comparative

Lexical

Study

of

Qur’a>nic




The Influenced of Chinese Mythology in Creating Batik Lasem Nanang Rizali, Bani Sudardi 1 Prof. Dr. Nanang Rizali, MSD, Faculty of Fine Art and Design, Sebelas Maret University, [email protected] 2 Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum, Faculty of Cultural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University, [email protected]

Abstract: Batik is a wealth of Indonesia that has been recognized worldwide. Lasem batik is a center that has unique characteristics. In Lasem are three types of batik, the batik tradition, laseman batik and contemporary batik. Lasem batik contains the values of Chinese philosophy. This is the cultural influence since hundreds of years ago. Lasem batik reflects the existence of an acculturation between Chinese culture and coastal Javanese culture. Lasem batik has embodied the distinctive character of batik. The process of acculturation both cultures is an acculturation that is consistent and can be raised to create a relationship of ethnic cultures that create an atmosphere conducive. Lasem batik batik is part of a network of the north coast of Java affected by the Chinese culture that stretches from Cirebon, Pekalongan, Tuban, and Madura. In Lasem batik reflected the Chinese ideology that has as a cultural characteristic of a society in the form of the dominant ideology and the ideology of alternative nature of the alternative ideology is oppositional or alternative to the ideology that is ongoing, and is also the rationale of the past. Keywords: Lasem batik, Chinese culture, Chinese mythology

1. INTRODUCTION

B

atik is an art and culture Indonesia is admired by the nations of the world, as traditional dress generated through technical hurdles dye. In its development, Batik as works of high culture of Indonesia can not be separated from the influences of historical fact has been proven that the dominant influence is the environment and foreign cultures. Although, according to Dullah (2002.7) age and environment again, can not be separated from the development process of

batik to at any time. The various influences trigger and stimulate the presence of batik that is consistent with its development. Shape and pattern of batik decoration combined with the manufacturing techniques as well as the reflection of the traditions and cultural aspirations of local cargo, making batik as a national heritage. Visually embodiment of batik is not only beautiful, but fused with moral rules and customs. In classical batik there are signs or symbols that can not be understood as iconic, but it contains a representation of aspects of belief, philosophy and




conception of the harmony of life. For example is such a balance between this world and hereafter, as well as the upper world and the underworld. Generally, signs or symbols that are presented can be used to approach things that are transcendental. Batik fabrics made using the wide breadth of the night (wax) as the color barrier material, so that the dye can not penetrate the fabric-covered part of the night when dyeing. Batik technique is an original skill of the Indonesian nation since centuries ago. In addition, the fact that indicates that materials on the use of dyeing plants native to Indonesia. Javanese batik activities especially in growing and developing are very fertile and produce batik decoration types and diverse and rich colors, smooth and most accurate. The existence of different types of batik Solo and Yogyakarta batik from coastal areas showed that Indonesian batik has a variety of tone. Among Batik from the north coast of the island of Java that can be identified as in Pekalongan, Madura and Lasem which have characteristics typical of each environment. Lasem batik is one type of objects of cultural heritage of the ancestors of Indonesia. Nuance beauty of Lasem batik already very well known, especially the red color supposedly can not be duplicated by the making in other areas. The red color of Lasem batik is called by local residents as the abang getih pitik (chicken red blood). Lasem batik is the result of a process of acculturation expression generated by the arrival of a merchant of various places that interact with the public Lasem. The literature mentions that Lasem batik as one of the classic variant with distinctive patterns and styles. Based on the script of "Carita Lasem / Chronicle Lasem" turns Lasem batik history is closely connected with the arrival of the Admiral Cheng Ho in the year 1413. The text tells us that the crew Pahawang Tzeng Dhan Ho of State Tiong Hwa, Bi Nang Un and his wife Na Li Ni (coming from Campa) chose to settle in Bonang Lasem.

After seeing the natural beauty of Java. Then Na Li Ni began making batik motive phoenix, dragon, chrysanthemums, latticework, and currency with chicken blood red color typical of Tiong Hwa. Some motifs that became a hallmark and uniqueness Lasem batik. Lasem batik decoration traditional conservative character, meaning that the resulting motif is a creation influenced ancestral culture and legend.

2.

CONTIGUITY LOCAL TRADITION TO THE CHINESE CULTURE

Archipelago is in the middle of traffic and culture of foreign trade is causing many nations to stop. Besides conducting trading activities also spread the religion, and even settle down and build family relationships in the archipelago. Among the people who established trade relations are China (Chinese), including bringing the culture and customs. Similarly, the Indian nation was followed in the mid-15th century came the Portuguese, English, Spanish and Dutch. When there is a relationship with the various nations have been meeting also takes place culture that fills the repertoire repertory Nusantara batik decoration, such as a ceramic pattern Chinese mythology such forms Star has given new ideas to the creative power of traditional fabrics. Technically the process of making fabric can determine embodiment the fabric surface, such as batik tulips (painted) and printed. Various elements of the natural and human environment has inspired and become a source of ideas in the creation of traditional batik in addition to customs that permeated the mind and his philosophy underlying the system of community life that is embodied in the form of symbolism, although it seems difficult to say whether the elements of the form is still as an ornament or symbolizing certain objects, because the real meaning of the object




depicted is not known, so the views or responses to it have become blurred. But generally it has the batik cloth adjust with function and style in a certain event. In the contact relations with nations outside the region influenced each other in various fields, including in the field of culture. The arrival of other nations to the archipelago has influenced local art, especially in coastal elapsed areas. Culture and art from outside then absorbed, filtered and combined with a culture that already exist, so was born the new works the uniqueness, beauty, and their own personality. According Djoemana Nian (1990: 4), that the culture of China is expected to enter Indonesia since the onset of AD, whereas the culture of India Sign Along with the influx of Hindu AD 150, and Culture of Islam arrived in Indonesia around 1275 AD. In coastal areas contact that occurs not only with foreign but also contacts between the archipelagos, for example Madurese famous as sailors who often stop in the port of Lasem and Indramayu, so that the batik cloth encountered equation decoration and color. Their contiguity between Chinese culture (Chinese) and Java, according to anthropological studies included in the framework of the theory of culture contact. The combination resulted in a form of acculturation between the two nations. Understanding acculturation is a social process particular culture confronted with elements of other cultures, which gradually elements of other cultures were processed within its own culture without losing the personality itself (Koentjaraningrat, 1983: 251). In the case of ideology, Lasem batik has a unique characteristics, namely alternative ideologies coexist with coastal Java ideology. Thus the ideology of Lasem batik including regional ideology that coexisting (coexistence), but also can be called emergent ideology because it appears outside the group of dominant (Java) after the entry of the Chinese ideology.

Lasem one coastal area north coast of East Java gets Influence of Chinese ideology, visually known as the red area. In addition to the shape of a star like Liong (dragon) or bird liong Lasem batik dyeing embodiment. Lasem greatness can not be separated with a big name Zheng, known by the name of Sam Po Kong, which means three Buddhist heritages. Zheng He sailed to the west of the Indian Ocean sent by Emperor Zhua Di in the Ming dynasty in the early 15th century emergence of a harmonious contiguity between the Chinese culture with the Javanese coast (Lasem), has been growing mutual need between the Chinese and the Javanese coastal forged since centuries. In the process of acculturation appears that the Chinese community would adopt the culture of the local traditions (Java), as in batik. It can be seen from the Chinese in adopting Lasem batik to the spiritual needs them, on the altar table cloth batik painted with religious stories and sacred animals-animals such as dragon, phoenix, swastika and latticework. Batik fabrics that are used for religious purposes among tok wi (altar cloth), cans li (linen tablecloths) and altar wall hangings (Doellah, 2002). The process of acculturation to two cultures has created a culture of balance between tradition of Javanese culture and traditions of coastal Chinese culture. Contiguity cultural values have also been producing harmony that reflects the philosophy of mutually beneficial cooperation, and is able to get rid of ethnic conflicts.

3. REALIZATION LASEM BATIK Lasem batik is one of the objects of cultural heritage archipelago that has the feel of beauty, especially the distinctive red color Lasem. Besides being a cultural tradition Lasem batik craft culture into industrial products in the regions. Broadly speaking Lasem batik motifs into two categories, namely marine flora and fauna and the flora and fauna which influenced




Chinese culture. Lasem batik motif that comes with a navy blue background as typical coastal batik with shape marine animals such as fish, shellfish and sea cucumbers. In addition to these motives, present on scales picture dragon (dragon) that have experienced naturalistic shape with stylized models. Nuance Chinese also appear in Chinese mythology bird ornament (Bird Hong / bird god). Elements are the other flora flower motifs characteristic flora Teluki as China, form a harmonious mixing in Lasem batik. Their harmonious blend of Javanese coast with Chinese culture for hundreds of years due to the relationship and mutual need between the two. The state built up since centuries ago when the Chinese traders had been poor across and settled in the city of Bandar-positioned in the archipelago. In the XIV century, the population of Java was recorded around 100,000 inhabitants, it shows a real impact in many areas of life. In the process of adoption of the tradition of Javanese culture, such as batik is not a tradition of the Chinese. Because Lasem is the oldest port city, the influence of Chinese tradition Lasem turned out to become widespread in the north coast of Java and provides characteristic of batik in coastal areas. Based on Lasem batik manifestations are divided into three categories, namely Batik Classic (People), Lasem batik and contemporary batik. The classification is based on the type of Lasem batik motifs and colors, as well as production techniques. Briefly Lasem batik three types of groups can be explained as follows; a). Batik Classical / Folk batik, which is processed by the technique of batik like batik process in other areas with writing techniques. Feature cash batik is reflected in colors as varied as sogan, Yellow, Orange, Purple, and Blue by not leaving the distinctive colors of Lasem batik known as chicken blood red color. Classical batik motifs describe the condition of the people Lasem that time,

which forced labor in breaking stones for road construction. Because it is between the motive is the motive watu kricak (crushed stone / gravel), which became part of the cultural tradition in Lasem community as a symbol of transition until now. b). Batik Lasem batik Laseman is that the development is influenced by elements of Chinese art and culture came to Lasem and mingle with the locals. Based on the cultural acculturation bore positive and rich culture, as early as the birth of Lasem batik. Laseman batik is batik motif that has a typical Chinese, who adopted from Chinese mythology trust, like animals Naga, Lok Can, Peacock, Butterflies and Plants Rose, Chrysanthemum Lotus and others. Batik technique is done by inserting a variety of motives without losing the distinctive features and character of Lasem batik Classic. c). Contemporary Batik is batik type that developed at this time is generally not bound by traditional motifs. Contemporary batik is more influenced by trends and fashion / fashion today that feature free expression. Batik is also known as batik style of New or New Style very diverse, so much in demand by all segments of society. Some examples of contemporary Lasem batik motif, namely the Three State, morning-afternoon, Day and Night, and Tumpal Clorot. In accordance with the theme of the discussion of the study Lasem batik influenced by Chinese culture, so the description revolves around the fusion between the second embodiments of the culture. As the consequence the relation between ethnic ties to China with ethnic Javanese, not only socially, but also economically. Produced Lasem batik typical patterned, especially the red color that can not be replicated by other local batik. Another distinctiveness lies in its kind which is a combination of the influence of Chinese culture and local culture in Lasem culture. This is logical as




the consequence of the relation between ethnic Chinese and Javanese, not only socially but also economically. The overseas Chinese merchants who come to Lasem a large impact on batik in Lasem. Then many Chinese traders into batik entrepreneurs, while the indigenous peoples as a worker or workers batik. Lasem batik as an expression of aesthetic motif phoenix and dragon motifs considered as genuine batik motif Laseman. Both are regarded as a symbol of Chinese culture, the dragon is a symbol of power, courage, and valiant. In addition there frangipani flower motif with a content of philosophy, that people will get the shade and tranquility under the frangipani trees, even when it died. Motif seaweed (latoh) has a philosophical meaning of human life that continues to breed breed. Humans can not live individually, but rather continues to build relationships with others, integrate and hand in hand with each other. The motifs are often used by older women of Chinese, therefore, Lasem batik often referred to as' Batik Encik ".In the development of Lasem batik have ups and downs ever victorious in 1950 to 1980. A batik entrepreneurs of Chinese descent named Sigit Wicaksono (80 years old) who have pioneered business since 1942. He said in its heyday Lasem batik been exported out of the country, among others to Suriname. Lasem batik compete with batik in the other regions, motive interesting because in addition to the quality of the fabric is smooth. In addition, because of the color, namely red direction chickens that can not be replicated by the batik from other regions. At that time almost every Chinese homes in Lasem recruit batik labors from the surrounding villages. The batik is generally women and doing batik work as a sideline while waiting for the harvest or planting in paddy fields. UNESCO's recognition that states that Indonesian Batik is a work of original cultural heritage of Indonesia. The conditions helped lift back and stretching

batik, especially in Lasem was beginning to rise. Despite this situation is not currently guaranteeing the sustainability of the development of Lasem batik. In an effort to preserve and maintain the existence of batik is maintained. Some of the steps that need to be considered among them is trying to explain the necessity of harmony in the acculturation of Javanese culture (Coastal Areas of the north) with the Chinese which is reflected in the design of Lasem batik. It is also necessary to describe a moral message as forming the character of Lasem batik, so it can be used and serve as concepts to build the nation's character.

4. CONCLUSION Batik has become a world heritage, in particular the Indonesian batik has been recognized by UNESCO as a cultural object work of genius Local indigenous cultural heritage of the archipelago. Among the areas of batik in Java, especially as the Solo, Yogyakarta, Pekalongan, Cirebon, and Madura is Lasem having distinctly different characteristics. Lasem batik reflects the existence of an acculturation between Chinese culture and coastal Javanese culture. has embodied the distinctive character of batik. The process of acculturation both cultures is an acculturation that is consistent and can be raised to create a relationship of ethnic cultures that create an atmosphere conducive. Lasem batik batik is part of a network of the north coast of Java affected by the Chinese culture that stretches from Cirebon, Pekalongan, Tuban, and Madura. In Lasem batik reflected the Chinese ideology that has as a cultural characteristic of a society in the form of the dominant ideology and the ideology of alternative nature of the alternative ideology is oppositional or alternative to the ideology that is ongoing, and is also the rationale of the past. Lasem batik has brought an alternative ideology (China) in




the form side with batik Classical (Yogya and Solo) by taking a position aligning with acculturation. The forms of harmony

in the design of the Lasem batik batik has become part of the development of batik in Indonesia.

REFERENCES Doellah, H. Santosa (2002). Batik: The Impact of Time and Environment Danarhadi: Surakarta Djoemena, Nian.S, (1990), Ungkapan Sehelai batik, Djambatan: Jakarta ___________. (1990), Batik dan Mitra, Djambatan: Jakarta Hitchcock, Michael, (1991), Indonesia Textiles, Periplus Edition: London Koentjaraningrat, (1983), Pengantar Ilmu Antropologi, Aksara Baru : Jakarta Rizali, Nanang, (2004). Nafas Islami dalam Batik Nusantara, UNS Press: Surakarta Surya, Yohanes, (2009). Fisika Batik: Implementasi kreatif melalui sifat fractal pada Batik secara Komputasional. PT. Gramedia Pusaka utama; Jakarta Yuanshi Kong, (2007). Muslim Tionghoa Cheng Ho (Misteri Peyalanan Muhibah di Dunia), Pusaka Madani: Jakarta Supardan, (2006), Flora dan Fauna dalam Motif-motif Batik Tulis Lasem, Rembang Bappeda Rembang, (2006), “cirri-ciri Lasem batik” Lokakarya Nasional Pengembangan Klaster dari Display Program 23 Klaster, Surakarta 27-28 Maret 2006




The Discourse of Leaders and Leadership in local-traditional Javanese society: A Study of Serat Rama and Asthabrata

Nur Fatah Abidin1, Hermanu Joebagio2 and Sariyatun3 1 Nur Fatah Abidin S.Pd, Post Graduate Student at Sebelas Maret University [email protected] 2 Prof. Dr. Hermanu Joebagio, M.Pd., Professor at Sebelas Maret University 3 Prof. Dr. Sariyatun, M.Pd.,M.Hum, Professor at Sebelas Maret University Abstract: Astabrata is an ideal type of leader and leadership virtues which still exist in local-traditional Javanese society. It consists of eight symbols of natural deities, namely Indra, Yama, Surya, Candra, Bayu, Kuwera, Baruna, and Brama, which are the traditional guidelines for determining an ideal Javanese king. Throughout history, from the Hindu-Buddhist Era, Islamic Era and the Modern Era, generations have produced and reproduced their own version of astabrata in the form of kakawin, babad, serat and lakon. Subsequently, astabrata has become part of the discourse about leaders and leadership in local-traditional Javanese society. This paper discusses the Astabrata text inside of Serat Rama Jarwa (SRJ) written by Yasadipura I in 1822. The reasons to selecting those manuscript as unit of analysis are: (1) the manuscript arranged in the beginning of 19th century, the time when the Javanese old order faced crises and penetration of colonialism; (2) Norman Fairclough (1989) & Walter J. Ong (2013) stated that the presence of any text in the society closely tied with changes or stabilization of social and political structure; (3) based on that theoretical aspects, this paper analyze the position and functions of Asthabrata text in strengthened or weakened the sociopolitical structure of Javanese society when facing the crises and penetration of colonialism. The findings of this research show that the production of SRJ and Asthabrata text was the responses of the colonial penetration, disaster and epidemic in Java. In the time of crises, there were efforts to restore the harmonious society by intellectual group of Javanese society. Yasadipura I gave a warn to the Javanese rulers to defend the Javanese old order by referring noble values in order to create equilibrium and harmonious realm as displayed in The asthabrata text imagined a ideal king and harmonious kingdoms to Javanese aristocrats and society. Asthabrata gave influence to the political behaviour of Pakubuwono VI (1823-1830) to stand against the colonial penetration and restored an old order of Javanese kingship Key Words: Astabrata, Leadership, Cultural Capital, Inter-regional and global era




1. INTRODUCTION

A

sthabrata is an ideal type of leader and leadership virtues that exist in local-traditional Javanese society. It consists of eight symbols of natural deities, namely Indra, Yama, Surya, Candra, Bayu, Kuwera, Baruna, and Brama, which are the traditional guidelines for determining an ideal Javanese king (Moertono, 1985: 52). The position of Asthabrata in the Javanese society lies in the scope of cultural system. Asthabrata is the part of the system information, idea, thought and values about the ideal type of leader and leaderships (Koentjaraningrat, 1974; see also Kuckartz, 1991). Asthabrata can be seen as a habitual thought or a consistent logic that hereditary used by Javanese society to judge the ideal leaders and leaderships. However, Asthabrata is not fixed rule or customary law of royal succession. Asthabrata embedded with Javanese powers and subsequently become part of the leaders and leadership discourses in local-traditional Javanese society. The presence of Asthabrata in Java was the result of Javanese poet contemplation and harmonization, coloured with power interest’s motives. Those motives caused change and continuity in the texts or in the substantive aspect of Asthabrata in accordance with zeitgeist and weltanschauung of the society. Throughout history, from the Hindu-Buddhist era, Islamic era and the Modern era, generations have produced and reproduced their own version of Asthabrata in the form of kakawin, babad, serat and lakon. Asthabrata found in Kakawin Ramayana (written in 8th or 9th century); Serat Rejunawijaya written by abdi-dalem tiyangsepuh Ngabehi Sestraprawira dated 1801; Serat Rama, dumugi pejahipun Dasamuka, kalajengaken mulang Astabrata written by Kyai Sastradimeja an abdi-dalem carik dated in 1872; Serat Asthabrata and Serat Rama Jarwa (SRJ) by Yasadipura I and

later published 1822 and 1923 (see Ricklefs, Voorhove & Gallop, 2014). Asthabrata has become a focus of study by academics in many disciplines. Soemarsaid Moertono (1985), touched on the roles and functions of Asthabrata in the state and statecraft of Mataram Kingdom, especially in the concept of kawicaksanaan of the kings. Weatherbee (1994) review intertextuality aspect between Asthabrata, Saptadewawrtti and Negarakertagama. Meanwhile, Wahyati Pradipta in Soeprapto & Widyastuti (1998) analyzes the leadership guidelines and doctrinal development of Astabrata in Javanese society. This paper discusses the Astabrata text inside of Serat Rama Jarwa (SRJ) written by Yasadipura I in 1822. The reasons to selecting those manuscript as unit of analysis are: (1) the manuscript arranged in the beginning of 19th century, the time when the Javanese old order faced crises and penetration of colonialism; (2) Norman Fairclough (1989) & Walter J. Ong (2013) stated that the presence of any text in the society closely tied with changes or stabilization of social and political structure; (3) based on that theoretical aspects, this paper analyze the position and functions of Asthabrata text in strengthened or weakened the sociopolitical structure of Javanese society when face the crises and penetration of colonialism.

2. METHOD This research using critical discourse analysis approach with three-dimensional framework: (1) analysis of text; (2) analysis of processes of text production, distribution and consumption; and (3) sociocultural analysis of the discursive events (Fairclough, 1989). The unit of analysis of this research is Asthabrata text inside of Serat Rama Jarwa (SRJ) written by Yasadipura I, published in 1750 A.J with candrasengkala Sirnèng tata pandhitèng siwi or 1822 A.D and later republished in 1923 by G.C.T. van Dhorp




& Co. The manuscript stored in Library of Sastra Lestari Foundation with number catalogue 832. 3. DISCUSSION The Asthabrata Text Serat Rama Jarwa (SRJ) contains the story of Sri Rama Wijaya and Dewi Sinta. Asthabrata texts appear in the narration between Sri Rama Wijaya and Wibisana after the death of Rahwana. Although Rama Wijaya successfully conquers Rahwana, he has no intention to ruling Alengka. Rama Wijaya precisely let the Astina`s throne to Wibisana that

genealogically is the rightful heirs of Alengka. Sri Rama Wijaya also give advice namely Asthabrata (eight virtues of the king) to Wibisana for restoring stability of Alengka (Yasadipura I, 1923). Asthabrata embedded in tembang Pangkur pupuh 77. It means Astharata become one of important texts in SRJ, because Pangkur present a high position of Asthabrata value in the mentality of Javanese society. The Asthabrata text consist of Pupuh and Pada with specific composition of Guru Lagu and Guru Wilangan that show aesthetic element of the language but in the other side it biases the elements of subjectivity. The Asthabrata text can be seen below:

15. yêkti tinelad sajagad | yèn ratune ing rèh wus dèn ugêmi | têtêp ing agama tutug | sumêbaring parentah | marma yayi prayitnanên yèn ing prabu | yêkti tiniru sajagad | mungguh ing rèh ala bêcik ||

20. iku yayi la[...]kêna | sawadyane kabèh amot ing bumi | dene Yama lampahipun | milara krama ala | wong durjana ing praja kabèh linêbur | nora ngetung kadang warga | yèn durjana dèn patèni ||

16. ala ya tiniru ala | yèn abêcik pêsthi tiniru bêcik | anut sasolahing ratu | tiniru isining rat | lawan sira elinga bathara wolu | poma iku munggèng sira | lire kang sawiji-wiji ||

21. barang kang laku dursila | ingupaya kabèh dèn osak-asik | sagone ingusir tinut | kacandhak pinatenan | rêrêgêding praja pinrih biratipun | mêngkono Bathara Yama | gone rumêksa prajadi ||

17. wêwolu sariranira | yêkti nora kêna sira ngoncati | salah siji saking wolu | cacad karatonira | yèn tinggala salah siji saking wolu | kang dhingin Bathara Endra | Bathara Surya ping kalih ||

22. maling mêmalaning praja | pinrih ilang dursila ngrarêgêdi | angundhangi wadyanipun | tanna kêna omaha | ingkang sandhing panggawe ala tinundhung | kang ala wus pinatenan | sajinise tumpês tapis ||

18. Bayu ingkang kaping tiga | Kuwera kang sakawanipun nênggih | Baruna kalimanipun | Yama Côndra lan Brama | jangkêp wolu dèn pasthi môngka ing prabu | angganira ngastha brata | sayêkti ing narapati || 19. lampahe Bathara Endra | ngudanakên wêwangi ing sabumi | dana sumêbar sumawur | mêratani sajagad | kawaratan gung alit sadayanipun | pan ora amilih janma | lakuning Endra sayêkti ||

23. kang jinis panggawe ala | lah anggonên Bathara Yama yêkti | surya kaping tiganipun | lakuning palamarta | ngudanakên sabarang rèh arum-arum | amanjingakên rêrasan | asrêping kang dèn têtêpi || 24. tan galak nutuk sakarsa | tan karasa wadya pinrih ing bêcik | tan ana rarêngunipun | sumusup amrih kêna | ingkang pinrih rinasan-rasanan alus | pangisêpe rêrêsêpan | kasêsêp kêna kang pinrih ||




25. tan age saliring karsa | nadyan dumuh tyase kêna pinulih | tan katêngên pan rinasuk | pangisêpe sarasa | pan kaping pat Bathara Côndra ing laku | apura sêrananira | amênuhi ring sabumi || 26. mrih eca isining praja | ing pangrèhe wêwangi lan mêmanis | sawuwuse manis arum | saulat [sau...] [...lat] parikrama | guyu-guyu èsême winor ing tanduk | satindak datan rêkasa | mung marentahkên mêmanis || 27. ambêk santa sabuwana | nrusing manah marta-marta mêmanis | sangsaya sru arum-arum | asih sagung pandhita | kaping lima lampahe Bathara Bayu | nging tekad pakartining rat | budining rat dèn kawruhi || 28. tanpa wangên tan têngêran | gèning amrih mèt budine dumadi | kêna kabudayanipun | ing rèh datan kawruhan | bisa amèt budine wadya sawêgung | dursila mulya kawruhan | sasolahe wadya kèksi ||

tan wruh ingupaya sira | tuhuning pribadi pinrih || 33. kasaptanira Baruna | agung agêm sanjata lampahnèki | bisa basuki ing laku | amusthi ing wardaya | guna-guna kagunan kabèh ginêlung | angapusa isining rat | putus wiweka kaèksi || 34. angapus sagung durjana | sêndhih kingkin dursila sila juti | saisining rat kawêngku | kèsthi kang ala arja | têmpuhing sarana datan kegah-keguh | kukuh kautamanira | tuladên Baruna yêkti || 35. bratane Bathara Brama | ngupa boga sawadyane gung alit | kabèh galak maring mungsuh | bisa basaning wadya | sirna parangmuka kaparag kapusus | tirunên Bathara Brama | lakine Ni Rarasati ||

29. sinambi angupaboga | myang busana agung mangun kamuktin | tan ana antaranipun | mring kasukaning bala | amêmaès sang para yogyaning wadu | sarta gung tyase sinuksma | gunaning yuwana pinrih || 30. ing tyas datan kêna molah | sapolahe kabèh wus dèn kawruhi | dibyan danadana tinut | lampah susela arja | wus kakênan jagad kautamanipun | ing mêngko Bayu lampahnya | iya èngêtên sayêkti || 31. kaping nêm Sang Hyang Kuwera | agung mukti boga sarya ngenaki | tan anggêpok raganipun | namakakên sarana | kang wus kinon amusthi pasthining laku | amung pracaya kewala | dènira tan amrih silib || 32. gungning praja pinarcaya | dananya sru kasêktèn dèn ugêmi | nora ngalêm nora nutuh | samoha sinasama | rèhning sun srah kabèh kawiryan wus sinung |




Based on the stanzas, the position of Rama Wijaya and Wibisana are equal, those two characters are the “real king” of two political entities. Rama Wijaya is the “real king” without throne after he left Astina. The interlocutor is Wibisana, he is the heir raja Alengka after Rahwana defeated by Rama Wijaya. However, if it seen from the direction of the conversation and topic controlling, there is a intellectual domination from Rama Wijaya by delivering advices and order to Wibisana as the passive interlocutor. Textually, the purpose of domination is not to take the powers from Wibisana to Rama Wijaya, but the “domination” actually uses to create harmonization (keselarasan) in Alengka. The harmonization realized only if the kings was able to act in harmony. The metaphor to act in harmony is similarity with the eight virtues of deities that interpreted by Yasadipura I are as follows: (1) Kings according to the Indra`s character must have non-limited wealth; (2) Yama`s directs the king to be able to withstand all evil; (3) Surya`s character is displayed with the king`s ability it persuade with friendly and thoughtful actions; (4) Candra`s manifested in compassionate king; (5) Bayu`s described as meticulous characters; (6) Kuwera`s describe generosity in providing property and amusement; (7) Baruna`s is a representation of sharp intelligence and brilliant in face of adversity; (8) Brama`s is courage and determination in face the enemy (Moertono, 1985). The metaphor of nature deities show psychological indigenous of Javanese society that upholds the harmony concept between macrocosms and microcosms (Abidin, 2016). Behind the written aspect, Yasadipura I criticized the kings-aristocrats and promoted interpretation and discourse of an ideal Javanese king. Yasadipura I was acted as intellectual who have critical consciousness and sensitivity to the socio, politic, economic and cultural condition in Java the beginning of 19th century. He had

a responsibility to guard the Javanese`s old order. Yasadipura I gave warn to the Javanese rulers to defend the Javanese old order by referring noble values in order to create equilibrium and harmonious realm. In Javanese perspectives, the welfare of the court relies heavily on the wisdom of the kings to centralize the powers.

3.2 Production, distribution Consumption of Asthabrata.

and

Serat Rama Jarwa (SRJ) published in 1822, about ten years after the death of Yasadipura I (1802) and probably this manuscript published by his descendants, Yasadipura II. The production of SRJ and Asthabrata text closely related with the political, economic, social and cultural background of the society. In the first decades of 19th century, Java faced the penetration of colonialism and critical events with the construction of new foundation in the relationship between Batavia and Javanese Court by H.W. Daendels; the downfall of Keraton Kasultanan Yogyakarta in 1812 which brought down the old order of Javanese kingship; the annexation of Kedu in 1812 that caused agrarian reorganization in the land tenure system of Javanese court and also reduced the income of Javanese aristocrats. Reduced incomes lead the aristocrat to leased out their lands or indebted to the Dutch. The farmers took greatest pressure due to increased and misappropriation of tax expenses (Van Den Haspel, 1985; Houben, 2002). In the second decades of 19th century, there were political changes and rivalry in the royal succession of Kasunanan after the death of Pakubuwono IV (1820) and Pakubuwono V (1823); demoralization of aristocrats caused by western influences; until the outbreak of pests and diseases began with rat attack (1819 & 1822), the cholera epidemic (1821), the eruption of Mount Merapi (1822) and tobacco crop failure (1823). Those epidemic and disasters interpreted by the Javanese as zaman kala




bendhu or the age of deterioration that resulted Ratu Adil discourses spread all Java and led to Javanese War in 1825-1830 (Carey, 2012). In the time of crises, there were efforts to restore the harmonious society by intellectual group of Javanese society. The intellectual groups produce and reproduce by: a) anyerat or write; (b) anganggit or author; (c) angiket or collect; (d) akarya sastra or text work; (e) anedhak or copy the literature which contains guidance and moral education (Margana, 2004). It means that there were intertextuality and interdiscourse in the production of Javanese literature works. Yasadipura I translated Kakawin Ramayana into SRJ. Yasadipura I (1729-1803) also translated about two old Javanese literatures from Hindu-Budha era to the new form of Javanese literature like Bratayuda and Arjunawiwaha. He also produce and reproduce twelve Javanese literature with Islamic and Javanese elements such as Tajusalatin, Babad Giyanti, Babad Prayut, Dewa Ruci etc. (see Ricklefs,). In the production of SRJ, Yasadipura translated and added more interpretation in the Asthabrata text.. Genealogically, Asthabrata sourced from text V:96, VII:1, and IX:303 of Manusmrti book (Maria, 1991). A Manusmrti book is a collection of revelations compiled by Rsi Manu as basic laws of society (Peters & Wardana, 2013). Yasadipura I also, added interpretation to Asthabrata in accordance with zeitgeist and wesstenchaung of Javanese society. The interpretation of Yasadipura I lead the reader to internalize justice values (Kartodirdjo, Sudewa & Hatmosuprobo, 1988). Those description show that the production of SRJ and Asthabrata text presenting the zeitgeist and westenschaung of the society. The process of reproduction of the texts show that the presence of texts in Javanese society related with politic, social, cultural and economic aspect. On the concept of Javanese power, the kings

built their powers by physical hegemony and non-physical hegemony by producing knowledge and discourses to dominate and domesticate of mentality. Javanese literature work such as kakawin, babad and serat must be seen as the practice of powers and cultural politics of Javanese society (Anderson, 2000). The Astharata`s discourse transmitted orality and literacy from writer, reader to listeners through wayang performance or nembang (Ras, 2014). It caused the discourses that produced by Javanese intellectual not only consumed by aristocrats, but able to go beyond the Keraton and reached the public and rural communities (Florida, 2003). In the other words, texts that produce inside of Keraton could influence socio-politic, socio-cultural and socio-economic practices of rural communities or nonliteracy communities. These frameworks prove that orality and literacy cannot be separated in the dynamic of intellectuals and mentality of Javanese society (Ong, 2013). Hence, there was possibility that the leadership discourses in Asthabrata internalized by the aristocrat and rural communities.

3.3 Socio-cultural Analysis Theoretically, discourses creates productive encouragement for the agency or subject to changes or hold the structures (Fairclough, 1989). Practically, there is an opportunity to accept or reject in the reception process. In the case of Asthabrata text, substantially Asthabrata text consist of ideal leadership`s discourses, the greatness of the kings and also demands to harmonization and justice in accordance with the Javanese old order. The weakness to analysis whole of the socio-cultural practice of Asthabrata discourses due to limited historical resources. Therefore, the analysis will be focus on the aspect of kings powers, and how at least the kings implemented the leadership discourse`s of Asthabrata. The depiction of reception process could




observe from political Pakubuwono VI.

behaviour

of

In 1823 B.R.M. Sapardan was appointed as Pakubuwono VI,. Pakubuwono VI had an interest and ability of Javanese history and literature. Pakubuwono VI also had skill of puppetry that caused him familiar with royal literary works. In the beginning of his reign, Pakubuwono VI showed his disaffection to the colonial penetration in Kasunanan Surakarta. Pakubuwono VI held shadows puppet performance that display himself as the true Javanese kings and the Dutch as insane criminals (Florida, 2003). When Javanese war broke out in 1825, Pakubuwono VI interested to join Dipa Negara. However, arrival of Markus De Kock to Surakarta and internal politic rivalry led Pakubuwono VI to adopted more moderate strategy by pretending to help the Dutch, and in the other side secretly helped Dipa Negara. As the result of ambivalent and the intentions of Dutch to ruled mancanegara of Kasunanan Surakarta, at least Pakubuwono VI dethroned and exiled to Ambon at the end of Javanese war after he took a political and religious trips to Mancingan (Carey, 2012; Houben, 2002). By those description about Pakubuwono VI`s political behaviour, Asthabrata text inside of Serat Rama Jarwa published in 1822 possibility read by Pakubuwono VI. Pakubuwono VI shows the passion to restore the glory of Javanese old order according to idealized image that implied in the history and literature works. The attention to history and literature works promoted critical consciousness to face the reality his political life in Keraton Kasunanan Javanese kingship.

Surakarta. Based on that frameworks, Pakubuwono VI indirectly have realized the reality of power deterioritation; demoralization of aristocrats; and Dutch political penetration in Java. Those aspects tend to took important role to shape the world view of Pakubuwono VI. The world view led Pakubuwono VI to stand against Dutch position and restored an old order of Javanese kingship (Abidin, 2014). Based on the description, the discourse of Javanese ideals kings inside of Asthabrata text provide a political view of Pakubuwono VI that there was a discrepancy between ideal condition and reality that occurs in Java at 19th century. The asthabrata text imagined an ideal king and harmonious kingdoms to Javanese aristocrats and society and gave influence to the political behaviour of Pakubuwono VI (1823-1830) to stand against the colonial penetration and restored an old order of Javanese kingship. 4.

CONCLUSION The production of SRJ and Asthabrata text was the responses of the colonial penetration, disaster and epidemic in Java. In the time of crises, there were efforts to restore the harmonious society by intellectual group of Javanese society. Yasadipura I gave a warn to the Javanese rulers to defend the Javanese old order by referring noble values in order to create equilibrium and harmonious realm as displayed in The asthabrata text imagined a ideal king and harmonious kingdoms to Javanese aristocrats and society. Asthabrata gave influence to the political behaviour of Pakubuwono VI (1823-1830) to stand against the colonial penetration and restored an old order of




REFERENCE Abidin, N.F. (2014). Pergeseran Kekuasaan di Keraton Surakarta dalam Bayang-bayang Kolonialisme (1830-1870). Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University.Unpublished Abidin, N.F., Hermanu Joebagio & Sariyatun (2016). Dari Keselarasan Menuju Kekuasaan: Jelajah Genealogy Asthabrata dalam Masyarakat Jawa. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Revitalisasi Kearifan Lokal untuk Membangun Martabat Bangsa. FISH UNESA Surabaya Fairclough, Norman. (1989). Language and Power. Essex: Longman Group UK Jan Hendrik Peters & Wisnu Wardana. (2013). Tri Hita Karana: The Spirit of Bali (Jakarta: KPG) Koentjaraningrat. (1974). Kebudayaan, Mentalitet dan Pembangunan (Jakarta: Gramedia). Maria, Siti (Ed.). (1991). Ajaran Kepemimpinan dalam Naskah Serat Partawigena. (Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan) Moertono, Soemarsaid. (1985). Negara dan Usaha Bina-Negara di Jawa Masa Lampau: Studi Tentang Masa Mataram II Abad XVI Sampai XIX (Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia). Ras, J.J. (2014). Masyarakat dan Kesusasteraan Jawa, (Jakarta: YOI) Ricklefs, M.C. (1997). Yasadipura Problem. In BKI Volume 153 Issue 2 p. 273-283 Ricklefs, M.C. P. Voorhoeve & Annabel Teh Gallop. (2014). Indonesian Manuscript in Great Britain: A Catalouge of Manuscript in Indonesian Languages in British Public Collections. (Jakarta: EFEO, Perpusnas & YOI) Soeprapto, Sarworo & Sri harti Widyastuti (Ed.), Ramayana: Transformasi, Pengembangan dan Masa Depannya (Yogyakarta: Lembaga Studi Jawa & Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Jawa FPBS IKIP Yogyakarta, 1998) Udo Kuckartz, “Ideal Types or Empirical Types: The Case of Max Webers Empirical Research, in Bulletin de Methodologie Sociologiue, Number 31, September 1991), p. 44-53. Wahyati Pradipta, “Ajaran Kepemimpinan Astabrata” in Sarworo Soeprapto & Sri harti Widyastuti (Ed.). (1998). Ramayana: Transformasi, Pengembangan dan Masa Depannya (Yogyakarta: Lembaga Studi Jawa & Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Jawa FPBS IKIP Yogyakarta) Weatherbee, D.E. “The Astabrata, Saptadewawrtti and Negarakrtagama VIII:1-2” in BKI 1994) Yasadipura I. (1923). Serat Rama. (Semarang, Surabaya, Bandung: G.C.T. Van Dhorp Ong, Walter J. (2013). Kelisanan dan Keaksaraan. Yogyakarta: Gading Publisher Nancy K. Florida. Menyurat yang Silam Menggurat yang Menjelang (Yogyakarta: Bentang Budaya, 2003) Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 356



Women’s Revolutioner Agency And The Politcs of Indonesia

Brigida Intan Printina, M.Pd Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta University [email protected]

Abstract: This essay analyzes historical data compiled in Indonesia postcolonial and post Soekarno era. The author examine how Indonesia woman showed a powerful position in both the Soekarno government and the local community, connects her ideal virtues to her social and political practices and how this dynamic contributes to develop. A more articulated, critical, and creative from agency. Although the practice of revolutioner agency not developed in post Soekarno government. This essay does not claim to descontruct discursive gender norms, it resignifies thes norms from the political structural domain, which women’s movement, to liberate themselves from the control of the discursive gender norms. Key Word: Women’s, Revolutioner Agency, The Politics

INTRODUCTION

T

here were differences between women who lived in national movements and those who lived after Soekarno’s era. It is visible from the systematic pressure of women role. Those differences was not only to diminish radical movement, but for the legitimation power. Then women as the revolutioner agent it just clearly on the physical struggle era, and in early 21st century the politic role got respond. There were a lot of pioner women in 19th century who contributed opinions to make a change. In this case, having perspective and mission were needed for organizations, so it could change the people way of seeing towards the women marriage tradition without getting education as what men got. This suppression should have wiped out by

learning, reading, and collecting Indonesian women. R.A Kartini and Dewi Sartika were the first pioner of women movement.37 Struggling to adapt to isolation, Kartini wrote letters to Ovink-Soer and her Dutch schoolmates, protesting the gender inequality of Javanese traditions such as forced marriages at a young age, which denied women the freedom to pursue an education. Ironically, in her eagerness to escape her isolation, Kartini was quick to accept a marriage proposal arranged by her father. On November 8, 1903, she wed the regent of Rembang, Raden Adipati Joyodiningrat. Joyodiningrat was 26 years older than Kartini, and already had three wives and 37

Sukanti Sueyochondro, Potret Pergerakan Wanita Indonesia, Rajawali, Jakarta, 1984, hlm 68-69 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 357



12 children. Kartini had recently been offered a scholarship to study abroad, and the marriage dashed her hopes of accepting it. According to Javanese tradition, at 24 she was too old to expect to marry well. Intent on spreading her feminist message, with her new husband's approval, Kartini soon set about planning to start her own school for Javanese girls. With help from the Dutch government, in 1903 she opened the first Indonesian primary school for native girls that did not discriminate on the basis of their social status. The school was set up inside her father's home, and taught girls a progressive, Western-based curriculum. To Kartini, the ideal education for a young woman encouraged empowerment and enlightenment. She also promoted their lifelong pursuit of education. To that end, Kartini regularly corresponded with feminist Stella Zeehandelaar as well as numerous Dutch officials with the authority to further the cause of Javanese women's emancipation from oppressive laws and traditions. Her letters also expressed her Javanese nationalist sentiments. In the direction of developing many of national actions were showed actively , in Japanese era, new women movement appeared against the Japanese women movement called Fujinkai. They felt depressed by Japanese army and they were not noticed by the government. Walking along each other this women movement having dream to liberate Indonesia much better from colonialism.38 In 20th century, women movement gathered together and created a new movement to wipe out every suppression from time to time. Srikandi and Kartini were two persons whom inspired them. Based on their stories, they started to reach their hopes, such as women emancipation, and they struugle for the Indonesian prosperity.

38

Ibid, hlm 67

The emancipation was to fight for women positions in their marriage life, highten the understanding being a mother to their family. All above was showed by adding some schools, and highten the understanding of being women, and it was the principal for women movement.39 Finally, women movement in Indonesia was supported by the past events. In this case, women organization indicated to women emancipation in Indonesia that league in women movement, consist of women organizations as in Kongres Perempuan Pertama Indonesia (22 December 1928).40 National independence and democratization give women important new opportunities to act citizens of a democratic polity. For Indonesian women, this opportunity came in 1950 when the newly independent republic begn a process of post-colonial national-building and democratic transition. Indonesian women had to define their roles, citizenship and participation in the new state, taks largely met trough their vigorous social-movement activism. One Indonesian woman proudly introducted her new nation foreign audience by claiming:

39

A.K. Pringgodani. Sejarah Pergerakan Rakyat Indonesia, (Jakarta: Dian Rakyat, 1970), hlm.20-21 40 Nani Soewondo-Soerasno, Kedudukan Wanita Indonesia dalam Hukum dan Masyarakat, Timun Mas, Djakarta, 1955, hlm 128; atau Depdikbud national historical documents Jakarta, Biografi Tokoh Kongres Perempuan Indonesia Pertama, Depdikbud, Jakarta, 1991, cetakan 1, hlm x; atau Sucanti Suryochondro, Potret Pergerakan Wanita Indonesia,Rajawali, Jakarta, 1984; atau A. Nunuk Prasetyo, Gerakan Anti-Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan, Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1998, hlm 17; atau Saskia Wieringa, Kuntilanak Wangi: Organisasi-organisasi Perempuan Indonesia Sesudah 1950, Kalyanamitra, Jakarta, 1988, hlm 12 (to examine more deeply , the authors conducted in-home interviews of former women activists or members of the IEC, she is Nunuk Prasetyo confirmed the existence of depoliticization against women and women's use of the word in the organization since Kongers Female Indonesia I held)




Indonesia can pride itself with a women’s movement, wich is considered to be one of the most dynamic ad advanced in the less developed countries and even more advanced than in some industrialized countries. (Ismail 1959: 304)

METHOD The theory used in the study of history should be based on research and findings are supported by data and arguments. In the end , the theory provides convenience menganalisisi facts collected in this study . The theory used in this research are structure, agency and feminism Structure is the recurrent patterned arrangements which influence or limit the choices and opportunities available.41 Agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices. The structure versus agency debate may be understood as an issue of socialization against autonomy in determining whether an individual acts as a free agent or in a manner dictated by social structure. Structural functionalists such as Émile Durkheim see structure and hierarchy as essential in establishing the very existence of society. Theorists such as Karl Marx, by contrast, emphasize that the social structure can act to the detriment of the majority of individuals in a society. In both these instances "structure" may refer to something both material (or "economic") and cultural (i.e. related to norms, customs, traditions and ideologies). Some theorists put forward that what we know as our social existence is largely determined by the overall structure of society. The perceived agency of individuals can also mostly be explained by the operation of this structure.

Lastly, a third option, taken by many modern social theorists (Bourdieu, 1977, 1990), attempts to find a point of balance between the two previous positions. They see structure and agency as complementary forces - structure influences human behaviour, and humans are capable of changing the social structures they inhabit. Structuration is one prominent example of this view. Feminism has altered predominant perspectives in a wide range of areas within Western society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's legal rights (rights of contract, property rights, voting rights); for women's right to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights (including access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection of women and girls from domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape;for workplace rights, including maternity leave and equal pay; against misogyny; and against other forms of gender-specific discrimination against women.42 During much of its history, most feminist movements and theories had leaders who were predominantly middleclass white women from Western Europe and North America. However, at least since Sojourner Truth's 1851 speech to American feminists, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms. This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the Civil Rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in former European colonies and the Third World have proposed "Post-colonial" and "Third World" feminisms. Some Postcolonial Feminists, such as Chandra Talpade Mohanty, are critical of Western feminism 42

Chodorow, Nancy J., Feminism and Barker, Chris. 2005. Cultural Studies: Theory and Psychoanalytic Theory (Yale University Press: Practice. London: Sage. 1989, 1991) Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 41

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for being ethnocentric. Black feminists, such as Angela Davis and Alice Walker, share this view. WOMEN REVOLUTIONER IN 19th Century In 19th century, Indonesia had had women whom got passion in showing their roles to clean the oppression of colonial chief. The national warrior that spur the spirit of Indonesian women were Martha Christina Tiahahu (died in 1818) from Maluku, Cut Nyak Dien (died in 1908), and Cut Nyak Meutia (died in 1910) from Aceh.43 The next pioneer of Indonesian woman was Raden Ajeng Kartini (21 April 1879-17 September 1904). Her biggest dream was to drive the Indonesian women community listed on her letters, so that it was booked and now it is known as “Habis Gelap Terbitlah Terang” or Out of Darkness to Light. She expressed about what Indonesian women faced in their era, such as, necessity marriage, polygamy. Kartini knew the consequences of poligamy, because her father had done it and got misarable fate, then Kartini married with a regent of Rembang named RMAA Djojodhiningrat whom did poligamy too, divorced, and less education for women.44 Besides R.A Kartini, Raden Dewi Sartika (December 4th 1884- September 11th 1947) was the leading figure and pioneer for the education for women in Indonesia. Dewi Sartika established a school for ladies in 1904 based on her knowledge. She founded a school named Sekolah Isteri which changed to Sekolah Keutamaan Isteri. There had been 9 ladies schools until 1912 in every regencies.45

Dewi Sartika was known as the pioner of education for women.46

REVOLUTIONER OF AFTER COLONIAL

WOMEN

When Japanese had their era (19421945), there was a prohibiton for every organizations. Then, Japan made new organizations for the propaganda to importance and the prosperity of East Asia. Women movement were built by the wifes of the local employees, and the leader was the wife from each local chief, it was Fujinkai. Fujinkai was only made for women’s stuff in increasing the domestic creativity, besides to amuse the army and held a course for those who had illeterate. For those whom had a lot of knowledges, this boundary was worried by those whom did not join Fujinkai. 47National movement that consist of anti-colonialism women was GWS (Gerakan Wanita Sosial). Nationalists, including women, were arrested and murdered.48

NATIONAL ACTIONS National actions had done in early 20th century by the women movement, such as education for women, underage marriage, the marriage rules in Islam, the importance to build a self-worth for women, and observing bad effect caused by the marriage. A campaign against the underage marriage was held too. In Japanese era, one of the women observer was led by Ny. Sujatin. She went to Lasem to investigate about the laborers condition in fact they become the hostage laborers. This community was doing a

Ciamis (1917), Cicurung (1918), Kuningan (1922), dan Sukabumi (1926)… dalam Dinamika Wanita Indoesia: Seri 01; Multidimensional, oleh Pusat 43 Ibid. Pengembangan Sumberdaya Wanita, Cetakan 1, 44 Nani Soewondo Soerasno, Kedudukan Wanita Pusat Pengembangan Sumberdaya Wanita, Jakarta, Indonesia dalam Hukum dan Masyarakat, Timun Mei 1990, hlm 118 46 Ibid, hlm 127 Mas, Jakarta, 1955, hlm 126 45 Menyusul pendirian sekolah-sekolah di Tasik 47 Ibid. 48 Saskia Weirenga, Op.cit; hlm 12 Malaya (1913), Sumedang (1916), Cianjur (1916), Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 360



protest about the condition of women workers, but it also talked about mistress whom men the owner of batik had. 49 In 1935, the first election of women members in congress. It was done because the colonial opened up a chance for women without voting.50 Therefore, a campaign was held and it was used for women so that they could be in Volksaard. The first woman who studied in Dutch as a lawyer was Maria Ulfa, and a vote for woman was official opened. Therefore, a campaign was held and it was used for women so that they could be in Volksaard. The first woman who studied in Dutch as a lawyer was Maria Ulfa, and a vote for woman was official opened. 51 Gerwani as a new-born organization in March 1954, it showed a lot of natonal actions as it was showed in women movements. This movement helped a mass of politic party with passion, and willing to help people in suppression. The examples of this actions were against DITII in 1951, extinguish RMS in 1956 by helping goverment and coordinate the chiefs, helping TNI to destroy PRRIPermesta (1957-1958) being members of Palang Merah, and helping local movements from PRRI-Permesta, especially Sumatera and Celebes. Yet there are few images of Indoensian women as political actors, especially for the first decade of independence, and the 1950s Indonesian women’s movement has received little attention in scholarship on Indonesian politics and history. It’s the importance of the 1950’s in Indonesian political history and the fundamental questions this period raises about gender, nationalism,

revolutioner agency, and women’s citizenship. Basu (1995:2) notes that comparative literature on women’s movements mainly ignores post-colonial societies. Studies of the Third World fail to consider women as agents and activits in their own right. There are ongoing calls to make visible and intelligible (to the West) the organizational practices and writings of Third World women (Alexander and Mohanty 1997:xix), thereby broadening understandings of other women anddiversity of experiences and lives often generalized under the monolithic label “Third Word women”. Yet simply recovering women’s history and ‘adding in’ their stories is no longer enough. Femenists conted that ‘such a process of recobery must take place alongside further theoretical developments and co-exist with them while noting thar ‘the very process of recovery can yield important theoretical insights (Offen et al, 1991: xxx). Women are not outside history and politics. Recovering images of women as political and historical processes women act within. This makes the 1950s an interesting period within which to stufy Indonesian women. It was the first period of national independence, and women pariticipated both in the development of a new state and in democratic political system. Their participation raises important theoretical questions about women’s engangement with these gendered political processes. Women’s agen revolutioner and the politics movement national indepencence women are rarely analysed for their impact on women or for the extent to which such political trantitions meet women’s interests, ecen though these political processes are critical to women’s activism.

49

Rambe, Sijantin Kartowijono: Mencari Makna Besides revolutioner actons, women Hidupku, Sinar Harpaan, Jakarta, 1983, hlm 43-44 movements doing national actions related 50 Vreede-de Stuers, Op.cit; hlm 95 51 Locher-Scholten, Women an the Colonial State: to safety of people such as, a struggle against economic crisis in 1958 by sending Essays on Gender and Modernity in the Nederlands Indies 1900-1942, Amsterdam University Press, their delegations to the goverment so that Amsterdam ,2000.. (dalam Penghancuran Gerakan there would be lowering price in Perempuan oleh Saskia EW) Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 361



September 1958. In spite of government did not do,52 the struggle against economic crisis in 1960 by Gerwani, SOBSI, Kowani also kind of organizations was responed by Soekarno, for lowering price to standart level in two or three years, this struggle in 1961 was done by Gerwani.53 In the next year, Indonesia was really apprehensive by taking back West Irian in 1962, many of women movements such as Gerwani and Perwari sent a volunteer to liberate West Irian and also increasing the members.54 Next the role in Dwikora (IN 1964-1965) was done by Gerwani and SOBSI. They supported nasionalisation of Caltex the oil company from England by doing a boycott, maids against their boss, that action spread all over restaurants and shops that prevent to serve strangers.55 In the same year in September, they did a practice fot those who volunteered themselves to wipe out Malaysia.56 It was done by the women organization and women whom against US in 1965.57 This movements walked together in revocationing IGO/B, against corruption, against toward Imperialism in America,58 including to oppose and

52

boycott US production films that could destroy Indonesian youngsters.59 In new order era there were some depoliticizations that could influence development process, for example the development cabinet, fusion, voting that always win by certain parties, people corporations when every members was placed being Kopri (Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia), ABRI had role with some reasons as stabilitator system and dinamic functions of nations, it had P4 (Pedoman, Penghayatan, dan Pengalaman Pancasila) to reach supports along new order era. All of these, it become a big power against every kind of cristization system from every organizations. Next, many of depoliticization became a belief to limit the women movement. Therefore, women organizations in new order era had experience of domestication with implications of moderation, segregartion, and depoliticization. Women movement itself worked by it own and become sporadic. Government in this era, made a limitations for social and women movements by diminishing the victims of PKI. In the end, many of social movements including women organizations which preserving, militant and active to fight for NKRI from Neo-colonialism and imperialism should have stopped. Women movement was radical by the government, because they usually di any revolutiner activities, it was like “ganyang Malaysia”, to help West Irian freedom, and to help farmers also the workers with develpment principle of new order era. Except, domesticastion of Indonesian women in Panca Dharma Wanita appeared. In the new order era, women organizations became functional organizations. In this case, the old organization should adapt, and it should consist of workers’ wife. Wanita Demokrat

Harian Rakyat, 17 September 1958, hlm. 2 Harian Rakyat, 30 Januari 1960, hlm. 2 54 Saskia Eleonora Weiringa, Op.cit; hlm 258 55 Vrouwengroep Komite Indonesie (tanpa tahun), Indonesische Vrouwen in Beweging 1949-1965, Amsterdam: Vrouwengroep Komite Indonesie. 56 Latihan yang dilakukan ialah baris-berbaris dan latihan kemiliteran, termasuk juga pelajaran tentang pidato Presiden berjudul Tavip, Marxisme, malasah yang berhubungan dengan produksi. Ny. Subandrio memberikan pelajaran tentang gerakan perempuan kepada para kader yang akan memperkuat barisan progresif revolusioner. Ny. Subandrio mengatakan bahwa saat itu negara kita diancam komplotan neo-kolonial Malaysia. Dari situ gerakan perempuan berdislipin karan pengalaman pahit kolonialisme dan latihan kaum buruh wanita tidak akan tertinggal. 57 Harian Rakjat, 15 dan 29 Januari, 30 September 59 Hikmah Diniah, Op,cit; hlm 145 1965 58 Saskia Eleonora Weiringa, Op.cit; hlm. 269 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 53

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that that have a mass line as before and connected with PNI showed the similar conditions after PNI to PDI. It has reducted the women roles in to three things, “Isti, Ibu, dan Ibu Rumah Tangga” or “Mother, Wife, and Housewife”. This is so nble, but it makes a place for women decrease as “the liberate people who expressed their thought to the betterment women” Women organizations in new order era, they had to follow the rules. In this era, there are no more revolutioner women whom spirit had ever showed of Dewi Sartika, R.A Kartini, and S.K. Trimurti. Besides those above, Kongres Perempuan Indonesia that walk as well , it become not as good as before in new order era. 60So, there were some active women organizations without support from government. They created many organizations, non-government, that helped women instances in addition to decrease discriminations and exploitation of women still work, so they could get a support from government.

The role of women and politics

New Order political

Obst acle

reasons totality

the

program struggle

of

National Education women strong competitor in politics

organizational system

domestic economy

family education Labor Factory

National politic

domestica tion

Table 1. Restrictions on women's role

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Wawancara dengan anggota KPI Ibu Nunuk Prasetyo Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 363



On the diagram, it explains that women movement works with every politic power before new order era. It became a big problem in the new order stablization. The other problem, new order regime made a reduction of women role for totality in government. So, it can be said that women movement itself being an effort program of domestic duty for Indonesian women. In the end, regime of new order era wants to decrease the opotition including the authority towards the women movement.

WOMEN ORGANIZATIONS EXISTED IN NEW ORDER a)

Dharma Wanita, was a shelter of 19 organizations of civilian employee’s wife with many programs and the small organization was born since 1960s. It has automatic members, classified from I a to VI e.61

b)

Dharma Pertiwi, existed in 1964. This was the combination of Army’s wifes (Persit Kartika Canda Kirana), Air Force (PIA Ardhyagarini), Navy (Jalasenastri), and Police Force (Bhayangkari). It is similar with Dhatma Wanita, Dharma Pertiwi also has automatic members. The members from ABRI’s wifes with degree as corporal and general. 62

c)

PKK, specially for helping government to increase the status program of poor women in city or countryside. This organization is made by Kantor Menteri Negara Urusan Peranan Wanita or other instances, for example Pos Pelayanan Terpadu (Posyandu) or Intregated Service Post, to give nutrisions for mother and child. This component is a part of Keluarga Berencana to expedite the next program, Norma

Keluarga Kecil Bahagia Sejahtera (NKKBS). Out of the program, PKK does not handle about violence of women or any other problems. In a practice, PKK can motivate and organize women in the low level, such as a worker in Pasar Beringharjo that will go home if PKK will be held.63

REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN THE POLITICS In addition to the 1945 contitution and its amendments (completed in 2002), the policy basis for the fungctioning of the government was determ ined by the elaboration of the 1945 constitution on that had been developed by the MPR in the Garis-Garis Besar Haluan Negara (GBHN, Broad Guidelines of State Policy). From 1988, these guidelines contained provisions regarding the role of women, and there has in addition been a junior Ministry for Women’s Affairs (latterly for Women’s Empowerment). In the 1999Broad Guidelines, it was declared that the empowerment of women would be conducted through a twofold strategy. First, improvements would be made in the position and role of women in the nation and state, through national policies formulated and implemented by institutions responsible for gender equalitu and justice. Second, improvements would be made in the quality, role and indepence of women’s organizations, in continuing efforts to empower women and safeguard the prosperity and well-being of the family and society. These guidelines applied to all state agencies, including the executive (the president), the judiciary (the Supreme Court),the legislature (DPR/MPR) and the state audit agency (Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan, BPK). Under the amended constitution, the Broad Guidelines no longer exist; they been replaced by the president’s vision and mission.

Prisma, Mei 1996- Ruth Indiah Rahayu, “ Politik Gender Orde Baru; Tinjauan Organisasi Perempuan sejak 1980-an”, hlm 35 62 Ibid. 63 Ibid. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 61

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The several factors influencing the patterns of the recruitment of men and women as legislator.64. They include the following, First, the cultural context in Indonesia is still heavily patriarchal. The common perception is that the political arena is for men, and that it is less preferable for women to become members of parliament. Second, the selection of candidates by political praties is usually done by a small group of officials or party leaders, almost always men. In Indonesia awareness of gender equality and justice issues is still low. Male political leaders have a disproportionare influence over party politics and women do not receive much support. Third, the media have yet to effectively mobilize the public regarding the importance of women’s representation in parliament. Fourth, the large number of political parties conteting elections and winning seats in parliament can affect the level of representation of women. As political parties receive a limited number of seats in the legislature, these tend to be divided among male candidates who tend to be ranked at the top of the party election list.

CONCLUSION Women as revolutioner agent had showed their roles especially in organization. Those whom still be memorably : (1) Colonial era of Christina Martha Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Dien and Cut Nyak Meutia, R.A Kartini and Dewi Sartika, (2) masa pergerakan nasional and the first pioneer of social organization S.K Trimurti, (3) Japanese era by Ny. Suyjatin. It was not as the revolutioner agent but women could show their existence in politic, because in the independence fight, it needs people whom truly want to build nation. It is different with after Soekarno’s era (new order) that women was marginalized by the government, even those who aginst the goverment system will affect for the social life. Therefore, we can see the two comparisons between the women’s role in revolutioner agent and politics. Thus this era needs a support from the goverment in order to make the representative women so that it can take in the people’s aspiration and implement nation’s mission

The links between women’s networks and organizations must be supported and strengthened. The Center for the Political Empowerment of Women is a network of organizations that cuts across party, religious and professional lines and includes approximately 26 organizations. All these networks have significant potential to support increased representation of women in parliament, both in quantitative and qualitative terms, if they and their member organizations work together to synergize their efforts.

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For futher detail of some of the obstacles, see Matland, Richard E, 2001 “ Representation and election system for women: Lessons learned for Indonesia”, in Keterwakilan Perempuan dalam Sistem Pemilihan Umum (Women’s representation and the electoral system). Jakarta: Nationa Democratic Institute and State Ministry for Women Empowerment, p. 22. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 365



REFERENCE Sukanti Sueyochondro. (1984). Potret Pergerakan Wanita Indonesia. Jakarta: Rajawali A.K. Pringgodani. (1970). Sejarah Pergerakan Rakyat Indonesia. Jakarta: Dian Rakyat Nani Soewondo-Soerasno. (1955). Kedudukan Wanita Indonesia dalam Hukum dan Masyarakat. Djakarta: Timun Mas. Depdikbud dokumen sejarah nasional Jakarta. (1991). Biografi Tokoh Kongres Perempuan Indonesia Pertama. Jakarta: Depdikbud Sucanti Suryochondro. (1984). Potret Pergerakan Wanita Indonesia. Jakarta: Rajawali A. Nunuk Prasetyo. (1998). Gerakan Anti-Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan. Yogyakarta: Kanisius. Saskia Wieringa. (1988). Kuntilanak Wangi: Organisasi-organisasi Perempuan Indonesia Sesudah 1950. Jakarta: Kalyanamitra Nani Soewondo Soerasno. (1955). Kedudukan Wanita Indonesia dalam Hukum dan Masyarakat. Jakarta: Timun Mas. Rambe. (1983). Sijantin Kartowijono: Mencari Makna Hidupku. Jakarta: Sinar Harpaan. Locher-Scholten. (2000). Women an the Colonial State: Essays on Gender and Modernity in the Nederlands Indies 1900-1942, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam , Vrouwengroep Komite Indonesie, Indonesische Vrouwen in Beweging 1949-1965, Amsterdam: Vrouwengroep Komite Indonesie. Harian Rakyat, 17 September 1958. Harian Rakyat, 30 Januari 1960. Harian Rakjat, 15 dan 29 Januari, 30 September 1965 Interview with member KPI Ibu Nunuk Prasetyo Prisma, Mei 1996- Ruth Indiah Rahayu, “ Politik Gender Orde Baru; Tinjauan Organisasi Perempuan sejak 1980-an”, (pp.35). Indonesia




Professional Development Of Primary School Teachers Through Scientific Works Writing: A Case Study Of Primary School Teachers In Karanganyar District Sukarno Sebelas Maret University Email: [email protected]

Abstract: One form of professional development of teachers is to write scientific papers. However, reality has shown that most teachers have not been able to produce and perform scientific publications. This study aimed to identify (1) the cause of the challenges teachers to write scientific papers and (2) the efforts made to overcome them. For that approach to applied research is a case study. The participants is primary school teachers in Karanganyar District. Data were obtained through interviews, document analysis, participatory observation, and focus group discussion. The results showed that the challenges of primary school teachers in Karanganyar District in writing scientific papers include: (1) low motivation to write , (2) do not have enough spare time, (3) lack of understanding of the techniques of writing, (4) the difficulty to find data, (5) stuttering technology, (6) does not have a reference book, (7) the proliferation of paper manufacturing services, (8) lack of a functioning activities of teachers working group (KKG) in improving the competence to write scientific papers, (9) lack of support from the school. The efforts made by teachers to develop professionalism in writing scientific papers as a form of professional development is by way of: (1) a training/workshop, (2) learn by themselves, (3) writing competition and selection of outstanding teachers or pricipals. Based on the results of the study can be recommended to the principal in order to initiate and provide support in the procurement of workshop activities in a sustainable manner, adding reference books library, conducting computer training, applying managerial pattern of reward and punishment, to monitor the implementation of professional activities and monitoring activities of the assessment team teacher performance and continuous professional development team. Keywords: primary teacher, scientific paper, challenges, efforts, professionally.




INTRODUCTION

B

ased on the signs in the Minister of Administrative Reform and Bureaucratic Reform (Permen PAN dan RB) No. 16 of 2009 on Functional Master and credit figures determined "that one professional development activities is the scientific publication". According Daryanto (2013) through a credit scoring system is expected to be awarded in a more just and more professional to rank teachers who are professional recognition and then will increase the level of welfare. Figures such credits can be used for promotion/class for teachers. Starting in 2013 the rules were put in place for the promotion began III b, whereas previously only for the promotion started IVa. The existence of the above regulations indicate that the government has been trying to motivate teachers to write through the provision of credit scoring as a condition of promotion / class. However, it turns out the policy was not enough to motivate teachers to write, including primary school teachers in the district of Karanganyar. It can be seen from the number of teachers rank promotion had been stalled in the constructor and IVa class. It is estimated that by the end of 2015, only 20% of teachers who can rise from IVa to IVb (Dikpora Office of Karanganyar, 2015). Of course the issue needs to be studied in depth so that it can devise a solution. The first step that must be done is to dig out the various factors and the efforts made by teachers and other parties. For that's the purpose of this study was to answer the question, (1) What are the challenges teachers to write scientific papers? and (2) What efforts have been made to solve it?

RESEARCH METHOD This research is a case study of knowing in depth the difficulties and efforts of teachers in writing scientific papers as one of the professional development of teachers. As the opinion of Lincoln and Guba (Sutopo, 2006) which states that a qualitative approach may also be referred to or qualitative case study, the research depth and detail about everything related to the subject of research. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007: 253) argues that the case study can be interpreted as a technique to learn an individual or group in depth to help him obtain a good adjustment The participants were 32 elementary school teachers in Karanganyar District constrained his promotion to IV b because it has no scientific work. They comprised 19 female teachers and 13 male teachers. All teachers have a certificate of education. Sampling was done by purposive sampling or with a certain considerations, namely variations in age, school location, and duration were in class IV a. Data collection techniques used in this study are: (a) interview, (b) analysis of documents, (c) participatory observation, and (d) Focus Group Discussion (FGD). The validity of the data in this study is done by: (a) extend the involvement of observation; (B) persistence of observation; and (c) triangulation. Data was analyzed using interactive analysis includes the following activities: (a) data reduction, (b) display or presentation of data, (c) the conclusion then verified (Miles & Huberman, 1994).




RESULT The challenges of primary school teachers in Karanganyar District in writing scientific Low motivation to write From interviews obtained by the fact that 79% (25 teachers) say lazy or less motivated to write scientific papers. Although it is often heard that if it cannot produce the scientific work, professional allowance was stopped, the teachers expressed resignation. Motivation is a major factor that can move a person's heart to be able to do a good job or bad. Motivation / intention can be interpreted as the power (energy) someone who can cause the level of enthusiasm in carrying out an activity, whether sourced from within the individual's own (internal motivation) or from outside the individual (external motivation). How strong the motivation of the individual is will determine much of the behavior displayed to quality, both in the context of learning, work and in life. Limited time Almost all participants (91% or 29 teachers) find it difficult to make time for writing. They state in day-today is always busy, both at school and at home. Thus, the limitation of time to be considered a major constraint in writing scientific papers. It is undeniable that writing does require significant additional time and a strong will. These two things are time and willingness / motivation themselves to be possessed by each individual. How big is the available free time but if there is no willingness/self-motivation certainly will not produce papers, such as the narrative some informants. Lack of understanding of Technical Writing There are 20 teachers (63%) stated constraints experienced in writing

scientific papers is less mastered the techniques of a research report in class action and other scientific work. Although they never made a final assignment when studying undergraduate, lack of knowledge, understanding and skills of teachers in writing scientific papers and has not explained the technique of writing makes many teachers are reluctant to initiate or to make a report. According to one of the supervisors Karanganyar, basically did primary school teachers in Karanganyar generally not accustomed to in writing. Difficulty Collecting and Processing Data Based on research data the majority of teachers (63% or 20 teachers) average only once tried to write scientific papers manifold research of class action and all did not successfully complete it. Which became a contributing factor is disordered in administering the learning so it does not lack the data to be reported. Supervisors in Karanganyar also recognizes that the difficulties experienced by many is the collection of data, the reason the teacher as well as a researcher as well as a teacher so much data is missing. Lack of Mastery Technology In the era of scientific and technological advances like this is very alarming when teachers do not want to develop competence in the field of technology like operate a computer. According to the research there are still some teachers (15 people or 47%) were not able to operate a computer as one of the causes teachers are reluctant to write. Limited Reference Books Preparation in writing a lot of factors that are spoken by informant. Preparations in this case includes the presence of supporting books as




reference material when writing because writing activities can not be separated from the reference books available in the school library or on-premise. In fact, 94% of participants stated having problems limited library as a reference source. They do not know what to look for where the relevant reference to the writings. There are some teachers who sought in the regional library, but the required books are not available. In the school library was not possible as all collections of books just for student consumption. The existence Writing Services From the analysis of the results of the assessment documents the work of teachers from the Department of Education and Sports Karanganyar (Dikpora) obtained information that there are some reports to promotion indicated 'original but fake’. Furthermore, based on interviews of researchers have shown that the paperwriting services are chosen by some teachers as easy to find places that offer these services and relatively cheap rates. Teachers are using the straight path, to be honest, the work itself, not get easy for business promotion and lost with the teachers who use unofficial channels. Of course any such services that make lazy teachers make their own scientific work. However, the Dikpora has tightened assessment of the scientific work of teachers and as a result there are four teachers who canceled her promotion because it is known to use false scientific work. Less

Functioning Teacher Working Group Activity The working group of teachers in the Karanganyar which should be a forum for teachers to exchange information and discuss issues facing teachers in the school were not yet optimal function. In any activities only discuss the things that has to do with

learning problems just like the making of the syllabus, lesson plan, exam, assessment, and new things such as curriculum, 2013. Problems writing scientific papers as sustainable competence development is very rarely discussed in the working group meeting of teachers. Until now, researchers obtain this information activities are very rare indeed to discuss issues related to the write scientific papers. The main cause of this lack of socialization activities due to time constraints, resource constraints, and lack of discipline members when attending the meeting of the working group activities teachers. Lack of Support from School Socialization, training, workshops, or mentoring write scientific papers is an activity that can be a source of knowledge to overcome misunderstandings or confusion in performing the task. However, such activities have rarely done at the school level. In fact, 78% (25 persons) of teachers said to follow the activities in the region or district on a regular basis is difficult enough. This was due to the absence of permission from the principal. Thus, the lack of knowledge of the teachers about writing scientific papers is also caused by a lack of support for the schools to improving teachers' knowledge about the technique of writing scientific papers, especially classroom action research (PTK) so that an understanding of the procedure of writing desired by the assessment team had never obtained a teacher from the school The Teacher Efforts to Master in Scientific Writing Workshop /Training Most teachers (75% or 24 people) in Karanganyar seeks to follow the activities of the training/workshop followed on their own initiative with




independent charge as well as assignments from the school/institution. As since 2010 to 2015 there are six activities on writing scientific papers have been held at the district level is the training and workshop classroom action research with resource persons from the institution quality assurance or LPMP Central Java, FKIP Sebelas Maret University, FKIP Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, and outstanding teachers. Learn on my own Other efforts that have been done as part of teacher (8 or 25%) in Karanganyar to develop teachers' ability to write scientific papers mainly PTK is to learn on their own and look for examples of PTK from the internet. Examples of which there is then used as a reference teacher to write. In addition, it also motivate yourself by applying the motto 'Write the things you do and do you write'. Following Competition Basically one of the conditions following the selection of an exemplary teacher and or prospective principals, participants must create a scientific paper to be presented when the implementation of the interview. In addition, there is also a writing contest that teacher assessment only focus on the work of research actions made result. Thus, each participant is required and encouraged to make scientific papers. In this way, willing or unwilling, likes and dislikes teachers actually have to write a paper if you want to get success. For this reason some teachers (15% or 5 people) seeks to improve their knowledge about writing scientific papers by following scientific writing competition for teachers are held every year.

DISCUSSION

Scientific Writing as a Main Challenge to Achieving Professional Teachers As mandated in Undang-Undang Guru dan Dosen 2005 that teachers are professional workers. Professional is a job or activity carried out by a person's life and a source of income that requires skill, expertise or skills that meet certain quality standards or norms and require professional education. A professional teacher is charged with a number of minimum requirements, among others: qualified professional education adequate, have scientific competence in accordance with practiced, have good communication skills with their students, have a creative spirit and productive, have a work ethic and commitment to his profession, and always do a self-development continuously (continuous improvement) through their professional organizations, the internet, books, seminars and the like (McLaughlin, 2006). Therefore, Samuel (2002: 63) recommends that teachers must continue to learn and write better scientific papers and popular seminars and publications in the mass media as a form of development professionalism. The results of this study indicate that the majority of teachers cheating in ongoing professional development. This proved 5 of 32 teacher participants and 15% said they had used the services of making the paper especially classroom action research (CAR/PTK) for promotion or for other activities such as certification. Frauds committed some teachers in writing PTK as one continuous professional development is triggered by various internal and external problems. Internal problems that affect the teacher's writing is selfmotivation/intention to write the teacher is still low. Teacher motivation can come from internal factors, ie from inside the teacher himself as age.




Informants who are over 51 years of proven 53% (17 people) are lazy to write caused by decline in memory and eyesight. Internal problems that affect teachers next writing is lack of knowledge, understanding and skills of teachers in writing scientific papers in this case Classroom Action Research, some teachers said he did not understand the procedure of writing PTK especially teachers over the age of 51 years because they never get about that research. Lack of free time to write a reason most of the teachers in writing scientific papers. Even for sports and religious teachers, who teach in two or more schools to meet the teaching load of 24 hours per week made many teachers feel not enough time to write. From the results of triangulation that researchers do to the teacher who served as vice principal said that time is not a reason for someone to not do writing activities because many people are busy actually productive in producing the paper. The problem only lies in the willingness and familiarity in writing. Someone who is already accustomed to write 'their emotions have been expressed' or mind would be overburdened if it is not poured into written form so that no matter how busy the person is still able to produce a paper. Self-development is still at the level of forced The results of this study are not in accordance with the theory put forward by the teachers' professionalism Daryanto (2013) as described in chapter II, that a professional teacher should have a soul that is creative and productive. Teachers should always conduct self-development on an ongoing basis through their professional organizations, the internet, books, seminars and the like (Kelchtermans, 2013).. Teachers must continue to learn and write better scientific papers and

popular seminars and publications in the mass media as a form of professional development. Incompatibility research results with the theory put forward by the teachers' professionalism Daryanto (2013) because there are still about 90% of participants do not develop themselves continuously proven that the results showed the number of teachers who argued that the intention to write is still very low, with a number of reasons. For example distracted by family matters, there is no intention that one hundred percent, do not have enough free time, nothing is sent, or it is not time for a promotion that has not been prepared to write. Heart was moved to write if there are demands such as overdue for a promotion and or workload of the principal. The task of the principal example is sent to take the test as well as prospective principals for exemplary teacher selection test. Both of these tests requires teachers to write scientific papers presented at the time of the interview exam. Given this reality, based on the theory proposed by Supriyanto (2015). He classify the type of teacher writing teacher at the study site belong to the second type is the teacher writes as compulsion. Teachers of this type, would write only if forced only. Necessity arise because of the writing competition, as a condition of filing a promotion/class, or the job of the boss. Types of teachers who write out of necessity can be characterized as follows: (1) writing for one thing; (2) write when there is a will or have some free time; (3) reading is not done every day; (4) sometimes willing to learn to improve the quality of writing; (5) to accept input from others. Besides the intention of writing is still low it turns out there are some teachers who are not able to operate a computer is difficult for teachers in writing scientific papers. Four of ten teacher or informant said he could not operate a computer (stuttering




technology) as told by one teacher following “I can not operate computers, to write error constrained IT". This is clearly not in accordance with the theory put forward Surya (2005) professionalism that teachers who meet high professional level is reflected in the implementation of the tasks devotion marked with expertise both in material and methods. In addition, it is also demonstrated through its responsibility in carrying out its duties and devotion. Teachers are professionals able to assume and carry out the responsibility as a teacher to the students, parents, community, nation, state and religion (Kelchtermans, 2013). Professional teachers have personal responsibility, social, intellectual, moral, and spiritual. The responsibility of an independent person who is able to understand him, manage him, control him and appreciate and develop themselves. Social responsibility is manifested through the competency of teachers to see themselves as an integral part of the social environment as it has interactive capabilities effectively. Intellectual responsibility is established through various tools of knowledge and skills needed to support their duties

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The results showed that the challenges of primary school teachers in Karanganyar District in

writing scientific papers include: (1) low motivation to write , (2) do not have enough spare time, (3) lack of understanding of the techniques of writing, (4) the difficulty to find data, (5) stuttering technology, (6) does not have a reference book, (7) the proliferation of paper manufacturing services, (8) lack of a functioning activities of teachers working group (KKG) in improving the competence to write scientific papers, (9) lack of support from the school. The efforts made by teachers to develop professionalism in writing scientific papers as a form of professional development is by way of: (1) a training/workshop, (2) learn by themselves, (3) writing competition and selection of outstanding teachers or principals. Based on the results of the study can be recommended to the principal in order to initiate and provide support in the procurement of workshop activities in a sustainable manner, adding reference books library, conducting computer training, applying managerial pattern of reward and punishment, to monitor the implementation of professional activities and monitoring activities of the assessment team teacher performance and continuous professional development team.

REFERENCES Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education, London – New York: Routledge Daryanto, (2013). Standar Kompetensi dan Penilaian Kinerja Guru Profesional. Yogyakarta : Gava Media.




Kelchtermans G. (2013). Teachers and Their Career Story: A biographical perspective on professional development. In C. Day (ed). Research on Teacher Thinking: Understanding Professional Development, London: Falmer Press McLaughlin D. (2006). Who is to retrain the teacher trainers? A Papua New Guinea Sase-study. Teaching and Teacher Education 12 (3) pp.285-301. Miles & Huberman, (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis, London: Sage Publication Nasution, (2006), Metode Penelitian. Nturalistik-Kualitatif, Bandung: Tarsito Nurjanah, L. (2014). Pengembangan Profesionalisme Guru Melalui Penulisan Karya Tulis Ilmiah Bagi Guru Profesional di SMA Negeri 1 Kauman Kabupaten Tulungagung. Jurnal Humanity, 10 (1), 97-114 Samuel M. (2002). Working in the rain: pressures and priorities for teacher education curriculum design in South Africa: a case-study of the University of Durban-Westville in Researching Teacher Education: The Multi-Site Teacher Education Project. Special Issue of the International Journal of Educational Development, 22 (34): 57-66 Sutopo, (2006). Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif (Ed. II), Surakarta:UNS Surya, Muhammad. (2005). Membangun Profesionalisme Guru. Bandung : Universitas Pendi-dikan Indonesia Supriyanto, A. (2015). Harapan, Kenyataan dan Strategi Peningkatan Kemampuan Guru Dalam Penulisan Karya Tulis Ilmiah. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Pengembangan Keprofesian menuju Guru Profesional di Universitas Negeri Malang. 109-114.




Gender Perspective in Social Science Learning in Elementary School

Suswandari

Lecturer of Prof.DR. HAMKA Muhammadiyah University of Jakarta. Observer of Gender issue in Education and Organizer of Integrated Service Center for Woman and Children Empowerment in DKI Jakarta Province

A. Introduction

S

ocial relation between human beings based on gender justice and equality still becomes discourse and strategic issue in achieving an actually democratic life, particularly in developing countries. Global Gender Gap Report’s recent report cited by World Economic Report (Media Indonesia, 2015) 65 stated that: …economic opportunity gap between man and woman in one last decade only narrowed by 3%, so that 118 more years will be taken for the women to achieve equality with the men. Global Gender Gap Report studied 145 countries through four pillars: health, education, economic opportunity, and political opportunity with the result showing that women has 96%, 95%, 59%, and 23% opportunity compared with the men’s for those four categories. It can be seen that the opportunity for economic and political equality has a very large gap. Education aspect has 4% gap, as the number of women pursuing education up to university level increases.

The citation above confirms gender justice and equality phenomenon that has not been able to cover all aspect yet. Economic and politic aspects become two big problems currently, while education aspect has achieved very significant improvement. Nevertheless, women participation in education improves; it is not enough to be viewed from quantity aspect. Quality process of education as transfer of knowledge and transfer of culture becomes an important part that cannot be abandoned. Successful education process is believed as capable of boosting other aspects of human life including economic, politic, and health. For that reason, in relation to the attempt of generating a new high-quality generation including good gender justice and equality values, it should be implanted continuously into daily life, including education particularly learning process at elementary school level in Social Science education.

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“Terseok-Seok mengejar Kesetaraan. Media Indonesia, Friday November 20, 2015




Gender equality perspective problem in education area, particularly through learning process, has been an academic study in the attempt of finding gender-equality education formula as a part of mutually appreciating character value without discriminating gender to participate actively in development. Meanwhile, school as an education institution participates in confirming genderbiased culture, whether in learning activity, learning verbal communication and learning textbook used. Gender justice value and equality is a part of universal human values that should be an important issue in a variety of learning process activity, and one of which is through Social Science subject in elementary school. In relation to this, the thought and idea to integrate gender values through Social Science in the attempt of creating student character I will address in this work is divided into four main focuses: gender perspective in social construction, essence of Social Science learning in Elementary school, character education and integration of gender equality values into Social Science Learning in student character establishment as elaborated below.

identity of nationality as important identity to say who, where come from, who behaves how, that are finally will be measured using universal values named kindness, decorum, moral, amoral, insulting or not insulting other, and even referred to Human Rights value recognized in the world.

B. Gender Perspective Construction

in

Social

The word gender is a new vocabulary talked about widely in Indonesia in 1990s. Even until 1998 the word gender had not entered yet into Indonesian Language Big Dictionary. This term is commonly used particularly in Women Empowerment Ministry. The word gender, according to Nazarudin Umar (1999), derived from English gender meaning sex. In Webster’s New World Dictionary, gender is defined as the visible difference between men and women viewed from value and behavior aspects. Then, Women’s Studies Encyclopedia (1984: 561) explains gender as a cultural concept attempting to make distinction in the term of role, behavior, mentality, and emotional characteristics between men and women developing within society. Mary Wollstonecraft is recognized as the first one to state gender as a social characteristics in 1792 (Wood, 2001). Meanwhile Lips (1984: 561) defines gender as cultural expectations for men and women.

Boisterous global effect leads to the changing attitude and interaction behavior of Indonesian nation currently. A variety of information media show attitude and behavior far differently from Indonesian character. For example: murder, robbery, violence at school and within society, corruption, hedonism behavior, luxury, cheating, dispute among political party elites and others much different from the expected nationality values. The discussion about nation character in a nationality identity framework is always interesting and attracting people’s attention. Why? Because a nation’s character becomes a sign or

Departing from a variety of opinions above, it can be inferred that gender is a concept used to identify the difference between men and women viewed from social-cultural aspects. In other words, gender in social cultural interaction defines the relation between men and women from nonbiological aspects, that is, socialcultural relationship between men and




women affected by its society structure. Ivy and Backbund (1994) confirmed that such the gender-based relation is constructed by natural fact of social-cultural relation. The effect of this social relation building on gender concept is the emergence of social roles distinguished by male and female sexes. If related to physical condition and social-cultural environment, the stigmas of men’s and women’s role appear. Because of his strong physique, men master public domain. Meanwhile, because of her weak physique, women are shackled in such domestic activities as taking care of children, cooking, sweeping, washing, and etc. Conventionally, women are suitable for being house caretaker only, coffee maker at workplace, and meeting the men’s needs. In this case, Suzanne Staggenborg (2003: 12-13) stated that in the attempt of meeting the men’s need, the women often do not care about their own need.

mother, good caretaker, model mother, friendly women, weak women, women were colonized by men since a long time ago and etc (Suzanne Staggenborg: 13). Such the construction of social relation between men and women structurally results in partition/distance between men and women on the end of which women are marginalized by the existing social-cultural relation structure. In other words, women were subordinated to men’s power and domination. Consequently, the position of women becomes more retarded in the existing social building participation. More tragically, the classical Greek philosophy did not position the women as citizen, stakeholders in policy or government was only given to men. Women is considered as equal to slave considered as non-citizen or sub-citizen (Elshtain, in Ben Agger, 2005: 200). They could not participate in public life. Women are underestimated in work realm, including in domestic work, and waged labor domain.

The constraint of gender-based social relation is persistent because many powers confirm it including political, cultural, and social and economic powers. For example, in Javanese cultural concept, a variety of myths for women generates “swargo nunut neroko katut, esuk dadi theklek, wengi dadi lemek” concept. This can be interpreted that “women will reach the heaven as the symbol of happiness and the hell as the symbol of misery dependent on their husband. Women do not have independency and right to determine their own fate. Then, women become a figure who should do any house chores in the morning, because theklek is a metaphor of footgear for Javanese culture. Meanwhile, lemek is a metaphor of bed cover, so the women only become bed cover for their husband at night. It is confirmed with the appearance of other metaphors in culture such as “good

Gender culture as reflected on the society reality socialized through learning process at school, as the continuation of socialization conducted by family and society. For example in textbook, the sentence “ibu memasak di dapur, ayah pergi ke kantor, Wati ikut ibu ke pasar, Anto membantu ayah di kebun (Mother is cooking in the kitchen, father goes to office, Wati follows mother going to the market, Anto helps father in the garden” (Muthaliin, 2001). This sentence represents dichotomy of job division based on sex and other biased-gender example in learning process, growing injustice in social interaction. This manifestation of injustice against women (Mansour Faqih, 2003) in long term results in marginalization, subordination, and stereotype cultures,




various forms of violence and double burden the women should assumed when she he should participate in public domain. It is of course unfavorable in national development.

portion. It can be observed from the increasing number of violence against women with its varying forms. For example: either physical or psychological domestic violence, sexual abuse either physically or verbally, economic negligence, women slavery, women trafficking, prostitution and etc. Such these cases occur throughout Indonesian area and DKI Jakarta occupies the first rank. A variety of factors can trigger the violence, ranging from economic problem, low education, changing lifestyle, changing role in family, extreme domination attitude and etc. The concrete representation of violence with the women as victim, handled by Pusat Pelayanan Terpadu Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Anak (P2TP2A) Integrated Service Center for Women and Children Empowerment along with its work partner can be seen in the table below.

The shift of meaning about the importance of equal relation between men and women in this global era becomes a strategic issue in the attempt of building women participation as new stronger character in independency culture between men and women called gender mainstreaming. Gender justice and equality issue in Indonesian development policy still becomes an important part in the attempt of improving women participation in development concretely. Indeed, the development policy raising women issue has been implemented since almost 30 years ago. However in its development, justice and inequality values is expected to get actual

Table 1 Data of women becoming the victim of violence handled by P2TP2A of DKI Jakarta Province Along its Work Partner




Such the condition is clearly favorable to development. For that reason, the government, through its policy, attempt to prevent and to deal with it. Regarding this, World Commision On The Social Dimension of Globalization (2004) mentioned that to implement an ideal development process, a concept called promote gender equality and empower women is needed, because many women are left behind the men, particularly in the term of access to secondary and high education. Gender injustice and inequality is one of constraints in development. It can be seen from the life within family, society and state.

Social Science Education derives from the term social studies developing in United States of America. Viewed from historical and epistemological aspects, the term social studies is coined by Edgar Bruce Wesley in 1937 explaining, “…“…the social studies are the social sciences simplified for pedagogical purpose”. (Barr, Barth, and Shermish 1977), meaning that the social studies are social sciences simplified for education purpose. This definition was then standardized into “The united states of educationist standard terminology for curriculum and instruction as follows: “the social studies comprised of those aspects of history, economic, political science, sociology, anthropology, psychology, geography and philosophy which in practice are selected for instructional purposes in schools and colleges”. It could be translated that social studies contains the aspects of historical, economic, political, sociological, anthropological, psychological, geographical, and philosophical sciences that in practice is selected for learning purpose at school and college. The theme of study in Social Science Learning is connected to a variety of phenomena occurring within society whether in the past, in the present or the tendency to occur in the future.

C. THE ESSENCE OF VALUES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE LEARNING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL A study on women in development as suggested above is upto-date Social Studies. The discussion of Social Studies and Social Science (thereafter called Social Sciences) basically addresses human life with its all aspects as social creature including dynamic interaction between men and women. It is because the objective of Social Studies is human being in daily life in its interaction with nature and surrounding environment, time, his diverse fellows, human activity in the attempt of fulfilling need, society organization system, cultural system and social order within it (Suswandari and Toto Istiarto, 2014). The fundamental idea of Social Science Education within society departs from basic concept of Social Science Education designed using Social Science and education help. For that reason, the concepts existing in Social Science Education is internalized into students at school and society in the attempt of establishing character and clear national identity.

In education curriculum policy in Indonesia, the objective of Social Science education at school is to be students as the good citizen, with a variety of character with spiritual dimension, personal, social, and intellectual (Soedarno Wiryohandoyo, 1997). Meanwhile, the objective of Social Science learning developed by NCCS aiming for the development of knowledge and information, attitude and values and social skill including social activity, working and learning group work and intellectual skill (Jarolimelc, 1986). Meanwhile, Awan




Mutakin (1998) stated that the objective of Social Science education is to develop the students in order to be sensitive to social problems occurring within society, have positive mental attitude to improving any gap occurring and skillfully dealing with any daily problems occurring befalling both themselves and society. Referring to National Education System Act of 2003, the objective of Social Science is formulated as follows:

mentally, having knowledge and skill, able to develop creativity and responsibility, to grow democratic and tolerant attitude, to develop high intellectuality and having noble character, loving his nation and loving his fellow human being according to the provision mentioned in UUD 1945 (1945 Constitution)”.

“Creating developmental human holding on Pancasila, healthy either physically and

For more detail on the contribution of Social Science to Character Establishment, see the figure below. Figure 2

The Establishment of Competency in Social Studies

The term of Social Science has been used in education curriculum in Indonesia since 1975. However, at that time, a variety of terms was used including: Social Studies, Social Sciences and some people called it Social Science and it is standardized until today. Republic of Indonesia National Education Minister’s Regulation Number 22 of 2006 about

Standard Content for elementary and secondary education contains Social Science Education as one of subject given from SD/MI/SDLB (Elementary School) to SMP/MTs/SMPLB (Junior High School). At Elementary School level, Social Science subject contains Geography, History, Sociology, and Economy materials. Through Social Science subject, the students were




directed to be a democratic and responsible Indonesian citizen and a world citizen loving peace.

attempting to organize and to develop the substance of social science and psychological substance naturally for education objective. It means that Social Science material not only synthesizes the relevant concepts between education and social sciences, but also correlates it to a variety of social societal, nationality, and state problems including those related to women participation in development.

Social Science subject is designed to develop knowledge, understanding, and analytical ability against social condition of society in entering into a dynamic society life. Social Science subject at Elementary School was organized systematically, comprehensively and in integrated manner by integrating Social Science concepts as the material source of Social Science corresponding to the contextual themes existing within society. Through such the approach, students are expected to obtain broader and deeper understanding integrated holistically into corresponding science field. Considering the minister regulation’s demand, it can be seen clearly that Social Science is a subject oriented not only to intellectual but also to attitude and skill development.

Social Science and value educations are two sides of coin in an intact unity in the attempt of creating the students’ character as the next resource. Basic values of Social Science learning become the spirit of character establishment that will be reflected on typical behavior, attitude, thought and character featured. Value education through Social Science learning is ensured to implant positive values, to avoid students from existing negative values. The representation of positive value implanted to apply and negative value to avoid can be observed in the table below:

Numan Somantri (2001) confirmed that Social Science in learning is a synthetic discipline

Table 1 Positive and Negative Values

Positive Values implanted to do and to develop Good deed, trusteeship, anticipative, positive thinking, hard work, civilized, doing the true action bravely, taking risk bravely, disciplined, having good personality, futuristic thinking, modest, energetic, constructive, expressing gratitude, responsible, tolerant, wise, smart, thorough, democratic, dynamic, efficient, empathic, persistent, parsimonious, sincere, honest, having noble quality, committed, cooperative, cosmopolitan (going global), creative, simple, independent, humane, self-

Negative Value informed to avoid excessive with physical character had, proud of certain sex (gender), distinguishing the self by ethnic, race, and religion, anti-risk, lavish, lie, prejudice, uncivilized, fraudulent, careless, sentimental, envy, selfish, calumny, feudalistic, power-oriented, spite, breaking the promise, having bad appearance, stubborn, treacherous, locality, stingy, infidel, consumptive, coarse, racist, tricky, forgetting oneself, neglected, hypocrite, lazy, underestimating, materialistic, trusting other easily, transcending group,




introspecting, loving science (knowledge), appreciating others’ work, appreciating health, appreciating others’ opinion, appreciating time, patriotic, forgiving, generous, service, self-controlled, productive, diligent, friendly, beautiful feeling, affection feeling, binding feeling, shy feeling, sense of belonging, self-confident, sacrificing, modest, patient, spirit of commonness, loyal, mentally ready, just, respecting, reasoning, orderly, decorous, sportive, decent, complying with norm, fear of guilty, tough, submitting to God, stiff, zealous, making promise, opened, persevering, and similar

affected easily, tempted easily, inferior, disparaging, abusing, blaming, gossiping, uncaring, authoritarian, bad tempered, revenge, resentment, pessimistic, coward, insulting, trouble maker, provocative, apathy, cheerful, arrogant, greedy, secular, haughty, introverted, in hurry, dependent, nonsense, narrow-minded, and similar. (Sjarkawi, 2008 dalam Supardi dan Saliman, 2014)

Those positive values above are developed and implanted through Social Science learning at school. Meanwhile, the negative values existing within life are informed to avoid. Social Science learning process combines proportionally values, attitude, knowledge and skill to provide the students with a supply to develop their potency, so that they are expected to have positive attitude, knowledge, and skill in their life. Value context in Social Science learning is intended to make the students understand themselves, serve and function as the members of society, sensitive to diversity and commons and committed to responsibility. At such the level, Social Science learning, according to Abbas (2014) is interlinked with character education. Social Science learning in elementary school has four comprehensive dimensions: knowledge, skill, values and attitudes, and action. In knowledge dimension the students of Elementary School are given information and conception on the fact relevant to human beings in relation to spatial, temporal, and norm issues in the form of concept and generalization. Meanwhile, in skill dimension, the students of elementary school are trained to think critically, participate positively in social life, to communicate and to adapt. In value dimension, they are told to develop their behavior and faith that will be reflected on their thinking or action. Action dimension focuses on life skill within a complex community without triggering a problem.

Simply, the dimensions of Social Science learning in elementary school lead to what is called character. For that reason, the Social Science Learning process in elementary school has important function in character establishment. Universally, character values contained in Social Science learning in elementary school becomes reference in implanting value order of interaction between human beings as the common life values in peace and harmony standing on the following pillars: peace, cooperation, respect, freedom, happiness, honesty, humility, love, responsibility, simplicity, tolerance, unity. Those universal values are then developed into 18 characters and become the policy in character education




in Indonesia as illustrated in the table below. Regarding this, the representation of value dimension interrelationship is

associated with the value content existing in Social Science learning as indicated in the figure below.

Figure 4 Representation of Interrelationship (Christine Pheeney, 2014)

Notes: Karya = Work Perdamaian: Peace Kesadaran : Consciousness Nilai : Value Rendah Hati: humble Setia: loyal Faktor: Factor Suka cita: cheer Kebaikan kepedulian: kindness, caring about Cinta: love Disiplin: discipline Kesabaran: patience Bahasa komunikasi: communicating language Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 383



Kesehatan : health Makan & masakan: eating & meal Pedagang ekonomi: economic trader, Sejarah: history Kebiasaan: habit Kepercayaan: trust Pahlawan & pejabat : hero & official Pakaian: clothes Pekerjaan: occupation Bangunan: building Angkutan: transportation vehicle Mainan: toys Humor & simbol : humor & symbol Festival: festival. Musik, Kesenian, Tarian: Music, Art, Dance Peran, jenis kelamin, umur: role, sex, age Pemerintah: government Tanaman & satwa: flora and fauna Cuaca: weather Bentang alam: landscape The 2013 curriculum as the correction measure for KBK (2006) and KTSP (2009) curriculums gives character education a larger portion at elementary education level (80% character, 20% knowledge). The 2013 curriculum is prepared to create a more competitive next generation by prioritizing attitude, knowledge and skill pillars as the manifestation of universal character

values. Therefore, the 2013 curriculum characterizes the changing mindset about learning pertaining to whether graduate competency, learning material, learning approach, or learning process, including Social Learning given in integrated manner, integrated into scientific approach. The themes of learning in elementary school according to the 2013 curriculum can be observed in the table below.




Table: Learning Themes in the 2013 curriculum for Elementary School (Christhine Pheeney, 2014) No

1st

grade

2nd

grade

3rd grade

4th grade

5th grade

6th grade

1

Self

Living in concord

Love animal and plant surrounding

Togetherness is beautiful

Playing with surrounding objects

Save living organism

2

My hobby

Playing in my environment

Impressive experience

Keep saving energy

Events in life

Unity in diversity

3

My activity

My daily chores

Identifying weather and season

Caring about living organism

Living in concord

Prominent figure and inventor

4

My family

My school and I

Doing everything together

Various occupations

Being healthy is important

Entrepreneur

5

My Experience

Living cleanly and healthily

Many hands make light work

Appreciating the heroes’ merit

Proud of being Indonesian

Public health

6

Clean, healthy and chic environment

Water, Earth and Sun

Friendship is beautiful

My country is beautiful

7

Inanimate object, flora and fauna surrounding me

Taking care of animal and plant

Let us save energy for the future

My ideal

8

Natural event

Safety at home and on the street

Behaving well in daily life

My residence area

Preserving environment

Healthy and nutritious food

9

The learning themes of elementary school as mentioned in the table above clearly focus on humanity values to develop in learning process in elementary school. The development of learning themes intended is conducted in integrated manner with other materials and incorporated into a holistic learning presentation. Such the integrated learning approach is relatively new in Indonesian learning history that so far has been conducted separately. For that reasons, this integrated learning approach needs teachers’ intellectuality, creativity and dreams to always present innovative learning, as a part of mental revolution, particularly teachers’ and students’ mental,

and other components. The 2013 curriculum is designed as the basic of mental revolution policy applied to education realm. Who should undertake mental revolution? All of school components including teachers, students, students’ parents, administration staffs, headmasters, and etc. Social Science learning is the learning of human problems with entire complexity encountered and designed using contextual approach. One socialhumanity issue emerging today is gender (men and women) justice and equality. Some studies conducted by Muthaliin (2001) in Surakarta, Sugiharti (2003) in




Malang, Suswandari, et.al., (2010) to study biased gender at schools stated that learning activity at school even confirms the biased g ender due to teachers’ and headmaster’s limited understanding on gender justice and equality perspective in learning. Such the condition is exacerbated with teaching learning still indicating bias, including its learning process and activity. This condition indirectly impacts on the more strongly biased gender behavior among students in doing daily activities. The 2013 curriculum as the one building on the implantation of values and character becomes a very strategic gate to integrate gender equality values into learning in order to create equal personality and behavior without discriminating gender that will lead to the changing effect through the spirit of appreciating each other and growing the feeling of peace and harmony earlier. The integration of gender equality values into Social Science learning process is a very appropriate concept, because the basic values of Social Science Learning focusing on humanity value can run along with the gender equality concept discussing humanity in relation to the relationship between men and women in the attempt of creating the nation character. The integration of gender equality values into Social Science Learning can be defined as the attempt of integrating, including, and applying equality values to all of interacting activities, except to inherent matters as God’s reward and irreplaceable thing. Equality values between men and women are implanted as good and correct values in the attempt of creating and building students’ “character” and personality corresponding to the national identity, as elaborated in 18 values of Indonesian character. These values are included and developed, and become main issue in learning themes in elementary school to enrich the basic material study in learning.

The procedure of integrating the gender equality values into Social Science Learning in elementary school can be done as follows: 1. Teacher agrees the meaning of learning to be developed. It is because the different meaning understanding will affect the quality of value integration contained in the character to be built. For example, when teacher’s understanding on gender has not achieved consensus, it is possible to mention different activities for boys and girls in social activity, in teaching with the theme of my activity in the 1st grade. 2. Teacher has a good gender perspective and understands in-depth the content of curriculum as guidelines in learning activity. 3. Teacher has creativity, competency, sincerity and perseverance to implement learning activity with recent and locality contextual approach in the attempt of approaching the social problem close to the students’ experience corresponding to psychological development.

DESIGN OF GENDER EQUALITY VALUE INTEGRATION MODEL Learning model design presented in this work represents the systematic procedure in organizing Social Science learning activity by integrating gender equality values in the attempt of building the student character,\ that can be used as reference in actual learning implementation. Before explaining the intended learning model, the aspects of Social science learning model design is presented first that integrates gender equality values as illustrated in the table below.




Table: Aspects of Gender Equality Values Integration in Learning N

Component

Indicator

No Standard Competency and 1 basic competency

a. Is formulated clearly, to prevent multiinterpretation from occurring. b. Is formulated thematically, integrated referring to learning process and outcome representing equality c. Is formulated logically and chronologically confirming equality values.

Learning material 2 development and organization

a. Material breadth and depth by considering psychological aspects of students and meeting the need for equality values b. The elaboration of material is conducted logically and chronologically and considering non-biased gender recency and locality.

Learning 3 development

media

a. Is adjusted with the context of theme taught b. Using picture, presenting the pictures meeting the criteria of gender equality value c. Using printed and electronic media facilitating learning process and preparation of non biased-gender media use.

Learning 4 Determination

Source

a. The compatibility of learning source to the competency to be developed by considering the aspects of gender justice and equality. b. The compatibility of learning source to students’ psychological development level. c. The compatibility of learning source to the gender-sensitive learning environment of students

Determining 5 measures

learning

a. Opening learning with activity representing gender equality. b. Learning process represents a gendersensitive action c. Closing learning with non-biased activity. The sample sentence is “to close this lesson, let’s pray, the boy leads.

6

The way of motivating the

a. Involving both male and female students




students

equally b. Not using biased-gender words. For example: “Come on Ali, come to the front, don’t be afraid”. Or “let’s clean the classroom, the girls sweep the floor and the boys take water”, and etc. c. Asking question justly to both male and female students.

Improving participation in 7 learning activity

a. The organization of group or students’ seat not always by sex (gender) b. Giving assignment by considering the need for gender equality. c. Giving the students the opportunity of expressing opinion by considering gender need.

After learning aspects could have been understood, the model design offered is as follows:




Figure 5 Interrelationship between the components of Gender Equality Values Integration into Social Science Learning

Notes: Blue Print of nation character building through education Teacher - 2013 Curriculum – Teacher Mental Revolution Students

Students

18 values of education character Basic Values of Social Science Learning 18 values of education character Basic values of justice and equality Learning Process Gender sensitivity for teacher, students, headmaster and parents Human Resource with Universal Character Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 389


-


Peace Respect Happiness Humility Love Cooperation Simplicity Unity Freedom Honesty

The integration of gender equality values into Social Science Learning to build the student character requires good learning plan including learning environment arrangement in order to develop sensitivity, flexibility, democratization, and responsiveness of students to what required in learning. The design of gender equality values integration into Social Science Learning was conducted after examining the formulation of competency the students have to master. In this case, teacher should have a good genderperspective in learning. Then, in any learning stage, the relevant character values are included into basic material of learning discussed. For the integration of equality values into Social Science learning to be able to build student character, the learning strategy with following characteristics (Ani Gufron, 2014) is required: 1. The use of learning method that can formulate competency and character values contained in competency formulation by empowering multiple intelligences. 2. Learning is implemented using contextual approach. 3. Learning runs interactively, inspiringly, joyfully, in motivating, challenging, and conducive learning climate. 4. Learning activity is oriented to the gender-sensitive students.

5. Using a variety of learning settings to realize the character values as mentioned in competency formulation. 6. Creating class dynamic in the nuance of implementing the gender-responsive character values. Those responsible for the successful gender-responsive character learning process through Social Science learning are: 1) Teacher as the starting point of learning. R. Murray Thomas’s study on “The Prestige of Teacher in Indonesia” in 1962 stated that Indonesian teacher at that time was a model, peculiar (special) leader (role model) with substantial effect on the society (Ifa Misbah, 2014). It means that the role of teacher in education realm is very important, and culturally Indonesian people put teacher as a role model (leader). 2) The participant students learn with their uniqueness and will be developed for their character, to be primary resource input in learning. 3) Headmaster responsible for school organization climate. 4) Students’ parents and expectation for learning activity in school. Their role and activity in characterbased learning attempt can be observed in detail in the table below.




Table: The role of teacher, students, headmaster and students’ parents in building character N No 1

Important Elements of Learning Activity TEACHER

Activities To Do a. Has broad insight and knowledge on basic concept, essence, objective, and characteristic of Social Science Learning in Elementary School. b. Has good insight into gender perspective on education c. Masters and develops skillfully the curriculum of Elementary School become the presentation of Elementary School’s learning meeting the need for gender equality. d. Masters value and character as an important part in learning and can implant it to the students in various methods. e. Able to be role model for his/her students, involving: speech, mindset, behavior, the way of dressing, the way of motivating, and etc.

2

Students

a. Is required to participate actively in explaining, developing, and implementing character values formulated in competency b. Learn creatively and innovatively c. Respect all members of school without gender discrimination d. Has sense of belonging in school activity e. Attends social and technological development

3

Headmaster

a. Ensures learning atmosphere and learning upholding humanity values without distinguishing activity by sex (gender), including a variety of rules, learning environment and learning infrastructure. b. Searches for new information actively about many things relevant to character development c. Provides a variety of learning facilities supporting the integration of character values into learning activity d. Supports the integration of character values in order to achieve the success.

4

Students’ parents

a. Have awareness of the importance of character




values for their children b. Provide a variety of learning facilities their children need for growing and developing character values c. Make synergy with school management when dealing with learning problematic.

Based on the table above, it can be found clearly that the integration of gender equality values into Social Science in building the student character requires a mature planning by involving many parties sustainably. Moreover, gender issue is closely related to cultural problems entrenched into Indonesian people’s life. For that reason, through mental revolution, constituting the revolution of mindset change in social interaction, often colored with biased-gender nuance, Social Science learning activity can bring about new interaction form change with equality. In this context, a new thinking arises about the woman in order to participate more independently within society for development. The women’s independency mentality becomes stronger, enabling them to appreciate themselves to develop their potency and to make choice according to their stance in achieving a better life with the spirit mutual cooperation in the philosophy of silih asih, asah dan asuh (loving, educating and taking care of each other) and culture of serving each other corresponding to their own capacity toward peaceful and harmonious family, society, nation, and country.

CONCLUDING REMARK In conclusion, I underscore that Great Indonesia is the one with strong character and not affected easily by rapid social change. The implantation of Indonesian self-identity can be done formally only through education method packaged by professional teachers. Character education needs role model and habituation and certainty holding on only the correct norm and ethic. Idea of gender equality and justice has been a mainstream in the document of

education policy used as the umbrella in making revolution of biased-gender learning implementation still running in school, particularly elementary school. Through this policy, all of school components are supported to make learning innovation by considering male and female students’ need equally to build the students’ personality and character of respecting, loving, and emphatic to each other and the attempt of implanting new values in social interaction in Indonesia without sex (gender) discrimination. Education system should be involved in the attempt of building a cultured Indonesian identity upholding nationality values without ethnic, race, religion, and gender discriminations. The existence of 2013 curriculum as a part of mental revolution in education has presented a more opened and democratic new mindset for education and learning actors. Eighty percents (80%) of 2013 curriculum at elementary school level is focused on character development and attitude development, and 20% on knowledge, with an assumption that it is on elementary school level that values and characters as nation’s generation should be grown, developed and confirmed at higher education level along with deepening of knowledge. The 2013 curriculum in elementary school prioritizes integrative thematic approach in all subjects characterized with the emergence of learning themes upholding humanity values. These themes are different from the main theme in Social Science concept used so far for learning in elementary school. In the attempt of developing those themes and then learning material presentation, it is wise for a teacher as the starting point of learning in the classroom to integrate values of gender justice and equality into entire learning activity.




Learning plan is organized by considering the need for gender equality to develop equally in actual peace and harmony. When such the learning circumstance can be realized, a variety of violence occurring recently in education scope can be minimized, and even we can say “zero tolerance to violence in education activity”. And the learning circumstance in peace and harmony is brought into reality that in long term will be character and identity of Indonesia nation amid the arrogant global world today. For Indonesian women, let’s get up and come up to catch our

retardation by keeping Indonesian women’s self identity with strong character and great mother for family all at once. The dual role we have so far can be addressed with our intelligence in managing time as great as possible. The character of women we have will be our strength to participate actively in this development. And for men, please trust us that we (women) are not your competitor in life. Make me your partners in development according to ability we have toward the Great Indonesia in peace and harmony.

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Co-Modification Of Pracimayasa Building In Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta Sunarmi66 Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum. Prof. Dr. Pande Made Sukerta, S.Kar., M.Si.

Dr. Titis Srimuda Pitana, ST., M. Trop.Arch. ABSTRACT Abstrack: Sunarmi, 2016, T151408002, CO-MODIFICATION OF PRACIMAYASA BUILDING IN PURA MANGKUNEGARAN SURAKARTA, Dissertation, Cultural Study Program, Doctorate Program, Sebelas Maret University. Modernization present to befall city as its arena leads Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta to changes as well, Pracimayasa building to be co-modified. Co-modification phenomenon occurs due to the capitalists’ spirit of monetary economy to get profit. Therefore, the focus of problem in this research was Pracimayasa building co-modification occurring. The discussion focused on the attempt of investigating the capitalists’ entry into Indonesian archipelago, particularly Mangkunegaran. This study was a cultural study. Data derived from information directly from informant, library study, written document, and archive. Techniques of collecting data used were interview, observation, and documentation. Data was analyzed using an interactive model of analysis encompassing data reduction, data display, conclusion drawing, and verification. The result of research showed that Co-modification practice in Pracimayasa Building was the transformation of product and service formerly not commodity into commodity due to what to be given to market. Pracimayasa building co-modification was inseparable from the Mangkunegaran’s long history that it was established owing to colonial intervention. The colonial capitalistic spirit in Indonesian Archipelago colored event by event in Indonesian Archipelago including in Mangkunegaran related to money earning in capitalistic concept thereby creating capitalistic restriction. Capitalistic restriction rolled on naturally since colonialism age until today in the management of cultural pledge in Mangkunegaran. Keywords: Co-modification, Pracimayasa, Interior, capitalistic restriction

1

Student of Doctorate Program in Cultural Study of Postgraduate Program of UNS Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 399



A. Introduction

M

odernity is present in any risk befalling city as its arena, leading to social and cultural transformation amid urban society. The transformation resulting from globalization runs on the spirit and morality based on mind, empirical truth, universality, and progress reasons very partial to material activity interest (Giddens, 2001: 14). All of city activity in this system was then conceived as running in the way it is, practically and dehumanizing, even without objective, benefit. City as the face of world civilization and modernization locomotive arena ever changes and is deconstructed through a variety of new concepts. Surakarta City, as a portrait of developing one, changes physically, socially, economically and culturally as well. Such the changes are apparent in a variety of social cultural life aspects, including building and/or area, including cultural pledge in Mangkunegaran building complex, particularly Pracimayasa existing within it. Pracimayasa is a building existing in Pura Mangkunegaran complex, established in 1918, during Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya (KGPAA) Mangkunegaran VII’s reign (Pringgodigdo, 1987: 9). Pracimayasa is manifested as a private place for consort of king’s residence/keputren and for receiving family guest (Sunarmi, 2006: 37; see also Pringgodigdo, 1987: 7-11). This building is assessed as a highvalued art work from former Kadipaten Mangkunegaran constituting an evidence of lifestyle existence (Scoppert, 1997: 87-88). The uniqueness of architecture, room, and interior elements of Pracimayasa is assessed as parallel with some other buildings, including Pendapa in both

Mangkunegaran and Kasunanan Surakarta as the representative of interior style in Java. In a book entitled Keraton of Jawa the Research and Publication of This Manuscript, Tourism, Post and Telecommunication Minister (1991: 14) explained that in the middle of Pura Mangkunegaran there is Mangkunegaran family’s residence behind Dalem Ageng (Mansion) with quiet circumstance like rural houses; it is Pracimayasa. As the time progresses, Pracimayasa building no longer functions as keputren or as place for receiving family house, but as tourism asset in Mangkunegaran. Pracimayasa is a cultural pledge building as mentioned in Republic of Indonesia’s Law Number 11 of 2010. In chapter I Article I clause 22 of this Law, it is mentioned that cultural pledge object should obligatorily be preserved. The recommendation of cultural pledge building preservation action is governed as well in Public Work and People Housing Minister’s Regulation (Permen PU dan PR) No. 01/PRT/M/2015 about the Preserved Cultural Pledge Building Construction. Such the Minister’s regulation is the reference for cultural pledge building organizer in the preservation attempt. Particularly in Surakarta, the form of cultural pledge building preservation is put as well in Local Regulation (Perda) of Surakarta City No.10 of 2013, governing Cultural Pledge Preservation. Provincial and Local Governments are in charge of and authorized to be not only overseer, monitor, and evaluator but also obligatorily participate in developing and implementing policy concerning the preservation of cultural pledge object. Government gives subsidy monthly for the maintenance of cultural pledge buildings. Mangkunegaran management is obliged to maintain




cultural pledge buildings without exception, to assume most building maintenance and operating costs. On the other hand, Mangkunegaran is responsible for the welfare of all abdi dalems who are still loyal until today. It is not an easy task for Mangkunegaran that has no productive asset but cultural pledge building and a number of abdi dalems preserving Javanese culture loyally in Mangkunegaran environment after Indonesian independence. Amid the debate concerning tradition and modernity, and changing authority for Mangkunegaran, cultural bargaining is inevitable. Unconsciously, new mindset has arisen in the term of cultural pledge management in Mangkunegaran, particularly Pracimayasa building. Pracimayasa building is now included into dinner and lunch tour packages for the tourists visiting Surakarta City. Pracimayasa building is keputren room for receiving family’s and court’s guests. For Javanese people, keputren is a private place into which not everyone can enter; nevertheless it becomes public place now, sold in tour package. Tourists can enter into and enjoy sitting down and having meal in dinning room and organize meeting in the living room of Pracimayasa building. Food, music instrument, and dance performance can enter into Pracimayasa building to accompany tourist visit. The practice of including Pracimayasa building into urban tour package means changing the object formerly not sold into the sold one. The process of changing a non moneyoriented object into the money-oriented one is co-modification process. Comodification is defined as a process of changing something having no commodity value into the one with commodity value (Piliang, 2012:17).

Max Weber explained that this comodification phenomenon occurs due to the presence of money economic spirit to get profit (Turner, 1992: 115-138). Economic value becomes main objective in co-modification. Meanwhile, Pracimayasa building is a historical one with cultural meaning about privatization of Mangkunegaran family. Cultural meaning contained in Pracimayasa building is a private place, special place for keputren, family meeting, and court guest. The specialization of room due to status, for Javanese people, has been tradition for Javanese people just like the differentiation of house shapes by social status. Javanese people highly appreciate the presence of different statuses as the form of ethics. The difference of position level existing within society is defined as the difference of role and responsibility. The awareness of such the difference is one way the Javanese people use in creating their life balance and harmony (Suseno, 2008: 40). Pracimayasa is a private place, the building specialized for keputren as the form of respect to the princesses for life harmony in former kadipaten environment. The changing of Pracimayasa building’s function into sold public place generates the following question, “Why does Mangkunegaran do that?” The change of Pracimayasa building’s allotment from private place into public place in Pura Mangkunegaran should be defined as the form of cultural reproduction. Cultural product should be understood in its relation to cultural practice and social and historical structures. The culture created by its adherents through social constructions, individuals, and group (society) create and interpreted




culture (Kleden, 2006: 3). Pracimayasa building becomes tour package meaning that it is a reality of creation (production, construction) or recreated (reproduction, reconstruction), or in other words, a new reality construction resulting from previous reality construction deconstructed by a variety of agents as relation. Reality is a text containing value, precondition, ideology, truth, and certain objective through a creating relation that should be understood critically. The journey of Mangkunegaran under Mangkunegara IX’s reign was inseparable from long journey under previous Mangkunegaran. Is there any role of history in co-modification of Pracimayasa building. For that reason, a critical study on Pracimayasa building co-modification is feasible holistically and should be conducted immediately. It is a study that can deliver an understanding on meaning building on contradictions so far hidden behind the event of Pracimayasa building comodification. Considering the elaboration in background section above, to guide the research, the problem statement of current research is “why does comodification of Pracimayasa building occur in Pura Mangkunegaran? Discussion of problem would be focused on the attempt of investigating the position of Mangkunegaran position since colonial age until today, so that Pracimayasa building co-modification occurs. It is based on an assumption that the presence of colonial was the beginning of capitalism entry into Indonesian Archipelago.

B. Discussion 4. Concept Limitation and Theoretical Foundation

Co-modification is the process of changing product and service valued for its use into the commodity valued for what it will give to market (Mosco, 2009: 129). Similarly, Piliang (2012: 7) explained that co-modification is defined as the process of making formerly non-commodity object the commodity one currently. Based on the two statements, co-modification is the process of transforming formerly non-commodity object into the valued commodity due to what it will give to market. Meanwhile, Barker (2005: 87) defined co-modification as the process associated with capitalism in which object, quality, and sign are changed into commodity, something intended predominantly to be sold in the market. Max Weber explained that this co-modification phenomenon occurs due to the presence of money economic spirit to get profit (Turner, 1992: 115138). Furthermore, it is explained that co-modification is the process of making something having any meaning produced to be traded. It is the product of work made not only to be used, but also to be traded because of exchange value presence. Commodity is defined as an object with monetary value or exchange value other than use value. Object, quality, and sign are made commodity. Considering Barker and Fairclough’s perspective above, in this research, co-modification is defined as the process of organizing and conceptualizing commodity production, distribution, and consumption from the object with




any sign and meaning inherent, form the one formerly not commodity to the commodity one. Pracimayasa, according to Bausastra Jawa dictionary, derived from two words: pracima and yasa. Pracima means kulon (west) and yasa means gedhong or omah (building or house) (Atmodjo, 1994: 57). The word Pracima is used to explain about kiblat (direction) through dialog between Ismaya and Manikmaya in Serat Pramayoga. Ismaya explains about kiblat for Javanese people: purwa (east), nawitri (southwest), utara (north), narasurya (northeast), pracima (west), byabya (southeast), raksira.duksina (south), kaneya (northwest), gegana (above) and pratala (below) (in Endraswara, 2006: 8). Referring to Bausastra Jawa and Serat Pramayoga, the word Pracimayasa is defined as omah kulon or gedhong kulon (west house or west building), or the house located in the west. Pracimayasa in this study refers to a name of building located in Pura Mangkunegaran, meaning omah kulon or gedhong kulon, or the house in the west in the structure or layout of buildings in Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta. Pracimayasa is the name of building in the west or dalem kilen or gedhong kulon or bangunan kulon in Pura Mangkunegaran. Pura Mangkunegara as one of society’s configuration object and lifestyle in Surakarta is inseparable from shift and change resulting from modernization. In line with modernization, society’s interpretation and perception on the existence of Pura Mangkunegaran affect directly the definition of form

and function of rooms existing in Pura Mangkunegaran. For that reason, in the attempt of understanding, either conceptually or visually, the shift of buildings’ function in Pura Mangkunegaran, it should be realized as an integral part of cultural element. The aspect of value interpretation contained in Pura Mangkunegaran buildings should be reasonably viewed as a cultural phenomenon and inseparable from social-cultural change dynamics. A study on the change of building function in Pura Mangkunegaran in the form of comodification is inseparable from local culture. As the society develops, culture moves dynamically as the guideline. Culture has created a belief that culture is a blueprint that has been a compass in human life trip (Abdullah, 2010: 1). From this definition, culture encounters process hereditarily because it is the pattern of meanings linked comprehensively in the symbols transmitted historically. Cultural practices will always encounter reproduction, reconstruction, deconstruction, and even comodification process or risk of modernity rolling. Deconstruction is a social cultural process pertaining to cultural domination and subordination process, occurring dynamically enabling individuals to explain the cultural dynamic indepth at social level. Deconstruction process builds on the actor’s social action in defining the social space. The objective of deconstruction is not to be a form of revision later, correction, or to look for the correct




one. It is because deconstruction refuses an idea that truth can absolutely be found. There is no absolute answer, only interpretation, many studies and discourses. In other words, only those becoming phenomena that will be deconstructed by deconstructionist. Text and language is the subject of deconstruction and reinterpretation, so there is no single truth containing data interpretation deriving from those diverse texts and languages. Deconstruction theory focuses on understanding the meaning behind the co-modification of Pracimayasa building in Pura Mangkunegaran in modernity era. Co-modification theory is used to explain the process of Pracimayasa building co-modification formerly serving as private place (keputren), for receiving family’s guest, and official guest of Mangkunegaran Palace as well as the values contained within it, then becoming commodity with exchange value in the market.

basically research is an individual’s attempt of approaching, understanding, elaborating, and explaining the phenomenon related to specific object (Kleden, 1987: 60). Written data was obtained from data sources including books, journals, documents, and previous studies related to co-modification or Pracimayasa building in Pura Mangkunegaran. In this research, the analysis was conducted using an interactive model of data analysis. This technique included preparation, data collection, data reduction, raw data simplification, data display and processing and data verification processes. Interactive data analysis process consisted of three activities occurring simultaneously: data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing. 6. Result and Discussion

In modern age, a group’s existence is emphasized more on its ability of building economy. Mangkunegaran as the confirmation of a former Kadipaten that has ever been in glory time during colonialism period, that wants to keep existing despite no administrative authority. Generally, society builds its economic building gradually, starting from the simplest to the most advanced one. Economic advance in community can be measured through reasoning use aspect, capital product used, product exchange medium, and motivation supporting the economic activities (Soetrisno, 1984: 117). Sombart divides economic system into three stages: pre-capitalism, capitalism, and post-capitalism (Soetrisno, 1984: 118). In precapitalism stage, the strongest

5. Research Method

The research was positioned onto critical thinking system. By its research type, opened to cultural study, the eclectics in theory use is acquired through process. Approach or point of view used here was hermeneutic philosophical one. The research was taken place in Pura Mangkunegaran, particularly in Pracimayasa building. Data derived from direct information related to co-modification event in Pracimayasa building of Mangkunegaran with various supporting documents. Empirical data obtained from the field was required to understand the object studied comprehensively, because




motivation encouraging the community to do economic activity is to meet life needs. Then in capitalism stage, economic activity is encouraged to look for profit. Capitalism stage is divided into three stages: beginning, higher, and end levels. At beginning level, the motive is to look for profit as much as possible in as short as possible time during product selling transaction. Meanwhile, the motive of high-level capitalism is to expand product selling by increasing the number of industrial branches throughout world in the objectives of helping promote education, alleviating poverty and improving public infrastructure, in addition to look for profit. In end-level capitalism, economic activity has focused on the public interest (Soetrisno, 1984: 119-120). Before the presence of capitalistic economic characteristic, the economic characteristic of Indonesian people is called traditionalistic community, the simple economy embraced by indigenous people. After the Western nations’ entry, capitalist becomes the ruler’s economic characteristic. This economic system is adopted from West world with the motive to get profit. The transition of traditional to capitalistic economic characteristics occurred when Western countries colonized Indonesia. But postcolonialism, there is a balance between capitalistic and traditional economies. Two economies live adjacently with different characteristics, called dualistic economic system/ dualistische economie (Soetrisno, 1984: 121).

Typical characteristic of Javanese people in economic activities at that time can be seen from their habits such as planting rice. Van Moll stated that Javanese community’s habit and custom at colonial time was characterized with any activities requiring special management of rice plant and done by women, in which planting seedling and reaping the ripe rice stems became their tasks (Kano, 1996: 84). In Javanese rural areas, there are only two classes of society: land owner and labor. The patron-client relation colored social life in Java. Not all farmers had land; thus for they to survive, they worked as labor of land master. Result of farm production was usually shared between farmer worker and land master. Traditional economic activity is closely related to traditional market, they exchange products they have to get intended product (Malano, 2011: 1). The economic activity habit of Javanese people included not only technological practice but also religious ceremonial rite related to ancient custom (slametan) as the essence of all activities (Kano, 1996: 84). Slametan is the expression of gratitude for livelihood the God has given. Javanese community’s ethos, that is submission, departed from causal relationship of what they do. As a result, they work as the way they do. Whatever the result, they keep expressing their gratitude. European revival in the middle centuries impacted on European trading expansion to Southeast Asian countries. After Malacca had fell down into




Portugal’s hand, Demak’s ruler named Pati Unus, attempted to expel Portuguese from that area, but the invasion conducted in 1513 failed with the demise of Demak King and impacted on the destruction of Demak trade economy (such as Javanese chili, tamarind, cardamom, rice, and vegetable) formerly considered as very sold-out in Malaka market (Pires, 2014: 258). Before that invasion, Demak was getting weaker and as a result, a dispute occurred between kingdoms below Demak. After Pati Unus’ leaving, no Javanese King continued his struggle bravely. They preferred fighting against small kingdom, the split of Majapahit, to expand their domination. Thus, at that time, Java became a wide battle arena until the winner came, Mataram Kingdom (Ahmady, 2010: 63). After Sultan Agung’s leaving, Mataram began to be broken. The conflict between Mataram relatives who wanted to become Mataram’s ruler was utilized by VOC to solidify its power in Java through Gianti Agreement in 1755 (Ahmady, 2010: 64). Kasunanan Surakarta was split more after Raden Mas Said rebelled continuously against VOC, and his rebellions ended after the reconciliation with VOC, Surakarta, and Yogyakarta through Salatiga Agreement in 1757. The dissension between Mataram kingdoms was Dutch’s attempt of breaking down the government in Indonesian archipelago in order to be mastered easily. The collapse of Mataram’s sovereignty was the starting point of the shift of Javanese economy from

traditional to capitalistic one affected by Western nations. Gianti Agreement ended the sovereignty of Mataram local king. Nevertheless, the people’s loyalty to the king did not change. Rural feudalistic relation pattern and domination centers keep running in which villages gave tribute or their harvest product to the king. Through such relation, VOC could benefit from the trade with local kings and elites. Gianti and Salatiga agreement also became the stating point of Dutch colonialism in Java. In this stage, Netherland developed Beginning capitalism, by getting as much as possible profit at as short as possible time. Second stage of capitalism is also called high-level capitalism characterized with the expansion of product selling by increasing the number of industrial branches. The foundation of Javanese industrial integration, among others, is the construction of a giant infrastructure called Jalan Raya Pos (Post Highway). The road is the manifestation of Dutch interests in economic, military and area administration sectors. Road construction is the attempt of ecological transformation and Javanese political-economic system became more capitalistic (Ahmady, 2010: 66). Industrial revolution encouraged by the invention of steam engine and new economic capital over free labor and market economy underlay the trade competition between European countries. The trade competition impacted on Indonesian society life. Marschalk Herman William Daendels was a Dutch military




officer assigned by Dutch King to maintain Java Island from English invasion. Then, he restructured VOC-inherited political system to prevent his government from being inhibited by Javanese kings and adipatis’ power. The king’s power autonomous in nature during VOC began to be changed into centered one with Civil Servant model. Kings or area rulers were no longer allowed to collect crop from people, but the one authorized to do that at that time was Dutch administrator (Ahmady, 2010: 67). The relationship between Daendels and indigenous rulers was no longer related to trading activity, but the one between master and his accomplices. Indigenous kings and territorial rulers were made waged servants that should be obedient and subjected to their employers (masters). Through this system, Daendels was entitled to instruct Regents throughout Java to supply people labor to be involuntary labors. Post-Daendels, the attempt of industrial expansion under Dutch East Indies’ administration was conducted systematically. After Raffles had relieved Java in 18191830 period constituting Javanese industrialization period, in 1830, Van Den Bosch reign inherited abundant debt from its predecessor. The shattered economic condition of Dutch kingdom due to war required the Dutch East Indies’ government to find a way to rebuild Dutch economy. For that reason, Van den Bosch applied cultur stelsel or called coerced cultivation system. The succession of old patron (king) by new patron (capitalist) resulted in new demands in rural economy.

Coerced cultivation system and various obligation demanded by factory overburdened people (Lindblad, 1998: 272). The implementation of coerced cultivation system impacted on the expansion of plantation land. The need for land and labor in various areas affected the shift of subsistent rural farm into plantation farm managed by foreign capital. The structural shift occurs as a result of land, labor, and farm production commercialization and comodification. It characterized polarization and proletariatization phenomena occurring in Javanese rural areas (Kano, 1996: 295). Those elaborations above are sociohistorical ones affecting the continued capitalism in some Javanese areas, particularly during Adipati Mangkunegaran’s reign. Java has been a political and cultural power center in Indonesian Archipelago since Hindu-Buddha period. One of the centers was located in Surakarta, the area on which two political powers had ever established: Kasunanan and Mangkunegaran. In the term of managing government and developing culture, Mangkunegaran was more modern, meaning that it was more affected by Western countries, particularly Netherlands. This character was chosen by Mangkunegaran as the way of showing its existence before Sunan, Sultan, and Netherlands. Returning to the discussion concerning coerced cultivation, it indeed occurred in Vorstnlanden area, but plantation kept belonging to kingdom areas. Before Mangkunegaran IV’s reign, some of Praja Mangkunegaran-owned lands




were given to bourgeois and kingdom officials as their salary. This land is called lungguh land. Although legally this land belonged to king, but its working on became the land (lungguh) holder’s right. When agrarian liberalization was applied in Dutch East Indies, many lungguh lands were rented to foreigners. As a result, many bourgeois lost their income. This lungguh land was used by investors as plantation. Because the renting system was not profitable, the kings attempted to take back its land to manage it themselves through terminating the west investor’s contract period over that land (Wasino, 2008: 52). In 19th century, sugar was the sold-out commodity in addition to coffee. To increase guilder amounts, Mangkunegara IV intended to construct sugar plant (factory). Along with the sugar plant construction plan, lungguh land just mastered successfully became the asset of sugar industrial capital, sugarcane plantation development. Mangkunegara IV’s dream to establish Colomadu sugar plant had been realized. Through a good management and adequate equipment, premier harvest in 1862 could yield 6,000 pikuls (equivalent to 137 lbs) of sugar from 135 baus of farmland. Such the result had belonged to good category at that time because it could be equal to that of sugar plants that had been established previously (Wasino, 2008: 54-27). In 20th century, capitalists not only concerned more with their business, but also think of surrounding people’s interest. In this century, capitalism entered into high

level. In this stage, the objective of capitalism changed, namely, in addition to get profit, it should be accompanied with social affairs by helping promote education, alleviating poverty, and public infrastructure. During ethical political period, Praja Mangkunegara as local capitalists attempted to build non-government sector such as infrastructure development, agricultural and land development, forestry development and education and cultural development (Wasino, 2014: 161). Capitalism conducted by Mangkunegaran sugar industry above was different from European capitalism. The form of capitalism in Mangkunegaran sugar industry was priyayi capitalism. This capitalism was characterized with main feature: profit obtained from capital reproduction result, in addition to capital development, was also used to meet the all of its trah (lineage)’s and people’s needs. The development of sugar industry in Mangkunegaran affected positively the development of trade, and the change of social and political circumstances at local level. Mangkunegaran sugar industry had successfully improved education and health quality. However, on the other hand, these benefits have resulted in social diseases such as stealing, opium use, and prostitution, as well. It indicated that sugarcane plantation economy had symbiotic bond with rural economy. Javanese government bureaucracy generally considered power as feudal, traditional and hierarchical bureaucratic; Mangkunegaran is one of Javanese power center that was aristo-




democratic in nature with its modern and simple bureaucratic order. Actually, when drawn from the archipelago’s historical period, the entrepreneur profession among bourgeois is not new. Trade sector had proliferated in 15th century and Javanese Kingdoms operated in cross-island commerce. However, in Islamic Mataram era, industrialist elites were bankrupted due to Sultan Agung’s political centralization failure and VOC trade partnership collapse, contributing to decreasing sea commerce. Then, a myth developed about job separation between bourgeois and ordinary people. Mangkunegaran IV (18531881) attempted to break this myth. Soon after holding the power, he built modern economic basis, in the form of coffee plantation and sugar industry. The land formerly rented to European entrepreneurs by lungguh (post land) holders for plantation industry was taken over and developed itself as the basis of Praja (kingdom)’s basis. There were three factors leading Mangkunegaran IV to developing onderneming (plantation) industry. Firstly, sugar is a sold-out exported product in market. Secondly, sugarcane plant had been planted usually in a number of Surakarta areas. Thirdly, the kingdom’s income from tax collection could not meet the bourgeois’ life need. The social change of Surakarta community due to sugar industrial presence could be seen from the community’s more advanced perspective because they could study at school with sugar plant’s tuition grant budgeted by the ruler. Health facility constituting

polyclinic in factory environment had improved standard life quality of population. The community was taught to live healthily by constructing latrines. The advance of plantation had led to the advanced Surakarta areas, generally. Transportation and trade network in urban and rural areas, in this case train (rail) to transport sugar and coffee product in fact opened the isolation of villages surrounding plantation. Similarly, the development of highway opened job opportunity in transportation service sector. However, the negative excess is inevitable as well. The expansion of sugarcane capitalism had resulted in social cleavage that in turn resulted in dissatisfaction among marginalized community groups. As a result, political effect of Surakarta City center developing in 20th century led to social conflict in Mangkunegaran sugarcane villages. Kecu, koyok and begal are social pathology resulting in restlessness among the members of plantation. From this situation, it can be seen that co-modification of various buildings existing in Mangkunegaran had occurred since Mangkunegaran began to be capitalized with Western thought; thereby it is reasonable for Mangkunegaran to repeat the romanticism of Western capitalization. As a consequence, Mangkunegaran grows and develops with high trading intuition referring to historical reality. Mangkunegaran is the kingdom inheriting trade tradition from its trah’s next generations that are successful in business. Since Mangkunegara I’s reign, it was




mentioned that Praja Mangkunegaran began to yield product sold to VOC, and asked VOC to give instruction about paper and indigo planting. Then, coffee plantation, Colomadu and Tasikmadu Sugar Plants, Mojogedang pineapple fiber Company, house rent in Pindrikan Semarang, Solo, Wonogiri, hotel in Karangpandang, and Moyoretno rice milling company developed continuously. Such priyayi capitalism became business ideology later in Mangkunegaran, thereby not only improving larger capital but also paying attention to family’s and society’s welfare. This trend corporate social responsibility had begun to be applied at that time. After independence day, all Mangkunegaran’s property was nationalized taken over by Indonesian Government. President Soeharto’s style at that time seemed to be identical with Mangkunegara VII’s leadership style, such as scholarship provision for people through its founded foundation. Soeharto’s intuition in business was considered as fairly strong; however it was conducted while holding power. Just like quasi-capitalism, he was successful in property and throne but his life was simple. However, this property is enjoyed by his children, trah (lineage) and proponents. Considering this social condition, the co-modification of Pracimayasa building in Pura Mangkunegaran conducted by Mangkunegara IX can reasonably be concluded for its correlation. There are some facts indicating that Mangkunegaran is one of Javanese

capitalistic actors developing until today post-independence. After Indonesia has been independent, Mangkunegaran is positioned as cultural pledge likely to be developed in both local and national tourism industry. The Pracimayasa building known as Paviliun Gusti Nurul in Mangkunegaran is constructed predominantly by an architect named Thomas Karsten, just like other buildings. Karsten’s works, in addition to those in Mangkunegaran, can be found in Surakarta: Manahan Stadium, Banjarsari Villapark, Ex-house of Surakarta Resident, Balapan Railway Station of Surakarta, Pendhapa and Gapuro (Gate) of Pura Mangkunegaran, Ex-Office of Surakarta Municipal’s DPU (Public Work Department). From those findings above, it can be said that Thomas Karsten was one of Dutch architects very skillful in designing market. The markets he made still stand sturdily, for example, Jatingaleh and Johar Markets in Semarang, Ilir Market in Palembang and Gede Market in Surakarta. The preservation of cultural pledge building in Surakarta is inseparable from building intervened with by Karsten. The preservation of cultural pledge building referred to Law No.28/2002 and Indonesian Literature Preservation Charter in Article 1.7 of Law No.28/2002 and accomplished by RI’s Law no.11 of 2010 in which preservation is an activity of maintaining, renovating, and maintaining building and its environment to recover the condition of building into original one. When observed closely, entire




design of Thomas Karsten’s building is identical with the typical characteristic of colonial building. Holistically, it can be viewed that he is a market architect and the logic of market is consumerism; therefore since he was given an opportunity of entering into Solo by Pakubuwana X, it was possible for Karsten to project his design for market interest and consumerism tour comfort. Architect Thomas Karsten adopted highly the city layout of Netherlands, the windmill country; it indicates that Netherland now will hegemonize Java through the construction design by Karsten.

for its use into the commodity valued for what it will give to market. Comodification occurs due to the capitalists’ spirit of monetary economy to get profit. The co-modified Pracimayasa building is a product of reproduction to be traded due to the presence of exchange value. Object, quality, and sign of Pracimayasa building are tradable commodities.

Co-modification of Pracimayasa building is inseparable from the long history that it was established owing to colonial intervention. The colonial capitalistic spirit in Indonesian Archipelago colored event by event in Indonesian Archipelago including in Mangkunegaran related to money earning in capitalistic concept thereby creating capitalistic restriction. Capitalistic restriction rolled on naturally since colonialism age until today in the management of cultural pledge in Mangkunegaran.

C. Conclusion Considering the explanation in result and discussion section, the following conclusions can be drawn. The practice of Pracimayasa building co-modification is the process of changing product and service valued

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Intellectual Development In Asean: Enhancing The Asean University Network (Aun) Through The Asean Economic Community (Aec) Rizki Rahmadini Nurika1 and Ridha Amaliyah2 1 Department of International Relations, Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel, Jl. Jend. A. Yani no.117 Surabaya, [email protected] 2 Department of International Relations, Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel, Jl. Jend. A. Yani no.117 Surabaya, [email protected]

Abstract: Networking in education can be a principle vehicle for the intellectual development of human resource and the build-up of regional solidarity. For this purpose, the ASEAN University Network (AUN) was established in 1995. The main objective of the AUN is to strengthen the existing network of cooperation among leading universities in ASEAN. It aims to bring together the ASEAN countries' individual quest for academic collaborations in the identified priority areas that would deepen understanding of the dynamic ASEAN. However, the performance of the AUN has not been optimum due to the low mobility of students and staffs across the region. Since the end of 2015, the ASEAN countries have committed to implement the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) which aims to integrate the ASEAN countries into a single market. The features of the AEC are covering free movement of goods, services, investments, capital, and skilled labor. Considering the AEC Blueprint, among those features, the AUN can rely on the free flow of services and skilled labor feature to enhance its performance. This paper questions how the free flow of services and skilled labor feature of the AEC can be used to enhance the performance of the AUN. Network is conceptualized here as a social relationship among actors. Mobility is defined as capable of moving from one state to another. Free movement of services refers to freedom to provide service. Free movement of skilled labor is perceived as freer flow of migrant that is categorized as skilled worker. Key Words: ASEAN, AUN, AEC, education, mobility. 1. INTRODUCTION

S

outheast Asia region has been integrating mainly through trade and investments. The region is also witnessing increasing mobility of people within the region. This new context places higher education in a pivotal role in developing human resources capable of creating and sustaining globalized and knowledge-based societies. Harmonizing the highly diverse systems of higher education in the region is seen as an important step towards the regional integration objective (Sirat et.al, 2014). In recent years, Southeast Asian countries have shown commitment towards deepening connections and interactions by looking at the rich regional diversity as

important basis for regional cooperation and collaboration, rather than as stumbling block. It is envisioned that the ASEAN Community 2015 under the path achieving “One Vision, One Identity, One Community”, would be the outcome of cooperation and collaboration in ASEAN in areas relating to regional understanding and economic integration. Education, particularly higher education, has been treated as the core action line in promoting the ASEAN-Socio Cultural Community and in supporting the continued economic integration of ASEAN. Higher education in the region has been mentioned in many official declarations as one of the important steps to enhance human resource development in the region. A broader strategic objective of ensuring




the integration of education is formulated and aim to advance and prioritize education and focus on: (1) creating a knowledgebased society; (2) achieving universal access to primary education; (3) promoting early child care and development; and (4) enhancing awareness of ASEAN to youths through education and activities to build an ASEAN identity based on friendship and cooperation. Therefore, student mobility, credit transfers, quality assurance and research clusters were identified as the four main priorities to harmonize the ASEAN higher education system, encompassing 6,500 higher education institutions and 12 million students in 10 nations (Yaakub, 2014). By creating a common higher education space in Southeast Asia region, ASEAN members are expected to gain benefits or advantages. The prominent ones are greater mobility, widening access and choices, academic and research collaborations, enhanced collaboration on human capital investment, and the promotion of Southeast Asian higher education institutions within the fast changing global higher education landscape. The immediate advantage of such harmonization in higher education system is presented as easier exchange and mobility for students and academics between nations within Southeast Asia apart from member countries availability to access systems, tools and best practices for quality improvement in higher education. For some countries, harmonization even serves as a jump start for keeping up with globalization. Nevertheless, it is important to notice that in the context of Southeast Asia, with its diverse systems, harmonization is about comparability; not standardization or uniformity of programs, degrees and the nature of higher education institutions. As a representative of ASEAN members, regional bodies have emerged as new and key actors in higher education policy making, offering the possibility of higher education regionalization. Regional bodies are responsible to raise higher

education policymaking and practice to a new level to the local, national, and global spectrum. In Southeast Asia, the status of integration of higher education in ASEAN are facilitated mostly by three main bodies namely SEAMEO RIHED (Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Centre for Higher Education and Development), ASEAN Plus Three, and the ASEAN Universities Network (AUN). Their aim is to promote education networking in various levels of educational institutions and continue university networking and enhance and support student and staff exchanges and professional interactions, including creating research clusters among ASEAN institutions of higher learning. This paper is focused on the ASEAN University Network (AUN), in which mobility serves as the driving force of the network of intellectual development in ASEAN. Taking into account the importance of mobility to the AUN, this paper attempts to reveal that such mobility can be encouraged through the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) which has already implemented in the end of 2015. It is because the AEC provides free flow of services and skilled labor following the liberalization designed to create a single regional common market of ASEAN. By providing flexibility among people within ASEAN, the AEC is able to enhance the performance of the AUN. 2. METHOD The purpose of this study is to examine the reliability of the AEC for the AUN. The specific research question is how are the free flow of services and skilled labor feature of the AEC can be used to enhance the performance of the AUN? The study uses qualitative research method to collect and analyze data. The data used is secondary data. This secondary data has been critically evaluated and has been collected from relevant literature, databases, and internet sources such as ebooks and online journals.




There are four substantial concepts that will be used in this study: network, mobility, free flow of services, and free flow of skilled labor. The use of them stands on each concept’s operational definition which is best suited with the purpose of this study. Network is conceptualized as a social relationship among actors. Mobility is defined as capable of moving from one state to another. Free movement of services refers to freedom to provide service. And free movement of skilled labor is perceived as freer flow of migrant that is categorized as skilled worker. 3. DISCUSSION 3.1 The ASEAN University Network (AUN) as an Intellectual Development in ASEAN. It is perfectly clear that the Association of Southeast Asia Nations or ASEAN, which was established in 1967, has achieved remarkable progress in strengthening the ties and promoting cooperation among countries in Southeast Asia, especially in terms of cultural, economic and social collaborations. Nevertheless, it was not until the Fourth ASEAN Summit, held in Singapore in January 1992, that cooperation in the fields of higher education and human resource development has become the point of attention of the ASEAN leaders. At the Summit, ASEAN leaders directed that ASEAN should help hasten the solidarity and the development of a regional identity by considering ways to further strengthen the existing network of the leading universities and institutions of higher learning in the region. It was agreed that ASEAN member countries must work to promote cooperation by enhancing awareness of ASEAN among the people in the region through the expansion of ASEAN studies as part of Southeast Asian Studies in university curricula and the introduction of ASEAN student exchange programs; to help develop a regional identity and solidarity; and to promote

human resource development in the region. The idea was later developed into ASEAN University Network (AUN) which was established in November 1995 with the signing of its Charter by the Ministers responsible for Higher Education from ASEAN countries, the signing of the Agreement on the Establishment of the AUN by the presidents/rectors/vicechancellors of participating universities and the formation of AUN Board of Trustees. The main objective of the AUN is to strengthen the existing network of cooperation among leading universities in ASEAN, by promoting cooperation and solidarity among ASEAN scholars and academicians, developing academic and professional human resource, and promoting information dissemination among ASEAN academic community. Indeed, the network has brought together the ASEAN countries’ individual quest for academic collaborations in the identified priority areas that would deepen understanding of the dynamic ASEAN, and accordingly hasten regional identity and solidarity. Today, the AUN is a network widely recognized as a vital mechanism for the build-up of an active and renowned ASEAN in higher education. Given such importance, the AUN is expected to upgrade the capacity of ASEAN human resource and enhancing the quality of education of AUN member universities. From highly developed Singapore, which has two universities that often place well in international university rankings, to countries like Laos, which only established its national university in 1996, the region is home to an eclectic collection of institutions. AUN member universities are now able to learn, share, discuss, and make collaboration each other. The original guidelines for AUN membership were based on the following criteria: recognition of the university’s status as a center of excellence in priority disciplines; faculty strength; experience in regional or international programs; and existence of adequate laboratories, libraries




and other facilities. Under the Operational Guidelines for the Membership Enlargement of the AUN updated in 2005, new member universities must fulfill the following criteria: they must reflect a geographical balance of members in the region; they must be among the leading universities in the country/region; they must promote research and scholarship; and they must support a global outlook. However, there is a limit to the number of universities that become AUN members although membership to the AUN’s thematic networks is open to nonAUN members. As stated in the Operational Guidelines: “As a regional network, the number of members per country should reflect a good balance of members from each member country. There should not be a particular member country with too many member institutions, resulting in an imbalance for effective cooperation and exchange”. Given the criteria, AUN membership has become a way of gauging the quality of a country’s higher education system. 3.2 Progress of the AUN. The AUN emerged from a highly ambitious idea of the ASEAN leaders and the ASEAN Subcommittee on Education (ASCOE) to establish an ASEAN University (Berkens, 2004). A year after this idea was launched; it became clear that this would present too many problems concerning funding location, and leadership. Therefore, in 1994, it was decided that the founding of a network of existing institutions would be more feasible. In its early years (1995-1999), the AUN focused mainly on the sharing of knowledge and experiences and on smallscale student and staff exchange. As from 1999, the collaborative activities became more complex with programs like joint curriculum development, cooperation in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and the establishment of sub-networks. This also led to the establishment of a permanent secretariat in Bangkok in March 2000 which displaces

the temporary secretariat existed since 1997. Recently, there are 30 universities from 30 AUN members. The collaboration mainly consists of internationalization for academic quality improvement, higher education harmonization, and ASEAN awareness through mobility. These collaboration leads to some research collaboration. The 9 AUN research thematic sub-networks have been established. They are AUN-Quality Assurance, AUN Human Rights, AUN Intellectual Property, AUN Business and Economics Network, AUN Inter-library Online, AUN University Social Responsibility and Sustainable, AUN Southeast Asia Engineering Education Development Network, AUN Credit Transfer System, and AUN Health Promotion Network. The development of AUN-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA) had technical assistance from European at initial stage. Recently, more than 140 programs in ASEAN universities have had AUN-QA assessment. Besides quality assurance, AUN-Credit Transfer System (ACTS) provides mobility among AUN partners. On the basic operation, each member annually grants 5 outbound full-time scholarships for one semester to other host universities in different countries in ASEAN. In mobility students should have credit transfer from the host university. The AUN partners learn to harmonize students’ host and home educational system. AUN has started with quality assurance and promoting of its benefits of quality assurance. Then different credit systems are recognized among member countries for doing student mobility, which leads to the ultimate goal in worker mobility. This can harmonize professional qualification among ASEAN countries. Beyond AUN-QA and ACTS, AUN plans to implement ASEAN Quality Reference Framework (AQRF) in the near future. This directly leads to the harmonization of professional qualifications. Thailand has initiated




Thailand Qualification Framework (TQF) for professional requirement, curriculum, teaching plan, laboratory plan, teaching evaluation, laboratory evaluation, and curriculum evaluation. All universities in Thailand have been enforced to be under the qualification framework since 2014. A university curriculum should meet a specific profession’s requirements in various industries such as medicine, engineering, accounting, law, etc. AUNQA, ACTS, and AQRF can facilitate ASEAN universities to ensure quality education, promote students mobility, and enhance professional or workforce mobility. Although the majority activities of the AUN above rest on the mobility of students and staffs across the region as the main concern, effective cooperation among the AUN in terms of mobility of students and staffs remains limited (Das, 2013). It has been difficult to encourage ASEAN students and staffs to have mobility in ASEAN. Students prefer to have mobility to Europe or America rather than ASEAN. While staffs have no inventive to have mobility to ASEAN because of the various regulatory impediments such as visa and employment pass applications. This problem lies in the lack of efforts to achieve cooperation and integration in education and adopt policies across countries that will facilitate the exchange of students and staffs, and eventually the mobility of skilled workers. It has affected the performance of the AUN because in reality, many students and staffs are still not involved in the AUN activities. Most exchanges and gatherings for instance, although successful, have been modest in its impact on the universities as a whole. As a result, the performance of the AUN has not been optimum since it was initiated. 3.3 The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) as a Deepening of ASEAN Integration. The road to the establishment of the ASEAN Community began in 2003 through the Declaration of ASEAN Concord II in

Bali, Indonesia, otherwise known as the Bali Concord II. In 2003, with the increasing interdependence between and among ASEAN countries and as a response to the ASEAN Financial Crisis, the ASEAN members declared the establishment of the ASEAN Community. The creation of the ASEAN Community, however, may as well be considered a stimulus to attract leverage in the global economy. The Bali Concord II was hailed as a historic step towards regional integration. It consists of three pillars: the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC), the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) and the ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC). Each of these pillars has a corresponding road map or a “Blueprint.” Under the Bali Concord II, the AEC was declared as the realization of the end-goal of economic integration as outlined in the ASEAN Vision 2020, to create a stable, prosperous and highly competitive ASEAN economic region in which there is a free flow of goods, services, investment, and skilled labor, as well as a freer flow of capital, equitable economic development and reduced poverty and socio-economic disparities in year 2020. ASEAN leaders eventually saw the need to accelerate the establishment of the AEC to 2015 from the original target year of 2020. This acceleration exemplified one step further towards the realization of the ASEAN Community. Of the three pillars, the AEC has achieved major steps towards the attainment of a single market production base and towards the integration of a unified economic block. Under the AEC, a single regional common market of ASEAN countries will be created by 2015. The regional integration's objective is to create a competitive market of over 600 million people in Asean countries: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The free flow of goods, services, investment, skilled labor and freer flow of capital are going to follow the liberalization. These will include tariff




reductions and streamlining of certain administrative procedures. In short, the end-goal of regional economic integration, the realization of the AEC, which was formally launched in Dec. 31, 2015, is pursued under four elements or basic initiatives: single market production base, competitive economic region, equitable economic development, and integration into the global economy. All of these initiatives are defined in detail in the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) Blueprint, which lays down the basic courses of action to achieve integration. 3.4 The Reliability of the AEC for the AUN. Considering how the AUN works, mobility of students and staffs across the region can be perceived as one of the key successes of the AUN. It is reasonable if it affects the performance of the AUN because mobility serves as the driving force of a network. Network refers to a social relationship among actors. Hence, mobility is needed here to accelerate this relationship. It has become a challenge for the AUN to optimize its performance for the greater achievement of the AUN. The AEC can answer this AUN’s challenge in terms of flexibility through the free flow of services and the free flow of skilled labor feature. a) Free Flow of Services. The AEC Blueprint states that free flow of services67 is one of the important

67

elements in realizing the AEC, where there will be substantially “no restriction to ASEAN services suppliers in providing services and in establishing companies across national borders within the region, subject to domestic regulations”. It also states that the priority service areas are air transport, e-ASEAN, healthcare, tourism and logistics and that the target is to “remove substantially all services restrictions on trade in services for all other service sectors by 2015”. Other objectives stated in the blueprint actions plan are:  Complete the Mutual Recognition Arrangements (MRAs) currently under negotiation, that is, for architectural services, accountancy services, survey qualifications, medical practitioners by 2008 and dental practitioners by 2009.  Implement the MRAs expeditiously, according to the provisions of each respective agreement;  Identify and develop MRAs for other professional services by 2012, to be completed by 2015;  Strengthen human resource development and capacity building in the area of services. Considering the actions plan of the AEC above, the performance of the AUN can be enhanced under the MRAs by the name of other professional services. According to the ASEAN Secretariat, services consist of diverse activities ranging from basic services such as healthcare, education, and water-provision, to infrastructure services such as telecommunications, transport, and energy services. Here, the AUN is part of the education services in which the professional services of the AUN refer to the staffs of universities within ASEAN. By the name of professional services, the mobility of the staffs will be accommodated through the MRAs in order to optimize the performance of the AUN among the ASEAN member states. ASEAN MRAs provide the “tools” for ASEAN

Free flow of services is one of the core fundamentals in ASEAN economic integration. The initiative formally started in 1995 through signing of the ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (AFAS), which was two years after ASEAN launched the initiative to work towards ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) for trade in goods through the Agreement on Common Effective Preferential Tariff Scheme for the AFTA (CEPT) signed in 1993. AFAS provides the mandate for progressive negotiations on the liberalization of trade in services, recognizing that intra-ASEAN services liberalization will strengthen the flow of trade and investment in the services sector contribute to overall economic integration in the among ASEAN member states, and will eventually region. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 418



member states to promote mobility of professionals within the region on a voluntary basis, rather than prescribing binding commitments. The five primary/basic components of an MRA are definition, recognition, provision, recognition mechanism, dispute settlement provision, and capacity building provision.  Definition normally defines a practitioner of professional in a particular service subsector in terms of a natural person68 who has not only completed the required professional training and conferred professional qualification in that particular area, but also has been registered and/or licensed by the relevant professional regulatory authority in his home country as being technically, ethnically, and legally qualified to undertake professional practice in that particular area of expertise. There are normally six mutual recognition criteria provided in the framework – education, examination, registration and licensing, experience, continuing professional education, code of ethics (professional conduct).  Professional regulatory authority, as the recognition mechanism, refers to a body vested with the authority by the government in each ASEAN country to regulate and control practitioners and their practice of each professional.  In terms of dispute settlement, the following provision is normally found in ASEAN MRAs – ASEAN countries shall at all times endeavour to agree on the interpretation and application of this MRA and shall make every attempt 68

through communication, dialogue, consultation, and cooperation to arrive at mutually satisfactory resolution of any matter that might affect implementation of this MRA. The provision is based on the ASEAN Protocol on Enhance Dispute Settlement Mechanism which applies to disputes concerning the interpretation, implementation, and/or application of any of the provisions under this MRA upon exhaustion of the above mentioned mechanism.  For capacity building, it is essential in the ASEAN context. This is due to varying levels of development in each sector/subsector of professional services within the region. b) Free Flow of Skilled Labor. According to the AEC Blueprint, the free flow of skilled labor is directed to facilitate entry for the movement of natural persons engaged in trade in goods, services, and investments. It also states about the provisions toward harmonization and standardization with a view to facilitate the movement of skilled labor within the region. The blueprint identified the following actions ASEAN member states agree to support in the lead-up to 2015:  Facilitate the issuance of visas and employment passes for ASEAN professionals and skilled laborers who are engaged in cross-border trade and investment-related activities.  Enhance cooperation among members of the AUN to increase the mobility of both students and staffs within the region.  Develop core competencies and qualifications for the job/occupational and training skills required in priority and other services sectors.  Strengthen the research capabilities of each ASEAN member country to promote skills and job placements, and develop labor market information networks among ASEAN member states. Those provisions of the free flow of services annunciate that the AEC Blueprint

The ASEAN Agreement on the Movement of Natural Persons (MNP) was signed in November 2012, providing for the rights and obligations additional to those set out in AFAS; facilitating the movement of natural persons engaged in the conducts of trade in services and investment; establishing streamlined and transparent procedures for applications for immigration formalities for the temporary entry or stay of natural persons; and protecting the integrity of ASEAN member state’s border and protecting the domestic labor force and permanent employment in the ASEAN member states. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 419



asserts the free flow of skilled labor to directly support the free flow of services by 2015 (Chakpitak and Bouras, 2015). Here, the performance of the AUN can also be enhanced under the MRAs by the name of other professional services but in terms of mobility. MRAs appear to be the main tool for skilled labor mobility in ASEAN. Each MRA aims to facilitate mobility within ASEAN, exchange information and enhance cooperation on the mutual recognition of qualifications, promote the adoption of best practices in standards and qualifications, and provide opportunities for capacity building and training. The MRAs explicitly acknowledge each ASEAN member state’s right to regulate the sectors covered, including the actions of individual practitioners. This further highlights the bottom-up nature of skill mobility in the region (Sugiyarto and Agunias, 2014). Accompanied by the facilitation of visa issuance, the mobility of the staffs will be accommodated through the MRAs in order to optimize the performance of the AUN among the ASEAN member states. the AEC is able to enhance the performance of the AUN. 4. CONCLUSION Harmonizing the highly diverse systems of higher education in the Southeast Asia region can be seen as an important step towards the regional integration objective. By creating the harmonization, the prominent benefits for ASEAN members are greater mobility, widening access and choices, academic and research collaborations, enhanced

collaboration on human capital investment, and the promotion of Southeast Asian higher education institutions within the fast changing global higher education landscape. The ASEAN University Network (AUN) established in 1995, focus mainly not only on the sharing of knowledge and experiences and on small-scale student and staff exchange, joint curriculum development, but also on internationalization for academic quality improvement, higher education harmonization, and ASEAN awareness through mobility. Taking into account how the AUN works, mobility of students and staffs across the region can be perceived as one of the key successes of the AUN. It is reasonable if it affects the performance of the AUN because mobility serves as the driving force of a network. Mobility is needed here to accelerate this relationship. The performance of the AUN can be enhanced under the MRAs by the name of other professional services. By the name of professional services, the mobility of the staffs will be accommodated through the MRAs in order to optimize the performance of the AUN among the ASEAN member states. MRAs also appear to be the main tool for skilled labor mobility in ASEAN. Each MRA aims to facilitate mobility within ASEAN, exchange information and enhance cooperation on the mutual recognition of qualifications, promote the adoption of best practices in standards and qualifications, and provide opportunities for capacity building and training.

REFERENCES Berkens, H.J.J.G. (2004). Global Opportunities and Institutional Embeddednes: Higher Education Consortia in Europe and Southeast Asia. Enschede: Cheps/UT. Chakpitak, N. and A. Bouras. (2015). Internationalization for ASEAN University: Case Study of CMU-ULL. VNU Journal of Science, Vol.31, No.4. Das, Sanchita Basu. (2013). ASEAN Economic Community Scorecard: Performance and Perception. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 420



Llaneta, Celeste. (2014). The ASEAN University Network: Demonstrating the ASEAN Spirit in Higher Education. http://www.up.edu.ph/the-asean-university-network-demonstrating-the-asean-spirit-inhigher-education/. Sirat, Morshidi, Norzaini Azman, and Aishah Abu Bakar. (2014). Towards Harmonization of Higher Education in Southeast Asia: Malaysia’s Perspective. http://www.globalhighered.com. Sugiyarto, Guntur and Dovelyn Rannveigh Agunias. (2014). A ‘Freer’ Flow of Skilled Labor within ASEAN: Aspirations, Opportunities, and Challenges in 2015 and Beyond. A Joint Series of the IOM Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and the Migration Policy Institute, Issue no.11. Universitas Indonesia. nd. About AUN. http://aun-edu.ui.ac.id/abuout-aun.html. Yaakub, Mohammad Naim. (2014). Challenges in Education Towards The Realization of ASEAN Community 2015. (Special Lecture).







Perspectives in Traditional Capitalism : Economical Activity at Coffee and Rubber plantations in Palembang in the Begining of Twentieth Century Yudi Pratama Jebres, Pucang Sawit, Surakarta, Sebelas Maret University Post Graduate Program of History Education Corresponding email: [email protected] Abstract:

This article aims to understand how the economical activities of coffe and rubber farmers in Uluan Palembang are. This understanding gained through a comparison of characteristics of smallholdings and the plantations owned by the Ducth colonial government as well as the the rivalry of the two. The contents of this article are derived from the study of several relevant literatures rearding the theory of agricultural involution (Clifford Geertz) and the theory of economical dualism (Boeke). The exposure of the contents, in this article, try to shape a new perspective in new history considering the concept of captalism as giving benefits to the farmers, changing concepts both socially and culturally. The economical activities of coffe and rubber farmers in Uluan Palembang are presented to see the corelation between the investors and local farmers, and the picture of Palembang which started to be a profitable region (Wingewesten). In the perception of this article, capitalism has been developed and maintained in the economical activities and, in fact, has been a part of society economical development since long time ago.

Keyword: Capitalism, Smallholdings, Coffee and rubber plantations, Uluan Palembang

1. Introduction he year of 1870 was a turning point of colonial economy in Indonesia, which makes intervention more systematic for colonial government. According to Mestika Zed in Lindblad (2002: 298), in that time the Dutch colonial government introduced two new laws namely laws of sugar and agrarian law. This was impacting in opening of a big opportunities for foreign capital owners to invest and develop their business in mining and plantations, especially in Sumatra. Palembang start to open as the area of economic exploitation by the capitalists at the half of the 19th century. At first, this area is not very attractive to investors, they preferred

T

Deli as an area for planting tobacco (Breman, 1997: 2). However, over time, the interests of European investors to expand business networks is increasing due to the promised benefits of the mining sector and also of existing plantations in the plains of Palembang. Until 1916 the number of estates in Palembang increased dramatically. Seeing the development of private agriculture, we must also consider how the dynamics of public plantations were, how the life of local farmers were in the midst of the development of private estates that have the capital and human resources better compared to local




plantation, whether the impact will be similar to those seen in farmers in Java. Javanese peasant life in the ancient times always in the spotlight. this phenomenon was inseparable from the theory J.H Boeke and Clifford Geertz on economic dualism and also involution farmers who tried to explain how pattern of farmers' lives in an environment of poverty had been tampered by the liberal plantation capitalistic system. Boeke viewed that farmers in Java were very static and seemed not going forward. Java farmer did not separate the economic needs from the social needs, so there was no economic policy can stimulate them to go forward. Subsequently, Clifford Geertz appeared 50 years later with the theory of agricultural involution in Java. he said farmers are forced to involute since they were unable to withstand the swift currents of the modern economic system in the form of plantations (Mubyarto, 1997: 7). Increased invesment in Sumatra’s primary export production 1910-1942 altthough Java, beecause of its export crops and its labour supply, had been major source of profits during nineteenth century, Dutch attention after 1900 sifted increasingly towards the relatively untapped natural resource in vast areasof the Outer Islands, particulary Sumatra. As growong pupolation density put increased pressure on Java scarce and resource, Dutch colonial rule was extended over te entire Indonesia Archipelago. These development, alng with strong world demnad for new raw materials, including rubber, palm oil and minerals, stimuled the expansion of the productio of these new primary got underway, the shift of the export base from Java to the outer Islands proceeded apace (Maddison and Prince, 1989:139). Accordingly, the purpose of writing this article is to look at the perspective of traditional kaptitalisme growing in the midst of society, especially farmers in Uluan Palembang rubber and coffee plantations. it will be in terms of the impact caused by the presence of the European private estates in the early 20th century and also the relationship of

the two estates. In writing, this article would be critical of the theory of agricultural involution of Clifford Geerts and Boeke Economic dualism that was, basically, only suitable for the plantation system in Java. Hence, I will try to see the perspective of these theories in the dynamics of private estates and public estates in Palembang. 2.

Method

This article uses the historical method which includes heuristics, criticism of sources, interpretation and historiography. at this stage, researcher collected data or find sources based on research purposes as a written source in the form of books, magazines, newspapers, and journals or other documents related to the research. Researcher tried to find resources that match the theme that were examined relating to the local history of Palembang by the interval years studied. Sources obtained via the study of literature and a visit to the museum for the press to find related magazines. In writing, this article uses source criticism as one of the methods of research, namely the external criticism and internal criticism. External criticism is used to search for authenticity (authenticity) source, while internal criticism used to assess whether the sources had kredebilitas (habit to believe) or not (Priyadi, 2012: 62). Researchers conducted a critique source of the data that existed at the sources of the book and then compare it with the resources of a local magazine contemporaries of statistical data on the strong economy in a time interval of the study. Researcher tried to find resources that match the theme that were examined relating to the local history of Palembang by the interval years studied. Sources obtained via the study of literature and a visit to the museum for the press to find related magazines. Then, the last stage is the compilation of data and interpretation. In history, there are two important elements, namely the fact and interpretation. If there is no interpretation, then history is nothing more than chronology,




the sequence of events. Moreover, if there are no facts, the history can not be built. in this case, I do the interpretation of historical facts, which consists of (1) mentifact (psychiatric), (2) sosifact (social relations), (3) artifact (object) (Kartodirjo, 1993: 176).

3. Discussion 3.1. Plantation In Uluan Palembang The investors who came to the plains of central Sumatra, Referring to the area of South Sumatra, Jambi, Bengkulu, West Sumatra (Colombjin, 2005: 3), in particular the area Uluan Palembang, were attracted by the prospect of promised benefits from the results of the plantations and mining. then, European businessmen vyied to exploit this area. Another factor that made the opening of private plantations were the reorganization of local administration in 1912/1913 which eased to obtain land concessions erfacht (Lindblad, 2002: 298). In 1916 the number of private estates increased dramatically until reaching 51 plantation companies. There are several private companies pioneered the establishment of private estates in Palembang, including Handelsvereening Amsterdam (HVA), which was founded by a banker of Amsterdam in 1870, Cultuur maatsschappij Indragiri which was the capital of Switzerland, Starits & Sunda Syndicate which represents companies from Germany and the Last was the Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij which was a company operating out of the first major companies, were replacing other VOC role as a trading agent Kingdom of the Netherlands (Zed, 2003: 69). Then, In 1841, NHM merged into a firm engaged in banking and in 1891 the firm to concentrate more on the plantation sector, although in the 1920s actually there are several other banks of Chinese companies such as Hong Ho, Nederlandsch-Indische Escompto Maatschappij , NederlandschIndische Handelsbank and Javasche branch of the Bank as the Bank circulation for commercial banks (Peeters, 1997: 131). in 1920, almost the entire trade of rubber and coffee financed by banks. The rapid

development of industrial estates in the area west of Palembang influence on local estates Uluan society. As you know, that the land cultivated by private entrepreneurs were held communally, and generally concentrated in certain places. Before the construction of private estates in the area Uluan Palembang, local communities had long been familiar with the various types of trade crops such as coffee, which was a type of Arabica coffee, cultivated by people around the plateaus as in Pasemah, Semendo and Ranau. However, before the 20th century these plants had no high commercial value, was limited to daily consumption and was usually inserted in the midst of orchards (Zed, 2003: 85). Arabica coffee requires a typical physical environment. This kind of coffee should be planted in an area with an altitude of over 1,000 meters. One obstacle in the marketing was the coffee commercialization transportation lines. However, after a military occupation in the mountainous regions completed the first access point was opened between the plateau areas, for example Bengkulu to Palembang, by repairing the footpaths through the Bukit Barisan. A Sergeant Major named Anslijn began buying coffee from the local community, and the impact on the emergence of new plantations with a large scale. With the help and guidance of Ansiljn, the coffee crop was planted and well maintained so that for the first time production can be increased. As a result of the phenomenon, some chinese merchants from Bengkulu chose to settle in Ampat Lawang in order to take care of the transport of such products (Peeters, 1997: 54). The success of the phenomenon of coffee cultivation in the northern part of the Bukit Barisan also occur in other areas. this is due to the access from the highlands to the lowlands which was opened in order to facilitate the transport and build better roads. areas following the success of Ampat Lawang were Basemah Lebar, Semendo, Lahat and Muaraenim area which was the center of the coffee trade in Uluan (Irwanto et,al, 2010: 62). The success of coffee cultivation attracted investors, banks seek cultivation of




new land suitable for agriculture. In this respect, exports of Arabica gives an indication that Uluan Palembang was suitable for investment, especially driven by the press colonial, because of that, the adventurous Europeans began coming to the mountains to establish their own plantations Although in the end in 1915, Coffee Arabica replaced with Robusta due to many outbreaks. But not only that, another problem also experienced by private entrepreneurs europe, shortage of manpower to work on his coffee plantation land. at the time it was difficult to bring in workers from Java, while local residents unwilling to work in private estates, they preferred to work on their own fields (Peeters, 1997: 55). Another commodity crops grown in the area Uluan Palembang was rubber. These plants provided a very significant impact on the rise in the index of export at the beginning of the 20th century. The long history of rubber plantations in Indonesia was initiated when Hofland establish rubber plantation company in Pamanukan and Ciasem, West Java, one of the kinds planted was Havea (Havea brasiliensis). This species was first discovered by the expedition team from Peru to explore the river and jungle of Amazon. They found the rubber tree sap that can be taken without the need to cut down the trees but quite injure the bark alone (Mubyarto, 1991: 9). During the colonial era, these types of rubber plants introduced in East Sumatra. Meanwhile, regarding when exactly the rubber plant come into the area Palembang is still difficult to know, because of the lack of government's role in introducing Havea kinds of rubber, rubber cultivation in Palembang Uluan area was raised by the local population (Peeters, 1997: 103). In addition, there are several factors that make the development of smallholder rubber plantations. Among them is the growing strength of the rubber export .

company with a network of transport and extensive relationships, the interpreter pilgrim returning home stop in Singapore and Malaysia and brought seeds for planting rubber. Gum care is relatively easy and not susceptible to disease increase the interest of local residents to plant. In addition, local residents believe that rubber plantations have a bright future (Mubyarto, 1991: 17). At the time, efforts done in rubber planting was more of family oriented pattern and could be considered modest. To accommodate the rubber, farmers were still using coconut shells and labor used was still limited to the family A (Siswantoputro, 1991: 4). Golden period or "BOOM" (explosion in the price of rubber in the market), occurred in the interval between the years 1908 to 1920, made people's farmland increased in number. It was caused by the increasing demand for good quality rubber related to the development of motor vehicle production in the USA (United State of America), which in this case requires a lot of tire manufacture (Mubyarto 1991: 17). This factor also trigger a surge in the production of rubber in Uluan Palembang. Increased production of rubber and coffee in Palembang, of course, will affect the economic cycle in the plains of Uluan Palembang. Regarding this, questions on the impact were raised what the result from the increased value of exports of these commodities to the people's plantations amid expansion of private estates of Europe, why smallholder plantations in Palembang were very responsive to the economic situation ongoing at the time, the relationship between the two types of plantations, whether the pattern will remain the same as what happened in Java, of course this will lead to a new perspective in terms of the traditional capitalist in Uluan Palembang

Table 1. The data of width and commodities of European plantations planted in erfpacht‘s land in Palembang (1890-1929) Years

Locations

Kinds of Plant

Numbers

Width




1890

1900

Pagar Alam

Cofee and Tea

21

37.000 ha

Pagar Alam and

Cofee and Tea

42

117.733 ha

Cofee, Tea and

12

28.592 ha

Cofee, Tea and

60

82.073 ha

Cofee, Tea and

-

89.622 ha

Cofee, Tea and

110

95.320 ha

Ranau Pagar Alam and

1910 Ranau

Rubber

Pagar Alam and

1916 Komering

Rubber Pagar Alam and

1925 Komering

Rubber Pagar Alam dan

1929 Musi Ilir

Rubber

J.W.J. Wellan, Zuid-Sumatra. Economisch Overzicht Van de Gewesten Djami, Palembang, de Lampoengsche Distriction en Benkoelen (Zed. 2003: 70). 3.2 Onderneming Plantation and Public Plantation, Rivalry or Build Public Economy At the beginning of the 20th century, economic growth in the residency of Palembang is increasing, not only benefit the colonial but also benefit local communities. The resources are exploited in the form of agricultural products such as coffee, rubber and mining output. Palembang is known as a region wingesten in terms of area exploited economically in the Indies or in the language of the local residents refer to today as oedjan masyang means that at that time the prosperity of local communities is at the highest level due to rising commodity prices of rubber and coffee (Zed, 2003: 70). The presence of private estates in Palembang also taking part of the growing economy of the people. Although at first, it is considered unreasonable, because if this phenomenon compared to what happens in Java, private plantations actually harm the agricultural community that hinder economic growth. In this articel, there are comparison of agriculutural condition betwen java and sumatara. Palembang as the part of outer land. According to Mestika Zed it is too risky to compare agricaltural characteristic between java and sumatera using geertz theory,

because it has different condition, but it can be reference for agricultural research characteristics in Sumatera. If it is compared to Java, the economic growth was influenced by the growth of citizen rate. Because of irrigation pattern implemented in Javas farms, the adequacy of food supply can be addressed, hence, the population growth in Java influence the economic growth indirectly (Geertz, 1974: XXII), the concept of citizen rate, in citizen rate patern. Generaly the movement from village to the center city, but South Sumatera cast its has diferent patern, most of them are imigrant other city, looking for better prospect in their economic life. In the dualism theory from boeke, The development of economical facet was always close to role of colonialism of dutch. Palembang was a widen net of trade between palembang-batavia and singapore, related to the develoment local economy. Boeke, with the view of clasicc theorical, state that there were changes in economic sector “pribumi” ini last 70 years. Because they stay on tradisional economic perspective even they produce export commodities from world market. In java, Plantation companies pressed the traditional local plantation but the expansion of private company in the outer land was not. If we can look in cast plantation




in uluan palembang both of them run together and sometimes compare with local farmers. what reason the free plot was available. Where as in java the private plantaion use field to plant tebu. in this cast this will destruction patern of rice beceuse use the field, but that in uluan palembang that not happen because, there stiil have a lot of land. Therefore didt not disturb public plantation. Onderneming almost not disturb tradisional plantaion. more over widen their .

economic comodity with buy their corp. Even they build faming school to create agricultural expert for local people an d local people can buy rubber and coffe seed in this scholl. But that not all, even to suport the local farmer they publiher montly magazine that call “ Soeloeh Peroesahaan Tanah” First time published in 1916 using “Bahasa Melayu (Zed,2003:89) content is how to plant and profit the farmer with batter life. Even in this magazine tell story about the local farmers

Table 2. Public Coffe and Onderneming Coffe production in Palembang (PER 1.000 Kg) Years

Public Coffee (in scale in 1000 kg)

ONDERNEMI NG Coffee (in scale 1000 kg)

ekspor Values Onderneming (F.1.000)

1923

12.026

1.149

8.716

1924

19.881

1.678

16.903

1925

20.981

1.354

19.466

1926

23.364

1.480

32.591

1927

23.307

1.594

18.188

1928

28.229

1.257

16.405

1928

18.818

1.679

14.534

Tijdschrift der Vereeniging van Landbouwconsulenten in Ned. Indiee No. 8,(Feb.1931) (Zed: 2003: 86) When compared to the rise of Bumiputera entrepreneurs in Java, elements of capitalism has unwittingly attached to and become part of the economic activities of plantations belonging to local entrepreneurs. For example, the construction of the sugar factory Colo Tasik Madu and Madu in Surakarta built by Mangkunegaran IV. In Java, sugar production was indeed one form of the product of capitalism itself. Sugar factories had helped Mangkunegaran palace complement the traditional source of income as well as prove that the tradition among nobles of Bumiputera was not lost although political and economic domination were in the

hands of the Netherland or private entrepreneurs which was a combination of feudalistic and capitalistic system of production. However, the development was limited for the elite only, not for smallholder plantation. Another reason smallholder plantations were not developed in Java was because of the unavailability of land (Wasino, 2014: 135). According to the study Mustika Zed, cropping patterns of these commodities were not necessarily the same as rice, which should be planted in a fertile area. coffee and rubber can be planted in dry soil ground even




abandoned. In contrast to what happened, in Java, the farmers with the leading commodities, such as sugar cane, should be farmed in a very fertile soil and also used the colonial government land with the ground system apanage, a law stating that all the land belongs to the king. In that position, people are only the users, they are obliged to pay ½ or 1/3 results from their land and are required

to submit their labor-free basis or as forced labor. This land was given by the king to his relatives and employees who are called to “patuh”. an abiding duty is to supervise and mengola people in carrying out its obligations, called bekel (Mubyarto, 1993: 37). whereas in Palembang, coffee and rubber farmers can avoid the intervention of the western businessmen in conducting trade.

Table 3. Production of Public Rubber and Onderneming Rubber (1923-1930) Years

Public Ruberr (in scale in 1000 kg)

ONDERNEMI NG Ruberr in (in scale 1000 kg

Large Scale in Km (Per ha)

1921

58

-

-

1922

586

-

-

1923

3.200

-

1.680

1924

6.506

-

35

1925

11.951

242

534

1926

11.488

313

152

1927

15.687

498

447

1928

12.509

668

2.324

1929

15.687

718

902

1930

10.358

-

Total :6.376

J.W.J . Wellan, Zuid-Sumatra. Economisch Overzicht Van de Gewesten Djambi, Palembang, de Lampoengsche Distriction en Benkoelen. (Zed. 2003: 70) The role of the colonial government and western private companies was very big in an attempt to encourage local farmers to produce more profitable export crops. Besides, the facilities that had been created by the colonial government, such as the construction of access roads, facilitate trade networks locals although initially this road facilities created for the benefit of private estates. Because of this, many capitalists of bumiputera emerged taking advantage of this momentum and make the people's life in Uluan increased.

3.3 The Market Patern of Rubber and Coffee in Palembang There are wo factors accounted for rapid process of peasant export production. First, there was the improvement in transport and comunication opening up the the isolated regions which was followed by‘pacification’ of the Outer Island in the first decade of the twentieth century, the second factor was the pressence of foreign trading firm that could act as intermediaries between the peasent and the world Market (Maddison and Prince,1989:140). the example was like rubber and coffee trader in Palembang, the




market role was played by Dutch, Chinese and local trader. Rubber trade was control by private bank having capital. In this market structure, the traders did not export the rubber commodity themselves but it must be order from chinese trader or from singapore or even the colonial alliance. In this pattern of market, trust is very important as with order from Dutch company, the rubber trader having no capital could get loan from private bank. Almost all the rubber trade at the time was financed by banks through the credit system, of which there are Hong Ho, NederlandschIndische Maatschappij Escompto, Nederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank and Javasche branch of the Bank as the Bank circulation for commercial banks. These banks provide credit to the consignment system with a reserve requirement of export crops must be submitted to the bank and must be recognized by the chamber of commerce, then stored in the warehouse at the time the debt was repaid then the item would be returned. In addition, the borrower must be someone who was already well known and had a good reputation. those who had access to this credit includes Chinese, Arabic and the lowest class was the Palembang. In 1925, there were about nine large, indogenous merchant house in that city, in Bengkulu, where the coffe was the main commodity, the local trade and export to Batavia was also controlled by Palembang traders. Coffe was transported in small trucks, carts, sailing boats and prahu, the passenger cars and trucks in the region were owned mainly by indigenous people (Post,1996:3). Economic development, in Palembang, inseparable from factors river as the main transport lines. Prior to the development of land transportation, the river is the main access to reach the area Uluan. According to Arlan Ismail (2004: 1-2), Palembangnese Prefers mention Uluan than inland term. For him, the term inland in South Sumatra somewhat different than in Java. Community living outside the cities in Java, settled protrudes into the outside of the main highway called the outback. In addition, the term Java inland communities are often faced with the term coastal community located off

the coast. This means that the Java community orientation is the sea, with its main direction is the Java sea-north, so the South is inland. According to Arlan, the term "Inland" in South Sumatra is more synonymous with the naming of Suku Anak Dalam, or Kubu, live in the land where the commodity rubber and coffee is grown and can not be separated from the effects of the development of plantations owned by private Europe plantations in the early 20th century to the dynamics of life of the people. Circumstances on the scope of the agrarian problem on the island of Java felt would be interesting if we associate with the conditions in Palembang, also known as a trade city with a strong maritime culture. According A.B Lapian (2009: 1) Age Bahari means antiquity. In other words, in this case a maritime symbol of the meaning of 'Antiquities' or 'time immemorial'. It thus shows how closely with the 'ancient' so as if it is already considered synonymous. Therefore, history is a discipline that studies the nautical term (future Past) should also pay attention to the problem of maritime (maritime issues). According to Wolters (1979: 35) Musi river is the Reviews largest in Sumatra island located in Palembang, 90 km from downstrain near Breech (name of a place in South Sumatra) becomes very easy to accomplish, if earlier societies of Uluan have to travel to take many months to use boats, with their ground transportation is the distance it can shortened.Patterns of river line trade system has always been the mainstay with access from the rivers that flow from Uluan to Iliran namely Batanghari Sembilan river covering Nine major river draining the residency of Palembang namely Batang Hari River Leko, Ogan River, Komering river, Lematang river, Rawas river, Lakitan river , Kelingi river, Enim river, and Lintang rivers as a key channel of trade headed to the area of Uluan (Irwanto et,al.2010: 3). Coffee trade sistem was dominant compared to the rubber industry in singapore, coffe trade market in palembang taken over by “saudagar” Pelambang (Peeters,1997:132). some exporters in palembang are divide into there categories.




The first one is called firma. it has net in traditional market, but it dosent have net to export the commodity The second is the open exporter, they have thier own net in Pedalaman market, so they can guarented the cooffe suply .The third one is the exporters without organiastion, they must oreder the commodities themselves as well as the export process. The position of the commodity trading company colonial coffee is less favorable, due to the monopoly of these firms and the colonial enterprise depends only on the third joint venture bid. In Palembang, the production of and trade in coffe and rubber was dominated by indigenous merchant. From the market trading patterns, it is interesting to note what impact of the development of private plantations in Uluan Palembang can be raised on the economy of the local estates. As what has been already known previously, that the presence of private estates in Palembang was not harm even beneficial for the local population. How the changes brought to the living standard of the Uluan Palembang. soaring prices of rubber and coffee in the early 20th century was the starting point of the rise of capitalism of Bumiputera like what happened in Java, in .

this case the term oedjan mas of Uluan Palembang is not a mere phrase.

3.4.The

Change of Uluan Economical Aspect

People

In this situation, there was an impact that local farmers get, there was change in their financial. It can be seen from their purchasing power improvement towards export comodity, in this case, the increase number of car trade in uluan Palembang which was used for farming operational vehicle or private use. There were importation on bicycle and sewing machine in a large number. Moreover, in that time, moslems, in a great number of group, went to makkah to go hajj. This happened as an impact in the increase of trader’s profit gained from the coffee and rubber sale. In describing the changes in the first three decades of the 20th century, according to the theory of Boeke which refers to the transition of infrastructure locally on the boat trade to the boat load, and of chariots and horses to cars and trains, this is in accordance with what is experienced by Palembang Uluan society in a period of "Boom." (Lindblad, 2002: 301).

Table 4. Data of pilgrims who departed in the period Boom "oedjan mas" Years

Number of people Went to Makkah

in

Number of people Back To Indonesia

Gap*

1906

293

151

242

1907

433

257

176

1908

335

331

4

1909

531

230

301

1910

836

348

488

1911

1.363

616

747

1912

1.339

901

438

1913

2.534

960

574

1914

2.831

-

-

1924

114

-

-




1925

713

-

-

1926

6.921

-

-

1927

3.770

-

-

1928

2.283

-

-

1929

2.180

-

-

Reference: Take From 1906-1913 MvO . Resident C. Van de Verlde 1914, Hal 76. periode Tahun 1924-1930 dari J.W.J . Wellan, Zuid-Sumatra. Economisch Overzicht Van de Gewesten Djami, Palembang, de Lampoengsche Distriction en Benkoelen (Zed. 2003: 113). If it is viewed from the other phenomenon happened, the Uluan people’s successful plantation triggered the increase in car imports which occurred at intervals of 1925's. (Vickers, 2001: 82). At that time, the phenomenon itself was referred to as "oedjan mas", the impact of skyrocketing commodity prices of rubber in the market which makes the smallholders getting rich quickly. The

living standards of those who was just a farmer now became traders, of course, purchasing the car aimed to the reason of mobility. Paths water transportation has been the belle of becoming obsolete due to the development of land transportation and represents a smart alternative given that the distance between the center of town in the area Iliran or mouth of the Musi river.

Table 5. Imported Comodity The Impact of Societal Properity Growth in “Boom” Period Years

Imported Comodity

Total Number

1922-1928

Car

1.392

1910-1929

Bicycle

19.000

1913-1920

Swing Machine

17.000

Reference: Purwanto, B, Ekonomi Karet Rakyat Indonesia Tahun 1890-1940, (Lindblad, 2002: 219) The impact of the increasing prosperity of the community in Uluan rubber was farmers are able to be free from forced labor, whereas they had an obligation to work for the colonial authority, but they chose to only pay in order to avoid corvee work. As a result, the colonial government had difficulty in getting forced labor of the rubberproducing areas and then eventually encouraged labor migration from Java. In that time, any rubber farmers, even for small-scale farmers, can afford to pay income and the individual tax so that the colonial government was always able to reach the income targetted

every year. The impact was felt not only by the local small farmers but also by the migrants who become traders in Uluan Palembang, even the colonial official also get a high salary, new home and fancy offices. The view of Geertz about the economy, given that Sumatra is Wingesten or a paradise for capitalists, seemed to be the same as with what he had predicted that in the two decades the local residents will meet western capitalism that makes local people turned into traders terrific, things that can never be obtained by farmers in Java which has more a century of toil just to survive (Zed,




2003: 90). The pattern of life of farmers in Java were still in the order of subsistencebased economic behavior, economic behavior typical of family-oriented farmers a unit of consumption and production. In order to survive as a single unit, the family must meet subsistence needs as a consumer that can be said can not be reduced again and depending on the size of the family. For those who live near the borders of subsistence as a result of a failure is such a way that they prioritize what is considered safe and reliable than the advantages to be gained in the long run (James, 1983: 1). if seen in the smaller context, we can see the reality of tobacco plantation in deli, in Jan Breman article, which tells the suffering of local residents who exploited and suffer losses materially and psychologically. The fact in Palembang was different from what was experienced by people both in Java and Deli. there, not only the European capitalists who benefit from the development of the rubber industry but also good luck experienced by local residents in Uluan Palembang. Boeke concept of economic dualism was really happening in Palembang. The main factor of increasing on people's economy in Palembang was the response from local farmers to the challenges that arise from the outside world, especially foreign markets. Uluan democratic economy in Palembang at that time not only go hand in hand with the colonial economy but also compete and even surpass it. This was the evidence that traditional capitalism already existed and developed at that time, the concept of traditional capitalism was how the local residents not just be a worker or workers in

sectors of the global economy but also played a role in capital investment even control the trade and also compete with Western capitalism. the most interesting about this was it happened outside the island of Java which was the center of the colonial economy. 4. onclusion The concept of capitalism which was implemented in Uluan Palembang was about how they can build their own economic system and change their standard of living shown by the change of economcical status gained from the comodity trade of their own in colonialism period, it was distintive compared to condition in Java, where colonial plantation disturbed the local plantation. The thing that we can learn from this case is about how the local farmers can independently develop their planation in capitalism system, even the plantation they build can compete the demand of the world. The needs of capitalism in people’s life in Indonesia , today, is very important especially for rubber and coffee farmers in Uluan Palembang. in capitalism there is a value of competitiveness which is profitable for farmers to have if they want to compete in the global rivalry that cannot be avoided. In realizin the idea, governments take an important part in supporting the proccess by giving trainings and counseling to the farmers to develop their knowledge and expertise in agriculture. When all the elements has been fulfilled the standard of living can change, so, in the future, Indonesia will be a productive country with qualited export comodities.

REFERENCES Breman. J. 1997.Menjinakan Sang Kuli : Politik Kolonial, Tuan Kebun, dan Kuli di Sumatera Timur pada awal abad ke-20. Jakarta. Pustaka Utama Grafiti. Colombjin. F (2005). A Moving History of Middle of Sumatera : 1600-1870. Jurnal Modern Asian Studies, Vol 39, No 1 (Feb., 2005)] Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 433



Dedi.Murni.Supriyanto.2010.Iliran dan Uluan : Dikotomi dan Dinamika dalam Sejarah Kultural Palembang Geertz, C. 1974. Involusi Pertanian: Proses perubaha dan ekologi di Indonesia. University Of California Press. Lapian A.B (2009) Orang Laut, Bajak Laut, Raja Laut. Sejarah Kawasan Laut Sulawesi Abad XIX.Depok. Komunitas Bambu Zed, M. 2002. Ekonomi Dualistik Palembang Pada periode Kolonial Akhir (Ed) in Lindblad, T, Fondasi Ekonomi Historis Indonesia (pp.294-312). Yogyakarta Pustaka Pelajar. Wie,K.T. 1989. The Development of Sumatra 1820-1940. In Maddison,A And Prince,G (Ed) Economic Growth in Indonesia.1820-1940 . Foris Publications Holland. Mubyarto.(1993). Tanah dan Tenaga kerja perkebunan.Yogyakarta.Aditya Media Mubyarto, Dewanta,S.A. 1991. Karet: Kajian Sosial dan Ekonomi. Yogyakarta: Aditya Media. O.W Walters. A Note on Sungsang Village at the Estuary of the Musi River in Southeastern Sumatra- A Reconsideration of the Historical Geography of the Palembang Region, in Indonesia No 27 (Apr.,1979) Peeters, J. 1997.Kaum Tuo-Kaum Mudo : perubahan Religius Di Palembang 1821-1842. Jakarta INIS Post P. The formation of teh Pribumi Business elite in Indonesia,1930-1940.in Bijdragen tot de Taal-, land-en Volkenkunde, Japan, Indonesia, WarMyths adn realities 152 (1996), No 4, Leiden ,609-693. Priyadi, S. 2012. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Sejarah. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak. Scott.J. (1983). Moral Ekonomi Petani.Jakarta.LP3ES. Kartodirjo, S. 1993.Pendekatan Ilmu Sosial Dalam Metodologi Sejarah. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Pustaka Umum. Siswoputranto.1981. Perkembangan Karet Internasional. Lembaga Penunjang Internasional. Vickers, A. 2001. Sejarah Indonesia Modern.Yogyakarta: Insan Madani. Wasino. 2008. Berjuang Menjadi Wirausahawan : Sejarah Kehidupan Kapitalis Bumi Putra Indonesia.Semarang.: Universitas Semarang Press. Wasino. 2014. Modernisasi di Jantung Budaya Jawa : Mangkunegaran 1896-1944 Jakarta,Kompas Media Nusantara.




The Effectiveness of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP) in Tackling the Indonesia’s Forest Fires 2015 Rizki Rahmadini Nurika, MA1, Septian Nur Yekti, MA2 1 Lecturer in the Department of International Relations Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel, Jl. Jend A. Yani no. 117 Surabaya ([email protected]) 2 Lecturer in the Department of International Relations University of Muhammadiyah Malang, Jl. Raya Tlogomas No. 246, Malang, East Java ([email protected])

Abstract: All of the ASEAN countries have already ratified the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP). The AATHP is the agreement between the ASEAN countries which aims to tackle the transboundary haze pollution. It was executed in June 2002 in response to the growing haze issue in the region. The haze treaty prescribed a measure designed to strengthen individual state commitment and enhance cooperation among parties in the fight against haze pollution. However, the transboundary haze pollution still occurred in the region. In 2015, several months after Indonesia ratified the AATHP, forest fires occurred in Indonesia which has affected the neighboring ASEAN countries like Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. This occurrence raises the question for why the transboundary haze pollution still occurred despite of the fully ratification of the AATHP. This paper attempts to assess the effectiveness of the AATHP related to the Indonesia’s forest fires case in 2015. The effectiveness of regime is measured by the unanimity and the degree of the rules and regulations power. Environmental issue is the third important issues in International Relations after security and economic issue. Its urgency refers to the “tragedy of commons” metaphor which means that environmental problem in one certain region will affect all the region or human being. Key Words:ASEAN, AATHP, environment, transboundary haze pollution.

INTRODUCTION

E

nvironmental issues are the one of the significant issues in International Relations Studies. Its importance is in the third place after security issues and economic politic issues. Environmental problem can not be separated from international politics. So far, various regimes, agreements, and negotiation are were established internationally to deal with environmental problems. It is known that environmental problems increase by the

increasing the industrialization and development. That is why politics among nations clearly influence the attempt to tackle environmental problems. It include the battle between actors who win and loose in the regime of environmental protection. One important environmental problems was Indonesia’s forest fire. It happened many times since 1980’s. The case is considered serious since the haze resulted from the forest fire affected neighbouring countries, such as Malaysia and Singapore. Perceiving this case,




ASEAN countries created agreement to tackle the disaster called ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP). It contains regulations and points to end the disaster. Firstly, severa countries did not ratify the agreement. In 2015, Indonesia as the country where the forest fire happened finaly ratify the agreement and becomes the last ASEAN countries ratify the agreement. However, despite of full ratification of the agreement, forest fire still happened. This paper try to asses the effectiveness of AATHP in tackling forest fire which gave very badimpact to ASEAN countries.

METODH This paper is qualitative paper. The data used in this paper are taken from literatures and publications. In analysing the case, this paper uses the indicator of regime effectiveness concept mentioned byGareth porter and Janet Welsh Brown. The concept said that the indicator of regime effectiveness are the unanimity and the stength the regime rules the members. Besides, this paper also uses the regime effectiveness concept mentioned by Edward Miles that indicate the level of cooperation of the regime’s member, politic, behavioral change, level of compliance of the members, and the level difficulty of the problem as the determining factors of regime effectiveness. Further detail explanation of the concept is witten in the discussion part of this paper.

DISCUSSION 1. The ASEAN Transboundary (AATHP)

Agreement on Haze Pollution

recurring problem since the 1980s.70 Haze is smoke that originates from peat and forest fires, mostly in Indonesia, and becomes transboundary when it travels across national boundaries. Transboundary haze has arisen due mainly to the cumulative effect of slash and burn and/or other types of moderate to large-scale burning to clear land for growing agricultural crops like corn and plantation trees such as pulp wood, rubber, or oil palm, and all of this often occurring concurrently. Some of the plots are held by small holder farmers while a good proportion belongs to large plantation owners. ASEAN had recognized this emerging issue for more than two decades and started to formally address the problem in 1995 with the establishment of the Haze Technical Task Force under the ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment – the ASEAN committee designed to help tackle this regional issue.71 The problem attracted regional and worldwide attention with the occurrence of severe fire and haze cases in 1997 and 1998. Hence, in 1997, the Myanmar Foreign Minister who chaired Environmental Affairs in ASEAN at the time suggested that haze mitigation efforts should be carried out at the ASEAN level due to its transboundary nature, its extreme impact to society, and its close relation to natural resource management in the region.72 This prompted ASEAN to intensify cooperation efforts to deal with this serious environmental menace. Mechanisms were put in place including a Regional Haze Action Plan along with institutional setups to prevent, monitor, and mitigate fires and haze, especially the potential adverse transboundary impacts on neighboring countries.

J. Mayer. “Transboundary Perspectives on Managing Indonesia’s Fires”, in The Journal of Environment & Development, 15 (2), 2006, 202-233. 71 Apichai Sunchindah. “Transboundary Haze Pollution Problem in Southeast Asia: Reframing ASEAN’s Response”, in ERIA Discussion Paper Series, 82, 2015. 72 Helena Varkkey. 2013. Regional Cooperation, Patronage, and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Polution. [Online]. Available at 69 L. Elliott. “ASEAN and Environmental Cooperation: https://www.academia.edu/3611683/Regional_cooperati Norms, Interests and Identity”, in The Pacific Review, on_patronage_and_the_ASEAN_Agreement_on_transb 16(1), 2003, 29-52. oundary_haze_pollution (Accessed at 25 April 2016). Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 70

Transboundary haze is the Southeast Asian region’s first and most publiclyidentifiable regional environmental crisis.69 This regional haze has been an annual

436



Several major initiatives were developed and implemented. One of these significant endeavors was the formulation of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATHP) which was eventually signed by all ASEAN member states in June 2002 and came into force with ratification by a total of six member countries in November 2003, namely, Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Indonesia became the 10th ASEAN country which deposited its instruments of ratification for this agreement in January 2015, thus completing the legal process of fully enacting this only piece of ASEAN legislation pertaining to the environmental sector. The objective of the AATHP is to prevent and monitor transboundary haze pollution as a result of land and/or forest fires which should be mitigated, through concerted national efforts and intensified regional and international cooperation. According to the agreement, in pursuing the objective, the Parties are obliged to:  Cooperate in developing and implementing measures to prevent and monitor transboundary haze pollution as a result of land and/or forest fires which should be mitigated, and to control sources of fires, including by the identification of fires, development of monitoring, assessment and early warning systems, exchange of information and technology, and the provision of mutual assistance.  When the transboundary haze pollution originates from within their territories, respond promptly to a request for relevant information or consultations sought by a State of States that are or may be affected by such transboundary haze pollution, with a view to minimizing the consequences of the transboundary haze pollution.  Take legislative, administrative and/or other measures to implement their obligations under the agreement. Among the institutional provisions of the AATHP is the convening of the Conference of Parties (COP) and the establishment of a Secretariat (whose

functions are to be performed by the ASEAN Secretariat) to support the servicing of the COP and other relevant activities in connection with the implementation of the agreement. It also includes the creation of the ASEAN Coordinating Centre for the Transboundary Haze Pollution Control, to which the agreement asserts that:  The ASEAN Coordinating Centre for Transboundary Haze Pollution Control, herein after referred to as “the ASEAN Centre”, is hereby established for the purposes of facilitating cooperation and coordination among the Parties in managing the impact of land and/or forest fires in particular haze pollution arising from such fires.  The ASEAN Centre shall work on the basis that the national authority will act first to put out the fires. When the national authority declares an emergency situation, it may make a request to the ASEAN Centre to provide assistance.  A Committee composed of representatives of the national authorities of the Parties shall oversee the operation of the ASEAN Centre.  The ASEAN Centre shall carry out the functions as set out in agreement and any other functions as directed by the COP. 2. Indonesia’s Ratification on the AATHP Indonesia becomes the last ASEAN country who ratifies the AATHP. Indonesia, a freewheeling democracy since the fall of strongman Suharto in 1998, has blamed its parliament for the long delay. The government had sought legislator’s approval to ratify the AATHP but the proposal was rejected in 2008. The agreement had been resubmitted to the current legislature, although no timeline for ratification was given. Environmental group Greenpeace International, however, said that Indonesia was reluctant to ratify the treaty because it would affect the expansion plans of palm oil




companies in the country.73 It was based on the fact that Indonesia is the world’s top producer of palm oil, which is used for many everyday items such as soap and biscuits. Some of the world’s most biodiverse rainforests cover vast areas of Sumatra and other parts of the sprawling Indonesian archipelago. The motivation behind the Indonesian move to finally ratify the AATHP seems to be twofold, evincing the country’s desire to both strengthen its international profile and react to the increased international attention after the record-high levels of haze pollution in 2013.74 Ultimately, Indonesia took the opportunity to bring to an end what had been a contentious issue for a long time and had caused diplomatic disturbances at almost every regional meeting on forest fires and haze pollution. There was no important reason for the Indonesian parliament not to ratify the agreement, and non-ratification would only have continued to complicate Indonesia’s diplomacy efforts within ASEAN. It was in Indonesia’s best interest to become a party to the AATHP to ultimately boost its bargaining position in order to better pursue its interests in the region. Another reason for Indonesia’s ratification is that Indonesia has technically complied with most of the requirements of the AATHP. Ultimately, the prospect of putting the controversy to rest seems to have outweighed potential disadvantage. 3. Indonesia’s Forest Fires 2015 Environmental issue is the third important issues in International Relations after security and economic issue. Its urgency refers to the “tragedy of commons” metaphor which means that environmental problem in one certain region will affect all the region or 73

human being. Environmental threat caused by certain actor in certain place inevitably will affect other places and the consequences will be beared by others that probably do not contribute in creating the cause. The tragedy of common hit a part of south east Asia region in the end of 2015. Forest fire in several parts of Indonesia caused hazardous haze pollution not only in Indonesia, but also in the neighboring countries. Forest fires affected the length and breadth of Indonesia in 2015. Among the worst hit areas are southern Kalimantan (Borneo) and western Sumatra. The fires had been raging since July, with efforts to extinguish them hampered by seasonal dry conditions exacerbated by the El Nino effect. As well as Indonesia, the acrid haze from the fires is engulfing neighbouring Malaysia and Singapore and has reached as far as southern Thailand.75 The most obvious damage is to the forest where the fires are occurring. Indonesia’s tropical forests represent some of the most diverse habitats on the planet. The current fire outbreak adds to decades of existing deforestation by palm oil, timber and other agribusiness operators, further imperilling endangered species such as the orangutan. The human cost is stark,19 people have died and an estimated 500,000 cases of respiratory tract infections have been reported since the start of the fires. It’s estimated that the fires could cause more than 100,000 premature deaths in the region.Financial damage to the region’s economy is still being counted, but the Indonesian government’s own estimates suggest it could be as high as $47bn, a huge blow to the country’s economy. A World Bank study on forest fires last year in Riau province estimated that they caused $935m of losses relating to lost agricultural productivity and trade.76 Refer CIFOR,

Anon. 2013. ASEAN Urges Indonesia to Ratify Haze Pact. [Online]. Available at http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/06/30/asean75The Guardian, Indonesia’s Fires Labelled A urges-indonesia-to-ratify-haze-pact.html (Accessed at 25 April 2016). Crime Against Humanity As 500,000 Suffer, Monday 26 74 Daniel Heilmann. “After Indonesia’s Ratification: The October 2015, Taken From ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution Http://Www.Theguardian.Com/World/2015/Oct/26/Indo and Its Effectiveness As a Regional Environmental nesia-Fires-Crime-Against-Humanity-Hundreds -OfGovernance Tool”, in Journal of Current Southeast Thousands-Suffer Accessed On May 9th 2015 76ibid Asian Affairs, 34, 3, 2015. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 438



transboundary haze pollution led to cost of ASEAN countries about US$ 10 billion.77 Forest fires have become a seasonal phenomenon in Indonesia. At the root of the problem is the practice of forest clearance known as slash and burn, where land is set on fire as a cheaper way to clear it for new planting. Peat soil, which characterizes much of the affected areas, is highly flammable, causing localized fires to spread and making them difficult to stop.Environmental group WWF Indonesia, which has been highlighting the problem of Indonesia’s recurrent fires for years, says that the fires are caused by the “collective negligence” of companies, smallholders and government (which isn’t investing sufficiently in preventative measures).78 Many blame big business. According to a recent analysis of World Resources Institute data in September, more than one third (37%) of the fires in Sumatra are occurring on pulpwood concessions. A good proportion of the rest are on or near land used by palm oil producers. Many of these fires are a direct result of the industrial manipulation of the landscape for plantation development. In September, the Indonesian police arrested seven executives in connection with the fires, including a senior executive from Bumi Mekar Hijau (BMH), which supplied Jakarta-based paper giant Asia Pulp and Paper (APP).Others look away from the big corporations for blame. According to Henry Purnomo, professor at Indonesia’s Bogor Agricultural University and a scientist at research group CIFOR, there are two culprits: poor small-scale farmers looking to expand their farmland, and rogue operators intent on illegally clearing forests for land acquisition. Ending the practice of slash and burn is vital. Companies – big and small - must be held to account, before the law and the market, if found culpable.79 Smallholders need assistance and incentives to pursue alternative, less harmful practices of forest management. Forestdwelling communities often lack the skills and 77ibid 78ibid 79ibid

training, according to a recent CIFOR report. Meanwhile processors and buyers often fail to pay smallholders a fair price, something the signatories to the Sustainable Palm Oil Manifesto (which claims to go beyond RSPO certification standards) have pledged to correct.Many big firms, such as palm producer Wilmar and timber giant APP, have signed zero-deforestation pledges in recent years. But the real test comes in pushing their commitments beyond the boundary fences of their plantations and down into their supply chains, where smaller firms operate with less public scrutiny. The vast economic and environmental crisis is repeated year after year, as a few hundred businesses and a few thousand farmers seek to profit from land and plantation speculation practices, while tens of millions of Indonesians suffer health costs and economic disruptions.80 4. Responses to the Indonesia’s Forest Fires 2015 4.1 Measures Taken by Indonesia Formerly, Indonesia decided to tackle its forest fires by its own means. It was declared as a national disaster, so Indonesia deployed its all national resources to extinguish the forest fires and rejected offers of assistance from foreign countries.81 Malaysia and Singapore, as the neighboring countries of Indonesia who suffered from Indonesia’s forest fires, offered much assistance to Indonesia but they were also rejected. But latter, Indonesia accepted any offered assistance from foreign countries after many parties criticized and pressured Indonesia to tackle its forest fires under the diplomatic relations across the region.82

80BBC,

“Indonesia Fores Fire Cost $15.7 bn” (Online). Available at http://www.bbc.com/news/business351109393 (Accessed at 26 April 2016) 81 Samantha. 2015. The Fires in Indonesia are A Health and Climate Nightmare. [Online]. Available at http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2015/10/09/3711029/ind onesia-fire-problem/ (Accessed at 25 April 2015). 82 Avantika Chilkot. 2015. Indonesia under Pressure to Combat Forest Fire Pollution. [Online]. Available at http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f8c5b92c-6816-11e597d0-1456a776a4f5.html#axzz46qoFpFiI (Accessed at 25April 2016). Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 439



In tackling its forest fires, Indonesia preferred to use bilateral framework rather than the AATHP. Although the forest fires had become transboundary because it affected the region, Indonesia still did not want to use the AATHP to tackle its forest fires. According to the Director of ASEAN Functional Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the reason why the government does not want use the AATHP is because the mechanism of the AATHP is too complicated.83 According to the agreement, to ask for assistance from other ASEAN member states, Indonesia has to make a request and wait for its approval from other ASEAN member states. Waiting for the approval takes a long time because the mechanism of ASEAN should be a consensus. If there is a request, all the ASEAN member states should be noticed and then sitting together in order to take a decision. Considering this complicated mechanism of the AATHP, the Indonesian government tended to prefer bilateral cooperation which makes it easier for foreign countries to provide assistance.

haze-related issues, in particular actions taken under the AATHP, and discussed new initiatives to further promote regional cooperation in addressing transboundary haze pollution. Although it was held during the Indonesia’s forest fires, the meeting did not exclusively, but generally, discussed about it. The parties expressed concern over the unprecedented severity and geographical spread of the recent some haze affecting various ASEAN countries but they could not take further actions to tackle the forest fires because Indonesia did not make a request to the ASEAN Centre. They only expressed sympathy to the millions of people affected by the haze. They also noted and appreciated the collaborative efforts undertaken by Indonesia, the neighboring ASEAN countries, and the international to address the forest fires and the associated smoke haze. And to reaffirm the commitment to the objectives and principles of the AATHP, they suggested for Indonesia to explore using the ASEAN Centre to ensure efficient and quick response towards fire suppression.84

4.2. Measures Taken by Other Parties of the AATHP

5. Analysis: The Effectiveness of AATHP

The role of other ASEAN member states in tackling the Indonesia’s forest fires under the AATHP was limited regarding that Indonesia did not make a request to the ASEAN Centre to provide assistance. Assistance could only be provided by other ASEAN member states through bilateral framework as mentioned above. However, a meeting was held during the Indonesia’s forest fires. The 11th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution was held in October 2015 in Vietnam. Regional cooperation was reviewed on a number of

On the stages of regime formation there are possibilities that defines whether the regime will be effective or not. Gareth porter and Janet Welsh Brown clasified regime formation into four stages or processes.85 Regime formation starts with the process of issue definition where certain issue is raised into international attention. On this stage, actors concerning and having interest in the issue will show the urgency of the issue to be negotiated in the international forum and the urgency of regime formation to cope the problem. There are several activities on this stage such as identifies the scope and magnitude of the environmental threat, its primary cause, and the type of international action required to address the issue. The actor

83

84 Anon. 2015. Land-use Fires and Smoke Pollution in Hanna Azarya Samosir. 2015. ASEAN Punya Kesepakatan soal Asap, Apakah Berfungsi? [Online]. Indonesia. [Online]. Available at http://www.fire.uniAvailable at freiburg.de/GFMCnew/2015/11/20151019_id.htm http://www.cnnindonesia.com/internasional/2015100913 (Accessed at 25 April 2016) 85Gareth Porter and Janet Welsh Brown,”Global 5736-106-83942/asean-punya-kesepakatan-soal-asapapakah-berfungsi/ (Accessed at 25 April 2016). Environmental Politics”, Westview Press, 1996 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University

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raising the issue usually states that affected mostly by the threat of environmental problem, international organization member states, or NGO concerning to the issue. Next stage is fact finding process. On this stage, mediating international organization brings interested parties together to establish a baseline of fact on which there is agreement and to clarify the scope and nature of differences in understanding the problem and possible policy options for international action. No mediated process of fact finding and concencus building, the fact may be openly challenged by states opposing international action. After parties meet, next stage is bargaining process. On this stage, parties establish the scope and seriouseness of the problem. They also try to spell out policy options. Here, lead state may begin to advance a proposal for international action and try to build concencus behind it. International clevages and coalition begin to form. The outcome depends on the bargaining leverage and cohesion of the veto coalition – group of states who can block international regime – their cooperation is necessary for its effectiveness. The member of veto coalition prevent the creation of an international regime by refusing to participate on it or by insisting on a regime that has no teeth. One or more key members of the veto coalition usually either concedes major points to make progress possible or defects from the veto coalition to make regime creation and regime strenghtening possible. In other cases, a regime may actually be created without the consent of key members of the veto coalition. Thus it remains a partial and becomes inefective regime. From the bargaining process there are two possibilities of regime created, effetive and inefective regime. The stage continues to the regime strenghtening. When the regime is considerably effetive, this stage keep the situation stable. On the other hand, when the regime is ineffective, the process continue to streghten the regime then make it effective like indicators mentioned on the bargaining process that the effectiveness regime is

determined by the unanimity and the power of the regulation. Regime strenghtening process includes further bargaining that reflects shifts in the understanding of the environmental problem as well as in the domestic politics of some of the parties. Strengthening may take place outside the global multilateral agreement, through a separate agreement committing some of the parties to go further than the existing agreement in environmental and resource conservation. In the case of transboundary haze in South East Asia, regime regulating the problem is AATHP. This paper analyses the effectiveness of this regime in coping the problem. Refer to the above explanation, this paper uses indicator of unanimity and the degree of rules and regulation power in AATHP that will be elaborated below.

5.1. Unanimity Previousely, in the book “Global Environmental Politics”, Gareth Porter and Janet Welsh Brown stated that the regime can only be formed when it fulfill the requirement of unanimity. It means that if there is a single member negotiation party still raises veto the regime formation, the regime can not be created yet.86 However, further, in the chapter of regime formation stages, they state that regime still can be formed without unanimity. This condition will create the ineffective regime. Refering to this explanation, the effectiveness of the regime can be measured by the indicator of unanimity. In the case of AATHP, we can take a look of the process of ratification of the regime. After the draft formulated, the signing of the parties indicated that the rules, norms, and regulation stated in the regime are agreed by the parties. However, to make the regulation in the regime to be implemented in the national regulation, it need the requirement of ratification of the parties. Only after ratify the regime, state has the obligation

86

ibid




to implement the norms and regulation in the regime to national constitution.87 The haze treaty is a regional environmental treaty that obliges states party to prevent and mitigate haze pollution through concerted national efforts and intensified regional and international cooperation. Executed in June 2002, in response to the growing haze issue in the region, the Haze Treaty prescribed a slow measures designed to strenghten individual state commitments and enhance cooperation amongst parties in the fight against haze pollution. This agreement came into force with ratification by a total of six member countries in November 2003, namely, Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Indonesia became the 10th ASEAN country which deposited its instruments of ratification for this agreement in January 2015, thus completing the legal process of fully enacting this only piece of ASEAN legislation pertaining to the environmental sector. Based on this condition, first indicator to measure the effectiveness of AATHP, the unanimity is fulfilled. All member states of ASEAN already ratify the treaty which consequently implement the regulation to their national constitution to prefent forest fire that causes transboundary haze. After the unanimity requirement fulfilled, the assessment will continue to the degree of the power the treaty implemented.

5.2. Degree of Rules and Regulations Power Departing from AATHP treaty, this paper will analyze the power of the regime toward its member countries. From the articles of AATHP, there are fundamental principles in managing cooperation to deal with transboundary haze issue: 1. take measure to prevent and control activities that may lead to transboundary haze pollution, including implementing education and awareness building

2.

3.

4.

5.

campaigns alongside legislative and other regulatory measures, take appropriate steps to monitor (i) areas prone to the occurence of land and/or forest fires, (ii) environmental conditions coducive to such fires and (iii) any resulting haze pollution, and to designate a National Monitoring Centre for such purposes ensures that appropriate legislative, administrative and financial measues are taken to mobilisize resources necessary to respond and mitigate the impact of haze pollution facilitate the exchange of experience and relevant information among enforcement authorities or the signatory states, in particular to respond promptly to request for relevant information sought by a state or states that are or may be affected by transboundary haze pollution, promote and support scientifict and technical research programmes related to the causes and consequences of transboundary haze pollution.

Question emerged then after fully ratified, fires fire lead to the transboundary haze still happened. Based on the assessment tool of the power of the regime to manage the problem, we can look at how the regime enforce the regulation toward the members. The Haze Treaty contains no enforcement provisions and prescribes no specific sanctions against a country that has failed to comply with its obligations thereunder (which in any event allow significant discretion as to the measures which should be taken at the domestic level). Instead, Article 27 of the Haze Treaty simply states that any dispute relating to noncompliance with the Haze Treaty or any protocol thereto shall be settled amicably by consultation or negotiation. Consistent with establishment ASEAN practice, this means that inter-State enforcement of the Haze Treaty remains a matter of diplomacy, with no route for direct legal redress.

Andreas Pramudianto, “Hukum Perjanjian Lingkungan Internasional”, Setara Press, 2014 87




Despite of the lack of strickness of the regulaton, Indonesia as the state annually hit by the forest fire disaster already took some steps related to it. In 2009, Law Number 23 of 2009 on Environmental Protection and Management was enacted in Indonesia imposing a maximum fine 10 billion (approximately US$800,000) and up to ten years in prison for individuals or corporations engaging in land burning activities. This has led to a number of successful prosecutions in the past two years. More recently, the Indonesian government has introduced the Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil scheme, which bans the use of fire in plantation development, and will be mandatory for all palm oil companies in Indonesia by end 2014. Indonesia ratification of the Haze treaty has other potential implications. It may asist other ASEAN member states to take action against corporation responsible for contributing to the haze pollution. At present, national enforcement efforts against large palm oil producers that participate in or allow the clearing of land by slash and burn farming practices in Indonesia are stymied by the inability of neighboring states to obtain necessary evidence on the ground. This has led countries such as Singapore to pass its Transboundary Haze Pollution Bill. The new legislation seek to make Singaporean companies accountable for the acts of their subsidiaries in Indonesia, and relies on certai presumption to establish a casual nexus between the company’s activities in Indonesia, and pollution in Singapore. Assuming Indonesia’s ratification leads to greater exchange of technical information and data, such cooperation may empower member states to take more decisive action at a national level. Already, Indonesian lawmakers have gone on record to express their support for the Singaporean Haze Bill, which shoud translate to more robust collaboration between Indonesia and the rest of ASEAN. Another measurement related to the effectiveness of the regulation. In the case of forest fire 2015, Indonesia rather to take billateral cooperation in dealing with the disaster than cooperate under AATHP

mechanism. This way was chosen as the machanism under AATHP is more complicated that billateral cooperation. AATHP requires the assistance and aid have to be given in the acknoledge of all member countries. This mechanism was considered more complicated in handling forest fire. Another ineffectiveness can be seen in the meeting held by the parties in October 2015. Desite of the great transboudary haze disaster in Indonesia that affect neighbouring countries, the meeting did not talk about the specific treatment to cope the problem in Indonesia but talked about transboundary haze problem in general. From this condition, effectiveness can be assess by the function of regime to change the nature of environment and avoid the environmental threat.88 Related to the Indonesian role after ratifying AATHP, Indonesia Ministry of Environment and Forestry clasifies contribution undertaken by Indonesia to control land anf forest fire led to transboundary haze into four fields: 1. strengtening national regulation and policy related to the case 2. utilization resources in ASEAN countries 3. strenghtening management and tecnical skill in controlling land and forest fire causing transboundary haze pollution In the point of national regulation, Indonesia has already have supporting regulation: 1. regulation number 41, 1999 forestry 2. regulation number 18, 2004 plantation 3. regulation number 31, 2009 meterology, climatology, geophysic 4. regulation number 32, 2009 protection and management

about about about and about

In the point of tecnical implementation based on the rules of AATHP, Indonesian government have done serries of preventive and tackling of land and forest fire:

Edward L. Miles, et al, “Environmental Regime Effectiveness” MIT press, London: 2001 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 88

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1. socializing AATHP and increasing capacity massively and sustainably to the related ministries and departments, enterpreneurs, societies, NGOs, and regional government reluctant to the land and forest dissaster 2. realizing good coordiation between ministries or departments, regional governments and societies based on the Indonesia Comprehensive Plan of Action on Transboundary Haze Pollution such as: a. mapping the field and forest fire reluctant region b. strenghtening data and informatin related to hot-spot, haze spread, mapping burnt region, fire danger rating system (FDRS), development of SOP in preventing and tackling field and forest fire, and managing peat field. c. Strenghtening and increasin capacity of society care to fire

whis is done by socialization, early preventive activities, and training. d. Coordinated tackling haze disaster in the framework of dissaster awareness by preparing fire fighter troops, weather modification operation, etc. 3. Law enforcement to the actors (individual and corporation) who burn field and forest and the transboundary haze pollutionlead to the environmental damage. 4. Strenghtening institution and regulation supporting policy for zero burning policy and preventing and tackling field and forest fire and transboundary haze pollution. To further assesses in more detail, this paper uses the formula of regime effectiveness below:

The effectiveness of a particular regime (Er) can be seen as a function in the stringency and inclusiveness of a particular regime (Sr), the level of compliance on the part of its members (Cr), and the side effects it generates (Br) Er = f(SrCr) + Br Analytically, we treat output, outcome, and impact as three distinctive steps in a casual chain of events, where one serves as a strarting point for analyzing the subsequent stage(s) showed in the figure below: Object: impact (regime formation) Time: effect, and to changes in agreement is signed

Output

outcome

(regime implementation)

Nature responds

Level 1: The international

Measures are in

target groups adjust

human behavior

Level 2: Domestic measures are taken We distinguish between the stages of regime formation (the end product of which is a new set of rules and regulations-that is output) and that of regime implementation (the first product of which is behavioral change – otcome), leading if the diagnosis is

correct – to some change in the state of the biophysical environment (impact) further down the road. At the output stage, a regime can be assessed on the basis of criteria such as the stringency of its rules and regulations, the extent to which the system of activities




targeted is in fact brought under its jurisdiction or domain (its inclusiveness), and the level of collaboration established. According to the data above, the level of the stringency (Sr) is not quite powerful since the article of 27 AATHP as mentioned before states that the non-compliace of the regime regulation will not lead to the punishment but negotiation and diplomacy. Further, the level of the compliance (Cr) can be assess through several cases. As mentioned before, Indonesia prefers to take bilateral cooperation in tackling forest fire with other ASEAN member states than using cooperation under AATHP mechanism. The mechanism is considered take long time and complicated procedure. However, AATHP mechanism gives more comprehensive problem solving than billateral cooperation. In this case,the non compliance of the member states emerge, considered as non effective factor in of regime to tackle the problem. In other cases, compliances show up in the way member states adopt the principals to their national regulations and efforts. It can be seen in the related regulations in Indonesia as the states where the land and forest fire emerged as mentioned above along with the effort this country does. Besides, the compliance indicator can also be seen in the way Singapore give punishment to the companies originated in this country which break the environmental rules stated in AATHP in their operational in Indonesia. In these cases, the level of compliance is well achieved. The last point is the effect toward the environment (Er). Despite of the assessment in the previous indicators, the effect toward the nature and environment after AATHP is not satifying. Indonesia still deal with the regular land and forest fire leading to the transboundary haze pollution affecting neighbouring countries. In this case the level of Er is low. Still refering to the previous reference of regime effectiveness assessment, to measure the effectiveness of the regime, we need to consider the standard that is showed in the figure below:89 89

ibid Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 445



Figure above explains about the requirement standards that have to be achieved in the stages from output until impact, how the aspect of technical and political economy influence the standard and how they affect ecology and economy as the last aspect to be evaluated. There are two independent variables that contains the character of the problem and problem-solving capacity. Those two variables can not be separated each other. The level of benign and malign of the problem inevitably will determine the level of the difficulty in problem solving capacity. The regime effectiveness and some notion of regime strength focus only on the level of implementation and compliance. The relationship between effectiveness as defined here and compliance is by no means straightforward; for malign problems, the situation may very well be that the level of compliance tends to be inversely related to the amount of behavioral change required by regime rules.90 The correlation between problem malignancy, problem-solving 90ibid

capacity, level of collaboration for the regime effectiveness can not be separated. Problem malignancy will give the negative impact to the regime effectiveness. Thus it needs higher degree of level of collaboration. Problem malignancy consists of incongruity, asymetry, and cummulative cleavages. The higher degree of problem solving capacity will make level of collaboration easier. It consist institutional setting, distribution of power, skill and energy instrumental leadership and epistemic communities. The harmonious relations among variables will lead to the regime effectiveness characterized by behavioral change and technical optimun. Applying the standards as the assessment tools, we start with the outcome which indicated as the agreement signed and ratified by the member states and addopted into the regulations in their states. In the case of AATHP, the regime already signed and ratified as well as adopted to national level regulations. Move forward to the outcome. In standard level, it has two possibilities either member states rather be non-cooperative or collective optimum. Non-cooperative means that




the states do not implement the regulations of the regime. While collective optimum means that there are compromised interests that make member states implement the principles of the regime. It has two scopes, technical and political. Technical refers to the capacity in technique such as human resources and their ability to deal with technical problems. It can be related to the technology or the human resources capability. Still refer to the data mentioned previousely, in technical scope, the presecution related to the breaking the rule of forest management was increasing in the last two years. It indicates that the the technial capacity and the human resources in tackling this problems is good enough. However, despite of the increasing prosecutions, there are companies that still burn the land for plantation since this is the cheapest way to clear the land. This case can be the lack in either the technical capacity where the prosecution is not comprehensive or the political capacity where there are deal between the company and the government for land opening permit. In biophisical change, AATHP can be considered as non-cooperative, consequently in economic ad political scope. In economic, from 2015 disaster, Indonesian government costed to deal with the fire more than US$ 30 billion, a huge blow for the country’s floundering economy and the president’s economic development agenda. On Sumatra and Kalimantan, ten people have died from haze-related illnesses and more than 500,000 cases of acute respiratory tract infection had been reported since July 1st. Tens thousands of hectares of forest have been alight as a result of slash and burn for the new plantations.91

Politically, the haze importer had to deal with impacted neighbouring countries since the effect was so fatal. Lastly, assessment is about triangular indicators: the complicated level of the problems, the problem solving capacity, and the level of cooperation. The complicated and difficulty the problem, obviousely it was high level of malignant. This level require good problem solving capacity and good cooperation which already exist as mentioned before but still have some lack.

6. Conclussion AATHP as the regime to regulate transboundary haze polution in ASEAN is not merely effective in the indicator of unanimity. Despite of the ratification of all member states, fire lead to transboundary haze pollution emerged in 2015 causing fatal effect in environment and aconomically. The indicator of the level of power how this regime regulate the members, there are some positive indicators such as the implementation of the principles in the national regulations as well as many effort and programs in accordance to the regime principles. However, other indicators show the negative measurement of regime effectiveness such as the stringency of the regime wich is still flexible, the cooperation the member states out of AATHP measurements, and the lack of problem solving capacity in implementation, either technically or politically.

91The

Guardian, Indonesia’s Fires Labelled a Crime against Humanity as 500,000 Suffer, Monday 26 October 2015, taken from ndonesia-fires-crime-against-humanity-hundreds http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/26/i -of-thousands-suffer accessed on May 9th 2015 Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 447



REFERENCES Pramudianto, Andres. (2014). Hukum Perjanjian Lingkungan Internasional. Setara Press. Anon. (2013). ASEAN Urges Indonesia to Ratify Haze Pact. [Online]. Available at http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/06/30/asean-urges-indonesia-to-ratify-hazepact.html (Accessed at 25 April 2016). Anon. (2015). Land-use Fires and Smoke Pollution in Indonesia. [Online]. Available at http://www.fire.uni-freiburg.de/GFMCnew/2015/11/20151019_id.htm (Accessed at 25 April 2016) Sunchindah, Apichai. (2015). Transboundary Haze Pollution Problem in Southeast Asia: Reframing ASEAN’s Response”, in ERIA Discussion Paper Series, 82, 2015. Chilkot, Avantika. (2016). Indonesia under Pressure to Combat Forest Fire Pollution. [Online]. Available at http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f8c5b92c-6816-11e5-97d01456a776a4f5.html#axzz46qoFpFiI (Accessed at 25April 2016). BBC. (2016). Indonesia Fores Fire Cost $15.7 bn” (Online). Available at http://www.bbc.com/news/business-351109393 (Accessed at 26 April 2016). Heilmann, Daniel. (2015). After Indonesia’s Ratification: The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution and Its Effectiveness As a Regional Environmental Governance Tool, in Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 34, 3, 2015. Miles, Edward L., et al,. (2001). Environmental Regime Effectiveness MIT press, London: Porter, Gareth and Janet Welsh Brown.(1996). Global Environmental Politics. Westview Press. Samosir, Hanna Azarya. (2016). ASEAN Punya Kesepakatan soal Asap, Apakah Berfungsi? [Online]. Available at http://www.cnnindonesia.com/internasional/20151009135736-106-83942/aseanpunya-kesepakatan-soal-asap-apakah-berfungsi/ (Accessed at 25 April 2016). Varkkey, Helena. (2016). Regional Cooperation, Patronage, and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Polution. [Online]. Available at https://www.academia.edu/3611683/Regional_cooperation_patronage_and_the_AS EAN_Agreement_on_transboundary_haze_pollution (Accessed at 25 April 2016). Mayer, J. (2006). Transboundary Perspectives on Managing Indonesia’s Fires”, in The Journal of Environment & Development, 15 (2), 2006, 202-233. Elliott, L. (2003). ASEAN and Environmental Cooperation: Norms, Interests and Identity”, in The Pacific Review, 16(1), 2003, 29-52. Samantha. (2015). The Fires in Indonesia are A Health and Climate Nightmare. [Online]. Available at http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2015/10/09/3711029/indonesia-fireproblem/ (Accessed at 25 April 2015). The Guardian. (2015). Indonesia’s Fires Labelled a Crime against Humanity as 500,000 Suffer, Monday 26 October 2015, taken from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/26/indonesia-fires-crime-againsthumanity-hundreds -of-thousands-suffer accessed on May 9th 2016




Social relations between the Cement Company and Local Community Life (Case Study in the village of Mliwang, District Jehu, Turban Regency)

Rustinsyah ([email protected]) Department Anthropology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Airlangga University, Surabaya, Indonesia.

Abstract: The presence of mining companies with activities and CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) program causing social relations between companies and local communities. Social relationships can be beneficial symbioses and resistance. For the study was conducted in 2015 with qualitative data collection methods on "Social Relationships Cement Company and the local community". Mliwang village is one of the Ring I multinational mining company so that his presence impacted the lives of its people. Ring I area is an area directly affected by the activities of the company as part of the farm in the village Mliwang exploited to produce cement for the company. Villagers Mliwang live as farmers with dryland farming systems. The area is an area difficult to get clean water to meet the drinking water needs. To get clean water or taking a distance of approximately five kilometers to buy water at quite expensive for villagers with irregular income. In 2009, the company implementing CSR programs include: a) involving the local workforce employed in the construction of a cement factory. When construction of the plant involves a lot of labor from the village; b) provision of clean water program. Both of these programs provide great benefit to rural economic activity for residents earning fixed and can keep goats, cows because there was water. Almost all households in the village raise goats, cows, or both. The animal as an investment because it is usually sold to meet the needs of sudden and large such as school fees, has a lavatory and so forth. Along with the program of local government to build a paved road in the village main road so as to facilitate the relationship between rural and other areas. The program brings the impact of changes in rural economic activities include the development of livestock traditionally, increasing mobility of people out looking for work, do other economic activities; menggeliatnya rural economic life for almost every household in the village has a motorcycle and a mobile phone. Key words: cement company, social relations, the local community.




A. Introduction

S

ocial relations between the local community and cement companies due to several activities such as building a factory, exploit natural resources as raw materials, manufacture of cement and CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility). Companies are not only responsible for their products to serve consumers but also has a responsibility to pay attention to local people's lives. Obligations of Companies provide CSR reinforced by Act No. 40 of 2007 on Limited Liability Company, which requires all companies engaged in extractive industries or natural resourcebased to implement Corporate Social Responsibility (Jakarta, 2005). CSR as a process in the form of economic measures to communicate the social impact of the environmental activities of an enterprise to the wider community groups affected by the activities of the company (Gray et al 1987: 9). Lately a number of companies in Indonesia have also been reported CSR) One company in Tuban has implemented an education program for local communities. According to the Regional Planning Board Level II Tuban, that in 2014, from January to December amounting to approximately USD 2,656,846,200.00. Mliwang village is one of the Regional Ring I got the cement company CSR as part of the farm exploited limestone to produce cement. Therefore in this paper will elaborate on "How social relations between the company and local communities to provide benefits.

B. Definition of Corporate Responsibility (CSR)

Social

Through the work of Owen, CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) published in 1953 (Valor, 2005) known as the father of Corporate Social Responsibility. He discussed the issues of management, social audit, corporate citizenship and from stakeholders (Windsor, 2001) in an enterprise. But he

did not give a clear definition of CSR. According Votaw (1973) CSR is the idea of responsibility or legal liability socially to others. According Schermerhon (1993), CSR is a concern for the business organization to act in ways of their own to serve the interests of the external public. Valor (2005) defines that CSR is a business commitment to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of its workforce, their families, and local communities. Meanwhile, according to Nuryana (2005) defines that CSR is an approach whereby companies integrate social concerns in their business operations and interaction with stakeholders (stakeholders) based on the principle of voluntary and partnership. According to the World Bank (2004), CSR or corporate social responsibility consists of several main components of environmental protection, job security, human rights, interaction and engagement with the communities, markets, economic development and enterprise, health protection, leadership and education, humanitarian disaster relief. In this paper, CSR as a social responsibility, caring, and the cement company's approach to local communities, in order to maintain a harmonious relationship with the environment and sustainable development specifically in the area of Ring I. The role of CSR is seen as an effort to achieve good corporate governance, good corporate citizenship and good business ethics of a business entity. Further, according Susanto (2007) that the company is not enough to just think about the interests of shareholders (owners of capital) but also the interests of all stakeholders. The company can carry out its social responsibility by focusing on three things: profit, environment, and society. It was intended as an integration and prevent conflict social tensions with local communities. Strategies to implement the CSR has been amended from time to time. Of the annual report, more and more




companies are now reporting CSR as a sustainability report. For Asia, Japan has made significant strides and took the initiative to make the reporting of corporate social responsibility. However, other countries such as India, China and other very limited number of CSR reporting (KPMG, 2005). There are four CSR disclosed that community involvement, human resources, physical resources and the environment, as well as the contribution of the service product (Keller, 1974). Organizations such as the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD ---- or the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, a coalition of 120 international companies have identified that a key component of social responsibility, namely human rights, employee rights, protection environment, community involvement and relationships with suppliers (WBCSD --- World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 1998). In the context of developing countries several studies have focused on companies such as Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong. Examples:100 public companies in Malaysia 66% reported CSR. Of these, 64 companies reported an increase in information products and services, 31 companies reported problems related to human resources and 22, the company revealed the problem of community involvement. A similar study conducted by Lynn (1992) in Hong Kong, that nearly 17 companies (of 264 companies surveyed) revealed social activities with an emphasis on staff development and public relations. Some companies in Indonesia reported its CSR. CSR programs there are considered successful and unsuccessful. According Budimanta (2008: 121), the form of the success of a corporate in its activities in a society is not only the receipt of the relevant company for the move but also can participate and fully functional on the lives of the general public as a whole

social, economic, political, and technological , Indicators of success is the passage of community living with all the social and environmental changes that can be accepted and regulated by social institutions that exist and come from cultural communities concerned. The participation of each stakeholder role in the development of society and to provide business advantages for companies and communities. The participation as a process of empowerment (empowerment) individually or in groups. For example, a number of coal mining companies have given CSR. Here's an example, CSR of Coal Mine Company KPC (Kaltim Prima Coal) East Kutai are on CSR five million dollars a year in 2007 in the form of cultivation of new varieties of tangerines Borneo prime. Cultivation of citrus expected earnings results can increase revenue, build schools, independent business group and others (Budi Untung, 2008). CSR programs accepted and perceived benefits so intertwined social relations that are considered beneficial. Apparently not all the community has always responded with optimal CSR programs undertaken by the company, so that the social relationships between the company and the surrounding community take place in an atmosphere of social tension and conflict. For example, First, indigenous peoples Sangata, East Kutai rallied to KPC's office to demand compensation fund (Antara News. Http: // www. Antaranews, com). Second, the conflict between indigenous peoples rubber farmers in the village Maburai, Murungpudak with coal mining companies due to the rubber plantation submerged due to "safety pond" of waste coal (Benjamin, 2010).

C. Research of Method This research was conducted in the area of Ring I, multinational cement company in Tuban. Mliwang village is one of the areas that get the CSR programs of




multinational cement company. CSR programs most prominent benefit is the involvement of the local workforce and the provision of clean water in the village Mliwang. This research is a qualitative descriptive study conducted in 2015, with the collection of data through observation and interviews. This study is written in this paper is part of a larger study on "symbiosis mining companies and local community".For the purposes of the data analysis, the data were collected and classified later interpretation to answer the problem by using the concept or theory.

D. Results and Discussion D.1 Location of Village Mliwang Mliwang Village, District Jenu, Tuban Regency has an area of 1,400 hectares. The layout of the village was in the jungle with the soil conditions are somewhat higher. Villagers Mliwang amounted 2,392 people. The village has only one rural Mliwang namely Mliwang Village, which consists of two RW (Rukun Warga) and eight RT (Rukun Tetangga). Distance from the village Mliwang to Turban county around 29 kilometres.. Before there is a cement factory, the villagers generally subsistence farmers located in the highlands of six (6) meters above sea level. Farms in the village are dryland farming systems that rely on rainfed water. In the dry season agricultural land cannot be cultivated but wild grass can still grow so some people graze cattle on the farm. They are only able to harvest corn once a year. Most of the land for farming activities belong Perhutani (Indonesian State Forestry Enterprise) but residents can manage the land for agricultural purposes. Agricultural land is tilled can be transferred to the compensation system. The selling price of land compensation ranging between 2.5-5 million per hectare. High-low selling prices influenced by the location of the land. Agricultural land close to the village road is more expensive

because of easy transportation. Agricultural land managed Mliwang farmer in the village, the average ranges from 0.3 hectares .. Water is a major problem for the villagers Mliwang both for agriculture and meet the needs of everyday life. To meet the needs of their drinking water had to purchase or find water at a distance of approximately five kilometers. The presence of cement companies in this area provides great benefits for the villagers Mliwang. The village is an area of Ring I Mliwang multinational cement company for the majority of agricultural land are exploited to produce cement. In 2009, the cement company to make CSR program for this area that most benefit the water supply program and workforce involvement in plant development projects. This area contributes to local governments because most exploited agricultural land to produce cement. For the Local Government Level II membanguna main village road. This paper describes the social relation between CSR programs will be the involvement of local communities and clean water programs and the economic life of the population in Mliwang village.

D.2 Implementation of CSR programs in the village Mliwang According to village officials the implementation of the CSR of the most noticeable of great benefit to the majority of the villagers Mliwang is a clean water program and the involvement of local manpower in plant development projects. Although there are still many CSR programs are implemented for villages Ring I like the environment, infrastructure, economic empowerment, health, human resources and others.

D.2.1 The Program of Clean Water for Mliwang village




A Mliwang Vilage a dry area that is uppermost so that water is a major problem for agriculture and drinking water needs. Before any clean water programs in this village are very difficult to get drinking water. To get clean water 2 (two) jerry can or residents must travel a distance of approximately five kilometers. The water price ranges from Rp 250.00 per jerry can. In 2009, one of the cement companies multinasioanal help supply water to the reservoir tank. The water supply to the water tank lasted nearly two years. To the villagers can take free water from the reservoir that has been provided. Later it was discovered the water source of the village of Karang Asem. The company made a clean water program for villagers Mliwang. The trick to make the pipeline more or less along the five (5) kilometers from the village of Karang Asem as a source of water to the village center Mliwang. To accommodate the large reservoir of water is then created. Tandon in Mliwang village consists of four units built in 2011, and two (2) reservoir in the village was built in 2014. Kebomati power to drain the water from the village of Karang Asem to Mliwang using an electric pump. The water then goes into a large reservoir and flowed into the village. Each reservoir contains approximately 25 cubic meters of water. Every day, the tank is filled three or four times depending on the need of water. In the dry season water demand increases and drainage could be four times. The Water management in the village Mliwang by HIPPA (Water Users Association) derived from the locals. Mliwang HIPAM organization in the village was formed in 2010 with an organizational structure Chairman, Secretary, Treasurer and a billing section. However, treasurer and secretary are not functioning optimally so that the working chairman and billing section. Each receive an honorarium of US $ 200,000.00 to Rp 300,000.00. Even then if there is no money. Since its founding chairman HIPAM has never been replaced because it

does not seek a replacement for the possibility for a small honorarium and often protested villagers in case of late drain the water into the reservoir. Each house installed water meters to control water consumption. The number of homes fitted water meter there are 300 pieces. The number of houses installed 300. The cost of water usage USD $ 3000.00 per m3 . On average, every household uses 10 m3. The income of HIPPAM from water charge amounting Rp 6.000,000,00 per month. The money was used to pay electricity bills amounting to Rp 3,000,000.00, pay honorariums interpreter receivable, chairman, electrical accessories and equipment transportation costs officers from the village to the water source in Karang Asem. The electrical equipment is often broken because it is not automatic. The water consumption fluctuates, there are times when only two m3 because they can still use the well water so income fluctuates. The use of water for the residents to rise if anyone has any intent. Usually people who have the intent to contribute their own with the amount of approximately Rp 900.000,00. Problems faced in water management is the collection of fees is not easy, the power outages that could disrupt the supply of water from the source, villagers complain of water flow when there are delays.

D.2.2 Involvement of local labor in theproject construction company When building a cement plant requires a workforce large enough. Labor drawn from the local population, especially in the area of Ring I. According to village officials, nearly all male workforce productive unacceptable in plant development projects. They get paid the minimum wage ranges from Rp 1,700,000.00. Income is perceived to be quite large compared to the income of the agricultural sector which is uncertain. But once the plant is up and then operate the




local workforce are not adequately involved. The cement Company give jobs to contractors. The use of labor contractors from both are local and from outside the village. Usually the contractor carries workers from the region. When the cement factory in operation in 2015and even the local workforce are not adequately involved. According to the village officials Mliwang that there are currently only about five people who are still employed at the factory. Therefore many unemployed D.3 The Impact of CSR on Rural Economic in Mliwang The clean water programs, involvement of labor in factories, construction of rural roads has brought changes in the economic activities of the villagers Mliwang. The dynamics of economic activities of the villagers Mliwang is a) grow the local dairy farms, b) the emergence of other new economic activities. The development of traditional farmers. It started from villages can set aside some money to buy livestock, adequate water livestock, fodder from foliage with a simple cage and being part of the house where he lived. Almost all households in the village have goats or cows. Every home, on average have three cows, some even have 16 cows. Have a cow or a goat is the pride and provide security for the villagers. It can be said one of the farmers in the villages that have cattle as an investment because they usually sell their livestock if it requires a great kbutuhan like paying for school children, build a house, buy a motorcycle and others. They are also not affected the market, meaning that when the selling price of expensive meat they also are not tempted to sell their livestock if deemed not require the need for urgent and important. Animal feed in the form of Tebon (sugarcane leaves) leaves dried corn, rice stalks or damen. To save the

animal feed made huts or some sort of warehouse They search, purchase fodder from outside the village on a motorbike because the village is difficult to find fodder. Improving soil fertility yard. Water their yard into a fertile land that can be planted with vegetables, fruits. Utilization of yard area to plant vegetables, fruits, stables are on the economic contribution for residents of rural household. Mliwang clean water in the village can be used for watering plants (vegetables, fruits) so that it can grow well and can be used for household needs. For that program grow organic vegetables companies can work well, but marketing is still difficult. The emergence of economic activities in the countryside. Increased new economic activity in the village Mliwang seen increasing mobility of the population outside the village to find jobs outside the agricultural sector, the emergence of stalls or shops that provide the necessities of everyday life. Increasing mobility of the population outside the village supported rural infrastructure, vehicle ownership, desire of the community to improve the welfare and the increased awareness of formal education. The Economic activity in the village is supported by several major infrastructures such as roads in the village Mliwang was paved, ownership of motor vehicles, mobile phones and others. According to the village Officials, village roads built by the government Tuban regency area so as to Facilitate mobility villagers. Almost all households in the village have a motor vehicle. Motor vehicle as a primary means of transportation to carry out economic activities such as searching for fodder from outside the village and others. The desire of the villagers to get a better life by getting a job with a fixed income such as when working in plant development projects that receive wage (Minimum




Wage Regional) 1,700,000.00.

ranges

from

Rp

After the project is completed in 2015, the majority of the workforce in the construction of the cement plant is dismissed. But some people then work in other places, there are participating contractors or find yourself a job. As said by one of the village officials Mliwang "When the mill construction is completed there were approximately 15-20 people in this village residents especially the youth go out of town to work on other projects participate CV or contractor while working in a cement factory. They returned to the village, three months.

Conclusion Social relationships cement companies and local communities are a relationship that can be profitable and "

unprofitable. This was due to the presence of the company with particular program involves the provision of clean water and labor for the construction of a plant to enhance the knowledge and welfare of villagers. Increased welfare of villagers Mliwang seen from the ownership of cattle and goats as an investment so they can send their children higher, the appearance of the stalls in the village who supply goods daily necessities, motorcycle ownership in every household, ownership of mobile phones as a means of communication and access to information needed. The activities of factory in the exploitation of raw materials and the manufacture of cement as thrilling voices have not been considered as a harmful thing. But the villagers generally see that the presence of the company to benefit its economic life.

REFERENCES Anonim. 2012. Monografi Desa Mliwang Benyamin, H.E. 2010.”Konflik Pertambangan Batubara di Kalimantan Selatan”.Radar Banjarmasin, 30 April 2010. (https://borneojarjua2008.wordpress.com/2010/05/10/konflik-pertambanganbatubara-kalsel/ Budimanta, A. (2008). Corporate Social Responsibility Alternatif Bagi Pembangunan Indonesia. Jakarta: Center For Sustainable Development (ICSD). Gray, R., Owen, D., & Maunders, K. (1987). Corporate social reporting: Accounting and accountability. London: Prentice-hall. Keller,W.1974.”Accounting for corporate social performance. Managemen Accounting. February, p.39-41. Kemp, D. (2010). Mining and community development: problems and possibilities of local-level practice. Community Development Journal, 45(2), 198-218. Kin, H.S. 1990. Corporate social responsibility disclosures in Malaysia. Akauantan Nasional, January, p.4-9. KPMG.2005.KPMG International Survey of Corporate Responsibility Reporting 2005. Amsterdam: KPMG International




Lynn, M. (1992). A note on corporate social disclosure in Hong Kong. The British Accounting Review, 24(2), 105-110. N.N. “Masyarakat Adat Sangatta Demo PT.KPC”. Jum”at 5 Maret 2010 (www.antaranews-com/berita/176482/masyarakat-adat-sangatta-demo-pt-kpc) Nuryana, M. (2005). "Corporate Social Responsibility and Contribution to Sustainable Development ". Papers presented at the Social Work Training Industry, Centre for Education and Social Welfare Training (BBPPKS).Bandung, Lembang, December 5, 2005. Schermerhon Jr, John R., 1993. Management for Productivity.New York: John Wiley and Sons. Untung, H. B. (2008). Corporate Social Responsibility. Jakarta: Sinar Grafika Valor, C. (2005). Corporate social responsibility and corporate citizenship: Towards corporate accountability. Business and Society Review, 110(2), 191-212. WBCSD.1998. World Business Council for Sustainable Development- Corporate Social Responsibility. Geneva: WBCSD Publication. The World Bank and ICMM. 2005. Community Development Toolkit, accessed at (http://www.icmm.com/page/629/community-development-toolkit.




Bedhaya Silikon Dance Work: A Critique on Female Beauty Esthetics (A Feministic Study) Sawitri Surakarta Sebelas Maret University Cultural Study Doctorate Students, Cultural Study Program, [email protected] Bani Sudardi Surakarta Sebelas Maret University, Email: [email protected] Wachid Abdullah Surakarta Sebelas Maret University, Email:[email protected] I Nyoman Chaye Surakarta Sebelas Maret University, Email:[email protected] Abstract: Dance work is a result of choreographer’s creativity through idea poured into movement medium. Dance work generates human beings’ innovative and creative mental expression. Bedhaya silicon is a creative work to capture the phenomena existing in modern age. Globalization with strong technology stream affects not only political area but socialand cultural life. Very rapid globalization stream affects society life. Bedhaya silicon work took the trendsetter cultural phenomenon among the rich women from well-established career women to female students working as freelance, called girl and even official’s concubines. Globalization itself is an expression of mindset attempting to be opened with actual condition in the field. Beauty becomes a topic in printed media, television, and internet. Beauty cannot be apart fromwomen as basic needs. Woman is very afraid of being called awkward, fat, dull, etc. The women’s fear of being not-ideal makes them thinking of taking shortcut to appear beautifully instantaneously. Many people concluded that Indonesian pretty women are those tall and slim with white or bright skin, long straight hair, pointed nose, and sexy body. Thus, they decided to undertake silicon operation. Movement scene with glove, rubber in the mouth, rubber on operation table, picture frame and mirroras the symbol of silicon-made face was quasi or counterfeit beauty; hanging cans were stricken to make the women aware that silicon surgery method was the wrong way of making them beautiful. Feministicthoughtsuggested that women with well-established income misused it for plastic surgery and silicon injection rather than for other things beneficial to themselves and family with hazardous risk. Keywords: Work, bedhaya silicon dance, esthetics, critique, women. A. Introduction Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 457



D

ance work is the product of choreographer’s creativity through idea or thought poured into movement media. Such the product leads the dance work to generate human’s mental expression in beautiful and rhythmic movements (Sedyawati, 1986: 73-74). A dance work is made for the choreographer’s certain objective. Bedhaya silicon dance workis created by Fitri Setyaningsih, Indonesian Art Institute (ISI) of Surakarta currently settling in Yogyakarta.Artisanship is cultivated as traditional dancer and it began when they still studied at SMK 8 Surakarta (Eighth Vocational Middle School of Surakarta) in which they wrestled with traditional art. Well-established traditional dancing made Fitri interested in creating a work beyond traditional pakem (norm). Here willing to create a work with innovating freedom was eventually realized into bedhaya silicon work. The creator of traditional dance had full stop (saturation point) to create work independent of dance pakem (Prabowo, 1991: 5).

women from well-established career women to female students working as freelance, called girl and even official’s concubines. Globalization itself is an expression of mindset attempting to be opened with actual condition in the field. Thinking using rationality and reasoning to treat a cultural product is affectednot only by traditional work, but also modern dance, because human thinking moves continuously adapting to dynamically age and cultural development (Barker, 2010: 117-119). Beauty becomes a topic in printed media, television, and internet. Beauty cannot be apart from women as basic needs. Woman is very afraid of being called awkward, fat, dull, etc. The women’s fear of being not-ideal makes them thinking of taking shortcut to appear beautifully instantaneously. Many people concluded that Indonesian pretty women are those tall and slim with white or bright skin, long straight hair, pointed nose, and sexy body (Suyono, tempo 2010). Beauty esthetics is stated that the pretty is beautiful as can be seen from several points of view,in Islamic religion: beauty means having noble character, clean, dressing by covering aurat (part of the body which may not be visible while performing a ritual), and worshiping obediently. Javanese community’s beauty includes: tidy, decorous, well-mannered, bright skin, long hair, tall, fragrant. Modern beauty includes: fashionable appearance, communicative speaking, rebounded or straight hair, bright skin, high-heel shoes, working or having career.

Bedhaya silicon dance is a work created in 2005. Bedhaya silicon is a dance inspired from bedhaya ketawang dance. New work using innovative creativity regardless bedhaya dance performing generates a fear of doing wrong movement, floor pattern. Bedhaya silicon dance work provides discretion to move, to explore dancers’ creativity without anyone’s pressure (fitrisetyaningsih. 2011/09/bedoyo-silicon-2004.html). Bedhaya silicon is a creative work to capture the phenomena existing in modern age. Globalization with strong technology stream affects not only political area but social and cultural life. Very rapid globalization stream affects society life. Bedhaya silicon work took the trendsetter cultural phenomenon among the rich

A choreographer has an ability of realizing an idea. An idea becomes an entertaining dance work, but delivers message to spectator or art observer. The condition existing in Indonesia with various advertisements of cosmetic product leads to many beauty/esthetics clinics opened. The




interesting phenomenon is expressed intomovement media, property, dance accompaniment and lighting with good working to be generated in a dance work. Movement expression in bedhaya silicon dance is confirmed through working on plastic glove media, mouth filled in with rubber, operation table on which rubbers are mounted. Picture frame as the symbol of mirror was quasi or counterfeit beauty; hanging cans were stricken to warnspectators, art observers, and all Indonesian womenthat silicon is merely quasi or camouflage beauty.

Bedhaya silicon dance work is a critique on woman body. It raises counterfeit self-image behind a modern woman’s idealism in which appearance is a basic need. Beauty cannot be apart from a woman with ideal weight, height, bright soft skin, standard bra size of 34/36, rebounded colored hair, etc. Woman lifestyle is getting unobstructed with the globalization drift impacting on Javanese community’s life. To get idealbody shape a woman sometimes uses not traditional ways but chemical product such as whitening, injection, body slimming and heightening products. The woman does it to get beauty despite counterfeit one. Silicon use to beautify herself with life as its stake to increase breast, tight, buttock, nose, cheek, and chin sizes, etc. Cosmetic drugs are produced because they are more sold-out than disease one. Urgent disease medicines such as polio, cancer and heart cancer medicines are producedin smaller number so that their price is always expensive. Community’s mindset on the definition of beautiful is very worrying because they think of getting intended beauty instantaneously and considering it as non-taboo. Such the female behavior phenomenon to be poured into bedhaya silicon occurs as well in Javanese community. Traditional life connected to the rule of being a bedhaya dancer. Bedhaya dancer should be beautiful with bright skin, long hair, tall and ideal body. Those criteria are a must for bedhaya dancer.Dancing work featured by Fitri Setyaningsih in bedhaya silikon is an expression of her spirit that bedhaya dancer in the present should not have such the criteria. Bedhaya silicondance work is the representation of critique against a woman’s body with silicon furnishing. In dance movement, silicon is

The representation of wellestablished career women can realized any thing to achieve the objective successfully corresponding to a feministic woman’s thought that Feminism is an ideology struggling for woman equality in politics, culture, personal and public spaces (Rosemary, 1997). That is woman’s awareness to require equal rights with the man’s including ability, intelligence, income, and life rights. Woman can do what the man does and regarding income, a woman can earn living more than a man’s can (Arimbi, 2004: 7). Feminism derives from Latin femina or woman. Indonesian woman misinterprets feminism by expressing working freely and using income for her own need regardless family interest, family need and money spent for just brief enjoyment but adverse impact. Beauty is considered as supporting career in order to be in steady position. The critique against woman wants to be expressed in bedhaya silicon dance work. Esthetic critique against woman beauty is presented in bedhaya silicon dance work to grow awareness of what the true or real beauty is.

B. Bedhaya Silicon




represented in various forms. This criticizes a woman’s body idealization. The appearance of movement is intended to expressand to confirm the message to be delivered by choreographer. Bedhaya silikon dance work is described as follows: 1. On a dark stage, six girls and two boys with black glasses, sport shoe, orange and green t-shirts come from opposite directions. The stage design employs garden, sometimes in the swimming pool because bedhaya silikon dance work does not requires the performance on the stage only. The cool garden contains grasses and as if that is a cheerful and happy holiday. The movementsperformed by the dancers are: running freely, sitting down, standing, musing, etc. 2. A dancer takes weights to weigh their body weight. Weights symbolize the youngsters’ fear of overweight. Early free movement expresses youngsters’ cheerfulness after a girl weighingher body looks so sad, coupled with dark circumstance through turning off the light so that only small light remains growing silent and sad circumstances. There is only one horizontal light on the left stage, and a woman wearing white long robe sit down on the corner while musing. 3. A boy with glossy-head wearing black shoe comes. This dancer brings wheeled plastic table on which many blond-hair Barbiedolls are put. The table is pushed around the stage and stops in the corner where the whiterobed dancer is sitting down. Both of them talk to each otherusing gesture with the girl extending the cloth existing in the mouth while the boy observing thoroughly. The message delivered is that there is

communication established between them. 4. Bedhaya silikon dance work is accompanied by Galih Naga Seno to provide quiet image, so that the accompaniment is made not too noisy with occasional tapping, and strong sound to make the dance’s movement prominent. The dancer’s appearance carrying big picture frame with hanging cans and rubber gloves representing silicon. The picture frame represents that after undertaking plastic operation, liquid silicon injection to shape breast, cheek, nose, thigh, buttock, chin etc, they look at the mirror. They find counterfeit or quasi beauty. They do not feel fooled but they are getting more self-confident. They seem to be ideal women for themselves and for men. The dancers tweaks the cans as the symbolization that they warn the women not to be deceived with counterfeit beauty as seen in the picture frame, because the danger of silicon is more than the pleasure they get now. 5. Next movement shows the presence of window frame symbolizing that we can see outer world, and return to an idea that beauty is not seen from outside but everlasting beauty is the inside one. 6. Bedhaya silikon dancers carry out laku dhodhok (walking while squatting) and entering the stage, and the light is turned off. C. Esthetic critique against women’s beauty Beauty is something inherent to woman. An ideal woman is defined as the one tall with bright skin, black long straight hair. Woman is veryafraid of being called awkward, fat, dull, etc. The willingness to appear prettily makes the women take instant




way to get it. In modern age, everything in internet is accessible with more sophisticated electronic appliance. Economic stability affects modern women’s lifestyle. Interesting appearance is a basic need to support career. Many people define wrongly the woman beauty as merely physical one. Beautiful womanuses appropriate, practice and spontaneous ways. Many clinics are opened and sold out with sufficiently expensive cost ranging from tens to hundreds millions. Domestic and abroad beauty services are taken to appear maximally. Woman behavior in modern age does everything to be called beautiful. The problem to be encountered later is not taken into account. Everlasting beauty is the one originating from Allah and the more meaningful beauty is inner rather outer beauty. Woman beauty level means good character or personality. Beauty makes woman does everything regardless pain and adverse effect she should assume herself. Beauty critique is that woman should not harm herself by doing such thing as silicon operation, liposuction, botox, etc. The willingness to be beautiful makes us hypocrite, because beauty can also be obtained by thinking positively, having spiritual peace to find new hope, optimism, self-confidence, affection to our self andothers. The more the love is emitted, the higher is the beauty aura emitted. More women deify silicon injection to make her life more selfconfident and consider it as lifestyle in modern society. Bedhaya silikon work dance wants to criticize counterfeit and quasi beauty. Beauty is featured to support life existence rather than to take relatively safe cheap way without negative effect. It is called community life hypnotized with advertisements of various cosmetic products.

The critique is intended through bedhaya silikon work in which bedhaya dancers should have ideal beautiful criteria. The beauty the bedhaya dancers have symbolizes the princess. In modern age, bedhaya dancers, in this case bedhaya silikondancers, should not have ideal beauty at all. Bedhaya dancers appear in the way they are with short hair, modest dress, sport shoes, not-too tall body, and ordinary face. The rebellion in this dance work proves that beauty is actually objective depending on from where we see it and who see it and for what. Beauty can be realized without using harmful and victimizing ways. Feministic attitude occurring in Indonesia affects woman life and her willingness to be beautiful as the symbol of steadiness and richness. Well-established career woman can pay product and evenundertake silicon injection to make over herself. Feministic attitude the woman takes becomes boomerang for herself and she should assume the risk herself. Beautiful married career woman is intended to her husband, family and college. Wrong positioning can be criticized that in fact beauty can be inappropriate, beauty is misled, beauty is expensive and pain with useless result. Well-established job and income is not used for family’s, children’s, and husband’sneeds but for plastic surgeon and silicon. It is a phenomenon of feminism occurring and Indonesia and it starts to befall the society to lead them to modern life. D. Conclusion Dance work is a result of choreographer’s creativity through idea poured into movement medium. Dance work generates human beings’ innovative and creative mental expression. Bedhaya silicon is a creative work to capture the phenomena existing in modern age. Globalization with strong technology




stream affects not only political area but social and cultural life. Very rapid globalization stream affects society life.

Many people concluded that Indonesian pretty women are those tall and slim with white or bright skin, long straight hair, pointed nose, and sexy body. Thus, they decided to undertake silicon operation.

Bedhaya silicon work took the trendsetter cultural phenomenon among the rich women from wellestablished career women to female students working as freelance, called girl and even official’s concubines. Globalization itself is an expression of mindset attempting to be opened with actual condition in the field. Beauty becomes a topic in printed media, television, and internet. Beauty cannot be apart from women as basic needs.

Movement scene with glove, rubber in the mouth, rubber on operation table, picture frame and mirror as the symbol of silicon-made face was quasi or counterfeit beauty; hanging cans were stricken to make the women aware that silicon surgery method was the wrong way of making them beautiful. Feministic thought suggested that women with wellestablished income misused it for plastic surgery and silicon injection rather than for other things beneficial to themselves and family with hazardous risk.

Woman is very afraid of being called awkward, fat, dull, etc. The women’s fear of being not-ideal makes them thinking of taking shortcut to appear beautifully instantaneously.

REFERENCES Arimbi, H. Valentina, R. 2004. Feminisme Vs Neoliberalisme. Jakarta: Debtwatch Indonesia. Barker, C. 2010. Cultural Studies. Teori & Praktek. Yogyakarta: Kreasi Wacana Prabowo, W.S.1991. Sosok Tari Tradisi Keraton. Paper presented in Court Dance Gathering in Decade of Surakarta Cultural Park of Central Java in Surakarta on June 23, 1991 Rosemarie Tong. 1997. Feminist Thought A Comprehensive Introduction. USA: Westview, Press. Setyawati, E. 1986. Ensiklopede Tari. Jakarta: Sinar Harapan http://underground-paper. Blogspot.com/2014/04/Feminisme-di-Indonesia.html http://fitrisetyaningsih.blogspot.co.id/2011/09/bedoyo-silicon-2004.html Suyono, S.N. www.kelola.0r.id/news/detail. Tempo Magazine, 2007




NEWSROOM : FROM FIREWALL TO ICE WALL Erwin Kartinawati, AndrikPurwasito, Bani Sudardi 1.ErwinKartinawati, S.Sos. M.I.Kom, Student of Cultural Studies Departement, Doctoral Program of SebelasMaret University, [email protected] 2.Prof. Dr. AndrikPurwasito, DEA, Expert on Television Studies and Lecturer in SebelasMaret University, [email protected] 3.Prof. Dr. BaniSudardi, M. Hum, Head of Doctoral Program, Cultural Studies Department in SebelasMaret University, Surakarta, [email protected]

Abstract: In the practice of journalism, fairness and impartiality doctrin is an inherent element in the working principle of the press. In the processing of news content, the press in this case is newsroom has been protected by a fire wall, where members of the press that work as a journalist should be free from all of outside influence (the public, media owners, power). However, we see a change in the content of mass media, especially private television in Indonesia. Even openly, media owners and the power use mass media as a propaganda tool for personal and group interests. I assume that the principle of journalism that should be hold tight, fire wall, had been damaged. My assumption is the fire wall of newsroom change : from fire wall turns into ice wall. It was caused of by the inclusion of elements from the outside who designed media content for political purposes.What kind of damage the fire wall, is a focus interest of this study on this paper. Analytical methods that used is a media content analysis, focus on the content of two Indonesia broadcasting media, private television :Metro TV and TV One. The focus of discussion is how the media content on private broadcasters Indonesia have been used as a tool by political interests of media owners as well as the group. Key words : fairness doctrine, newsroom, private television, media content, firewall

INTRODUCTION he most basic understanding of news is a report based on the facts. News is one of mass media product that are newspaper, television, radio, and internet. Dye and Zeiglerhave mentioned that news is a service function of mass media to public that must be done to observe and report on events, phenomena and facts that occurre in the community (Mursito, 2006: 18). What media work is to fullfilright to know of public (Black, 1988: 6). In the concept of communication, news is a message. Law of the press and broadcasting, Indonesia

T

journalism ethic set about sending messages through mass mediaclearly. There must be a clear restrictionbetween news and opinion. Press or media in presenting news must be independent, accurate, balance and no bad intentions (ethic code of Indonesian journalistic by press council/ KEJ 2006, Article 1). Independent means constructing and airing up events or facts in accordance to conscience journalist without coersion andintervention from anyfactors include the owner pressure. Accurate means right, something airs on news can be believed according to objective circumstance when event occurs.




Balance means that all side in newsget equal opportunity. No bad intentions means no will to act in bad faith rendered in the absence of deliberate intention and solely to cause harm others. Code of Conduct of Broadcasters and Broadcast Program Standards (P3SPS) article 9 also mentions clearly about journalistic principles that must be held by media crew in presenting information or factual program : accurate, fair and impartial. The reason why media must be set by rules because of its impact to society.Media is not just information source without effect but it can affect and change someone's life and also create a particular situation. That is why media action along with crew, set based on the principles of journalism, standards and rules applied, for larger interest community in life. This is called fairness doctrine. Fairness doctrine according to history, is a policy that contains a rule of rules set by the Commission communication in the United States (Federal Communications Commission (FCC) from 1949 to 1987. The rules is an obligation should apply all the media in order to ensure that the information submitted contain something important for society, fair and balanced in providing a portion of the news. Fairness doctrine was initially created for broadcasters since that time because of media ownership was still rare and tend to be monopolized by certain person or group (Vaughn, 2008: 163). Concept fairness doctrine then introduced to many formulas but basically same that is concerning to mass media behavior (action) should be. One of concepts about fairness doctrine developedby Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel (2001)namely nineelements of Journalism: 1. Journalism’s first obligation is to the truth. 2. Its first loyalty is to citizens 3. Its essence is a discipline of verification.

4. Its practitioners must maintain an independence from those they cover. 5. It must serve as an independent monitor of power. 6. It must provide a forum for public criticism and compromise. 7. It must strive to make the significant interesting and relevant. 8. It must keep the news comprehensive and proportional. 9. Its practitioners must be allowed to exercise their personal conscience. Principles of journalism is a handle to maintain the independence of mass media as a social institution or a accountability form to public society. In carrying out the work of journalism, mass media is regulated so that the work in producing news protected from any interference thatknown as a fire wall. Concept of fire wall is actually taken from a term that also used in field of computer and network functions like walls serve to protect the program from crackers or danger attack from outsiders. In case of journalism, term fire wall refers to the notion that the performance of the mass media is protected by a fire wall to maintain independency, honesty or objectivity of the press from any interference such as advertisers, authorities, groups of dominant society, including the business owner media. Fire wall needed to guarantee journalists in reporting a fact independent of the pressure and fear and favor one party, the interests of the public. No less important than the concept of fire wall is to keep the news procurement of commercial greed or the influence of money, political as well as owner. The concept of fire wall is important as a base of democracy, keeping journalism remain true and faithful to the interests greater that is public (Tim Knight in http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/timknight/tv-anchors-quit-onair_b_21/78734.html, access April 11 2016, at 15.42 Indonesian time). But what happened to mass media in Indonesia especially television?




Presidential election 2014 became starting point where there has been a visible change in media behaviour. There was a significant changeon television media content. Media openly show their position to the interests of owners and groups. However, mass media, especially television even if owned by the capital owners, but in operational use frequencies that obviously belong to the public, so that the broadcast content is already supposed to be the primary aim of public interest. In this context there has been a change in the function of news media in particular. News is no longer just free channels, present important things and beneficial to society, but has turned into a channel and group interests of capital owners. The principle of journalistic especially impartiality, balance, objectivity are ruined. The elements forming fire wall that supposed to protect newsrooms has broken so that fire wall turns to ice wall. Based on the background of problem above, what will be discussed in this paper is the damage on fire wall in newsroom especially free to air Indonesian privatetelevision. METHOD Research method To see the damage of fire wall in newsroom is used qualitative content analysis method. R Holsti (1968) said that content analysis can see some characteristicsmedia content, how media content presented and to whom the message is addressed, and also to analyze the impact of the communication content (Krippendorff, 2004: 46). This method can be used to analyze all the documents, print and visual-newspapers, radio, television, graffiti, advertising, film, personal letters, books, bibles and pamphlet (Eriyanto, 2011: 1). This is a descriptive research which makes a systematic description, factual, and accurate about the facts and the properties of a

particular object. Research to describe the reality of going on without explaining the relationship between variables, or test specific hypotheses (Eriyanto, Ibid .: 47). Source of data Source of data is news thatairedon two private television: Metro TV andTV One. Data taken by random from June 2014 to November 2015 to issue that has high news value. The characteristics of issue are aired running (continuous/follow-up), which is usually in the form of news concerning to impact life of many people, government policy, political and related to media owners. In this case i use sampling noprobabilitastype that samples drawn based on certain considerations of researchers (Kriyantono, 2010: 154). While the techniques used in the news as the sample is based on the principles of ease of data that exist in the population (convenience sampling) (Ibid.,: 160). Theories Hegemony theory and normative theory are used to help potraying and explaining the problem in this paper. Hegemony theories reveal that mass media has big power in influencing thought and behaviour public. Many theories have been built based on hegemony for instance hypodermic needle and cultivation theory. Both of these theories state that media as a powerful tool and a great power in influencing community. Just like needle, mass media one way cause lasting effect in which the audience is positioned as the passive in accepting the influence and media exposure. Cultivation theory is more or less express about the power of television to the mindset, behaviour and action of the community. The higher the frequency of a person in seeing television, the greater impact will be obtained by people. Mc Quail said if hegemony based on the paradigm of the




media as a part with big and strong power in influencinga community, as a dominant force in society. The dominant paradigm in mass communication, media has a clear function to the community, the immediate effect is linear, the media is seen as a potential social problem as well as a tool for persuasion, change people's behavior (2011: 72). Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur (2010: 340) estimated that we depend on media information to fulfill specific needs and achieve certain goals. However this doesn’t make us rely on media entirely. There are two conditions that make us become more depend on mass media. One, when mass media is able to fullfilsome of our needs than just satisfying. The second, source dependenceto media is stability. When social change and conflict increase, institutions, beliefs and activities that had formed began resisted, drive to the reassessment and possible new options related to media consumption. At these moments dependency to media will increase. People who depend on a particular segment of media will be affected by cognitive, affective, and behavior by segment. In simple terms, this media system dependency theory assumes that the more peoplehope needs to media, the more important role of the media in peoplelife so that media will increasingly have influence to the person. Raymond William (Eriyanto, 2012: 104) said hegemony working over ideology and culture. In contrast to the indoctrination and manipulation, hegemony seen consciously, people accept as reasonable in practice, life, performing and live voluntarily. Hegemony operates by consensus rather than suppression efforts. Strength hegemony is how it creates a particular way of thinking or discourse of the dominant discourse as a considered correct while others considered one (Ibid.,: 104-105). The process in

newsroom illustrates how hegemony works. It goes through a process or way of working seemed reasonable so that what is reported by media appears as truth, reason, logic, so all things appear as an unquestionable. Donald Shaw, Maxwell McCombs and colleagues wrote if the appearance of an issue or news regarding is also known as one of the agenda-setting function of the media. Agenda-setting form a picture or an important issue in the public mind. This function successfully made the public think as media says. Construction of the agenda because the media must be selective in reporting news (Littlejohn, 10th eds .: 341-342). Normative theory of media describes the most ideal way to organize and manage media system. This theory regards to the principles, idealsvalue, ethic or rule that usually made regard to the social responsibility of the media to society. With the existing normative rules, press is expected works correctly. It is necessary to maintain honesty of leader and provide “weapon” for weak people with information that they need to protect themselves from the tyrannical ruler of both political and commercial (Baran, 2010: 124-139). Siebert, Peterson, Schramm have called social responsibility theory of press stress on the need of independent press, serves as a social watchdog and safeguard the interests of greater than what is desired broadcast owners (Baran, Ibid.: 145). Criteria for public interest here by McQuail can be done through the structure and content of media. The structure regards to the freedom to do publicity, plurality of ownership, diversity of channels and forms, as well as a broad range. In terms of content is diversity in the information, opinions and cultures, supporting public order and law, information and culture are of high quality, support the political system that is democratic, respect to international obligations and human rights and also




avoid things that are harmful to society and the individual (2011: 182). The main proposition in social responsibility theory as mentioned above in introduction is media has a responsibility towards society, and,media ownership is a public trust. Media must be truthful, accurate, impartial, objective and relevant. Media should be free, self-regulating. Media also must follow a code of conduct agreed and applied in a professional manner (McQuail, Ibid.: 189). DISCUSSION Result of analysis to news of Metro TV and TV One showed that fire wall of newsroom, damaged. Fire wall that should be guard newsroom from any influence in order to present objective, independent, fair, impartial news to one side (owner or a group), based on fairness doctrine didn’t work properly, especially to issues that had correlation to owner and the groups. Fire wall turned to ice wall. The journalist act “cool” as if they didn’t know about fairness doctrine. Many complaints, warning had been given to media but they were cool like ice. Indonesian Broadcasting Comission event gave a recommendation to Communication and InformaticMinisterial to pull outbroadcasting licences because media had ban law and ethics code of journalistic (http://pilkada.liputan6.com/read/23695 11/kpi-ancam-cabut-izin-lembagapenyiaran-jika-dukung-pasangan-calon, 19 Nov 2015 at 08:42 Indonesian time (wib); http://tekno.liputan6.com/read/2078286/ terancam-kehilangan-hak-siar-tv-onemetro-tv-akan-dipanggil, 15 Jul 2014 at 16:53 WIB, http://www.merdeka.com/tag/k/kpi/berit a-metrotv-dan-tvone-paling-banyakdiprotes-pemirsa.html, Jumat, 28 Desember 2012 at 16:43:01). Data showed that news television especially Metro TV and TV One not

just as a free product without intentions but brought some interests. Media content should present something good and beneficial to public but in this case, news was used to launch interest media owner and his group. Further, news was used to defeat and defend each other among media and its group. Media should be in neutral position but they openly showed their posisition in one side. This condition gave implication to news that showed up to society. That fenomena made writer concluding that there was a damage on fire wall. Fire wall turned to ice wall. What kinds of damage of fire wall on newsroom can be seen to some parts below : 1. Ignoring to impartiality, neutrality principle Mass media must be neutral clearly written on pers law no 40/1999, Broadcasting Law, ethic of code journalistic and also P3SPS. Broadcasting law and also ethic code of journalistic say that media content must be free from coercion and interfence any elements include media owners. Neutrality is a compulsory to mass media in airing program and must not prioritize particular interest of group or one of element. Pers Law number 40/1999 also says that. All about neutrality also explained and confirmed ethics of code journalistic. Article 1 says that Indonesian journalist being independent, produce accurate news, balance, and no bad intentions. P3SPS excluded by Indonesia Broadcasting Commission in 2012 article 12 also says about neutrality compulsory. Both news and opinios must be aired objective, balance and free of managerial interfence, capital also media owner. Let’s see news aired both by Metro TV and TV One. News that they aired showing something opposite to regulation. Both stations showed that they were not neutral and also gave support to one side. In general election 2014, both showed a support to one of




president candidate also to the parties. What’s an interesting and new phenomenon media after new order (OrdeBaru-Orba).Mass media showed their support to one of candidate so openly and clearly. In OrdeBaru age, mass media gave its afilitions to one of part and group because of government interfence. Media were threat by “bredel” (government had full authority to stop and pull out media licence if not obey to government order). After reformation age regarding to appearance of law pers number 40/1999, “bredel” is something imposible to do by government. This rule set to guarantee democratization in Indonesia. One of indicators of demoractization is freedom of the pers. But general election in 2014 be starting point there is behavior change on mass mediaas write above. Press openly and clearly promote theirself to one of side even after general election finished. I recognize that there is weakness of this paper because of no quantitative data to prove neutrality Metro TV and TV One. In this case, Metro TV supported to Jokowi-JK, TV One to Prabowo-Hatta. How no neutral they were showed by media content (news) and the way they constructed it. Metro TV news content and how it constructed showed that there was support to act, decision and Jokowi-JK’s programs but TV One was on opposite.Support not just gave to the candidate but also to political party and elements that had interests also intentions to both candidates. Political parties support Jokowi-JK took a bunch in one coalision namely Koalisi Indonesia Hebat (KIH) consist of PartaiDemokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan (PDIP), Partai Nasional Demokrat (Nasdem), while Prabowo-Hatta Supported by KoalisiMerahPutih (KMP) consist of PartaiGerakan Indonesia Raya (Gerindra), PartaiGolonganKarya (Golkar), PartaiAmanat Nasional, PartaiKeadilan Sejahtera (PKS). From several parties that support each

coalition, there is a owner media in each coalition that’s Nasdem owned by Surya Paloh has Metro TV and Abu Rizal Bakrie, the Golkar leader is also TV One owner. This background can explain about why Metro TV and TV One unneutral’s on general election even up to nowdays. Here some of examples can show that both television un-neutral in producing news.



n o


Table 1.news examplesshow partiality mass media TV One Metro TV ElektabilitasCapres-Cawapres 1 : PrabowoKalahkan Jokowi dalam Survey: 2 Prabowounggul di Bali: PrabowoUnggul di MayoritasProvinsi: MesinpartaikoalisiPrabowoberjalan efektif (KabarPetang, 20/6/14) MenilaiCapreskita 2 : Bahasa Inggris Ala Capres : Kemampuan Bahasa InggrisPrabowodan Jokowi (KabarPetang, 20/6/14) Quick 3 count : PresidenPilihan Rakyat : PrabowoDeklarasikanKemenangan nya (Live, June 9, 2014)

PresidenPilihan Kita : Elektabilitas Jokowi-JK meningkat : Hasil surveyCapresterkini (Prime Time News, 8 Juli 2014)

From above we can see that television aired same issue that was about general election result but they gave and had different angle when airing something on screen. Just from the title of news we can see to whom television gave their support. Not in the middle, neutral, but in one side.

us that media content had been used as legitimacy tool by each candidate. We can see it by word and sentence using by each media in news. News 1, 3 in table 1 for examples, saidthat Metro TV and TV One do the same thing. Each claimed that their candidate won vote. To made sure people, Metro TV used sentences “hasil survey terkini” and “menurutbeberapalembagakredibel”. The choice of words and sentences was something imposible without certain reasons. The structure of news choosed to make people beleived that information gave by Metro TV was right and valid, indirect said that another data source invalid because data by Metro

1

2

3

2. News as a legitimacy tool Some of examples above in table 1 not just show us about partiality mass media but also potrayus about newsroom work. Newsroom had been used to construct one reality in order to influence public percepcion about one candidate TV support. News explain to

Forum APEC 2014 : Presiden Jokowi PilihPresentasiTanpaTeks : PihakAsingDiundangBerinvestasi (Metro Siang, 9/11/14) Jokowi-JK Menang Quick Count : Jokowi-JK MenangMenurutBeberapaLembagaSurveyKre dibel: Kemenangan Jokowi-JK adalahBabakBaruBangsa: Kemenangan Jokowi-JK adalahKemenangan Rakyat Indonesia: KemenanganTanpaSyaratdanTanpaDiimingImingiJabatan: Kami SiapMelayani Rakyat UntukMembuat Indonesia yang LebihBaik: Tugas Kita adalahMengawalhasilPemiluhinggaPengumum anResmi KPU: MengapresiasiasiPrabowodan Hatta Rajasa: MengapresiasiPresiden SBY yang mengawalPilpresBerjalanDamai (PresidenPilihan Kita) (Live June 9, 2014, Program : PresidenPilihan Kita).




TV was the newest replace data aired on Metro TV or other stations before. Sentences “hasil survey terbaru”were choosen as a legitimacy tool that information of Metro TV could be trusted. Also sentence choice of “menuruthasilbeberapalembaga survey kredibel”.The choice of the sentence show us that Metro TV like I write above wanna make sure that its information could be trusted because of data that given from credible source. Not just from one institution but many (some). The choice of world “kredibel” as same as “ beberapa” dalamlembaga survey was way of Metro TV to get legitimacy from public about general election data validity. Beside legitimacy about voting result, Metro TV also used its news to get legitimacy from public that (news 3 table 1) Jokowi-JK’s victory on election was something should be celebrated and asked public not to hesitate candidate. Decision public who gave their voice to vote Jokowi-JK was something abosultely right because the government’swork then just would be tocitizen. The victory was made people sure would bring a big change and wouldn’t make people disappointed like on general elections before. Choosing Jokowi-JK was something right because they have good personality (news 3 table 1) as a sportive persons, no grudge to rival and appreciate to previous leader as showed as on news title “mengapresiasiPrabowo-Hatta, mengapresiasiPresiden SBY”. TV One news was a same. News 1,2,3in table 1 show that TV One wanted to legitimate about PrabowoHatta as a winner in general election not Jokowi-JK. It showed up on title of news “ “Prabowokalahkan Jokowi dalam survey”, “Prabowodeklarasikankemenangannya”. As Metro TV, TV One also tried to get legitimacy from public using words choice on news in word using “kalahkan” and “deklarasikan”. Both

were equally showed the meaning of interrelated selected TV One to convince the public that the data presented TV One wastrue, valid because it was not possible PrabowoHatta dare to declare victory without a valid foundation of data concerning the vote in the 2014 presidential election.Just as the Metro TV, TV One also imaged Prabowo-Hatta as a leader who dreamed with a choice phrase “Presidenpilihanrakyat,".Prabowo is a reasonable figure because of fluent in english compared to his rival. The ability of foreign language, especially English is an important thing to note that as a leader will be a lot to do with the leader of other countries to which it itself declared English as the language of international liaison. In addition Prabowo Hatta also featured as a highly ungrateful to appreciate the efforts of other parties that victory was impossible if not supported assistance bearers of political parties. Political parties that belongs to KoalisiMerahPutih is not arbitrary because the political parties were able to run the engine better so could win the vote in the 2014 presidential election ("MesinParpolberjalanefektif”). News is reporting about facts or events. Nor does the news carried by the television as mentioned above was true events. But the facts presented in the news, especially through the media really is not the fact itself. Read or see news on media means to read the events that have been constructed (Mursito, 2012: 1). We don’t perceive the facts, but perceive the news about the event. We read the facts of the events that have been selected, formatted, according to a media perspective. From here we can see if a fact or event presented on screen is a fact that has been constructed with certain goals. News is the message. The message is communication. Communication itself according to Gerald R. Miller is something to aim and not without purpose, namely the




situation in wich a source transmits a message to a receiver with consciousness intent to affect the latter's Behaviours (Littlejohn, 10th edt.: 4). One to be communicated in the news aired by Metro TV and TV One is to instill the perception among the public about something and have an impact that is form of support or as a form of legitimacy to the event.

1

2

3

4

3. News as a tool to attack and defend each other Analysis to the two television news broadcast also indicated if a work of journalism had been used as a tool for personal and group interests. News wasused to have clashed with each other. Through the news well, defense was done. It could be seen from the news example below :

Table2.News examples : news as a tool to attack and defend each other. TV One Metro TV Kartusaktitelan 1 korban : Program unggulan Jokowi-JK : Terjadipenumpukansaatmengantre: Wargaantusiassambut KIS dan Korbanmeninggalberusialanjut: KIP Program unggulan Jokowi-JK Wargameninggalkarenakelelahanme : Alisahterbantudengan program ngantre: Jokowi(Metro Hari Ini, 3/11/2014) Pemerintahsudahsiapkantenda: Penumpukanwargakarenatakadasosi alisasi (ApaKabarIndonesia, 3/12/14) Harga 2 BBM Naik : Hargabaru BBM Subsidi : BesokOrgandanasional Secarajangka mogokHarga BBMNaik: panjang IHSG akannaikHargabaru Subsididibutuhkanuntukpertahankan BBM Subsidi : 2015 tarif tahuncukupberat (Metro Siang, Harga BBM Naik : KenaikanRp 18/11/2014) 2.000sulitkanpengusaha (KabarPagi, 18/11/2014) Dana 3 kompensasi BBM : Dana kompensasikenaikan BBM : Wargasalingdorongberebutkartuantr Ribuan ean wargaantre dana bantuan Dana kompensasi BBM : KPSDanakompensasikenaikan Wargakesalkarenaantresejakpagi BBM : Uangdana sebesarRp. Danakompensasi BBM: Pembagian 400.000 danaPSKS masihbelumtepatsasaran Dana kompensasikenaikan BBM : (KabarPagi, 2/12/14) Warga merasaterbantu (SisiBerita, 21/11/14) 4 SahamGrup Bakrie Anjlok (Wide Jejak Surya di ImporMinyak Shot, (KabarPetang, 12/12/14), Mafia di 5/12/14), Orang Terkaya di PusaranMigas (ApaKabar Indonesia, Indonesia (Top News, 6/12/14) 1/12/14)

News 1,2,3,4 in Table 2 show both Metro TV and TV Oneare alike. They used news as a tool to criticize, even to attack each other. Using news, TV One criticized the hiking policy of fuel prices

as well as facilities for treatment/education for the underprivileged public. News based on same issue but both the television selected different angle. TV One




prefernegative aspect while Metro TV lift up the positive side of policies impact decided by government. From the selection news made by TV One news 1,2,3 in table 2 for example show that the policies program of govermentwasnot effective and the detriment to the grassroots. The word/phrase selected by TV One in news 1 contain a message that implementation of program didn’t run properly on the ground even causeda victim. Ironically, the victim was person who already old. Despite government had buildup tent to cicizens but it didn’t run well. News TV One contained criticism that the program less prepared in advance. But not for Metro TV. Such an event was not raised, the fact presented on screen was positive impact for people. Government policies would bring benefit to them. That was demonstrated by the selection of phrase "wargaantusias", "terbantu", "programunggulan". While TV One presented the facts about "korban", "antrianwarga", "tidakadanyasosialisasi". Any case with the policy of raising fuel prices, TV One criticized the government that the policy was damning citizens by presenting evidence of a protest / rejection from citizen. While Metro TV presented a defense as a reinforcement that the policy is great policy that not everyone has will to take, and was taken in order to save the interests of larger, countries, the impact would be great effect in long term. Mass media is not just has function as a information source but also

has other functions as mandated by law, including the educational function. What had beenshowed on screen by televisions was something that less educated which both media showed their enmity.Weakness one sidewas used as material for attacking the other one, then one side look for ways to defend. News 4 in table 2 was an example. TV One brought the fact regarding owner of Metro TV, Surya Paloh, who got oil and gas projects could not be separated to his proximity with Jokowi-JK. TV One also investigated the boss figure Metro TV related to oil and gas projects. TV One loaded the negative things with the choice of words, one of them used “mafia”. Later, Metro TV avenge TV One’s attack with negative news about the owner, Aburizal Bakrie (ARB). Metro TV aired that ARB was not included in the list of the richest people in Indonesia. On news lead, news 4 Table 2, Metro didn’t look revealing the purpose of news was made. In news content, presented names of richest businessman in Indonesia. At the end of news, then Metro TV said that if Abu Rizal Bakrie was not included in the list. In presenting news, mass media use news value as a basic of news is an element of the attractiveness or human interest. That was an news that had news value especially human interest or prominence. But, the question is why news then hooked up with the owner of TV One,which actually has no relevance to the content of news. Based on that I say that word has been used as tool to attack and defend each other. We can also see in these news bellow:



n


Table3.News examples : news as a attack and defend tool TV One Metro TV

n o 1

Pelem 1 ahan rupiah

2 2

3 3

4

Kasus 4 Setya Novan to

5 5

Dampak Rupiah Melemah Pelemahan Rupiah PengaruhiBisnis Bank Kualitas KreditPerbankanMenurun (Kabar Pasar, Aug 12, 2015)

: BerkahPelemahan rupiah : Omset : PengusahaNaik 50 % : Bahan Baku BerasaldaridalamNegeri : Pakaian DalamdijualKeLuarNegeri : (Metro Siang, 4 okt 2015, 12.40 WIB) Rupiah Terpuruk : Berkahdibalikpelemahan rupiah PengusahaKewalahan : Dolar Mahal : Omzettokobarangseninaik : PerajinTenunTakMampu KonsumenAsingBeliLebihBany Produksi : Pengusaha Tempe ak : OmsetMeningkat 50 hingga Terancam 60%: (MetroSiang, 27 agust 15, Bangkrut (KabarDunia, 28/8/15) 11.47 WIB) Rupiah Terpuruk : IndustriGarmendan DolarMenguat, Kopi Tekstilterkenadampak : LuwakLaris : BiayaProduksi Permintaan Kopi LuwakNaik Tinggi karenaBahanImpor: 200% : EksportIkut DieksporKe Asia Menurun : PemerintahDinilailamban HinggaKeEropa : TanganiGejolakEkonomi Kopi LuwakDibanderolRp (KabarDunia, 28 Agustus 2015 1.750.000/KG (Metro Bisnis, 4 September 2015, 14.56 WIB) Catut Nama Presiden : Setya : SetyaNovantodidesakmundur: Presiden Simbol Negara yang harusdihormati : Rakyat GeramdenganSikapSetya : PetisiDidukung 61 Ketua DPR MembantahMintaJatah ributandatangan : Dorong MKD Saham(KabarPetang, 20 Nov 15) BersikapTegas : MKD JanganDitunggangiKepentingan : SkandalMakelarKetua DPR: RekamanTakPerluDivalidasi (Metro Hari Ini, 21 Novemvber 15, 17.19 WIB Sudirman Said Bidik Mafia Politikuscatut Nama Presiden?: PetraldanPencatut Freeport : Ketua DPR RI Makelar PT Guyonanwarung kopi hanya 9 persen Freeport? (Indonesian Lawyer Club, 19 Nov 15) : NovantoDisebutCatut Nama Presiden (Prime Time News, 16 November 15)




4. News as an image building tool of media owner Normative theory of media as mentioned above of this article reveals about how mass media should act or behave. It must be free from any interference including the owners of capital. The media should also be used for the benefit to greater community, not for self-interest and group owners. But let's look at an example of Metro TV aired news about Surya Palohactivities and party he leads, Nasdem.Metro TV gave a special space to Surya Paloh and matters relating to Nasdem Party. Many activities of Surya Palohthatdidn’t have news value getting special portion in news and even some of them aired live. He gotmany duration longer than regular news. News titled Peresmian Masjid Surya Al Athaya (Metro Siang, 19.09.2015) for example,showed Surya Paloharrived to inaugurate the mosque he built in one of hotel district in Bandung. What decent aspect (news value) made this news aired on screen?Many criteria about news value. One of was formulated by Brian S.Brook, George Kennedy, DarlyR.Moen and Don Ranly (2010). That areunusualness, novelty, effect (impact), timeliness, proximity, information, conflict, prominence, human interest, surprising, sex. Refers to that criteria, news about a mosque inauguration by Metro TV bossdidn’t have enough news value to serve just because Surya Palohwas its boss. Also news about harvest aired by Metro TV on Metro Siang. Surya Palohattendedharvest feast in Pinrang (Metro Siang, Sept 10, 2015), RelawanNasdemmelawanasap (Metro Siang, 28th Oct 2015). In general, the content of news didn’ttalk a lot about Surya Paloh but video recorded a very large portion of Surya Paloh in that event. Surya Paloh in news script also mentioned that the presence of party chairman Nasdemtograceharvest festive

in dry season .RelawanNasdemmelawanasapas well as news panenraya, both broadcasted live. The content didn’t show about how the volunteers in the field against the smoke, but apparently contain Surya Paloh's speech before departure volunteers to field. This news gave pressure point to the party. News about the smog that hit several regions in Indonesia was important to broadcast because of its impact to human life. But news aired by Metro TV out of context. Let’s see news aired by TV One on ApaKabar Indonesia, August 25,2015. TV One interviewed the chairman of GerindraParty,PrabowoSubianto lived from Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. TV One asked Prabowo about inflation in Indonesia. The template on screen TV One were “AncamanKrisisEkonomi : Fundamental KekuatanEkonomi Indonesia TidakKuat : Produksi Hulu Indonesia HarusKuat : Indonesia HarusBisaSwasembada : BanyakBarangDiimpordariLuarNegeri”. As same as Metro TV, TV One used news as character image building of Prabowo as a clever man, has good vision if being a leader. We can see it from TV One’s reason choose Prabowo as a interviewee. It was television right to choose its interviewee but it might base on capability. In that case, what’s Prabowocapability, he wrote and announced as Chairman Gerindra Party not another status. In this issue, it was not Prabowo capability comment about inflation except he was a economist or businessman who affected by inflation. In this context we could see ability mass media in disseminating message quickly and widely as well as the impact generated had been used as a tool to construct a certain image about the characters or something. Image was built to get perception or impression about self or something includenews media owners. In the case of Surya Paloh impression created was a figure




who care about religious life and human life (smog, harvest). In political communication, the impression/image becomes very important because our impression to others can be basic of decisions in life (Tubbs & Moss, 2001: 34). In the political context, the clear message can be used as a tool to create the impression in the eyes of society so as to influence public decisions, especially to party in general election party has will to carry Surya Paloh/Prabowo as a leader of this country. By using the media, political elite not only reflect but also help create a mass expectations and myths that can be widely accepted (Nimmo, 2000: 30). We can see news had been used as a tool that was as a political communication channel. News was used as information source about political leaders and tool to build a certain image about candidate. leading public opinion about the candidate's self-image be a reason. Good self-image of the candidate will be a major influence for voters in deciding voting (Prasetyawan, 2012: 310). That’s all about how political imaging strategies. Building Image even told as a compulsary thing to do by politicians like in business world. Politicians or political leaders hasimportancein image building through political communication to keep social stability and fulfill social demands. Therefore, politicians must create and maintain a political action that evokes images of satisfactory, so that public opinion can be obtained from public as a political communication (Arifin, 2006: 145). Imaging is considered as something important even called as a part of political force. Successin political communication depends on the way how media construct political forces. Mass media has a significant force in political communication to influence audiences (Ibrahim, 1996: 80). In the media, not just the language but the reality runner tool can determine or

create the image in public mind. Using of languange affect the reality construction in image form because language has imply (DeFleur, 1989: 265-269). Communicators seems to be aware to what form to do. It is based on research that concluded that some candidates or politicians need to pay attention to his personality. Politicians attractive personality can influence the increase of votes (Wasesa, 2011). Why personalitiesbe something important? Politicians who have a vision for the future, nationalist, integrity, dedication, smart, wise, active in various development activities, courageous, have a spirit of leadership, have track records that are significant in the roles of strategic, is the one who has the criteria very well as a politician (ibid.,). CONCLUSSION Explanation Above indicates a change in mass media behaviour, especially television. Sending message by media should aim to interest public, but in this paper we can see, news had been exploited by the owners and his interest groups. Fire wallwas supposed to protect media from interference by any elements in order to produce fair and balanced news, contain important aspect for people was no longer function optimally. Fire wall had been broken, not from outside but from within mass media itself. Fire wall turned into ice wall. The broken of fire wall newsroom because of inclusion of elements from the outside who designed media content for political purposes. Damage that could be seen from the neglect of fairness docktrinein the form of media usage as an imaging tool of politicians, media as a tool to attack and defend each other, and a legitimacy tool by owner the group. By this case I conclude that fire wall of newroomcant work maximal if owner and the partner involve actively and directly in politic. We can see it from Metro TV and TV One’s case, MNC (HT and his Perindo




Party), also DahlanIskan and his JawaPos Group. Rajab Ritonga found that JawaPos in this case Radar Bandung and Bandung Express used news as branding tool of DahlanIskan as a owner JawaPos Group when he was the presidential candidate at Democrat Party Convention 2014(2014: 201-220). This issue according to author should be criticized in viewing the powerful role mass media in spreading message rapidly and extensively. Moreover, the frequency which used to spread message is public property entrusted to media so channel ought to

use for public interests, not for personal or group interests. The omission of this phenomenon can have an impact abusing of power and death of democracy. However, i agree to Tony Harcup said (2007) that ethical journalism is good journalism. Without ethical and grip, press will run wild to new form of invader to public. If the press is no longer respect the existing ethics it is not impossible that the press will not respect the truth anymore. Eventhoughkey of news is fact, truth and honesty.

REFERENCE Arifin, A. (2006). PencitraandalamPolitik.Jakarta :Pustaka Indonesia. Baran, J.S., Davis, K.D. (2010).Mass Communication Theory :Foundatios, Ferment and Future Bandung : SalembaHumanika. Black.J.; Whitney, F. C. (1988).Introduction to Mass Communication.Dubuque : C. BrownPublisher. Brooks, B.,Kennedy, G., Moen, D. R., Ranly, D. (2010).News Reporting and Writing. America :Macmillan Higher Education. DeFleur, L.M., Dennis, E., (1988). Understanding Mass Communication.Boston Houghton :Miffin. DeFleur, M. (1989).Theories of Mass Communication, 5th edition. London : Longman Eriyanto.(2011). AnalisisIsi :PengantarMetodologiuntukPenelitianIlmuKomunikasidanIlmu-ilmuSosiallainnya, Jakarta : PrenadaKencana Media Group ----------. (2012). AnalisisWacana.Yogyakarta :LKiS. Harcup, T.(2007). The Ethical Journalist. New York :Sage Publications. Kovach, B., Rosenstiel, T. (2003).Sembilan ElemenJurnalisme.Jakarta :YayasanPantaudanKedutaanBesar AS. Krippendorff, K.( 2004). Content Analysis An Introduction to its Methodology. Sage Publications. Kriyantono, R. (2010). TehnikPraktisRisetKomunikasi. Jakarta: KencanaPrenada Group. KodeEtikJurnalistikuntukWartawan Indonesia No.03/SK-DP/III/2006. Latif, Y., Subandy, I. (1996). Bahasa danKekuasaan :PolitikWacana di PanggungOrba. Bandung: Mizan. Littlejohn;S.W., Foss, K.A. (2011) . Theories Of Human Communication. Waveland Press. McQuail, D. (2011). McQuail’sMass Communication Theory (6th edition).Jakarta :SalembaHumanika. Mursito.(2006). MemahamiInstitusi Media SebuahPengantar.Surakarta :LinduPustakadan SPIKOM Surakarta. ----------. (2012). Realitas Media.Surakarta : Smart Media. Nimmo, D. (2000).KomunikasiPolitik :KhalayakdanEfek.Bandung :Rosdakarya. PedomanPerilakuPenyiarandanStandar Program Siaran (P3SPS) Tahun 2012. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 476



Prasetyawan, W. (2012). Image Construction in Politics : Political Adverstiment in 2009 Indonesian Election. Journal of Issaes in Asia.27(2). 310 Ritonga, R. (2014). Pertarungan Makna pada Konvensi Parti Demokrat dalam Mencari Calon Presiden RI. Malaysian Journal of Communication. Jilid 30(2) 2014: 201-220. Steward, L. T., Sylvia, M. (2001).Human Communication.Bandung :Rosdakarya. Suranto, Aw. 2010. KomunikasiSosialBudaya. Yogyakarta :GrahaIlmu. Undang-UndangRepublik Indonesia. No. 32/2002 TentangPenyiaran. ------------------------------------------------. No 40/1999 tentang Pers. Vaughn, S. L., (2008). Encyclopedia of American journalism.New York : Taylor Taylor& Francis Group. Wasesa, S.A. 2011. Political Branding and Public Relations.Jakarta :GramediaPustakaUtama. Tim Knight in http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/tim-knight/tv-anchors-quit-onair_b_21/78734.html http://pilkada.liputan6.com/read/2369511/kpi-ancam-cabut-izin-lembaga-penyiaran-jikadukung-pasangan-calon, 19 Nov 2015 at 08:42 WIB; http://tekno.liputan6.com/read/2078286/terancam-kehilangan-hak-siar-tv-one-metro-tvakan-dipanggil, 15 Jul 2014 at 16:53 WIB, http://www.merdeka.com/tag/k/kpi/berita-metrotv-dan-tvone-paling-banyak-diprotespemirsa.html, Jumat, 28 Desember 2012 at 16:43:01).







Anti-Drugs Message Based on Youth Informations’ Need About Drugs: Efforts to Fight Drug Abuse Among Teens Sumarwati1and Atikah Anindyarini 2 1

Dr. Sumarwati, M.Pd; Sebelas Maret University; Email:[email protected] 2

Atikah Anindyarini, S.S., M.Hum.; Sebelas Maret University; Email: [email protected]

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to describe (1) the information needed youth about drugs and (2) the characteristics of a potential anti-drug message in the fight against drug abuse among teenagers. Participants of the research are the primary audience (pupils and students), the secondary audience (teachers and parents), and tertiary audiences (officials linked to drug eradication) as well as documents. Collecting data by questionnaires, focus group discussions, and indepth interviews, was to test the validity of data with informants' Review techniques, triangulation of sources, researchers, and methods. Data analysis with interactive analysis techniques. Conclusion The results of this study are as follows. First, information about drugs needed teens includes information about legal sanctions, the impact on the physical appearance, the impact on mental health, physical characteristics of the drug, the impact on the friendship, the impact on student achievement, the cause of the onset of drug abuse, strategies to avoid drug abuse, sanctions of schools, and the impact on the family unit. Secondly, the delivery of anti-drug message that you want teens is a short message (maximum 10 words), using popular language, declarative and introgatif intonations, aims to bring an appeal, and straightforward style. As for the anti-drug ads look like teens is that using illustration (image), the background color is striking and varied. Third, the draft anti-drug ads should accommodate the needs of adolescents for information about drugs, the technique of delivering the desired message, and the appearance of ads that favored Keywords: antidrug message, information, need of teenagers, fight drug abuse

1. Introduction

I

f it is associated with its goal of increasing knowledge and awareness of the dangers of drugs, information and antidrug messages should be oriented towards the main audience (teenagers). Otherwise, the installation destination to fight againts drug abuse will not be achieved.Therefore, there should be a study that could answer these problems.

In many countries, especially America, has implemented a variety of strategic planning and research in the development of social messages, such as antismoking messages, antialkohol, and antidrug This was done after realizing the message that there has been less effective. From various studies it is known that a key factor in the failure of the social message is not studying his audience that encourages the study of the




development strategy of the message a result, a wide range of audience development model based message has been formulated, as designed by kids, for kids, through kids; CSAP's Eight Guidelines for Social Marketing Program Development; The Seven Doors Social Marketing Approach; and SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time frame) Based on the models were then created social messages that are proven more effective influence an audience. Oriented of the phenomenon, would not be negotiable, the development of anti-drug messages in Indonesia should be treated in a professional manner. So that the messages conveyed are not messages that is not beneficial to his audience, but the message is designed based on the needs of its main audiences. For that reason, researchers will develop a model anti-drug message that accommodate the needs of adolescents for information about drugs. Thus, the purpose of this research is to obtain: (1) the map information needs of adolescents about the dangers of drugs, (2) conceptual model of anti-drug messages in graphic media for teens, and (3) the draft anti-drug message for graphic media (posters, stickers, and T-shirts) were developed based on map data needs of adolescents 2. Method 2.1. Research design This research was conducted by the research method development (Research and Development or R & D) so that its output in the form of a product. That will be developed is the anti-drug messages that rekevan with the needs of adolescents. Based on the model proposed by Sugiyono (2015: 407) research and development procedures include: (1) the preliminary stage, (2) the development stage, and (3) the testing phase. 2.2. Participants

Participants of this study includes 142 adolescents aged between 15 to 26 years. Aged 15-18 years there are 64 people, 1922 years there are 43 people, and 23-26 years as many as 35 people. They include covering pupils and students in Surakarta. Sampling was done by purposive sampling or with a certain considerations, namely cooperative and communicative. To test the feasibility of the prototype model of the message carried by expert judgment, which involves expert language, psychology, education, and law. 2.3. Data Collection Techniques, Test Validity of data, and Data Analysis Data collection techniques used in this study are: (a) interview, (b) analysis of documents, (c) participatory observation, and (d) Focus Group Discussion (FGD). The validity of the data in this study is done by: (a) extend the involvement of observation; (B) persistence of observation; and (c) triangulation. The data were analyzed kuantitatiof and qualitatively. Quantitative analysis was done by statistical deskripttif. As is done with a qualitative interactive analysis includes the following activities: (a) data reduction, (b) display or presentation of data, (c) the conclusion then verified (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

3. Discussion Information on Teen of Drug Needed To obtain data about the adolescents' needs for information about drugs, technical collection are as follows: (1) deliver information about drugs for 45 minutes, (2) provide a checklist for selecting the information that needs to be issued, (3) calculate the percentage of voters in any information, and (4) make the display data in tabular form to see the age difference. The information presented are as follows. Physical characteristics of drug




Drugs is an acronym for narcotics, psychotropic and addictive substances hazardous. Narcotics are substances or drugs derived from plants or not a plant, either synthetic or semi-synthetic that can cause a decrease or change of consciousness, loss of pain and can cause dependence and menjadio distinguished three types (Law No. 35 of 2009). Psychotropic substances or drugs are either natural or synthetic non-narcotics, the effect of psychoactive through selective effect on the central nervous system that causes changes in mental activity and behavior were divided into 4 groups (Law No 5 of 1997). As for other dangerous addictive substances are natural materials, semi-synthetic or synthetic that can be used as a substitute for morphine or cocaine can disrupt the central nervous system, such as alcohol.

the use of drugs in the short term and may pose a modicum enables a pleasant sensation, such as fatigue, sleepiness is not easy, and look fit. However, in the long term the effect is just the opposite, among others, resulted in drastic weight loss, dry skin, wrinkles, red eyes, dry lips. Longterm effects that are not known and taken into account. In fact, once someone tried drugs, it is difficult to stop.

All of these types have the physical characteristics, both of which are easily recognized, or not, especially for this type of psychotropic substances. So that teenagers do not fall into the dangers of drugs, the physical characteristics of these drugs should be introduced to prevent them from drug abuse because of ignorance

Drugs containing psychotropic substances commonly used by doctors or hospitals to anesthetize patients who want surgery or as a remedy for certain diseases. Use outside of its function and the dose outside conditions may affect the nervous system, resulting in addiction and dependence. A disturbance in the mental health among others (1) often tense and anxious, (2) lost confidence, apathy, dreamer, suspiciously, (3) agitating, become malignant and behavior brutal, (4) difficulty concentrating, feeling annoyed and depressed, and (5) tends to hurt themselves, insecurity, and even suicide.

Sanctions of Law Actions drug abuse is against the law so that perpetrators will receive legal sanction. Based on Law No. 35 of 2009 on narcotic drug abusers can be punishable by a minimum of 2 years and the most severe is the death penalty. In article 116 categories of offenses described drug include carrying, sending, storing, using, being an intermediary, selling, producing. It turned out that most teens do not know about these things so for teens information about legal sanctions considered very necessary to be disseminated. The impact of drugs on physical appearance Most drug addicts, consumption purpose in the beginning was to get a positive effect on the appearance. Indeed,

The impact of drugs on physical health Drug consumption have an impact on health, including the importance of human organs, such as heart problems, lungs, reproductive, liver shrinkage and sexual function. Symptoms appear is often a headache, nausea and vomiting, diarrheadiarrhea, increased body temperature, no menstruation, and insomnia. The impact on mental health

The impact of drugs on social relations Interruption to the psychological condition in people who do drugs have direct impact on the social environment. Disturbances in the emotions make a person irritable, it can even be a trigger fighting between semaja. In addition, the drug needs to be able to encourage someone to commit a crime, such as stealing. Thus, the social disruption caused, among others, (1) an act of antisocial and immoral, (2) a nuisance and a burden on the family, and (3) education was interrupted, and a bleak future




The impact of drugs on achievement Generally in adolescence, a person is still studying in school or college. Someone involved in drug abuse can experience the spirit of learning and concentration decreases, interrupted his way of thinking, and easily discouraged. Of course, this has an impact on educational achievement. Based on the results of the mapping data and interviews can be concluded that

adolescents in all age groups (15-26 years old) feel they have little knowledge about drugs that require more information. In fact most of the states already require such information when he was younger, when in junior high school. In addition, when seen from the percentage of the audience who chose information about drugs showed the younger the age, the greater curiosity about drugs. The complete data can be read in table 1.

Table 1. Map Information Needs of Youth N

The percentage of voter information

Kind of information

No

Age

Age

Age

15-18

19-22

23-26

1

Physical characteristics of drug

100

88

74

2

Sanctions of Law

100

100

69

3

The impact of drugs on physical appearance

100

93

86

4

The impact of drugs on physical health

100

93

80

5

The impact of drug on mental health

100

90

75

6

The impact of drugs on social relations

58

65

52

7

The impact of drugs on achievement of study

70

54

43

8

The impact of drug on the family

70

42

52

9

The causes of drug abuse

85

78

100

10

Strategies to avoid drug abuse

94

88

100

Although not all types of information, the pattern of decline in the percentage of voters occurred in the higher age group, or constituency decrease during the dog matures. It happened on the information regarding (1) the physical characteristics of the drug, (2) the sanction of law, (3) the impact on the physical appearance, (4) the impact on physical health, (5) the impact on mental health, and (6) the impact on the family. Instead, the information regarding (1) the cause of a drug abuse and (2) a strategy to avoid the dangers of drugs actually increased the percentage or number of voters increased in the dog matures. In general, at all age

levels, less teen looked at the relationship between drug abuse and family achievement. It appears from the voters in at least two things. Model-Based Anti-Drug Message Needs of Youth Conceptual Model What is meant by the conceptual model is a verbal or visual construction that helps to distinguish between what is important and what is not (Jonker, Pennink&Wayuni, 2011). Another definition states that the conceptual model is the construction of the various theories




that represent something of a variety of variables and relationships antarvariabelnya logically (Johnson and Monroe, 2004: 34). Thus it can be stated that the conceptual model is a representation of concepts and relationships between concepts are built based on various theories to illustrate the ideal design approach about something. There are several major criteria in formulating conceptual models, namely (1) involve a variety of important concepts that are relevant, (2) oriented in ideal conditions, and (3) easy to interpret stakeholders (Jonker, Pennink and Wayuni, 2011). Based on various theories and research results in brief can be formulated signs conceptual model as follows: 1. Messages must broaden teens about the dangers of drugs. 2. The language used is a popular language used daily among adolescents, such as the inclusion of the words do not, if, already, fren, en, or loe

3. The message is presented briefly and dense with message length ranges from 4 to 12 words to be easy to remember, such as "already know, then stay away" 4. Couple phrases with rhymes / rhymes together in order to create beautiful effect when spoken, such as "friendship, not just along the road, not only shared, but so the shielding of the temptation of drugs" 5. Illustration of the message should portray teenage life full of creations Prototype Model Based on the signs on a conceptual model, further development of the prototype model of anti-drug message. Furthermore, the prototype was tested by experts and the results of all relevant prototypes with the conceptual model. As examples of prototypes developed antidrug message when the posters are presented documentation implemented.

Figure 1. Messages containing information on the physical characteristics of drug Messages in Figure 1 as an effort to provide information about the characteristics of a drug that is not generally known to the public, but they only know his name. With that information teens are expected to recognize and distinguish objects They include the types of drugs. With so teens do not be fooled by misleading offers. Forms made very short messages, but hit its meaning, namely that

already recognize could mean avoiding various types of drugs.




Figure 2. Messages containing information on sanctions of law Message in figure 2 convey information to legal sanctions, this drug abuse image cuffed legs as a symbol of inmates (prisoners). Information relating to the imposition of penalty charges for users and drug dealers which is a type of drug class I and quoted from narcotics laws. Furthermore, the draft was revised to 1b with the addition of the word because,

reduction of lawsuits for users is 2 years (minimum requirement), as well as the background color. However, the results of the evaluation of the activities of the acceptability of content obtained feedback so that the charges were made up, ie 5 years, with the aim to create the perception as a heavy penalty for adolescents.

Figure 3 Messages containing information on sanctions of law Figure 3 is an example of anti-drug messages that convey messages about legal sanctions for drug abusers. Figures 1a and 1b is an early draft of the message. Actions delivered drug abuse is as a user, host, storage, sellers, and drug makers. To support the text message presented an illustration that is a couple of policemen with guns and prisons. The second image is intended that the audience knows that the act of drug abuse has serious effects, ie to deal with officials and allow it to

become a convict. The message quoted legislation narcotics and psychotropic substances by simplifying the language to make it more easily understood.




Figure 4. Messages containing information on the impact on physical appearance Messages in Figure 4 convey information about the true impact of drug use on physical appearance. This message is intended to correct assumption on teenagers are also the people that drug consumption can make the body become

thin or slim. And the effect is not only that, malainkan impact on the face pale and dry skin. This message was backed up picture of a woman (made seemed very thin, her eyes red and her lips pale. That is the effect of a drug addict.

Figure 5. Messages containing information on strategies to avoid drugs Figure 5 deliver anti-drug messages related to the cause of the onset of drug abuse, namely from trial and error. Despite wearing the imperative intonation in the starting phase, but from the aspect of his choice which is a popular saying that the ruling gave the impression is of a group of young people themselves. Images shown are someone who barely affected to try drugs. His hands crossed-out to convey the message that it's wrong actions. Teens about drugs

and

needs

information

Based on identification information about teen drug needed is a fact that the

younger teens, the more information it needs. Moreover, the younger the age the greater curiosity about drugs so that it can be concluded that the provision of as much information very well done when someone starts stepping in early adolescence, the age above 12 years. Armed with the knowledge of early enables a teenager more readiness early in the face solicitation or desire for abusing drugs, which are more confident to reject (Morris, 2004: 3). This can be attributed to the characteristics of adolescents who are in the middle of a time of self or identity so easily affected his confidence (Palmgrren, et al., 2011)




The anti-drug message to young people must present sound teen The communication process is a process of moving messages from the communicator to the communicant. A message may be symbols, which may take the form of images, text, sounds, movements and so on. The messages in the form of a 'sign' or symbol is a result of the implementation of the messages to be delivered (Glider, et al., 2011).. After all manifestations of visual communication design in the form of a message is a grain visible, which is to be seen and or heard komunikannya and is a medium between the designer a message or visual communicator with the audience In the delivery of the message to teenagers as a communicant, who became the communicator and what is communicated be so important and affect the effectiveness of the message. This can be attributed to research Pechman and Reibling (2010) who found that the antismoking messages on television are not lowered cigarette consumption among teenagers because of the view teen models to is an adult, are not among them so that the message should not be directed to them. Thus, the effectiveness of the message for adolescents should be linked to whether or not accommodated their interests. The importance of studying the target audience of social message has been proved by various studies. Palmgreen et al. (2001: 292) found that modifications antidrug messages by audience desires, that includes the risk of marijuana consumption, proved successful in reducing consumption. The same thing was found Atkins and Schiller (2002), which identifies the success of smoking message in America lies in the accommodation of the behaviors that were very interested audience in the message, for example, looks more gentle or cause sexual attraction. This shows that

knowledge of the information needed audience positively correlated with the effectiveness of the message. Therefore, the anti-drug message content that was developed by taking into account interests proved acceptable audience and entice them to meresepsi message delivered. This was evidenced by their increased knowledge about drugs is significant in adolescents.

Sound juvenile synonymous with popular language in conversation Interests of teenagers towards antidrug message content must be accommodated is information about a drug that is needed and delivery in the form tesk and nonteks. Delivery of messages related to the selection of language diversity issues, the purpose of communication, intonation, and language style. The variety of language desired primary audience (teenagers) is a popular language in terms of the language which is used in a variety of informal conversations included. Language selection problem becomes so important because it reflects that the party that conveys the message is from their own ranks. Language character thus assessed will reduce the impression of patronizing towards them (Wright, 2005). Sound delivered by fellow teens have an image that was delivered by their peers, not adults or the elderly. This recall in social development, adolescents are more oriented to the group and he began to move away from the family, especially the parents to show that they are not children anymore which should always get attention from their parents. Therefore, for teens use a variety of languages raw identified with adult language or language teachers so that the delivery with that type tend to not be noticed / heard. Thus, to accommodate the interests adolescents, the delivery of the message in the message would not want to use a nonstandard cover. Judging from sociolinguistics use of language so that it




has reached a level of communicative language. As stated Hymes that language n communicative language is the language that the psychological audience, the language appropriate to the context of talks, and language actually used within the group although not in accordance with the rules of the language (in Nurkamto, 2003: 562). The same is conveyed Richard and Rodgers (in Suyadi, 2000: 142) that reached the level of communicative language use should be based on two important principles, namely the principles of communication and meaningfulness. The principle states that the communication-oriented language activity real communication can support the successful use of the language. Real communication in this sense refers to the exchange of information between two or more people through the use of symbols verbal and nonverbal, both spoken and written (Block, Morvitz, Putsis, & Sen, 2012)The principle states that the significance of meaningful language can .

support comprehension. Therefore, activity should consider selecting a language to speak in a way that embodies the meaning that is easy to understand the audience. The language in question is an authentic language, the language of nature, which is actually used in everyday life by public speakers and are not prepared for learning language. The same thing Morris stated that communication is communicative or can not be seen from the language selection problem and its significance level (Fishbein, et all., 2008). The choice of language is words and sentence structure used is acceptable (acceptable) for audience or not. The level of significance refers to the sense of how far the gap between the information submitted with the understanding of the audience. The smaller the gap shows in a language easily understood audience, otherwise if the greater show that language is difficult to understand

REFERENCE Block, L G., Morvitz V.G., Putsis, W.P. & Sen, S.K. (2012): “Assessing the impact of antidrug advertising on Adolescent drug consumption: results from a behavioral economic model”, American Journal of Public Health, 92: 1346-1351. Fishbein, M. et all. (2008). Avoiding the boomerang: testing the effectiveness of antidrug public service announcements before a national campaign. American Journal of Public Health. 92 (2). 238-245. Glider, P., et al. (2011). Challenging the collegiate rite of passage: A campus-wide social marketing media campaign to reduce binge drinking. Journal of Drug Education, 31(2), 207-220. Kowalsky, Theodore J. (Ed).(2010). ‘Drug abuse is a major problem’. Case studies on teaching. London: Longman. Miles, M.B. dan Huberman, A. H. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. London, New Delhi: Sage Publications. Palmgrren, P., Donohew, L., Lorch, E.P., Hoyle, R.H. & Stephenson, M.T. (2011) “Television campaigns and adolescent marijuana use: Test of sensation seeking targeting. American Journal of Puclic Health. 91(2), 292-296. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 487



Pechman, C. &Reibling, E.T. (2010). Planning an effective anti-smoking, mass media campaign targeting adolescents. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 6(3), 80-94. Purwanto, B. A. & Sumarwati. (2004). “Pengaruh slogan dan buku cerita tentang bahaya penyalahgunaan narkoba terhadap sikap antinarkoba pada remaja” . Jurnal Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial. Vol. V (2), 121-136. Sorensen, James L. & London, Julie. (1998). ‘Psychoeducational group approach: An experimental of drugs educational intervention’. Journal of Research on Adolesence, 4 (1), 5-19. Suwarjo. (2000). ‘Perkembanganremaja dan penyalahgunaannarkoba’. DalamDinamikaPendidikan; MajalahIlmuPendidikan, 1, VII, 31-44. Sullivan,A.(1986).‘Drugs use and self-concept’.Journal of Drugs Education,15(3),73-85 Undang-undangNarkotikadanPsikortopika. (2006) Jakarta: Presindo. Wright, L.S. (2005). ‘High school polydrug users and abusers’. Adolesence, 20, 53-61. Wolford, C. & Swisher. (1986). ‘Behavior intension as an indicator of drug and alcohol use’. Journal of Drugs Education, 15 (3), 52-67.




Ethnopedagogy Through Pencak Silat Martial Art Suryo Ediyono Faculty of Cultural Science, Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta, Email:[email protected]

Abstract: Pencak silat Martial art is a media of humanism education in traditional java society. Goal of martial art exercise is not only for promote physical power and technical skill, but also more important is for character building and personality building. Pencak silat is intended to shape human being with high character, capability of self control and apply various good actions giving positive benefit for self and society development. Objective of this study was to analyze character building through pencak silat martial art. It used historical factual approach. Pencak silat martial art as media for character building is in essence an effort of Indonesian nation as spiritual and physical exercise to shape agile human being that can comprehend and apply high moral values. The character values include noble quality, loyalty, great heart, wise, tolerance, courteousness, honesty, obedience, and never give up. Key Words: ethopedagogy, pencak silat, martial art,character building.

INTRODUCTION

P

encak silat as culture of Indonesian nation has existed since centuries ago. Human being want always develop and defend their life. They face natural challenge and various wild animals by consider motion of various animals. Then, human being imitates way to fight by imitating way animals fight, as source of pencak silat motion. For example, pencak silat motion imitates motion of monkey, snake, tiger and other animal. Various pencak silat schools adopt its name by animal type, place name or island name. In more advance era, the martial art develops more completely and is called as pencak silat. Related to the matter Article 32 of the 1945 Constitution stipulates that nation culture is culture emerging as effort of Indonesian people. Old and origin

culture as cultural peaks in all region in Indonesia is considered as national culture. Pencak silat is old and original culture that is national culture Pencak silat has habit and unwritten provisions. Each martial art skill has philosophy that should be understood and applied by one studying the martial art. The more one masters a martial art skill, the higher obligation in understanding and applying its philosophy. It is caused by two matters. (1) Martial art skill education has objective of shaping human being with highly good character that can do self control and apply good action giving positive benefit for self and society development. (2) Martial art skill will be danger if it is owned and mastered by irresponsibility persons. In Indonesia, there are many pencak silat schools that




have many sameness and similarity in philosophical aspect. Place of various pencak silat school is Ikatan pencak Silat Indonesia (IPSI). IPSI has main task of unifying, developing, conserving, growing and disseminating pencak silat in Indonesia. Based on the description on characteristic of pencak silat, this research was intended to explore cultural value of pencak silat and to find out content of good characteristic thought. Pencak Silat, as one of Indonesian heritages, can be used as self-defense, can be enjoyed in terms of its artistic beauty, and can develop sense of brotherhood and selfesteem.The natures of pencak silatas Indonesian heritage have been developed throughout generations so that it comes to its present form (Nalapraya, 1998). Those developments are intended to bring goodness and benefits for the societyin terms of physical and spiritual values. These values contain educational matters which are essential to shape well-mannered people. In Pencak silat, there are four elements which stand as a unity. They are mentalityspirituality, self-defense, art, and sport. (1) mental-spiritual aspect means that a master is not only trained to understand and develop his physical skills, but also more importantly to truly comprehend life itself and the struggle to live in harmony within the society. (2) Self-defense aspect means that pencak silat is a mean of defending one-self from any attacks or dangers. (3) Artistic aspect means that pencak silat is also a form of entertainment in which every step and movement is well-arranged to achieve artistic beauty. (4) Sport aspect means that pencak silat is physical activities empowered with knightly spirit. Pencak silat is a piandel which means that it is something to be proud of. The four elements are the means to shape a master who will lead a pencak silat training-house. This paper discusses ethnopedagogy through pencak silat martial art.

METHOD

This research used factual historical approach method.Pencak silat Martial art data was obtained from library and field. After the data was collected, it was studied descriptively, analyzed and interpreted to discover meaning of pencak silat philosophy. Then, comparison was conducted to compare view of one pencak silat school and other to find out similarity in their good characteristic teaching. Critical reflection was conducted to give interpretation onethnopedagogy pencak silat teaching in newly manner in finding good character value of pencak silatmartial art in comprehensive manner.Then synthesis, to find a unity of complete statement on the original meaning behind the culture of pencak silat, which aims for safety.

DISCUSSION Pencak is attack-defense motion in form of dance having rhythm with certain rule on polite behavior and is usually performed for public entertainment. Silat is essence of pencak, to fight and cannot be showed in public. Pencak silat developed integratedly in people life that is part of traditional custom of ethnic group in Indonesia. In some regions, pencak silat still play important role in custom ceremonies and its continuation is kept by society figure. Although there are various pencak silat schools in Indonesia, in essence they have common characteristics.Eddi M. Nalapraya (1988) explains budi as spiritual power having mind, feel and desire element. Pekerti is form of budi that is visible and felt by other. Pekerti is character, while there is difference between budi pekerti and mentality in their characteristic. Budi pekerti has internal, individual and personal nature. Budi pekerti is not mental, because predicate attaching on in is only right and good and refer and orienting on moral dream of society. Right and good is result of evaluation and selection of mind and feeling based on desire. The most ideal budi pekerti is high value budi pekerti that




refer and orient to high moral dream of society. Budi pekerti in pencak silat functions as self control. Fight method is not free for usage, but its usage is limited for self defense when peaceful ways is not successful. Participant of pencak silat school having good character is expected to be ideal human being that can create and keep world happiness and behave according to moral value containing highly good character. Value in pencak silat is something believed, held and understood rationally and comprehended affectively as valuable matter for life reference and motivation. The value should be held hightly and affect one’s action. One’s value is measured through their action.Pencak silat as art orients to beautiful factors but its implementation should contain logic element of pencak silat as martial art as its source. Creativity and improvisation in pencak silat as art to present beauty of pencak silat optimally should be in limit of pencak silat logic as martial art. Otherwise, pencak silat as art will miss art value. In addition, there is proposal and effort to enter pencak silat art into official curriculum of official school and higher education institution with following reason: 1. Pencak silat is part of national culture that should be conserved 2. Pencak silat is special martial art of Indonesia that is heritage of ancestor 3. Pencak silat can give physical and mental spiritual power required for national resistance 4. Pencak silat can shape steady and stable personality 5. Pencak silat can give contribution as media for guiding and developing youth and heighten cultural value There is difficulty in determining the origin of pencak silat and who spread it on. Track the history of pencak silat from beginning until the present is not easy because the written material very limited and oral information obtained from figures of pencak silat is not yet able to answer completely all the conundrum, especially,

in determining the origin of pencak silat, explaining when and from where pencak silat originated, how the early development occurred and who was the first to pass it on. Humans as social creatures have instinctive needs to ensure the safety and self-prosperity nor their society. In line with the development of human culture be found society members who specifically think of the best ways as a skill in ensuring safety and prosperity. That skill then practiced as an experiment that improved continuously and enhanced. Thought and creation of these skills was conducted by transforming the behavior and gestures of agile animals and malignant, such as tigers, monkeys, snakes, birds, and other animals, in self-defense or attack his opponent (Saleh, 1992). In regard to the origin appearance of pencak silat, according to Marijun Sudirohadiprodjo (1982) describes malignancy the various beast which threaten human life at that time still have a lot in the island they live on. In dealing with attack of various kinds of beast, humans noticed the movements occurred by animals that attack of the humans. How to fight by imitating the movement of various types animals which raises the movement martial arts pencak silat. For example, the movement pencak silat imitate the movements of monkeys, snakes, tigers, and kinds of other animals. Therefore, arise the various streams of pencak silat adjusted its name with the name of the animals, name place, or the name of island.The story of origin pencak silat, there is a change function in its development which occur slowly started lesson martial arts, namely the Palace. In the Palace, pencak silat martial science reserved only for members of the royal family in order to prepare them carry out their duties as defenders of the Kingdom. Further development, pencak silat enriched by new insights that connect finesse technique self-defense with human development in a whole cosmology. Education of pencak silat not only vocational in nature, nor as skills only,




however aimed to establishment the quality of human personality. In the passage, spiritual aspect which was originally conceived by implicitly in pencak silat has a place on the surface and ultimately dominates the martial arts.

Characteristic Ethnopedagogy

of

2.

3.

Traditional

This group does not know official organization, monthly fee, or uniform because its shape is informal. Conservative pencak silat school is not spread broadly and their student was concentrated around the teacher’s house. Practice was done in hidden area or in close room and should not be watched by non member. In this way, the teacher has intention to protect motion or technique they have to not being stolen by other school. They hold tradition, are very close and hide his knowledge that is convinced being obtained by master through revelation.A teacher does only open the secret and share his capability to people assigned as brother in the school with certain ceremony. The ritual is different in each school although its motive is same with providing offer carried from house by student to teacher as symbol of self surrender from biological family to school family (Notosoejitno, 1996). Mix of martial art with magical aspect can affect view of conservative school group over pencak silat as sport. In general they did not acknowledge this aspect and consider pencak silat as martial art. They did not follow competition activity with reason that techniques they have are too dangerous for competition because each steps and attach used inner power that may lead to death. In this matter, conservative school hold principle that its ancestor defines that pencak silat is only used for defense of necessity. Notosoejitno (1996) explain characteristic of traditional school as follow 1. The leader position is inherited from generation to generation, which mean

4.

5.

6.

7. 8.

the founder will teach his student to inherit the school Admission of candidate student is limited through selection and thigh probation,. Education, teaching and practice method is monologue and conservative. Student should follow what is taught by the teacher and the motions did not change Provision, rule and code of ethic of the school are simple and unwritten. Usually code of ethic is recited together by student when they will start practice. Violation against school discipline is given with sanction of termination as member School did not know attribute or administration and written documents related to organization, education, teaching and practice The school did not take feed or contribution from member School activity is funded by school leader.

The school teaches life philosophy and body health and also teaches motion beauty by including art of pencak silat in traditional theater such as ludruk, lenong and ketoprak. In addition, the school is happy to perform art capability in public by doing martial art performance in open area in folk parties.

Ethnopedagogy of pencak silat Pencak silat teaching has some benefit that is obtained from its exercise as form of good character education. Bashori (1996), explain the benefits such as 1. Discipline attitude. Almost all pencak silat schools emphasize discipline. It is applied in on-time exercise. Participant coming late will get punishment. The other is willingness to keep school oath. There is sanction for people violating the rule. Discipline is prepared through various orders that



2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.


are expected to shape disciplinary life style. Self confidence attitude. Martial art skill give great contribution for safety feeling, which in turn can grow positive and optimistic attitude. It is a feeling of capability to deal with hamper and still being strong in facing threat. According to many researches, self confidence attitude is one of ways toward living success. High motivation. Individual having high motivation can undergo hard pencak silat exercises for years. Motivation is a kind of thought related to how do something well. People with high motivation can be known with energetic attitude. Helping to create concentration. With exercise fighter can focus on certain target, when the opponent is only one or divide it when there is many opponents. Such concentration exercise is useful for daily life such as in campus, office or in other places. Self control. In silat world, there is philosophy of rice concept meaning the more content, the deeper bowing. It means individual with high silat skill will have self control capability. Essence of self control is capability to hold desire fulfillment when the desire is against ethic norm or there is higher goal. Tolerance to pain. With hard exercise, physical impact make fighter have familiar experience with pain. Bruise, sprained, out of joint, and so on are daily exercise for silat doer. Capability to resist pain make fighter has good psychophysical endurance. Creating creative power. One of differences between pencak silat and other martial art types is broad opportunity for movement and its variety development. The condition make fighter has productive though to find out various more beautiful and effective alternative motion. Good fighter is creative person having capability to play with idea, concept,

symbol, words, number and especially seeing unusual correlation between the ideas. In this more complex era, creativity is important. In this modern life, human being should not only surrender to fate, but they always make efforts and apply improvement in the life. Final result of teaching pencak silat sport is capability in defending against danger from inside and outside and secure harmony with environment. Teaching of pencak silat philosophy in essence is to look for true truth. Human is expected to obey and do all society orders and religious orders. The teaching is implanted in human person that can develop good character. Good character in pencak silat is not innate quality but it is resulted from contact with outer world as environmental factor allowing entrance of positive value from family, school or religious environment into one’s mentality,through internalization of entering value. Mentality in daily life may be seen from how far or how great one’s level in comprehending, obeying, applying and developing valid order in answering era challenge and development and in using positive opportunity to build their selves and to work for society interest. Mental spiritual value in pencak silat has meaning of good character.Studying pencak silat will shape intact human being that is source of development. Benefit of pencak silat contained in Kapita Pencak Silat (1996) is: 1. Increase piety of God with good personality and loving in Indonesian culture 2. Have self confidence, self control 3. Keep self dignity, responsibility and personal and social discipline 4. Enforce truth, honesty, and justice and resist in facing ordeal and temptation 5. Respect human, particularly elder people and being model for younger people 6. Have peaceful and friendly attitude with others




7. Have high sensitiveness and social care and help other in difficulty 8. Humble, friendly and having good manner in speaking and social intercourse 9. Introspection, self correction, asking pardon over mistake he make and give pardon to others asking it. 10. Prioritize societal interest over personal interest 11. Make sacrifice for joint interest Pencak silat education is not teaching, not also skill, but shaping human personality quality. In transition spiritual aspect that is early contained implicitly in pencak silat got place in surface and eventually dominates martial art. In Java, there is relation between pencak silat and cosmological view of manunggaling kawula gusti that is developed systematically. Spiritual learning to get power from object, mantra and inner power is continued and improved. Pencak silat is equipped with spiritual science is

still used for practical matter as support of physical capability in battle. Pencak silat begin used as media to achieve unity of human and God. In result, Java people respect on pencak silat player change to be person having capability of fighting enemy and having high moral.

CONCLUSSION Ethnopedagogy pencak silat culture as ancestor heritage should be explored, built and developed. Pencak silat contains martial art, sport, art and mental spiritual element. Higher value of pencak silat will be useful for good character education. Essence of pencak silat is looking for true truth that play role in implanting good character values in position as God crater, personal, social and universe. Pencak silatmartial art education contain good character director to shape attitude with high moral of honest, responsible, independent, brave, and humble nature.

REFERENCE Bakker A& Zubair, A.(1994).Metodologi Penelitian Filsafat. Yogyakarta: Kanisius. Bashori, Khoiruddin(1996).Pengaruh Manusia: Yogyakarta.

Psikologi Pencak Silat pada Mental Spiritual

Bratawijaya, Thomas Wiyasa.(1997).Mengungkapkan dan Mengenal Budaya Jawa. Jakarta.Pradnya Paramita. Cheong, Jack. (2003). Origins of Chinese Martial Arts: Asal Mula Seni Beladiri. TionghoaJakarta.Gramedia. Djoemali, Ki Moh. (1985). Pencaksilat dan Seni Budaya. Yogyakarta:Kementerian P.P & K. Draeger, Donn F. (1992). The Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tokyo:Charles E. Tuttle Company. Gautama,

Candra. (1995).Bangkitnya Perguruan-Perguruan Di Jawa: Studi Kasustentang Ajaran dan Organisasi Sosial Perguruan Pencak Silat Panca Daya. Yogyakarta:FISIPOL UGM.

Harsono, Tarmadji Boedi. (2003).Menggapai Jiwa Terate Telaah Singkat Ilmu SetiaHati. Madiun:Lawu Pos. Maryono, O’ong. (1998).Pencak Silat Merentang Waktu. Yogyakarta:Pustaka Pelajar. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 494



Nalapraya, Eddie M(1988). Nilai-nilai Luhur Pencak Silat.Jakarta: PB IPSI. Notosoejitno. (1997). Khasanah Pencak Silat. Jakarta: Indomedika. PB. IPSI1(990). Disiplin Pencak Silat dan Nilai-nilai Luhur Pencak Silat. Jakarta: PB. IPSI. Saleh. (1992).Pencak Silat. Bandung: FPOK IKIP. Sudirohadiprodjo, Marijun.(1982). Pelajaran Pencak Silat. Yogyakarta: Bhratara Karya Aksara.







Jemblung Banyumasan as a Resistance to State Hegemony Trubus Semiaji, Bani Sudardi 1 Trubus Semiaji, S.Sn., M.Sn. Student of Cultural Studies Departement, Doctoral Program of Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, [email protected] 2. Prof. Dr. Bani Sudardi, M.Hum., Head of Doctoral Program, Cultural Studies Departement, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, [email protected]

Abstract: This paper explicitly formulates Jemblung Banyumasan performing art as an outside mainstream of puppet show (read: Javanese Wayang). Formulation of the problem will be oriented towards socio-political background surrounding appearance Jemblung and values contained by this art in a social context of contemporary culture. Overall the data are analyzed in an interdisciplinary manner, then formulated in a single formulation conclusion that Jemblung appearance as an expression of identity resistance to power. Variable will be built on three main aspects, namely, identity, resistance and power. Whereas, the construction of logic, ethics and aesthetics Jemblung show an establishment destructuration power narrated and visualized in Javanese Wayang Kulit performances in general. In the context of relation the State and society, Jemblung is the answer of question about how hard and bitter facing power. The affirmation of identity "ngapak", open and egalitar is form of resistance and contraposition to the complexity high cultural that campaigned by power at the time. This article will reveals the constructions of existing and reconstruct a new understanding to be more equal. Article reinterpretates tradition treasure, creates a new cultural that has significance to the context in this age, also displays expressions marginal groups are often neglected, abandoned and misunderstood in mainstream culture that come from the elite (power). Key words: Jemblung, Banyumasan, palace hegemony, resistance.

Introduction

J

emblung is a kind of local puppet show (wayang) in Banyumas, Central Java. Jemblung has special character that reguler puppet doesn’t have it. If regular puppet show uses wayang purwa (leather puppet) as the actors and gamelan as musical accompaniment, all of in Jemblung done by human include gamelan. In Jemblung, music doesn’t

come from gamelan tools but from actors voice. In battle scene uses weapon namely “kudhi” (like shaped blade). Kudhi also has function as “cempala” or “dhodhog” by puppeter. This show usually is held by several persons sitting around the table, include “pesinden” (woman singer). Pesinden has double role : a singer and also a queen in dialogue (Sumardjo, 1992: 43– 4).




J. Kunst on Music In Java has affirmed that Jemblung puppet is a Banyumasan mainstream music, for example in Sumpyuh, one of distric in Banyumas Regency. Kunst affirmation is oriented towards Jemblung music tools, that are, gamelan Jemblung, demung Jemblung, gambang Jemblung and also kendang Jemblung. Those are music tools that always used to accompany show of Jemblung Wayang (Kunst, 1949: 187, 197, 291 – 292). Jacob Sumardjo dan J. Kunst have same understanding about Jemblung as a puppet show but without leather puppet dolls, picture, or others puppet form in regular show that use two or three dimensions. It is important to explain that Jemblung is wayang show but not using leather puppet, just accompanied by Jemblung gamelan. Gamelan Jemblung is like orchestra, represented in music tools and also human vocal. As a traditional art, Jemblung has come in the middle of two culture : Sunda and Java . Java in this case is representative for Solo and Yogyakarta Palace as a authority in history, include their culture (art). Unlike Jemblung, palace art born to assert superiority and its hegemony. Aesthetically reality has been actualized as ethic formulation, politic and transcendent spirituality to represent something noble, valuable, sacred and untouched by the common people. Art palace tend to reflect and narrate ideal things, powerfull State (palace), prosperous people, and the king is the main knight, fair and wise. That was why the problem in actual condition of people like suffering, poorness, neglected even banned. Palace used to disallow all of suffering kinds story include in art expressions. Then, it has been like tradition in every reguler show art of palace. Discussing Jemblung in Java Palace hegemony must be comprehensive and equal. Refers to Kunst’s, Jemblung Wayang brings narration of Amir Hamzah (Kunst, 1949: 292). The saga of Amir

Hamzah also known as Wayang Menak. That Persia Saga has orinigal tittle “Qissa’i Emir Hamza “, “Hamzanama”. It tells about Sayyidina Hamza heorism in prophet Muhammad SAW age while fighting unbeleivers. That story was represented in Java wayang about 16th age. That means the presence of Menak Amir Hamzah related to history of Islam Palace in Java land (Demak Bintoro Islam Kingdom). So, this study must be able to explain whether any affiliation to Demak Bintoro. Jemblung as a resistance against the remnants of Hindu Javanese hegemony.

Method Ethnography is an empirical and theoretical approach inherited from anthropology that tries to get detail description and analysis of the culture based on intensive fieldwork. Ethnography concentrates on the details of local life and at the same time linking them to social processes more broadly. In the realm of cultural studies, ethnography focuses on qualitative exploration of values and meaning in the context of the overall way of life, that is, with the problems of culture, world-life and identity (Barker, 2015: 29-30). In line with the approach of ethnography, the method in this field is a descriptive qualitative. Descriptive research is a study attempts to provide analytically a condition, symptom, certain individuals or groups, based on the facts (fact finding). Next step, this method should be given a higher weighting, ie, not merely describe the facts. To that end, the idea in this method should be developed to provide adequate interpretation against the facts found (Nawawi, 1985: 63). By descriptive inquiry (ethnograpy), this research tried to potrays and explains systematically the relation of Jemblung and power hegemony in dualism subsystem Java culture context, as a resistance tool and ngapak identity conformation.




Banyumasan culture : Jemblung locality Banyumasan culture is always related to Ngapak. Banyumasan culture also has connotation as a simple, sincere, and equal. Those realities of course not present without comparison. The unique things “cebloko” (straightforward), and ngoko (equal in speech statification) are contrass facts to Java Palace (well-spoken, graceful). The comparison makes banyumasan culture be low and Java especially palace, high culture. The difference takes place in how Banyumas people and Java palace people speak. Banyumas people speak ngapak and “ngoko” so they are called as a people that has no ethic in speech (tak bertatakrama). To Javanesse (Surakarta dan Yogyakarta), ngapak identic to villager, suburb, not gentry and uneducated people. In the political context, ngapak is otonom territory. The evindence could be seen in Islamic Java Kingdom. Banyumasan known as Negoro Monco (mancanegara/foreign) and independent (Kunst, 1949: 197) . It indicates that ngapak not the subordination of the two civilizations Sunda and Java . During the colonial Dutch East Indies, Banyumas was under subordination Surakarta Palace. Because of that imposible to Java ordered and controlled Banyumas. That’s an answer why ngapak culture resistante to kingdom that would order it in the past. That context is something will discuss in this paper. In reality, Jemblung uses ngapak language (dialect) as speech, not like regular Java puppet show that uses soft dialect, result of palace culture. It is a evindence that there was resistance to palace hegemony. In this case, when leather puppet (wayang purwa) be a hegemonic tool by palace, Jemblung has tried to underline its identity, fought to all of power effort. Jemblung is the real phenomenon in society because in this art, role to play wayang not only in dalang

(puppetter) like wayang purwa (leather puppet) but all of actors in wayang have same right to play role and discuss charater played.

Subsystem Dualism in Java Culture: Hegemony of central power In principle, every culture has specific idea and origin as its identity. The specificity of identity is not just able to be a determinative differentiator factor, but also be a factual and actual factor in accordance to the spirit of time. So the aspects surrounding culture of a society always associate to cultural aspects other society . They are dinamic so cultural system never ends. If we see in perspective of problems identifying that require decision-making, planning and development, it will appear that culture is not only ethical symptoms, aesthetic or symbolic, but also a social phenomenon. Let’s see dualism in Indonesian culture like idiomatics desa mawa cara, negara mawa tata. It show there are two subsystem in traditional society. Both are separating even contradict and opposite but because of facilities production controlled by the central kingdom, finnaly the culture palace show their dominance to village culture and not vice versa. System had been completely dominated by kingdom but the village was only recognized as out of culture, subordinated, include all about its creativity. Palace just recognized village culture as a second and grassroot culture. Its creativity judged as a low art (Kuntowijoyo, 1987). This fact indicates that culture in certain context is used as a power legitimacy. The statement about great and sacre culture be an evidence that power used it as a legitimacy to get people confession. Citizen did not have any culture right in palace sight. The contraposistion between central kingdom and village had affected to presence of marginal culture characterized by spontan, egality, simple, sincere. Domination and hegemony are




two different things but always be where the power is. Determinative and offensif power habit may be the connotation of domination. In other side, hegemony is about intellectual leadership, the ability to regulate, control, leading the mind of people with sincerity, joy, and in accordance to agreement. Hegemony and domination are toosl to control certain class which create hegemony as a the superstructure/immaterial strength/ideology. Hegemony here is used to strengthen infrastructur. Superstruktur regards to cultural issues, and infrastructure related to the materials structure. Subjects that fill the structure constantly created and reproduced so reproduced subjects hegemonized more secure and stable (Patria: 2003). Furthermore, hegemony to Gramsci is economic-political nature. The activities occur through several stages such moments, the collective consciousness, awareness of solidarity and over consciousness. Hegemony can occur when there is alienation opponents class through compromises. Class can be powerfull handle another without compromises. Compromise has functions to perpetuate and maintain power over ownership of economic resources. At least there were six hegemony paradigms to Gramsci: First (1), the culture in Gramsci's concept actually is in ideological level, does not relate to the material. Culture in Gramsci's concept of hegemony is nonmaterial. (2), Activities. Hegemony to Gramsci is intellectual leadership, the economic and political elites. The tendency of compromise among the existing classes dont not cover economy activity. (3), This is the ideological cultural hegemony level, nonmaterial activities, ideas. (4), Popular belief and common sense. They are tools to influence people world view. Both exist at the level of the superstructure, spread by language, common sense, and folklore (the belief system, tahayul, opinion). Common sense is folkore philosophy. Philosophy in hegemony perspective Gramsci must be

disseminated to public in order to be common sense that can be historically/eternal . So, there would be possibility to make power everlast. (5), Intellectual agents. In order to achieve hegemony, ideology should be propagated. The deployment occured through social institutions, such as school. These agents had function, namely organic and traditional groups. The organic group was Menyaran or intellectual group they were organized well but traditional group was in opposite, manipulated by the ruling class, a sludge group that still survived. (6), Country is divided into two areas, civil society and political society. Civil society is an area of agreement, free of willing. Intelectual group is in civil society. Political society is area full of violence, coercion, and intervency. They are for examples judges, prosecutors, policeman. State is an overall concept of the theoretical and practical activities that aim to justify and maintain power, win the active consent subordinated class. Gramsci also added understanding about state in state and culture state. Ethic state is state posses moral or leads moral of its population, to determine which may or may not be done. Ethic state controls people. Culture state tends to create a new culture in an organized way, using apparatus and cultural hegemony of the ruling class. At its core is the same, aiming to hegemonize, maintain the power of the ruling class (Patria: 2003). In this dualism subsystem, Jemblung at least face two regulations that operate stimultanious. Its existence in Banyumas ecology, geographicaly in bonder line between Java and Sunda (administrative and cultural territory) shows that Jemblung has risen from two regulations that are Java and Sunda subsystems. Because of that, marginality of this art can’t be seen as expression opposite of Java but also Sunda. Some discussions about Jemblung still ignore Sunda subsystem as a social fact. For instance in a discussion we can focus talking about something but why in all borderline of Java-Sunda there is




ngapak dialect. It is because this dialect not just Banyumasan mine. Furthermore must be sure that Banyumas culture not just has orientation to territory made by colonial, that is Karesidenan Banyumas.

Discussion Resistance: Jemblung’s resistance to palace’s art Jemblung has no orientation to show some character like regular puppet that show up harmony and image. Jemblung show something spontan, egalite. It presents pasemon-pasemon (social critics) as a evidence that Jemblung come to protest and against certain hegemony, in this case Java palace. Refers to structuralism, practical significance of constructing meaning as a result of the structure or regularity. It can be predicted and beyond individu. Structuralism is antihumanis because of the exclusion of the human agent from the investigation core. It prefers analysis form where a phenomenon only has meaning when it is associated to a systematic structure using another individu source. It will be different to culturalism that sees meaning as main category and see it as a product of active human agency (Chris Barker: 2015). Durkheim constructed structuralism in the patterns of cultural control and social life beyond the individual. He rejected the view that empirical knowledge must be derived from actual experience, prefer to look for what he called a 'social fact' that socially constructed sui generis, in certain awareness (Dalam Chris Barker: 2015). Refers to that paradigm, each word is regulation then being social fact that constructed to social. It means, if it is elobarated to Jemblung art reality, so the problem is in what regulation or social fact that be its trigger? In fact, Jemblung that claimed as a wayang, tottaly has different caracters to its mother. The aim of structural inquiry is explaining experience and understanding basic rasionality of life.

We can see it by uncover simple mandate codes at end of transformation. This rasionality, basic structural rule gives an explanation, has catagories and logic relation coming from world view of human about universe, or by Levi Strauss--regarded to discrimination and binary opposition (Kaplan: 2000). In other hand, structuralism has the following functions. First, understanding culture as an expression of the structures in a language that lies beyond the intentions of the perpetrators and even limit their subject. Second, using a synchronous approach so that the structuralist analysis focuses on the relationships structures that found in special moments. Third, confirming the unique of culture and the nature 'can not be the reduced' as a symptom of the other symptoms (Chris Barker: 2014). Jemblung puppet art is not shown in two dimensional or three-dimensions like reguler puppet. The accompanying music on stage is an imitation of gamelan sounds using mouth (vocal) . Jemblung has same meaning to the word gemblung (Java: means crazy) . in Java, Jemblung can also be meant as a big belly (perut buncit) . in the folk arts of Java, big stomach large often connoted with insane, madness, for example parekan or Punakawan figures in wayang. Referring to Strauss paradigm about discrimination and binary opposition, showed the reality of the contraposition between Jemblung and art palace (royal center) . Choice Jemblung as a mad certainly does not connote a bad thing, or even low culture class product. When the madness is a expression 'bitter deals to power', so the madness is a symbol of liberation from power hegemony. Taking of genetic structuralism Goldmann in the literature sociology, literature is a structure. However, the structure is not something static, but result of a historical process involve structuration and destructuration process in local community. To sustain the paradigm, structure built a set of categories interrelated to one another that called as




structuralism-genetic. The catagories are humanity fact, collective subject, structuration, worldview, understanding and explanation (Faruk: 1994). In the Jemblung context, Goldmann's view gives a clue how to understand Jemblung history and factors that impact. Jemblung not only presents tale or saga, Amir Hamzah, Umar Maya-Umar Madi. Sometimes it takes away from the story purwo puppet. The story is presented in questions– nswers style, monologues without puppets/doll. For example in one scene Jemblung performing, the puppeteer “dodog” table then greeted by percussion instrument, next sampak musical repertoire or srepegan. All of them served with a mouth. The music and song show fit to the rule of musical because the musicians know its basic principles (conventions) especially karawitan then dynamically play together with gamelan accents instruments, such as; kendang, bonang, gong, vocal songs and other musicians improvement. The improvement of musicians event adjust to their activity like when meal time they eat food on stage. They eat and also play the role in once time. In show, a musician will play more than four or five gamelan instruments at once in a way to move or jump from one instrument to the other instruments, in accordance with the breath, accents and interpretation work on as well as the idea of a musical in the repertoire of the musical (song) needed . For example in addition to musicians voiced instruments drums, they sometimes jump to play saron, kenong, kempul, gong. Likewise with other musicians they will play bonang instruments, flute, zither, xylophone and gong. Explanation above shows a structural transformation of reguler wayang-leather puppets to Jemblung. We see there is component destructuration process of shadow puppets to Jemblung dalang. This Destructuration not just involved conflict

between Java and Banyumas, but also Sunda. Destructuration also occured in property. The components can be identified to Kudi which usually used in battle scene. Kudi is type of weapon used to cut or slice something. This basic form shows a transformation about destructuration of Kujang (Sundanese traditional weapon). The tension between palace art and grassrrot, characterized by the fact of social structure creating tension and gap between kingdom and the village. The royal regulation tend to alienate and marginalize subsystems village as subordinated of kingdom. This reality made unbalanced relation between state and society. Kingdom as a representative of the country, tried to dominate all aspects in village communitiy life . That relationship brought tension showing a binary opposition, illustrated how bitter the villagers deal to the palace. In that context, Jemblung diction be very unique and distinctive. Jemblung (madness) must be not interpreted to something bad, low culture but demonstrates the ability of facing power, even be a resistance. Therefore, the madness is not product of power marginalization, but a declaration of resistance village community against center of kingdom (the State).

Conclussion Jemblung, Gemblung (Madness) has been a testament resistance of village subsystem against the center of power, the kingdom (Solo and Yogyakarta). Regulation palace could not push and pressure idea of village community. Jemblung did not appear as an expression of despair, instead it appear as an expression of resistance. The great, noble nuance is contraposition to Jemblung that characterize mad, open, spontaneous and egality.




REFERENCE Barker, C. 2014. Kamus Kajian Budaya (translation by B. Hendar Putranto). Yogyakarta : Kanisius. -----------. 2015. Cultural Studies (Indonesia translation). Yogyakarta : Kreasi Wacana. Faruk. 1994. Pengantar Sosiologi Sastra. Yogyakarta : Pustaka Pelajar. Kaplan, D.; Manners, A. Teori Budaya. Yogyakarta : Pustaka Pelajar Kunst, J. 1949. Music In Java. Holland : Springer-Science+Business Media. Kuntowijoyo. 1987. Budaya dan Masyarakat. Yogyakarta : PT. Tiara Wacana Nawawi, H. 1985. Metode Penelitian Bidang Sosial. Yogyakarta : Gajah Mada University Press. Patria; Arif, Nezar . 2003. Antonio Gramsci: Negara dan Hegemoni. Yogyakarta : Pustaka Pelajar. Sumardjo, J. (1992). Perkembangan Teater Modern dan Sastra Drama Indonesia. Bandung : Citra Aditya Bakti.







Children in Manggarai Culture: Understanding the Root of Violence Against Children in Manggarai

Dr. Yohanes Servatius Boy Lon, M.A.

STKIP Santu Paulus Ruteng, Jl Ahmat Yani 10 Ruteng Flores NTT [email protected] or [email protected]

Abstract: This study aims at expounding the cultural roots of violence against children in Manggarai. Using the socio-cultural approach and hermeneutical method the study analyzed philosophical concepts and values in Manggaraian culture. The result indicated that the Manggaraian norms were ambiguous in the concepts dealing with children. On one hand, there were some values, philosophies and religious beliefs that inspired positive upbringing of children. On the other hand, there were also concepts that explicitly and implicitly sustain the acts of violence against children. This research is important to enhance our understanding of the status of children in the community, which can be used in the fields of education, cultural development, law and inter-communal understanding. Since there are similarities between the cultures of ASEAN countries, this research may be beneficial in the development of policies within ASEAN, particularly regarding children’s education and protection. In other words, some philosophical concepts about children in the Manggaraian culture can serve as a contribution to theories about children’s education and protection. Key words: Anak (child), tinu (care), Manggarai

Introduction hildren have special rights in order to live healthily and to protect them from any violence (UNICEF, 2005). However many reports indicate that most children are subject to violence. Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro (2006: x) even says that violence against children is a major threat to global development and the work to reach the Millennium Development Goals. It occurs everywhere in the world in a variety of forms and settings; it could be deeply rooted in cultural, economic and social practices. A recent study about violence against children in Manggarai, Flores, East

C

Nusa Tenggara revealed that the vast majority of children in Manggarai have been victims of violence; most adults have experienced violence as children and most adults have committed acts of violence against children (LPPM STKIP Santu Paulus Ruteng, 2015). Violence against children seems to be perceived as normal and even considered necessary as a part of educating children. This shocking phenomenon leads to questions about why it happened and what could possibly be the root cause. The answers to these questions need to be explored through cultural analysis, on which the research was based on. This paper expounds on the aim of the research, which is to question whether the




violence against children and Manggaraian’s cultural ideologies are correlated. The paper describes the concept of children followed by the interpretations that may appear in the concepts mentioned: firstly, the positive values (local guidelines) regarding children and secondly the tendency for violence against children. Method The research was made using socio-cultural analysis of the Manggaraian culture by garnering traditional poems, prayers, and rituals that might explicitly or implicitly talk about the status of children in Manggarai. The data were collected by observing several rituals, parents’ behavior toward children and then interviewing tu’a golo (the headman), tu’a panga (the head of the extended family), and tu’a kilo (the head of the nuclear family); those data were analyzed using hermeneutical method. The analysis was grounded on reference theory by Palmer (1976: 30) which states “reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic element, word, sentences, etc, and the nonlinguistic word of experience”. Accordingly Wittgenstein (1953) said that language reflects reality and the meaning reflects a factual circumstance in reality through language. Chaer (2003: 294) argues that each word has its own meaning and implication. Children as Anak, Waé, Ro’éng, Réak, Mantar, Ta’i The Manggaraians use several words to refer to children such as anak, waé, ro’éng, réak, mantar, ta’i (Verheijen 1967b: 5). The use of the many terms for children seems to enrich the Manggarians’ perspective of on children because each word has its own meaning and implication (See Chaer, 2003: 294). According to Verheijen (1967a: 10), the word anak literally means ‘child’ in relation to endé ema ‘mother and father’). Here, the word anak emphasizes the status of a child as a

part of his parents, or an individual born from his parents. As such, the existence or presence of a child is always in relation to the parents (See Poerwadarminto, 1992: 38-39). This implication is also reflected in the saying na’a waén paké, na’a utén kusé that literally means ‘frogs follow water, shrimps follow vegetable’, which implies that a child always follows his parents’ attitude. Another saying that reflects this implication is toé bengkar oné mai belang, toé bok oné mai betong, which means ‘not developed out of a striped fur, not sprouted out of a bamboo’, which implies that a child cannot exist without parents (See Verheijen, 1967a: 42). The word anak itself consists of anak wara (red child), anak réak (baby), and anak koé (small child). Anak differs from ata reba (teenage guy) or ata molas (teenage girl). The process of transformation to become a teenager is called anak reba koé (young teenage guy) or molas koé (young teenage girl). Therefore, the word anak is essentially referred to those who are yet to enter into adolescence. Traditionally, the closing of one’s childhood is commemorated through a ritual of ropo ngis or cerep ngis, where one has a part of his/her tooth cut off. A boy who has gone through this ritual is called reba racang ngis, and the girl is called molas racang ngis (Janggur, 2010: 124). Through this ritual, the social status of children changes, and they are now deemed ready to get married, to participate in various rituals, and to gain a right over land ownership. Meanwhile, adolescents who are not yet married are called anak reba or anak molas. In everyday lives of Manggaraians, the word anak is also used to show humility and modesty. This is reflected in the adage nuk daku mendi anak (Verheijen, 1967a: 10) that means ‘in my humble opinion as a slave/child’. The word anak in this case suggests the use of language courteously and humility in communication. According to Hildren Geertz (in Franz Magnis-Suseno, 2001: 38) the intention of using language




courteously is to show respect to others. The implication is that a child or anak is associated with someone who is insignificant or even a slave, and unlike an adult, he or she does not deserve to be respected. The Manggaraians also use the word waé to refer to a child. Literally, the word waé means ‘liquid’ or ‘semen’ (Verheijen, 1967a: 731). The sayings such as néka rapét waém (not be impotent), waé koé (descendants of the commoners), toé manga na’a waén (no children), waé data ngaso agu waé data cucu (the first child and the last child) emphasize the use of the word waé as to refer to a child. The use of this word has two implications. Firstly, the word waé in the context of water as the source of life (Sutam 1998: 63) perceives a child as a source of happiness of a family. Secondly, the word waé in the context of semen, which is present only in males, implies that a child belongs to the men. So, a child is the successor of the family of his father, as what it always is in a patrilineal system. Furthermore, the Manggarians use the word ro’éng to also refer to a child. Saying piha atan ro’éngm ga? (how many children do you have?) or ro’éng ata ngaso (the first child), ro’éng iné-wai (a daughter) is a norm among the Manggaraian people. The word ro’éng also means people, congregation, residents, and relatives (See Verheijen, 1967a: 562). The adage ro’éng kali kami (we are just the commoners) or pisa ro’éng no’o? (how many people reside here?) shows that ro’éng is associated with a person whose status is low, or a person who is to be governed. The use of ro’éng in reference to a child implies that a child is perceived as a commoner who is supposed to be given orders and who does not have any control and power. In addition, in Manggarai, people also refer to a child using words like réak, mantar, and tai. Réak literally means a small child, mantar literally means sprout, and ta’i means feces. These three words, while implying a new life, also imply

insignificance, vulnerability, filthiness, and worthlessness, which also mean that a child is a burden of his or her parents. In other words, on one hand, a child is perceived as a source of life, but on the other hand, a child is perceived to be valueless. The insignificance and vulnerability of a child in the Manggaraian culture become more apparent through the use of the following sayings in everyday lives of Manggaraians. The saying anak koé loas weru (a newborn child), which is similar to the idiom tekur cai retuk, lawo cai bao (turtledoves have just arrived, mice have just come) imply that a child is inexperienced—a person who is yet to learn about how things work and learn about life. The idiom lalong pondong du ngo/lalong bakok du lako, lalong rombéng du kolé (a plain white chicken when leaving, a colorful rooster when coming back), which is often said during a wuat wa’i ngo sekola ritual (a ritual of providing food before a child leaves the village to study) implies the innocence of a child, or as J. J. Rousseau and John Locke put it: tabula rasa (in Russell, 1994: 224-262). As tabula rasa, a child is perceived as “white paper” who possesses no knowledge. In short, the use of the words anak, waé, ro’éng, réak, mantar, and ta’i to refer to a child definitely correlates to the attitude towards children in everyday lives and rituals of Manggaraians. In fact, the presence or the role of children in the communitarian and traditional rituals is insignificant. If children are present during rituals, their role is limited to being mere spectators, or in some cases, their role is to serve the elders and the adults with foods and drinks. A child is only allowed to play a role in a ritual when he is the subject, for example in the ritual or céar cumpé or ropo ngis. Here, children have no power of decision-making; they are left out in any social events, and their participations are simply ignored (Matthews (2002: 264276). It occurs because the laws do not recognize children’s capacity to participate




in a societal process (Archard (1993) or the legislative system excludes them from many aspects of the environment (Simpson, 1995) or because they are perceived as empty vessels to be filled with values of adulthood (Caputo, 1995) and to wait for adulthood (Elder and Parke, 1993; James, Jenks and Prout,. 1998). Children as cing agu cakal Cing agu cakal literally means a young shoot (Verheijen, 1967a: 690 and 704). Originally, this term is only used to refer to flora and fauna. However, the term cing agu cakal is also used by Manggaraians in poems, prayers and proverbs to refer to children or descendants as a whole (children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, and so on). Children are referred to in this way because children are the reincarnation or symbol of existence of their parents. This is also apparent in the idiom émé lélo méu, cama niho mosé kolé ema’s (upon seeing you, it seems like your father is alive again). This idiom is usually used when talking to a child whose father has passed away. Hence, a child is perceived as a form of a reincarnation of his parents. In the traditional marriage of Manggaraians, there is a term kawing tungku sa’i de ema and tungku sa’i de endé. Both terms refer to a type of marriage to continue the connection between the family of father and mother (marriage within the family). If one has passed away without having any children, his death is called watang bowok (Sudi, Lawir 1 January 2016). Literally, watang bowok means ‘decayed wood’. In the context of life, as a ‘decayed wood’, he cannot bear new ‘shoots’ (cing), which means he cannot have children. An idiom that represents this says hia hitu munda, toé ngai na’a waén (he is dead and wiped out having no descendants) (Verheijen, 1967a: 339). Another idiom is munda niho munak mempo niho elong (wiped out without any trace like the remnants of a banana stem). There is a common belief among Manggaraians that toé manga wing (not

having a child) is a curse and a taboo (Sutam, 1998: 78). The presence of children is the ultimate longing for every Manggaraian family. There is nothing more worrisome for a family than to not be able to have children. Having no descendants is an existential fear, which is reflected in the saying rantang mempo niho elong (fear of dying out like a banana stem), which means fear of being wiped out of the history of living in the world. The birth of a child as young shoot (cing agu cakal) is the happiest kind of news for a Manggaraian family. The birth of a child into the family is called meka weru (a new guest). The announcement about the birth is often called ‘the arrival of a new guest’. In a Manggarian perspective, a guest must be welcomed, received warmly, and served (See Quaaden, 2009: 46-47). As a new guest, a child must be welcomed and celebrated with grand. For Manggaraian families, having children is the ultimate goal of a marriage. If a marriage fails to bear a child, the husband is allowed to take another woman as his second wife (Boylon, 2012: 200). According to Sudi (Interview 1, January 2016), a man’s wish to marry another woman must firstly be consented by the first wife (wina tu’a), although there are many cases where men force their first wives to give consent. Boakye-Boateng (2010: 104) argues: the future of any society is determined by the quality of its children. As a result, children become not just the existential yearning of individuals, but also the longing of a community as a whole because children can guarantee the sustainability of the community. In Manggarai, this concept is clearly reflected in this go’ét (idiom): Émé wakak betong asa, manga waké nipu taé, émé muntung pu’u gurung manga wungkut nipu curup (When an old bamboo has toppled its root will be there to live to the traditions, when a branch is burnt, its shoots will be there to listen to the teachings). This idiom reflects the importance of children as heirs to the




tradition, values, and treasures (Janggur, 2010: 108). This belief is also emphasized in the tradition of céar cumpé. The tradition of céar cumpé or wa’u wa tana is essentially a declaration and a form of legitimacy of children as members of society. It says: Dengé le méu Empo, ai mésén momang de méu, tara katun anak bara wua tuka dami; ho’og dé manuk te adak lami ratung wuwung agu cear di’a cumpen; oné manuk ho’o téing lami ngasang…..; kudut pu’ung no’o main, hia ga émé lagé para néka koé bentang le tana péang, néka ligot siong, néka pedeng menes... (See Regus and Decky, 2011: 59). (Hear oh ancestors, for great is your love towards us that you grant us this gift of a child; we offer you this rooster to strengthen his crown and destroy this cumpé; through this rooster we name him/her ...; may from this day on, the universe is not shocked, not sensitive, and not negative when he/she walks through the door) The phrase “may from this day on, the universe is not shocked, not sensitive, and not negative when he/she walks through the door” implicitly means introduction of the child to the community and reception of the child as a member of the community. In other words, the tradition of céar cumpé is a symbol that a child does not only belong to his parents (who are symbolized by cumpé), but also belongs to the whole community. The perspective that regards children as cing agu cakal surely reflects positive attitudes of Manggaraian family and community towards children and their role as social and cultural assets. Children are expected with longing. Children become the symbol of existence of a family. Children become the determinants of the sustainability of their families and community. The presence of children in a

community is a sign of life. These ideas become the basis of appreciation, love, protection, and honor of children. All of this is reflected in Manggaraian parents’ sacrifice for the sake of their children’s success. In the field of education, for instance, parents are willing to do anything like selling off their land to pay their children’s school fee. There is a saying in Manggarai that goes like “emo oné aku koé lanta racap, cala oné anak koé baca ranga bolék kolé” (let us suffer from poverty, but let success and prosperity be upon our children). Parents’ sacrifice is also reflected in their children’s marriage proceedings. Parents are willing to do anything to pay off the bride-wealth. On the other hand, the concept of children as cing agu cakal leads to a notion that a child is like a mirror that reflects his parents who represents his family. This notion can lead to the limitation of the child’s individual right. Children are expected to always represent their families and community before themselves. Children must also prioritize family interests above their personal ones. It is as if children are mere actors to continue whatever has been passed down to him. Sometimes children are even forced to sacrifice their needs, no matter how rational and humane they are, for the sake of saving the family’s face. For example, when children have unusual aspirations such as to work abroad, their parents and community have every right to interfere. Children must commit to the keeping a good name of their families and community. Children are often forced to follow the success path of the family’s past. As such, each of the children’s unique identity is dismissed. Success story from the family’s past can be a burden on children, especially when the children lack the capacity or talent that their predecessors possessed. Children become easily depressed due to the haunting of the family’s past success. According to Martin and Martin (1978), children growing up with their extended family are well prepared for life




within the community and to be good leaders in their society because they are educated to have a sense of cooperative work, solidarity, and brotherhood. However, they may lack the sense of autonomy. Any decision is made by the grandfather. In the context of Manggarai, the extended family controls the nucleus family; the need of nucleus family is dominated by the need of extended family. As a result, children’s need of education could be denied just for the need of the extended family. The nucleus family is obliged to contribute in marriage, death, and any other social events. Cildren as Borék cala bocél, ta’i cala wa’i Borék cala bocél, ta’i cala wa’i literally means ‘calf dirtied by excrement, leg dirtied by feces.’ This idiom is usually said in a prayer during tudak pongo or wagal (traditional prayer in Manggaraian wedding). The prayer goes like: “Poro ného taé kali ga, iséd cua paka wing do agu anak banar, rés baling lélé, ras baling racap, borék cala bocél, ta’i cala wa’i” (May, as said, these husband and wife-tobe be blessed with a lot of kids, on their right and left, front and back, just like a calf dirtied by excrement, leg dirtied by feces). The use of words like borék and ta’i does not intend to emphasize the fact that Manggaraian children are filthy and dirty because their calves and legs are smeared in feces. According to Sudi, using words like borék and ta’i to refer to children is common in Manggarai. This is also reflected in common expressions such as pisad koé ta’i dité? (how many children do you have?) or béhéngs kawingd maig toé di manga ta’i koéd (they have been married for so long, yet have no children). The use of these words originated from the fact that most if not all parents must have had their children defecating on them. The more children they have, the more often they get dirtied by their children’s excrement. The use of the following expression: “Poro ného taé kali ga, iséd

cua paka wing do agu anak banar, rés baling lélé, ras baling racap, borék cala bocél, ta’i cala wa’i” (as it is said, both of them have many children, crowded around, calf dirtied by excrement, leg dirtied by feces) is to express the longing of a husband and wife to have as many children. The number of children is symbolically and hyperbolically reflected in the idiom borék cala bocél, ta’i cala wa’i. To Manggaraians, children symbolize blessings from God or their ancestors. In an offering prayer (tudak) during the ritual of céar cumpé, it is said: Dengé le méu Empo, ai mésén momang de méu, tara katun anak bara wua tuka dami (Hear oh ancestors, for great is your love towards us that you grant us this gift of a child). Since children are blessings, their birth must be celebrated through the offering of manuk (rooster) and ela (pig) during céar cumpé. The notion that children are blessings leads to a paradigm “many children, many blessings.” This notion is supported by two main things. First, it is supported by the perspective on children as a symbol of a rich and abundant life, as well as a symbol of abundance itself. The expression kudut beka agu buar, wécak wéla, ntewar wua, ragok lobo sapo, rénték lobo kécép, cakal penong ranga cing penong toni (to grow and bear fruits, bud and bear a lot of fruits, surround the fire, sit in a row like the cooking pots, branch into many faces, sprout into many backs) is an utterance about the concept of abundance. It is expressed during the ritual of wagal (traditional marriage ceremony) or céar cumpé as a prayer to ask for children. The perspective on children as a symbol of abundance is also emphasized through the use of lumbers of the teno tree (Melochia arboera) to support the tent where cumpé is held. Teno trees are usually planted in a lodok (the center of the land) to symbolize fertility (Sutam, 1998: 78) Second, the notion of children being blessings is also rooted from the view on children as helping hands or




labors. The logic planted among the people is that the more children they have, the more labors they get; and with more labors, they will have more arable land, and as such, a big harvest. To them, harvest is a great form of blessings from God of their ancestors. It is to be understood that this way of thinking results from the fact that Manggaraians are mostly farmers who need a lot of labors to work on the land. This way of thinking is emphasized by the bride-wealth system in a marriage. One of the objectives of bridewealth is to give the bride’s family a form of compensation, as the labor (the bride) is now a part of the groom’s family (See Quaaden, 2009: 45). In fact, the amount of bride-wealth for women with higher level of education is significantly higher. The varying demand for the amount of bridewealth reflects the fact that bélis acts as a compensation for taking away a labor from a family. Children as papa ngasang In Manggarai, there is a tradition of naming of the newborn during the céar cumpé ritual, which is held between five to ten nights after birth. A child’s name is given by saying this expression: oné manuk ho’o téing lami ngasang... (in the name of this rooster, we give you the name...). The child’s name given during the ritual is called ngasang manuk (rooster’s name) because that name is written and stamped using the rooster’s blood. Ngasang manuk can be likened to baptism name within the Catholic Church. Wilhelmus Ockham once said “Nomen est omen” (name is an omen). Name becomes one’s identity, a symbol of acknowledgement and appreciation. By naming the newborn, the Manggaraian community has actually acknowledged and appreciated the right of identity and individuality of the newborn. As an individual, every child has his own thinking and perspective about the world. He also has a right over his own body and willing (See Pasal 5 Undang-undang Republik Indonesia No 23 Tahun 2002).

The name given to the newborn is usually according to the specialty of his birth. For instance, a newborn could be named Soeharto because he was born when Soeharto was elected as a President. The naming is not only to commemorate Soeharto’s election, but also as a hope that the newborn can follow his footsteps. According to Dami Toda, culturally, the name given to a newborn may not always bear a special meaning (Toda, 1999: 71). Names such as Jehabur, Jereho, Jelalu, Jehaut, Jerandut, Jehaman are Manggaraian names that bear no special meaning. The name given to a child usually rhymes (durit) with his father’s. The absence of special meaning in a name can be interpreted as an indication of the lack of acknowledgement and respect of Manggaraians towards a child’s right. This is perhaps due to the notion that a child’s birth is not important for the child himself, but more so for his parents and family. The saying anak papa ngasang or ngasang amen, for instance, clearly emphasize that name is not only given as an identity of the child, but the name changes the family’s social status. Anak papa ngasang literally means ‘a child bears the name of his father’; it means that a child acts as a symbol of social status of his father. Papa ngasang or ngasang amen usually refers to the name given to the firstborn. With that name, his parents are no longer referred to with their own names, but with the firstborn’s name. Verheijen noted that anak papa ngasang is used as a “teknonym” for his parents (Verheijen, 1967a: 480). That name (anak papa ngasang or ngasang amen) is opposite of ngasang reban which means ‘the original name’ (Verheijen, 1967a: 542). Moreover, not everyone in Manggarai has a name. He wrote, “Ata lénggé toé manga ngasang”, which means ‘poor people do not have a name’ (Verheijen, 1967a: 416) Children as ata oné agu ata pé’ang Literally, the phrase ata oné agu ata pé’ang means ‘inside person and




outside person’. In Manggarai, ata oné refers to males, while ata pé’ang refers to females. Usually when a baby is born, there is a ritual of knocking the wall (entap siding) of the room where the mother is giving birth while shouting “ata oné ko ata pé’ang?” (is it an inside person or an outside person?). If the reply is “ata oné”, the newborn is a boy; on the other hand, when the reply is “ata pé’ang”, the newborn is a girl (See Nggoro, 2006: 160161). The term ata oné refers to the one who stays within the family, the village, and the clan. Meanwhile, ata pé’ang refers to the one who will be leaving the family, the village, and the clan. This difference in status between men and women affects their rights and responsibilities, as well as their roles in marriage. As the clan owner, a man has an important role of regeneration of the clan. Every man must produce successors to ensure the existence of the clan. Consequently, every man has a desire to have children; otherwise, he is wiping out the clan. A man is therefore allowed to have a second wife if his first wife fails to bear children. Meanwhile, women are only seen as a means for men to succeed his clan. As a result, women always receive the blame when a marriage fails to give children. As the successor of the generation, a son is eligible for all kinds of inheritance; while a daughter is only eligible for the inheritance from her husband. The saying mbaté disé amé, serong disé empo (your father’s inheritance, your ancestor’s bequest) or serong de empo, mangkéng de amé (your ancestor’s inheritance) (Verheijen, 1967a: 598) or letang de emam (a part of your father’s inheritance) emphasize on the idea that only males are worthy of the inheritance. There is no similar saying for women. Verheijen did take note of a saying mbaté de endé (mother’s legacy) (Verheijen, 1967a: 340); however, this is only applicable when the inheritance comes from the wife’s family. Nggoro (2006: 49-50) wrote that in some special

circumstances, daughters may be eligible for the family’s inheritance; however, the division may or may not be equal. The idea of ata oné agu ata pé’ang is potential for gender discrimination. It gives more rooms for husband to dominate wives and creates patriarchal system. According to Rueda (2007: 120) the patriarchal system has caused domestic violence in society. The system has maintained male’s domination and gender hierarchy (Carol, 2016). In Manggaraian context, the system is strengthened by the practice of bride-welath. The phrase ai poli pacam ga (I have given bride-wealth) expresses the weak position of women in family’s life; furthermore, it implies the women’s obligation to serve her husband and his big family. The facts indicate that many domestic violences are correlated to bride-wealth system (Boylon, 2009: 202203). Children as Anak Bara, Anak Bera dan Anak Lalo Manggaraians set a distinction between children born from a legal marriage and children born from a relationship before marriage. The expression anak bara wua tuka cahir ati waga rak (a child of stomach, womb, heart, and lungs) refers to a child from a legal marriage, which is acknowledged by the tradition. This child is eligible for the family’s inheritance. Meanwhile, anak bera or a child from an ‘illegal’ relationship, which also termed as anak de wina pé’ang remang (a child from an illegal wife as a result of a relationship ‘behind the bush’), is not eligible for any inheritance (Janggur 2010: 126). However, in the case where the father has no other children, the inheritance can be granted to anak bera (Jehabur, 2015). Manggarians also use the term anak lalo or ata lalo to refer to children whose biological parents passed away and are adopted by other people or family members known as asé ka’é weda wuwung tau or ase ka’é ca dara (being brothers and sisters by blood). Anak lalo are eligible for




their biological parents’ inheritance, and their adoptive parents’ (ata tinu) are not allowed to take ownership of that inheritance, which encompass ceca mbaté oné mbaru (inheritance inside the house) and mbaté pé’ang tana (inheritance outside the house). Ata lalo can request to stay with family members of his biological parents if his or her adoptive parents are not family members. They also need the family member’s agreement to get married when if they are still staying with the adoptive family members (Janggur, 2010: 125-129). This goes to show the Manggaraian tradition of protecting the child from potential acts of violence of the adoptive family members. Traditionally, ata tinu are also referred to as mbau agu wejang (shelter and temporary stop). This expression highlights adoptive family’s role as temporary guardian and home for the children. However, it is to be noted that this does not mean that children therefore have full right over themselves because the children’s fate still largely depends on the family of their biological parents. It is clear that a child’s status is dependent a lot on the matter of legality rather than his status as an individual and as a human being. This way of thinking can lead to abandoning of children from an illegal relationship for the sake of upholding the norms of marriage. Tinu anak Petrus Janggur (2010: 124) wrote that in Manggarai, father and mother are believed to be fully responsible of the children’s education and upbringing. When they pass away, the responsibility is given to their siblings. The adoptive parents are called ata tinu. The word tinu essentially means ‘to care’, which also encompasses toing (tell), titong (advice), toming (be a role model), and tatang (guide). The phrase ata tinu means people who adopt and take care of a child that is not their own until he or she is old enough. The child is referred to as anak tinu. What ata tinu does is commendable. The act of

commendation and appreciation is reflected in the phrase lahé tinu and ela tinu. Janggur (2010: 129) noted that ata tinu has a role to play as mbau agu wejang (shelter and temporary stop). A good ata tinu is like a shelter and be a temporary stop for the child in the rain and heat. This role is significant to protect children from undesirable circumstances such as hunger and violence. The role of parents in educating children includes the whole period of children’s lifespan and even it starts with pregnancy. A pregnant woman is usually given a special circumstance which leads to several prohibitions against certain habits. For instance, a pregnant woman must eat nuts (tago, leba, etc.), must wear safety pin at all times to avoid evil spirits, and is prohibited from doing heavy physical work. When a pregnant woman has a craving (mait), it must be satisfied because it is believed to be the fetus’ wish. Before delivery, the mother’s room must be guarded to send evil spirits away. When the baby is still too small (anak wara), the mother must stay inside cumpé. When the baby is rying, a red cloth (caré) must be lit on fire to chase evil spirits away. During the ritual of céar cumpé, there is a ceremony of téti waé inung, where the amniotic fluid that has been buried is dug out to be united with the child. According to Manggaraians, this is a symbol to appease the baby’s thirst; if it is not carried out, the baby may suffer from sickness and mental problems (Sutam, 1998: 63; Sudi, Interview 1 February 2016). During childhood period, a child is never left alone unless accompanied by an adult. This treatment is different when the child enters the age of anak koé (about 4-5 years old); the child is often left with his friends or alone to play. Generally, children at this age are left to play and not to work, however, there is one work that they are usually asked to do: to watch over their younger siblings. When the child hits 10 years old, he is usually asked to help with house chores such as gathering grass for goats, fetching water, gathering




firewood, serving guests, etc. They may also be asked to help in the family’s farm, but not in other family’s farm to do communal work (léko dodo) like what adults usually do. Alanen (1994) argued that letting children do this kind of chores at home is beneficial for their growth and for their preparation into adulthood. In the past, Manggraian boys were taught to emulate their fathers, while girls were to emulate their mothers. Girls must be familiarized with their mothers’ activities. They were taught to fetch water (téku waé), cook (ténéng), weave (tenung), wash (cuci) , clean the house (bersi mbaru), etc. Meanwhile, boys are familiarized with their fathers’ activities such as gathering firewood (kawé haju), cutting down trees (paki haju), tend the farm (la’at uma), etc. For the way they dress, girls are required to déng towé (wearing sarong around the breast), while boys are required to tengge towé (wearing sarong around the waist). For games and activities, girls are prohibited from climbing a tree (tuké haju), playing soccer (maéng bola) etc.; meanwhile, boys are prohibited from playing jump rope (téka mbau), playing cooking (maéng masak), ect. In Manggarai, parents are always perceived as the visible God (Mori Keraéng ata ita lité). As such, children are always taught to respect and thank their parents (hiang ata tu’a). If a child disobeys his parents, he is reproached through a go’ét: toé bengkar oné mai belang, toé bok oné mai betong (‘not developed out of a striped fur, not sprouted out of a bamboo’’ (Verheijen: 1967a: 42). This idiom intends to make the child realizes about his existential dependency on his parents; that without them, he would not be living in this world. According to Janggur (2010:184), the tradition allows a child who does not follow the concept of hiang ata tu’a to be whipped. In addition, a child who disrespects his parents will be cursed (nangki). Verheijen noted an expression about a curse for a child who is rude towards his father: nangki le tida eman

(Verheijen, 1967a: 370). In the past, there is also a saying that goes langké amenpa’u acun wa’un, which means ‘if you disregard the tradition/rules, you and all your generation will be cursed.” This kind of teaching and perspective has a positive impact on children, especially to teach them respect. However, it also has the potential to turn parents into behaving manipulatively towards their children, including by forcing the children to work for the family. In many cases, children are not treated as stand-alone individuals, but as objects of their parents. They easily experience verbal and physical violence. Consequently, children may grow up having a low self-esteem, and they may not even able to be independent when they start their own family. According Cox (1996), children will lack autonomy if their childhood is not a period of training, discipline, and human beings in-themaking. Conclusion The strong and patriarchal concept of family in Manggarai affects the idea, the relationship and education of children. On one hand the perspective of children surely reflects positive attitudes of Manggaraian family and community towards children and their role as social and cultural assets. Children are expected with longing because they become the symbol of existence of a family, the determinants of the sustainability of their families and community. The presence of children in a community is a sign of life and of God’s (and ancestor’s) blessings. These ideas become the basis of appreciation and honor of children; they are loved and protected, and their identity is respected. On the other hand, the interests of the big family or the community often come before the interests of the nuclear family, especially when it comes to the upbringing of a child. In many cases children are educated to rely on extended family. Hence children have no power of




decision-making, they are left out in any social events, and their participations are simply ignored. Moreover, they are also perceived as empty vessels to be filled with values of adulthood. They have to reflects their parents—pars pro toto—who represents their family. They must commit to the keeping a good name of their families and community and are often forced to follow the success path of the family’s past. Children are expected to always represent their families and community before themselves. This can lead to the limitation of the child’s individual right.

So, similar to other countries in Asia, the children in Manggarai are well prepared for life within the community and to be good leaders in their society because they are educated to have a sense of cooperative work, solidarity, and brotherhood. However, they may lack the sense of autonomy, sense of gender equality. The authoritarian relationships between adults and children may lead the parents to act manipulatively and violently to children. Furthermore, parents’ behavior in bringing up and educating children affects children’s gender role attitude at school. This requires transformation of culture which promotes children’s right.

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Speaking Strategies Applied by Students at “Kampung Inggris” in Pare Kediri Dr. Yudi Setyaningsih, M.Pd, Universitas Ma Chung Malang, [email protected]

Abstract: In welcoming and joining Asean Economic Community (AEC), the people of Indonesia must be ready to compete with other members of ASEAN in many aspects. Products and services may flow freely, investors can invest their capital anywhere in these countries with less bureaucracy. Workers can go work across border with no tight restriction. Therefore, the competition will get harder as we compete with the other 600 millions of ASEAN citizens. Mastering international language is a very urgent factor that every citizen must have as ASEAN state members have different languages and in order to unite them every one must master the international language that is English. This study is an attempt to investigate and describe the current learning strategies for speaking used by students at an English course in Pare Kediri known as “Kampung Inggris” where there are numerous English courses available to train people mastering English especially speaking skills. This place is famous for people of Indonesia as in only two week period, one could claim that they can speak English fluently. 39 students and 5 tutors were involved in this study and two research instruments namely: questionnaires and interviews were used in collecting data from the students and tutors. In addition, classroom observation and video-recording added more pictures in the study. The findings of the study show that students at the English course employed strategies such as metacognitive, compensation, affective, social, and memory strategy. While the teaching methods used are from the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and Natural Learning Ability (NLA). The syllabus used is communicative syllabus emphasizing on fluency rather than accuracy. The results of this study can be used as a reference to help developing strategies in learning speaking in order that learning speaking is done in a better way. Finally, the teaching methods and syllabus used at the English course can be adopted by teachers of English as well as English courses to produce graduates having high scores of speaking skills and TOEFL. Key words: Learning Strategy, speaking, The CEFR and NLA, Communicative Syllabus




INTRODUCTION

L

earning strategy is a trick to make a learner able to remember the lesson that he has learned from the teacher. Nowadays, learning strategy is no longer strange to be learned by students at school or other places. Moreover, learning strategy can be implemented to many other activities such as learning language, mathematics, chemistry, reciting poem, learning how to cook, to drive, etc. Learning strategies seem to be a "trick" for learners to help them remember things better or to do tasks more efficiently. Several writers have studied what learning strategies are and why they are effective in the learning process (http://www.fatima.k12.nf.ca/define.htm). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know (Oxford, 1990, p. 8) state that the word “strategy” comes from the Greek word 'strategia' which means generalship or the art of war. Strategy has a meaning of the management of the troops, ships, or aircraft in a war situation. Oxford (1990) points out a similar word “tactics” which are tools to achieve the success of strategies. These two words used interchangeably which mean planning, competition, conscious manipulation, and movement toward a goal. In a problem solving situation, it would imply "using a plan, step or conscious action toward achievement of an objective." Oxford (1990) continues to expand this definition by stating that "learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more selfdirected, more effective, and more transferable to new situations." Generally, speaking is a process of delivering intent of a person to convey information through speech. According to Brown (1994), Burns & Joyce (1997), speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information

(http://area.dge.mec.pt/gramatica/what speakingis.htm). Its form and meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often spontaneous, openended, and evolving. However, speech is not always unpredictable. Language functions (or patterns) that tend to recur in certain discourse situations can be identified and charted. ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) is actually one of the greatest plans held by ASEAN to integrate Southeast Asia member state of ASEAN in the economic issue. The AEC is aimed to bring ASEAN to be able to compete with another regional organization such as European Union (EU). Looking to the successful way of EU in integrating regional economy becomes a motivation for ASEAN to try the same thing with EU’s way that is AEC.Of course it is not an easy way because there are some challenging factors that ASEAN must face, such as member’s state preparation, citizen preparation, sovereignty consideration, and cost preparation.Mastering international language is a very urgent factor that every citizen must have because ASEAN states have different languages and to unite it every one must first, master the international language that is English. This is the obligation for the citizen if they do not want to be eliminated in the AEC competition as working abroad is now easier. This will seem like there is no border among AEC countries anymore as everyone can work everywhere without visa, without difficult and preclude clauses; it just needs a competent one with the international language mastery. Dealing with the mastery of English, Access-ES is an institution using English camp area system, whose speaking program has attracted many people, so at this time many people attended Access-ES for learning how to speak in English.




Moreover, Access-ES also has other programs such as those dealing with grammar, pronunciation, structure, vocabulary, listening, reading, and writing, etc. According to “All About Access-ES, Pare-Kediri” (2013), in Kampung Inggris there are two periods when someone wants to apply when they want to join Kampung Inggris, the first on 10th and 25th of every month, there are many rules in the dormitory, one of the rules is to speak English every day. If the participants break the regulations, they will be punished. The punishment will be a fine of IDR2000 for each non-English word spoken. Based on the background of the study, there are some questions that appear dealing with students’ activity in AccessES for learning speaking. They are: 1. What kinds of speaking strategy do Access-ES students use? 2. What teaching Access-ES use?

methods

does

3. What syllabus does Access-ES use? The objectives of the study are to find out what speaking strategies, teaching methods, and syllabus at Access-ES use in facilitating their teaching and learning process of speaking skill: 1. Investigating or identifying the range of speaking strategies used by students at Access-ES during spoken English classes. 2. Finding out the teaching methods they use. 3. Finding out the syllabus they use. It is true that language teaching and learning can be improved if we have a better understanding of the language learner and of the learning process. In this case, it is hoped that the results of this research will provide us with a good picture of the speaking strategies students use in learning spoken English at the course. On the basis of the results of this study, the significance of the study will (1)

introduce new strategy through consciousness-raising programs and related strategy training, (2) provide new insights for writers and material designers, (3) benefit not only in becoming more efficient in their speaking but also more autonomous in their learning from the consciousness-raising and strategy training activities introduced.

METHOD This study employs a descriptive mixed method study as the objectives of this study are to answer what speaking strategies, curriculum, and syllabus at Access-ES use in facilitating their speaking teaching and learning process.In order to answer the research problems, the researcher conducted data gathering activities which include distributing questionnaires to students, conducting interviews, observations, and video recording as well as gathering data from tutors and students learning English language for such as a focus on learning speaking. All data were collected and analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively then the result were interpreted and reported. The subject of the study is an English course located in Tulungrejo village in Pare-Kediri East Java called Access-ES (ACCURATE AMERICAN ENGLISH SCHOOL). English village itself is a nickname of the village called Tulungrejo and Pelem existing in the district Pare, Kediri, East Java by some communities, media information, etc. However Tulungrejo and Pelem called English village because the village is the largest English learning village in Indonesia at this time, it was recorded in the year 2011, there were approximately 114 colleges and in 2012 there were approximately 144 existing colleges and the number continues to grow from year to year, not just institutions only courses but also a growing interest in English help continuing this kind of village to be




developed from Sabang to Merauke, even from foreign countries, such as Malaysia, East - East, Thailand, etc. Generally, each agency requires its members to speak English in class every day even in the hostel or dormitory and if there is a violation of the rules were subject to the punishment in accordance with the regulatory agencies in their learning. The subjects of this study are students who are studying English at the Access-ES course. The researcher only took 39 students and 5 tutors of the English course; all of them were involved in the study. All of them filled the questionnaire and randomly selected 5 students with 5 tutors were interviewed as a follow up to the responses in the questionnaire. In this study, the instruments used for data collection were student questionnaire, student and teacher guided interview, classroom observation, and video-recording. The student questionnaires include twenty items belonging to six categories. The items were presented not in a categorical sequence but in a jumbled form. Responses were measured on a five-point Likert scale of intensity rating which places an individual somewhere on an agreement continuum /Likert, 1932: concerning a particular item. The questionnaire examines language learners’ use of the strategies by asking them to indicate the extent to which they engaged in a variety of activities on the basis or along response categories: Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly agree. The scores of the items in each category are then summed up and expressed in percentages and examined how the respondents frequently employed the various speaking strategies. Thus, higher percentages are meant to indicate greater use and lower percentages lesser use of a particular strategy.

Interviews are designed to elicit the types of strategies the students used in facilitating their speaking skill or proficiency. Of the thirty nine students who were filled in the questionnaire, five were interviewed and also five tutors. The interview is a more productive and reliable instrument in eliciting useful insights than the observations which rewarded little. During the interview, the students were asked individually to avoid bias and influences of one another so that every interviewee can speak of his/her own experience only.

DISCUSSION 1. Strategies Students

Used

by

Access-ES

In this study it is possible to identify various strategies used by students at Access-ES in their efforts to become proficient English speakers in just twelve weeks. The strategies employed are direct (memory, cognitive, and compensation strategy) and indirect strategies including metacognitive, affective, and social strategy. In order to answer the first problem of the study (“What kinds of speaking strategy do Access-ES students use?”), metacognitive strategy appeared to be generally used by students at AccessES. Here, the results of the questionnaires show that metacognitive strategy was used most frequently by students with 4.21 average Mean score. While the second strategy employed is affective strategy with 4.07 average Mean score. Then, compensation strategy was also used by students with 4.1 average Mean score. Next, social strategy was the third strategy used with 4.0 average Mean score, and finally, memory strategy was used by students with 3.93 average Mean score (Table 1).




Table 1. Frequency and Average Mean Score of Individual Speaking Strategies in Each Category

Category

Item Number in questionnaire

Affective

Number of Subjects and statement

%

Average Mean Score

1

16 – Agree

41.0

3.95

13

19 – Agree

48.7

3.90

14

10 – Neutral

41.0

4.33

19

20 – Agree

51.3

4.13 4.07

Average Mean Score Compensation

2

20 – Agree

51.3

3.87

16

22 – Agree

56.4

4.33 4.1

Average Mean Score Metacognitive

3

19 – Agree

48.7

4.38

11

25 – strongly agree

64.1

4.59

12

25 – Agree

64.1

3.82

17

22 - Agree

56.4

4.08 4.21

Average Mean Score Memory

4

24 – Agree

61.5

4.08

6

21 – Neutral

53.8

3.85

7

16 – Neutral

41.0

3.87 3.93

Average Mean Score Social

5

15 – Agree

38.5

4.03

15

20 – Neutral

51.3

3.56

18

19 – Agree

48.7

4.18

20

18 - Strongly Agree

46.2

4.23

Average Mean Score

The term metacognitive strategies are connected with the term of ´metacognition´, which is usually defined as awareness of the process of learning. Therefore, metacognitive strategies deal with everything that is related to learners´ control of their learning – their own cognition as done by Access-ES students. Cohen (2002) describes metacognitive strategies as those which “[...] deal with

4.0

pre-assessment and pre-planning, on-line planning and evaluation, and postevaluation of language learning activities and of language use events”. Another description of metacognitive strategies is offered by Ellis (1997): “Metacognitive strategies are those involved in planning, monitoring, and evaluating learning”.




Altogether, this category of strategies refers to learners´ planning, organizing, and evaluating of their learning. As well as other strategies, also metacognitive strategies are mentioned in European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (2007) in a self-assessment section where student teachers are responsible for helping learners control their learning process. The students in Access-ES use metacognitive strategy although they do not realize that they have employed the strategy. This also applies to other strategies they use. The second strategy used is compensation strategy. As the term suggests, compensation strategies deal with the issue of compensations. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines compensations as “things that make a bad situation better” (2000: 246). In language learning á bad situation´ represents learner’s lack of knowledge and ´things´ represent strategies which help a learner overcome missing information. Students at Access-ES compensate their lack of speaking skills by asking to their friends or tutors as well as using gestures to make clear what they want to express. Learning process is naturally connected with learners´ feelings which appear in particular situations, e.g., feelings of happiness when a task was fulfilled successfully, or on the other hand, feelings of nervousness before writing a test and others. Learners are supposed to cope with their feelings either positive or negative and thus there are affective strategies for them to help them take control of their feelings. In learning speaking, students at Access-ES try to cope with their feelings when they have to speak English. They control themselves to be calm and positive and this helps them in mastering the speaking skills. Oxford (1990) emphasizes an important role of teachers in creating an influence over the emotional atmosphere of the classroom. The results of several observations conducted in several class sessions show

that tutors in Access-ES support the students in the classroom in discussing what students have done during the session. The next strategy employed is social strategy. Social strategies are indirect strategies which refer to communication. As it is stated in Common European Framework of Reference (2001), communicative competencies are ones of the target competences of language education and their realization cannot be achieved without involving other people. Therefore, there are social strategies dealing with social interactions. Students at Access-ES ask some help from their friends to correct the mistakes. But when they find difficulties and do not obtain supports from their friends, they come to their tutors to get some help. The last strategy used is memory strategy. Memory strategies, which are probably more known under the name of mnemonics, relate to entire work with new information including remembering words. Thornbury (2005) defines mnemonics as “[...] tricks to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory and that are not yet automatically retrievable”. Nevertheless, for most learners learning vocabulary means a complicated process and a difficult task to cope with. Students at Access-ES practice new vocabulary in order to remember the words and practice them over and over. 2. Teaching Methods Access-ES Used Access-ES English course uses the CEFR and NLA methods. Each of the six Common Reference Levels presupposes a certain achievement/performance level in any of the areas of knowledge, language competences, skills, and strategies described in the CEFR. Such achievement/performance levels are stated and specified using the so called “CAN DO“ descriptors, which inform what the learner at a particular level is supposed to know or be able to do. The learner´s




effective abilities are described using the statements (I) Can…, so that the learners can relate to the statements and have the opportunity to identify their own level, assess themselves, recognize their strengths and weaknesses, set their own goals in language learning, self-manage learning, and also monitor their own progress. A high number of such descriptors have been developed (and consequently validated), covering a wide range of various areas of language in Access-ES. Natural Learning Ability is used to force students to be confident in verbal and non-verbal communication (http://www.Access-ES.org/profile-2metode-pengajaran-Access-ES) without carrying thick dictionary or gadgets to find meanings of words in their daily activities of speaking English. The teaching methods used in Access-ES are conducted completely and integrated with grammar, conversation, and pronunciation classes devoted to the mastery of speaking English. The short period of learning at Access-ES is claimed to be effective to students as it will not create boredom for students. In its website (www.accessES.org), the course claims to produce graduates who are fluent in English with high scores of English skills and TOEFL.

3. Syllabus Used by Access-ES Course Access-ES uses syllabus which adopts communicative syllabus. In its syllabus, the goals are written with “Able to …”. As Wilkins (1976) wrote that communicative syllabus have six categories of (1) judgment and evaluation, (2) suasion, (3) argument, (4) rational enquiry, (5) personal emotions, and (6) emotion relations. All categories are included in Speaking 1 and 2 syllabus of Access-ES. Students are encouraged to speak fluently with a very slight correction of grammar as it emphasizes more on fluency rather than accuracy.

The syllabus of Speaking 1 and 2 are also considered communicative as they have some communicative functions mentioned by Dobson (1979). According to Dobson (1979), there are seven communicative functions written in the syllabus namely (1) requesting and giving information, (2) expressing through processes, (3) expressing opinions, (4) making judgment, (5) modifying people’s behavior, (6) expressing personal feelings, and (7) interacting socially. The communicative functions are all included in Access-ES syllabus.

CONCLUSION This study aims at investigating the strategy used by Access-ES English course students in mastering speaking skills, the teaching methods and the syllabus used by Access-ES English course. The findings show that there are some strategies used by students at Access-ES namely metacognitive, compensation, affective, social, and memory strategy. While the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and Natural Learning Ability are the teaching methods used by the tutors at Access-ES. Finally, Access-ES uses communicative syllabus in their Speaking 1 and 2 classes. Students at Access-ES employed metacognitive strategy when they have control in their learning. They make improvement, plans, and arrange schedules for the learning. Compensation strategy was employed as students were aware of their weaknesses in learning, i.e. students use gestures to give clearer pictures to their listeners. While for affective strategy, students were not afraid of making mistakes, they ask for some helps from their friends and tutors whenever finding difficulties in learning. Then, asking for a help from their friends can be included in social strategy as this includes interaction with others. Finally, memory strategy was used when students practiced their English




over and over in order to remember what they have been doing. The CEFR and NLA are two teaching methods used in Access-ES. Students are expected to master speaking skills in twelve weeks. And in order to master all skills plus high scores of TOEFL, Access-ES targeted to produce the highly-skilled graduates in twenty-one weeks. The CEFR and NLA are combined with communicative syllabus for Speaking 1 and 2 classes. The syllabus emphasizes on fluency than accuracy and this means that grammar is taught less but the meaning is successfully conveyed. The studies of speaking strategy used in English courses have been conducted but the findings of this study on .

some strategies used could be applied by other learners of English when they want to be able to speak English fluently. Some strategies can be employed depending on each learner’s need. While for teachers of English, the strategies can also be implemented with their own goals and condition.For further research, the findings of the study might be developed into a more detailed strategies used with its strengths and weaknesses. The teaching methods and syllabus can be adopted by teachers as well as other English courses with some consideration to make a balanced way of fluency and accuracy. As when a non-native English speaker speaks, not only the fluency which must be emphasized but correct grammar also becomes another aspect to be considered

REFERENCES Access-Es. (2013) What is kampung Inggris. Available from: http://access-es.org/profile-5-what-is-kampung-inggris.html. (Accessed19/02/14). Burns, A., & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on speaking. Sydney: National Center for English Language Teaching and Research. Brown, H.D. (1994). Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Cohen, A. D. “Assessing and Enhancing Language Learners´ Strategies.” Hebrew Higher Education 10 (2002). (Accessed 11 Feb. 2014) Common European Framework of Reference. 2001. Council of Europe. 1 March 2008 (http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf). Dobson, J.M. 1979. The Notional Syllabus: Theory and Practice. Forum 17. Ellis, R. (1997) .Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. European Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages: A reflection tool for language teacher education. (2007). European Centre for Modern Languages. Accessed 11 Feb. 2014 Fatima. (2014)What are Learning Strategies?. Available from: http://www.fatima.k12.nf.ca/define.htm. (Accessed 16/02/14). http://area.dge.mec.pt/gramatica/what speakingis.htm). http://www.Access-ES.org/profile-2-metode-pengajaran-Access-ES Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 524



Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies. New York: Newbury House Publishers. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000) Tafere, T. (1995).Speaking Strategies Employed by First Year Students at the Kotebe College of Teacher Education.An unpublished thesis.The School of Graduate Studies Addis Ababa University. Thornbury, S. (2005). How to teach speaking. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Wilkins, D.A. (1976). Notional Syllabuses. Oxford : Oxford University Press.

APPENDICES Appendix 1. Questionnaire for Students Questionnaire 1. Umur : 2. Jenis Kelamin : 3. Pendidikan : Keterangan: Sangat tidak setuju (STS), tidak setuju (TS), netral (N), setuju (S), sangat setuju (SS).

N

Pernyataan

S

no

TS

1

Saya tidak takut membuat kesalahan ketika saya berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris

2

Ketika saya tidak bisa memikirkan sebuah kata ketika berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris, saya cenderung menggunakan gerakan fisik seperti gerakan di tempat yang bertujuan untuk menunjukkan makna/maksud dari tujuan saya

3

Saya mencoba untuk memperbaiki diri saya, ketika saya merasa bahwa saya tidak menggunakan bentuk ungkapan yang benar saat berbicara

4

Saya mencoba mengaitkan apa yang sudah saya ketahui dan informasi bahasa baru untuk mengingatnya

5

Saya meminta instruktur atau teman sekelas saya untuk mengkoreksi kesalahan saya dalam berbicara

6

Saya mempraktekkan materi bahasa Inggris seperti pengucapan, kata-kata baru, ekspresi, dan poin tata bahasa dalam konteks yang

T

N

S


S S

S



bermakna untuk mengingat mereka 7

Saya mencoba mengingat kosakata bahasa dengan menghafalkannya berulang-ulang

8

Saya berbicara secara lisan dalam rangka untuk berlatih ekspresi baru dalam bahasa

9

Saya mengikuti latihan komunikasi terstruktur untuk berlatih berbicara

10

Saya merekam suara saya dan membandingkannya dengan orang yang sudah mahir atau penutur aslinya

11

Saya merencanakan tujuan saya untuk belajar bahasa Inggris, misalnya: saya ingin bisa mahir dalam berbahasa inggris atau mungkin saya ingin menggunakan bahasa Inggris dalam jangka panjang

12

Saya mengatur jadwal untuk belajar dan berlatih bahasa baru secara konsisten, tidak hanya ketika ada tekanan dari tes

13

Saya mencoba untuk menenangkan diri ketika saya gugup untuk berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris

14

Saya mendorong diri saya sendiri dengan berpikir dan berbicara pernyataan positif agar saya merasa lebih percaya diri dan lebih bersedia mengambil risiko

15

Saya mengajukan pertanyaan untuk verifikasi dan penjelasan lebih banyak di kelas

16

Saya bertanya kepada guru atau teman sekelas saya untuk memberitahu saya tentang ungkapan yang tepat ketika saya merasa kurang memahaminya

17

Saya berbicara dan berbagi ide tentang masalah pembelajaran bahasa dan strategi berbicara yang efektif dengan guru dan teman sekelas saya

18

Saya bekerja sama dengan teman-teman saya untuk berlatih, mengulang, atau berbagi informasi dalam belajar bahasa

19

Saya mendiskusikan perasaan saya tentang proses pembelajaran bahasa untuk mendapatkan cara belajar yang lebih baik di Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 526



dalam maupun di luar kelas dengan guru dan teman-teman 20

Saya juga mencoba untuk mempelajari tentang budaya penutur bahasa Inggris

Appendix 2. Interview Guide for Students Interview Questions 1. Bagaimana cara anda untuk mengingat kosakata bahasa yang telah anda pelajari ketika anda berbicara? 2. Dapatkah anda memberitahu saya, bagaimana anda berlatih berbicara untuk menjadi pembicara yang efektif? 3. Apa yang anda lakukan jika anda tidak bisa mendapatkan/mengingat sebuah kosakata atau ungkapan untuk dikatakan dalam bahasa Inggris saat anda berbicara? 4. Bagaimana anda mempersiapkan diri untuk menyajikan atau menyampaikan pidato lisan di kelas? 5. Misalkan ketika anda memperhatikan bahwa anda membuat kesalahan dalam pengucapan, struktur, dll ketika anda berbicara, bagaimana cara anda mengelola untuk memperbaikinya? 6. Misalkan anda diminta untuk berbicara di depan kelas, pada saat itu anda merasa takut untuk melakukannya dan anda menjadi tegang, bagaimana cara anda untuk mengatasi rasa tegang dan membuat anda menjadi santai? 7. Apakah anda pernah mendiskusikan dengan instruktur, teman sekelas atau teman diluar kelas untuk menemukan tujuan pembelajaran bahasa? Dapatkah Anda memberitahu saya beberapa tujuan yang telah anda dapatkan dalam diskusi Anda dengan mereka? (Adapted from Tafere, 1995)

Appendix 3. Interview Guide for Tutors Interview Questions for the Tutor 1. 2. 3. 4.

Strategi apa yang anda gunakan untuk mengajar speaking? Latihan apa yang dipakai untuk speaking? Materi apa yang dipakai sewaktu mengajar? Bagaimana cara anda untuk menilainya?







Coal Exploration And Mining in Seblimbingan District, Afdeeling Tanah Bumbu & Pulau Laut of South Borneo, in 1900-1930

Herry Porda Nugroho Putro Historical Education Study Program,Teacher Training and Education Faculty Lambung Mangkurat University, email: [email protected] Introduction

H

istorical study on coal mining in Indonesia is perceived as inadequate. So far, study on mining tended to discuss the mining of mineral resource such as gold and lead. These studies focused only on certain areas such as Sumatera, Java, and West Borneo. Coal exploration and mining in western and eastern part of Borneo (Kalimantan) area particularly Pulau Laut had not been conducted yet. Coal became popular mineral commodity in East Indies in 18th century. It was because of Industrial Revolution in Europe affecting East Indies, the colony of Netherland in 18th century. The invention of ship using steam machine led the Netherlands to having used steam ship to substitute sail ship in the middle of 19th century. These steam ships used coal as its energy source imported from Europe. This writing will be divided into three sections of discussion: preliminary exploration of coal mining in Pulau Laut, Afdeeling Tanah Bumbu & Pulau Laut in 1900-1930, the development of coal mining exploration in Pulau laut during East Indies time in 1900-2030 and the closing of Pulau Laut Mining coal in 1930. Early Exploration of Coal Mining in Pulau Laut In the 17th century, before mining activity was organized in an East Indies institution, the mining of construction material, gold, lead and coal was conducted traditionally by local people. In

some areas in Archipelago, the activity of mining could be done on the permission of local rulers such as king or sultan. After the product of gold, lead, and coal mining has become commodity, trade occurred with European countries, such as Netherland, through VOC. The early exploration on the existence of mining and mineral commodity in Pulau Laut was conducted based on idea of an East Indies Government’s geologist, C. de Groot. In early 1850s, under Dienst van het Mijnwezen in 1850, C.de Groot attempted to look for more profitable place for opening new coal mining. This conditionwas due to Banjar War occurring in 1859. Twenty years later, in 18880, an idea emerged to opennew mining, because the mining location in Pengaron did not produce coal with low price. In addition, due to the effectof Banjar War, the mining in Pengaron was closed. In 1903, Coal Mining Company was established officially by Netherland in Pulau Laut. Leopold justified this company establishment on Janssen’s initiative who has initiated some expeditions in East Indies. In 1901, Janssen concluded that Pulau Laut is a comfortable location with sufficiently low difficulty of transportation, in which coal had been mined by indigenous people for many years. P.Kolff served as director, while J. Lonsdorfer served as Chief Administrator. In 1906, P. Kolff as the director designated W. Moens, succeeding J. Lonsdorfer who died away on April 1912. Then W. Moens’




positionwas occupied by P. A. Stark (Leopold, 1915:1). Agustus Janssen was the principal shareholder and

commissioner of this company (The Commission For Industrial Development In The Netherlands Indies, 1986: 13).

Figure 1. Official Document of Pulau Laut Mining Establishment in 1903

Source: Collection of Appraiser Auction House, Netherland, 2014. Since 1903, East Indies Government cooperated with the investors of Pulau Laut Mining Company (De Steenkolen-Maatschappij Poeloe Laoet)constructed a 5-km long transportation road from Semblimbingan to Stagen Port. The investors providedmining cart and large construction scaffold to transport coal and coal transporting ship to Europe (Hydrographich Bericht, 1904: 25). The product ofcoal mining was used for fulfilling the energy requirement ofship, steam locomotive, and electricity power. Mining Cart Company was managed by Borneo Maatschappij with 600 millimeter spoor width and some others 1067 millimeter. Transportation road in the form of coal mining cart railway in Pulau laut was not too long, 5 kilometer, spreading from Semblimbingan area to Stagen Port. Cart locomotive used in Pulau Laut was not far different from steam locomotive in Ombilin Mining

Company, steam locomotive E1060 with coal fuel.

The Evolution of Coal Exploration in Pulau Laut Pulau Laut’s success as coal producer was supported by its port location, Stagen, existing in large ship path passed through by various ships from Makassar. Before 1909, there was at least 3/5 (three fifth) mining product exported abroad, including to Germany, by Norddeutscher Lloyd company, Bremen (Van Bammelen, 1949: 69). Leopold’s data mentioned that the destination of coal export from Pulau Laut was Japan (South Manchoerijej/Manchuria), Australia, British India, United Kingdom, British South Africa (Natal), Netherland (Germany), and Ver. St. in North America. The destinations of coal export in small number were China and Tonkin (Leopold, 1915: 25).




Table 4.9. The Evolution of Coal Deposit Mined by East Indies Government in Pulau Laut (Since 1913) Deposit

Pulau Laut

Year 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931

Volume 124,846 126,440 115,818 122,110 118,892 121,421 180,159 188,772 208,900 113,218 143,980 147,138 116,089 130,308 150,273 173,574 173,783 197,352 96,298

Source: Processed from Van Bammelen’s data, Geology of Indonesia, vol. II, Economic Geology, (Martinus Nijhof, The Hague, 1949), p.69; those data were also obtained from Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau, The Mineral Industry of The British Empire And Foreign Countries, War Period (1913-1919) (London: Majestys Stationery Offices: 1922), pp. 171-172. The table above represents that the sufficiently rapid development of production occurred in 1918 to 1921 reaching 100 percents, in which there was an increase in production from 121,421 to 209,900 thousand tons. It is because it was supported by production facility construction and labor support. Later, in 1922, there was decrease in production from 209,900 thousand tonsto 113,218 thousands ton.Then, the development occurred again in 1923 to 1930, in which there was an increase to 197,352 thousand tons. The effect of world crisis (malaise) in 1931, the productivity of coal mining in Pulau Laut went down dramatically to 96,298 thousand tons. In 1932, there was no longer data mentioning the number of

production in Pulau Laut mining because it was closed by East Indies government. South East Borneo area based on data of sail and trade was dominated by statistic data on coal transportation in Pulau Laut, onderafdeling Tanah Bumbu and Pulau Laut. Pulau Laut’s success as a coal exporter was supported by the location of Stagen Port’s located in large shipping path that could be passed through easily by various types of ship from Makassar. One of which was ship from Koninklijk Paketvaart Maatshappij (KPM) fleet, Henrie Danker. Before 1909, at least 3/5 (three fifth) of mining product was exported abroad to Germany, in which Pulau Laut’s coal was used widely by




Norddeutscher Lloyd, Bremen (Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau, 1922: 171-172) Coal transportation in Pulau laut was largely undertaken by KPM fleet. Kelling stated that it was because only this fleet has dedication to transport the coal of East Indies Government. In addition, there

was also other company’s fleet transporting coal, Steenkolen Handel Maatshappij (SHM). The ratio of coal transportation in Pulau laut to that in other area during 1915 in East Indies can be seen in table 4.11.

Table 4.11. Ratio of Coal Transportation Fleets in 1915

Origin Area of Coal Ombilin Poeloe Laoet Berouw Samarinda Total

KPM

SHM

Third Party

38,876 4,591 8,171 6,333 57,971

46, 559 61,944 108,603

21,838 844 8,065 30,747

Source:L.C. Admiraal, “Het brandstofvraagstuk in Ned.-Indie”, Koloniale Studien Tijdschrift Van De Vereeniging Voor Studie Van KoloniaalMaatschappelijke Vraagstukken, Tweede Jaargang January 1918 (Weltevreden: Albrecht & Co,1918), pp. 86-87. The data above represents that the transportation of 4,591 tons coal in Pulau Laut carried out by KPM ship. Meanwhile 61,944 tons coal was transported by SHM ship. The table also reveals that there was third party, other shipping company, transporting Pulau Laut’s coal in 1915. The largest volume of Coalcarried away mostly by KPM ship derived from Ombilin Coal Company of 38,876 thousand tons, then followed by that from Berouw (East Borneo) of 8.171 thousand tons, and that from Samarinda of 6,333 thousand tons. The destination of transportation for coal marketing from Pulau Laut, in addition to Germany, was Singapore for steam ship fuel purpose and company in East Indies area (L.C. Admiraal, 1918: 87).

Dutch hegemony in South East Borneo monopolized paper trading diligently and transported it using steam ship needs coal stock in large volume. European market’s demand for coal led East Indies government to conduct coal mining not only for fulfilling their need but also for being sold. For that reason, Dutch colonialism organized strategy and looked for coal mining sources in its colonial area (Yogaulil, 2011: 68). Thus, in its development in 1915, coal is very desirable for energy purposeto ship, steam locomotive, and electricity power generator. The volume of coal needed for steam ship in East Indies in 1915 can be seen in table 4.14.

Table 4.14. Coal Volume for Steam Ship Requirement in 1915 Destination Emmahaven (Teluk Bayur) Bandjermasin Berouw

Volume 34,875 tons 13,943 tons 4,757 tons




9,218 tons 5,394 tons 68,187 tons

Samarinda Stagen Total Source:

M.A.J. Kelling, “Het Steenkolenvraagstuk voor Nederlandsch-Indie”, Koloniale Studiën Tijdschrift Van De Vereeniging Voor Studie Van KoloniaalMaatschappelijke Vraagstukken (Tweede Jaargang January 1918 gedrukt bij Albrecht & Co., Weltevreden. 1918), pp. 86-87.

The Shutting of Pulau Laut Coal Mining in 1930

were enlivened participation.

1930 was the peak of international-scale economic crisis. This crisis had exerted negative effect on sailing and coal trading activity in East Indies. Then, it also affected the sailing of overall steam ship, including KPM.

As an alternative small port, some ports in South East Borneo area were indeed not affected directly by malaise. However, this crisis even encourages the increasingly crowded mass boat sailing becoming an alternative trade catering to trade to South East Borneo area.

KPM as the holder of inter-islands sailing monopoly encountered many difficulties in relation to the crisis. The falling down of many commodities’ price led to the traders’ insolvency to pay high premium forKPM service. The traders wanted lower-cost ships rather than KPM ship. At that time, diesel-engine wooden ship has been developed with far more economic operating cost compared with steam ship with coal fuel, so that the tariff was also cheaper. In addition to wooden ship, to fulfill the needfor low-cost sea transportation vehicle, sailboat fleet appeared as “savior” because steam ship was collapsed. Not only indigenous traders switching to the cheap transportation to carry their commodities,but also many Chinese and European firms utilized it. In 1929-1931 and then to 1942, the meancontent of boat increased in many ports in East Indies, while that of steam ship decreased. At that time,the sailing of steam shipwith coalfuel could be said as paralyzed because the high operating costcannot be compensated in a very sluggish market condition. The simpletechnology boat even kept surviving and even became the mainstay of traders in inter-island trading. In economic depression period, the main sailing paths

again

by

sailboat’s

The crisis affected the coal mining company in Pulau Laut. While in 19191922, Pulau Laut Mining Company obtained profit exceeding OBM and Parapattan’s gains. However, in subsequent years, the profit of Pulau Laut Mining Company decreased until it lost 260,000 guilders. The illustration of its production in the last three years is as follows: in 1929this mining production was 173,783, andthen it increased to 197,352 tons in 1930. Mining production went down drastically directly in 1931 with only 96,298 tons. This low production was worsened by the presence of competition from other producer countries in world market and uncertain coal market. In the crisis of 1930, Pulau Laut Mining Company went down continuously so that it was dismissed in that year (Van Bammelen, 1949: 81) In 1919-1922 Pulau Laut Mining Companyobtained profit exceeding OBM and Parapattan’s gains. However, in subsequent years, the profit of Pulau Laut Mining Company decreased until it lost 260,000 guilders. Pulau Laut Mining Company went down continuously so that it was dismissed in 1930. It was because of the rivalry from other producer countries




in world market and the uncertain coal market. Pulau Laut Coal Mining encountered development and fluctuated since 1903-1930. Having been opened in 1903, in cooperation with the investors of Pulau Laut Mining Company (De Steenkolen-Maatschappij Poeloe Laoet), it constructed a 5-km long transportation road from Semblimbingan to Stagen Port. The investors provided mining cart and large construction scaffold to transport coal and coal transporting ship to Europe. The world crisis (malaise) in 1931 led the productivity of coal mining in Pulau Laut to go down dramatically to 96,298 thousand tons. In 1932, there was no longer data mentioning the number of production in Pulau Laut mining because it was closed by East Indies government. This international-scale economic crisis affected the Pulau Laut coal mining company. This low production was worsened by the presence of competition from other producer countries in world market and uncertain coal market. In the crisis of 1930, Pulau Laut Mining Company went down continuously so that it was closed.

Concluding Remark Industrial revolution in Europe in the 18th century affected East Indies, the Dutch colonial area. Coal became superior mineral commodity in Borneo and East Indies in the 18th century. Coal exploration and mining in Borneo area was conducted in southern and eastern parts, particularly in Pulau Laut. Coal exploration in Pulau Laut began in 1903 with the establishment of Coal Mining Company by Netherlands in Pulau Laut on Janssen’s initiative who has initiated some expeditions in East Indies. The development of coal mining exploration in Pulau Laut increased in the middle of 1910s. The exploration activity was conducted intensively in the attempt of fulfilling the supply of steam machine for ships transporting pepper product transportation to Europe. However, in 1931, Pulau Lautcoal mining is eventually closed because of the effect of world economic crisis (malaise) leading the product of coal mining in Pulau laut to go down drastically to 96,298 thousand tons. In 1932there was no longer data mentioning the number of production in Pulau Laut mining because it was closed by East Indies government.

REFERENCES Leopold, L., 1915, De Gezondheidstoestand Der Arbeiders Bij De Steenkolenmijnen Van Poeloe Laoet (Amsterdam: Ellerman, Series Vereeniging Koloniaal Instituut, Afdeeling Tropische Hygiene). Arsip "The Colonial Economy In The Netherlands Indies Part 2: The Commission For Industrial Development In The Netherlands Indies, 1915-1926”, Inventaris van het ar chief van Ir. J. van der Waerden, gedelegeerdlid en voor zitter van de Commissie tot ontwikkeling van de Fabrieksnijver heid in Neder landsIndie (1904), 1919-1926 (1940), Den Haag 1986. Bleckmann, G.M., “Iets over het Noodzakelijke en Voorkelige Eener Negerlandshe Vestiging op de Ooskust van Borneo”, in Jacob swart, Verhan-delingen en Berigten Betrekkelijk het Zeewegen, Zeevaartkunde, de Hydro-graphie, de Kolonien (Amsterdam: G. Hulst van Keulen, 1853). Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 534



Van Bammelen, 1949, Geology of Indonesia, Volume II, Economic Geology (Amsterdam: Martinus Nijhof, The Hague). Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau, 1922, The Mineral Industry of The British Empire And Foreign Countries, War Period (1913-1919) (London: Majestys Stationery Offices). Admiraal, L.C., 1918, “Het brandstofvraagstuk in Ned.-Indie”, Koloniale Studiën Tijdschrift Van De Vereeniging Voor Studie Van Koloniaal-Maatschappelijke Vraagstukken, Tweede Jaargang January 1918 (Weltevreden: Albrecht & Co.). Yogaulil, “Sejarah Pertambangan Batubara & Sejarah Pertambangan Dunia” (online), (http://yogaulil.blogspot.com/2011/01/sejarah-pertambangan dunia.html, accessed onFebruary 3, 2011).







Collaborative Learning Model Tour Visits as Efforts for Submission Heroic Values Central Java to Students High School

Darwati SMA Negeri 1 Tuntang

I. Introduction A. Background

C

urrently around three billion people in the world have access to the Internet through various devices. Meanwhile, active users of Android devices that have access to a much faster and more practically anyway continue to increase in number. In February, the figure reached 500 million. This number is up more than five-fold compared to two last year which only reached 80 million people, or two times more than last year only 200 million users. Indonesia is the world's top 5 internet users, with the total number of users to 70 million people. (Kompas, March 3, 2015). The high number of internet users in Indonesia on the one hand is certainly encouraging for the transfer of information over the internet can be done quickly. Transfer this information allows users acquire the knowledge society and the new techniques that can be used to solve the problems of his life P.1 However, the increasing number of Internet users also could be bad. By their very nature are open to anyone, anytime, internalize new values are brought together with the emergence of new information almost without filter. The values that are contrary to the values of the culture of Indonesian people will easily terinternalisiasi. At the end of this fact will

lead to the depletion of a sense of pride and national consciousness and cultured Indonesia. Depletion of a sense of pride that will eventually be implicated in the depletion of loyalty to the homeland of Indonesia and the erosion of heroism. Depletion of consciousness and pride of nation and state of Indonesia's most evident in the implementation of the flag ceremony. In SMA Negeri 1 Tuntang, for example, the bleak reality is seen in the form of the increasing number of students who are late to enter the parade ground. If the ceremony for the first Sunday of January is only about 10 students who terlabat next two weeks has risen to 15 people. In a ceremony on February 16, 2015 increased to 37 students. The less khidmatnya ceremony was also evident from the number of students who are not able to stand in upright position when saluting the flag and talk at the time of the reading of Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. The solemnity of the ceremony follows the flag can be used as a marker of increasing erosion of a sense of nationalism among Indonesian students. If the bleak reality is ongoing, meaningful learning in school history have failed. This is because learning sejarahlah.P.2 the greatest role in the preservation of national values, heroism, and planting in every soul student. The failure is not




possible due to the inaccuracy of the practice of the teaching of history. Practice teaching of history in schools mostly relies on recollecting the time, place, and historical figures. Analysis of causal relationships is generally done theoretically and monotonous making it less attractive.This was worsened by the inclusion of history is no longer a subject of the National Exam. The perception that the lessons of History is a subject that is important not emerged. This fact lowers students' motivation in learning to follow the history which in turn decreases the level of learning success history as one of the major subjects that internalize the values kejuangan and patriotism to students. This is consistent with the view Hamalik (1992: 173), which states that if a low learning motivation, it is very difficult for teachers and students to be able to achieve the expected learning goals. For this reason, keep students' motivation in following the teaching of History is important. One factor determining the high motivation of students in participating or learning is a way of learning methods used by teachers. Therefore, teachers need to determine the most appropriate way of learning the planting historical values can be internalized to the students optimally. In spite of everything and thinking that this is written. P.3

B. Problem Formulation Issues discussed in this article is the strategy or the submission of heroic values in the younger generation of Central Java. Given the wide scope and limitations of the younger generation of writers of the problem is limited to the submission of heroic values in Central Java through history lessons to high school students. This restriction allows the discussion becomes deeper and more effective. Based on the background as described above, the formulation of the problem this paper is as follows:

1. Do Travel Visits learning models appropriate for learning which aims to inculcate values of heroism Central Java to high school students? 2. How does the collaborative model of learning Travel Visits need to collaborate with other learning model to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning? 3. Can the model of learning Travel Visits on the subjects of History collaborated also with other subjects of learning activities? 4. What are the teachers to be aware that the implementation of collaborative learning model based Travel Visits managed optimally? P.4

C. Objectives Goals to be achieved through scientific writings are as follows: 1. Knowing the learning model that can optimally be a tool of value investment nationality for students. 2. Knowing the factors that should diparhatikan in implementing the teaching of history in order to optimally be a tool of value investment nationality.

D. Method To obtain the data in this paper is used several methods, ie interviews, observation, and study pusataka. Interviews were conducted to obtain an explanation of matters relating to the practice of history teaching in schools. Interviews were conducted for trainers of teachers and students in high school History 1 Tuntang. Selection of speakers is done with consideration of efficiency, because the author has also worked as a teacher at the school. Observations conducted to obtain data on the implementation of learning history in high school. Observations made on history teaching in SMA N 1 Tuntang. P.5




The literature used to obtain data and theoretical basis used in writing this paper. A literature study by reading some literature sources such as books, research reports, and pages on the internet.

II. DISCUSSION A. Learning History in high school Red coat, important not to forget history. Speech of President Soekarno This shows how important history lesson. From history to learn about the past to predict and respond to future challenges. According Isjoni (2007: 71), History is a subject that instills knowledge and values regarding the process of change and development of society and the world in Indonesia over the past until now. In formal education, including the teaching of History normative, because their goals and targets aimed more at the normative aspects, namely in terms of value and meaning in accordance with the purpose of education itself (Alfian, 2007: 1). Through the teaching of history students are able to develop the competence to think chronologically and have knowledge of the past that can be used to understand and explain the process of development and change society as well as social and cultural diversity in order to find and grow the nation's identity in the midst of a world community. P.6 Historical importance of making these subjects are taught from elementary to high school / vocational school. Presentation of course adjusted to the maturity and level of student ability. Nevertheless, the general teaching of History at every level have the same goal, which is to make students aware of the diversity of life experience in their respective communities and their different perspectives on the past to understand the present and build knowledge and understanding in facing up to the future will come (MONE, 2003 in Isjoni, 2007: 72).

In a different formulation, S.K. Kochhar (2008) revealed that the purpose of learning history is to develop (1) knowledge, (2) understanding, (3) critical thinking, (4) the practical skills, (5) interest and (6) behavior. Meanwhile, according to Sapriya (2009: 209-210) History of subjects intended that learners have the following capabilities: 1. Build awareness of students about the importance of time and place that is a process of the past, present and future. 2. Build awareness of students about the importance of time and place that is a process of the past, present and future. 3. Exercising power krirtis learners to understand the historical facts correctly on the basis of scientific approach and scientific methodology. P.7 4. Growing appreciation of heritage learners against civilization as evidence of Indonesia in the past. 5. Cultivate the students understanding of the process of formation of the Indonesian nation with a long history and still proceed to the present and optimistic future. 6. Raise awareness in self-learners as part of the Indonesian people who have a sense of pride and patriotism that can be implemented in various spheres of life, both nationally and internationally. Above objective suggests the importance of teaching history for the survival and progress of the country. Unfortunately, the teaching of history is not much interested students. From the interviews conducted by the author to the students, they expressed more interest in subjects Sports, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, or in English. There are several factors that cause this to happen: 1. The practice of teaching history in schools is still much emphasis on recollecting the time, place, and historical figures. Analysis of causal relationships is generally done theoretically and monotonous making it less attractive. 2. The subjects History is no longer




included as subjects of the National Exam. This has led to the perception that the history lesson is not an important subject, which determines graduation. P.8 This fact lowers the interest and motivation of students in participating in learning history which in turn decreases the level of learning success. This is consistent with the view Hamalik (1992: 173), which states that if a low learning motivation, it is very difficult for teachers and students to be able to achieve the expected learning goals. For this reason, keep students' motivation in following the teaching of History is important. The causes of the two mentioned above, the main cause is the main cause for subjects Sport was also interested students although not included subjects in the national examination. That means, the real cause is a learning process that is not pleasant. From interviews and observations, it was revealed that students interested in Sports because on these subjects students are given the freedom to physically interact with the material / task. Implementation of learning outside the classroom is also a factor enthuses Sports lesson by the students. Contrary to that, the need for the selection of appropriate learning models for History in high school. The appropriate method for learning aimed History menamkan heroic values of Central Java is a method or a field trip visit. P.9

B. Learning Model Study Tour The learning model is a way used by teachers to present learning materials in order that the learning objectives can be achieved. Currently known their various types of learning models. One of them is a tourist visit. According Mulyasa (2005), field trips or field trip is a journey undertaken by learners to acquire learning experience, especially the direct experience and is an integral part of the school curriculum. Attraction works very

effectively used for learning which aims to develop students' insight and experience of the outside world. Meanwhile, according to Djamarah (2002), works that travel is a way of teaching that is done by getting students to a place or a particular object outside of school to learn or investigate something. The learning model works is often called the term widya travel tours, study tours, study tours, and so on. Based on the views of two education experts, we can conclude that the work of travel is one type of learning model that core activities of students visited an object in the subject matter and learning objectives. That means, a field apply modern teaching principles that utilize real environment as an important part in the learning process. Compared to other learning models, field trips have several advantages, among others.P10 1. Learning is not imaginary because students have a real and direct experience with learning objects. 2. It has a greater possibility to embed various grades of students, such as tolerance, democracy, responsibility, meticulous, modesty, and piety. This is because the tourist traffic is always carried out in groups and always involve other parties. 3. Can be used to develop three domains abilities at once, namely affective, psychomotor and cognitive. 4. Allow students discover and prove the real truth of the theory learned in the classroom so that students gain in-depth understanding of the theory and integrative studies. 5. Can be used to achieve several objectives at a time of learning, both in the subjects and across subjects. 6. Making teaching relevant to reality.

materials

more

7. It stimulates creativity of children because it involves a number of operational measures.




There is no perfect model of learning, so that each model pembelajarn certainly has its drawbacks. Similarly, the work of travel.Adapaun weakness of this model are as follows: 1. Requires a more detailed preparation because it involves many parties. P.11 2. It takes longer and costs more. 3. Requires the involvement of more than one teacher in order to keep the activities of the visit went according to plan and set goals. 4. Having a greater risk for the occurrence of cases of travel accident, illness, and other bad things during the course of the visit. C. Study Tour Study Tour as a Learning Model Investment Values of Heroism Central Java Given its characteristics, the field trip is a learning model that is most appropriate for high school students learning in Central Java which aims among others to instill the values of heroism. Values may include self-sacrifice, patriotism, nationalism, tolerance, discipline, and unyielding. To menamankan values of heroism Central Java objects that can be visited museums, historic sites, and figures or agents of history, as well as a military base. By visiting the museum, especially students will acquire knowledge and detailed real struggle regarding events kepahlawaman. In Central Java, there are a number of museums that are used as the object of the visit, for example Museum and Museum Mandala Bhakti Ronggowarsito in Semarang, Ambarawa Museum, and Museum Sudirman in Purbalingga. Visits to historic sites allow students to feel the atmosphere of the "near" real so that it can reconstruct it.p.12 better more heroic events in the past. Thus, students will have a spiritual experience to the event and ultimately

obtain planting heroic values. As for historic sites in Central Java, which can be visited include Fort Oenarang (the place of detention of Prince Diponegoro) in Ungaran, TuguMuda and Prison Underground on complex LawangSewu in Semarang, Home Office Sudirman in Magelang, Monument Isdiman in Jambu Semarang District, Monument WR Supratman in KaligesingPurworejo, Monument Pucakwangi in Pati regency, and others. Through traffic (and interviews) to the characters or actors heroic event, students will obtain information on an event or the heroism and struggle of primary sources, namely the perpetrators of the events. Through this visit, students can obtain a more detailed picture and live because it is often the little things that perceived perpetrators are not written in the documents persitiwa. But it is of little things that values kejuangan and heroism can be optimally absorbed by the students. Visits to the characters / actors can also be used as a form anjangsana, which implies the respect and appreciation of the award or students to speakers as agents of history. The figures which can be visited, for example ex-combatants War of Independence veteran members, former members of the army of the struggle, the former soldiers involved in various military operations such as GOM Movement P.13 DI / TII, GOM Trikora, GOM Dwikora, GOM Seroja, GOM Aceh Merdeka, and others. In addition, the figures who contributed in the community or "hero" can also be used as a local object of the visit.Army headquarters can also serve as the object of the visit, because the army headquarters aggota certainly much involved in the struggle to preserve and uphold the sovereignty of Indonesia. In Central Java there are many army headquarters which dipat visited by special permit, among other things Battalion 410 Banteng Raiders in Semarang, Combat Engineering Battalion and Battalion Tank




in Ambarawa, Batayon Infantry WijayaKusuma in Purwokerto, Battalion Kopassus Occasionally MenjanganKartasura, Battalion 412 in Purworejo, Battalion Arteleri Medan in Magelang, and others. By visiting and obtain an explanation of certain actors heroic event, students will be reconstructed and the values kejuangan and heroic in themselves more intensely. On the other hand, this visit can be beneficial to efforts to bring the army to the people as part of efforts to realize the power of the Sishankamrata system (defense and security of the universe). Travel Visits

D. Collaboration with Other Learning Model and Other Subjects In order to achieve maximum results, excursions need to collaborate with other learning models during the learning process. This needs to be done, among others to reduce weaknesses in the model.p.14 learning field trip. This collaboration will make tourist visits are not stuck on recreational activities. As for the other pembalajaran models appropriate to collaborate with excursions include: 1. Two Stay Two Stray or Two Stay Two Guest Learning model that provides an opportunity for the group to share the results and information with other groups. This is done through mutual visit / visit with other groups to share information for each group discount the depth and breadth of information that is different about something. In collaboration with excursions models Two Stay Two Stray done in class after the visit. The goal is that students acquire the depth and breadth of relatively equal on the details of an object or resource exposure. 2. Learning Model Swapping Partners Mechanical methods of learning exchange partner is a model of learning that gives students the opportunity to work together

with others. Pembelajarn models can be applied to all subjects and grade levels. This is because in this model each student to form pairs, can be appointed directly by the teacher or the students to find your own partner. The teacher gives the task to be done by each partner and then each pair of students. P.!5 joined by one spouse to another. Once completed, each pair of new questions and strengthens their answers. The new findings were obtained from the exchange partner then distributed to the original pair. 3. Learning Model Roving Flocking This learning model begins with the formation of group visits. Each member of the next visit the other groups to express their views / findings. And so on. Turn to speak to do according to the direction of rotation clockwise or from left to right. 4. Learning Model Product Team In this model after a group of students carry out excursions, they carry out tasks of products that have been determined. The determinations were performed prior to the visit done so during the visit of each group have been focusing on a specific aspect. Given task such as writing an essay, prepare alternative possibility improving the function object of the visit, wrote a collection of poems whose themes are related to the object of the visit. 5. Learning Model Throwing Snowball Snowball Throwing a collaborative learning model that is based on the pass game. Collaboration excursions with learning models Snowball Throwing done.P.16 using the group during the visit as a group game. Each member of the group wrote down questions relating to the object and the information obtained during the visit. The next ball was thrown to the other groups. Students who got hit obliged to answer the questions that are written in the




paper balls. Whatever the learning model that will be collaborated, teachers should do the decision is based on the determinants of successful learning, which according Surahmad (1990: 97) includes students, learning objectives, learning situations, facilities, and capabilities as well as the teacher's personality. For learning based on a visit this tourist optimally successful teachers need to be prepared. Some things to note in this preparatory phase, namely: 1. Determine the public resources as a source of learning and teaching. 2. Viewing conformity with the purpose of learning resources and school programs. 3. Analyze the learning resources based on the values paedagogis. 4. Linking learning curriculum resources, whether the resources to support learning in the field and in accordance with the demands of the curriculum, if so, the work dapatdilaksanakan travel. P.16 5. Establish and develop a program of travel works logically and systematically. 6. Carry out work in accordance with the travel intended purpose, taking into account learning objectives, subject matter, learning effects, as well as a favorable climate. 7. Provide an explanation and details of the tasks to be carried students, either before, during implementation, and after the visit. To ensure the success rate of the implementation of learning by using a model of collaboration excursions with other teaching model, teachers should conduct an analysis of the achievement of the objectives, the obstacles activities and other things that can be used as a material consideration in the implementation of the kind of learning the future. Given Visits Travel is a model that takes time and costs are relatively large, the use of these models need to involve other subjects. A visit to Ambarawa, for example, used for subjects of History. On the same occasion the visit continued to the village

temple located on the slopes of Mount Ungaran, located 15 km. In this object IPA Program students make observations on the highland vegetation, while the IPS Program students made observations and interviews to obtain information about various issues related to economic activities. P.17 Through collaboration across subjects as mentioned above, time and cost efficiency can be maximized visit. Thus, the cost of the visit is no longer a barrier.

III. COVER A. Conclusions Based on the exposure in advance, there are some conclusions that can be obtained, namely: 1. Travel Visits learning model is an appropriate learning models for learning that aims to inculcate values of heroism Central Java to high school students. 2. In its application, the learning model Tourism Visits need to collaborate with other learning model to improve the effectiveness of learning. 3. To reduce costs, the use of models of learning Travel Visits on the subjects of history can also collaborate with other subjects of learning activities. 4. For the implementation of collaborative learning model based Travel Visits optimally successful, teachers must make the selection based on factors of student learning models, learning situation, objectives, facilities, and teachers. P.18 5. Teachers need to do some preparation so that collaborative learning model with other models Travel Visits take place optimally. B. Suggestions Tourist visits a learning model that has a number of advantages. Therefore, history teachers need to frequently use this model. The school principal should provide




enough support so that teachers can develop this model in achieving the

learning objectives.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Djamarah, SaifulBahri. 200. Teachers and Learners In Educational Interaction. Jakarta: Rineka Reserved. Miftahul

Huda. 2013. Cooperative learning. Yogyakarta: Student Library Nana Sudjana. 1995. Fundamentals of Teaching and Learning. Bandung: Sinar Baru Algesindo.

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The Assessment of Open-Ended Question Performance in Social Science Learning

Dr. Nursyamsinar Nursiti, M.Pd Widyaiswara Madya, Lembaga Penjaminan Mutu Pendidikan (LPMP) Jawa Barat Email: [email protected]

Abstract: This research was conducted recalling that the students’ critical thinking ability is still low in Social Science Learning in Junior High School. It was because the Social Science Learning conducted so far encouraged the students more to choose one correct answer rather than to develop their mindset in raising new ideas or thought. For that reasons, the objective of research was to find the model of open-ended question performance assessment rubric in Social Science learning in order to improve the students’ critical thinking ability in Junior High Schools. This study was a Descriptive qualitative research, constituting a preliminary study of research and development conducted in Junior High Schools in West Bandung. The preliminary study was conducted using survey designed to analyze the need for the development of open-ended question performance assessment model in Social Science to improve the Critical Thinking Ability (A Study on Model Development with the Senior High School Students in West Bandung). The data of research was obtained through interview, observation, document analysis, and library study. Data source: informant consisted of Headmaster/deputy of headmaster, Social Science teachers and students. Data analysis was conducted using an interactive analysis. From the result of research, it could be concluded that conceptual model of open-ended question performance assessment developed was formulated in three stages: planning, implementation and evaluation. Keywords: performance assessment, open ended question, critical thinking, and social science learning.

A. INTRODUCTION

O

ne most important element of Social Science education is to be able to develop skills, including thinking, social, and communication ones. Soemantri (2001: 184) argued that to

develop the students’ critical thinking skill starts from simply thinking process to indepth thinking process such as reflective thinking, consisting of: (a) meta-cognition, (b) critical and creative thinking, (c) thinking process, (d) core thinking skills, and (e) the relationship of content area of




knowledge to thinking. National Education Minister’s Regulation No.22 of (2006: 417) about Standard Content, Standard Competency and Basic Competency stated that one objective of Social Science subject in Junior High Schools (SMP) is to make the students have basic ability of thinking logically and critically, curiosity, inquiry, problem solving, and social life skill. The statement above showed that Social Science education plays an important role in creating the critical thinking ability of students. Regarding ethical thinking, Ennis (1985: 54) revealed that critical thinking ability included evaluative and reflective thinking abilities, focusing on making decision about what should be believed and done. Critical thinking ability is a process ending up in decision making, or logical decision about what should be believed, and what action should be done. So, not only looking for answer only, but also growing ability to provide varying idea and to see the problems from separating point of views is most important (Achmad, 2007: 7). The better the application of abilityan individual has rationally, the higher is his ability to solve complex problems, with satisfactory result, because all solutions given come from the result of observation, experience, thinking, consideration and good communication, and his ability to guide and direct attitude and action (Walker, 2001: 1). The attempt of creating the students’ critical thinking ability in Social Science in Junior High School (SMP/MTs),the teacher’s role is required that is willing to change conventional learning paradigm into the one emphasizing on critical thinking ability, i.e. the ability of collecting data, processing data, analyzing and drawing conclusions, and thinking of the applicativeconsequence of a decision (Hasan, 1996: 14). It is in line with Schafersman (1991: 29) stating that: “We should be teaching the students how to

think.Instead, we are teaching them what to think”. Two important points that can be drawn from that statement are: firstly, teacher is accustomed to teach the students “what to think” meaning that teacher only convey subject material or transfer of knowledge only, so that learning process emphasizing more on low-level thinking ability. Secondly, teacher should teach the students “how to think” or thinking critically, that is, the learning process emphasizing more on high-level thinking ability, the ability to explore useful knowledge to solve the problem occurring in his/her life, either personally or socially. In reality, Durr, Lahart & Mass’s (1999:75-86) study found that only 50% of teachers feel ready to teach critical thinking skill, and 14% teachers feel not ready. Many teachers are not willing to change their teaching style (lecturing) into discussion and dialogue, because learning with discussion and dialogue take much time, to prepare the students for thinking critically. As a result, the critical thinking ability of students belongs to low category. It can be seen from the achievement of critical thinking ability aspect in hypothesized indicator of 22.54%, concept application of 24.17% and alternative solution formulation of 61.67%. Similarly, Jacob in his study (2000: 596) concluded that thinking process practiced in schools tends to emphasize on memory cognition or low-level thinking ability,because the students only absorb information passively and recall it during the test. In addition, information presented is less structured, and often given question chronologically, so that the students found the difficulty of applying the knowledge they have acquired, particularly in solving the problem in real world, for example the problem outside school. It becomes one factor causing the low quality of education in Indonesia.As suggested by Santrock (2007: 78), few schools teach critical thinking to the students. Instead, the schools encourage the students to give correct answer rather




than to generate new ideas. Teacher often tells the students to retell, to define, and to describe, rather than to analyze, to synthesize, to create, to draw conclusion and to reevaluate.

learning to improve the students’ critical thinking ability at junior high school level.

Perhaps an individual cannot think critically, without having knowledge about content and theory concerning this study area (Meyers; 1986:40). Similarly, for the students to think critically in Social Science education, they should first understand the Social Science concept well. It is in line with constructivism theory in which an individual learns, may not imitate only or reflects on what taught, or what read, but should construct his/her knowledge, by integrating it into the knowledge they have continuously. The students should be given an opportunity of asking question, formulating alternative answer, solving problem, and helping the students in critically thinking skill.

This study was a preliminary part of research and development done. In West Bandung, the preliminary research conducted with a survey designed to analyze the need f or Open-Ended Question Performance Assessment Model in Social Science Learning to improve Critical Thinking Ability (A Study on Model Development with the Students of Junior High Schools in West Bandung). The data of research derived from interview, observation, document analysis, and library study. The data source included informants consisting of Headmaster/deputy of headmaster, teacher and students. Data analysis was carried out using interactive analysis.

The students’ low critical thinking ability is also due to an assessment process emphasizing more on low-level cognitive aspect, the one focusing on one correct or appropriate answer, even the way of finding the answer has been often specified by teacher(Munandar, 1988: xvii). It can be seen from assessment instrument used widely at school being objective test such as multiple-choice test or matching test. If the assessment the teachers do and develops still relies on paper and pencil test as the only assessment instrument, it would not be consistent with standard education assessment obligatorily using a variety of assessment techniques repeatedly and sustainably. To deal with such the problem above, a performance assessment model should be developed, becoming an alternative to conventional (paper and pencil test) usually used by teacher in assessing the students’ learning (Marzano, 1994:47; Stiggins, 1994:534; Zainul 2001:5; Rustaman, 2006:3). As such, this research focuses on the development of open-ended question performance assessment model in Social Science

B. METHOD

C. DISCUSSION 1. Establishing Critical Thinking Ability in Social Science Learning Social Science is one of subjects studying a series of events, facts, concepts, and generalization related to social issue. Through the objective of Social Science learning, the students are expected to have abilities of: (1) identifying the concepts related to society life and their environment, (2) thinking logically and critically, curiosity, inquiring, solving problem, and skills in social life, (3) having commitment and awareness of social and humanity values, and (4) communicating, cooperating, and competing within plural society, at local, national and global levels (Depdiknas [National Education Department], 2006: 417). In line with the objective of Social Science learning, to develop intellectual and emotional ability of students, in the attempt of solving the problems occurring in social life, the learning process conducted should be developed




systematically, thereby can explore the potential of students optimally in solving problem and decision making. For that reason, the teacher should select and use learning method, organize the scope of material to be taught, and deliver information using reasoning and rational mind, so that the students move gradually from the simple to the complicated one, and to create a series of insight and knowledge meaningful to themselves (Sanusi, 1998: 24). Critical thinking ability can be learnt and taught, both at school and through independent learning. The point requiring attention in critical thinking ability learning is that such the ability should be implemented through practice consistent with the students’ cognitive development stage, starting from the easy one to the more difficulty one. Similarly, critical thinking ability in Social Science in Social Science learning at school is an attempt of bridging the gap between the problems taught in school and the problems in the field (real world). For that reason, there should be an experience of critical thinking ability relevant to life and students’ age development level, through continuous, intensive, and programmed practice in learning process such as (1) understanding the problem; (2) identifying the problem; (3) analyzing an idea as alternative problem solving; (4) making appropriate decision; and (5) selfcorrecting for problem solving. Therefore, through such the practice, the students’ critical thinking ability will be practiced into a thinking habit that should be implanted earlier, and everyone has an ability to be a reliable critical thinker (Raths, 1986:160; Wollcott and Lynch, 2001:37; Facione, 2004:58; Sudaryanto, 2008:10). Al Muchtar (2004: 178) suggested that critical thinking education is considered as appropriate and strategic for Indonesian social condition recently, because it should be able to give addedvalue to Indonesian human resource

development, particularly relative to science and technology development, and modern information age that has developed in undirected and uncontrolled manner. In addition to advance that can be obtained, it is often faced with striking surprise and tension. For that reason, to deal with such the challenge, teacher should prepare for teaching critical thinking at school, by means of, among others: (1) mastering thinking skill and being ready to teach it more appropriately using metacognitive method, (2) mastering discipline; (3) improving critical thinking ability through seminar activities, conference or regional/.national/international-level workshop; (4) learning how to teach critical thinking; and (5) being able to design learning (Barnes, 2005: 10). Thus, the establishment of critical thinking in Social Science learning, particularly in Junior High School (SMP) level, is a must that is unassailable. It is because of the rapid development of science and technology encouraging globalization in any aspects of life, so that to anticipate it, the students’ critical thinking ability can be developed to prepare high-quality human resource as early as possiblefor dealing with and competing within global society life. In addition, through critical thinking ability in Social Science learning, the students are expected to be able (1) to make decision and solve problem wisely, for example, flexible, reflective, curious, and cooperative, (2) to apply knowledge, experience and thinking skill more practically both inside and outside school, (3) to provide idea and to deal with hasty and narrow thinking way, (4) improving cognitive aspect to the higher level, and (5) to be opened in accepting and expressing opinion, and to make consideration based on reason and evidence. 2. Assessment of Open-Ended Question Performance to improve critical thinking ability




Generally, the assessment in learning aimed to appreciate (to reward) the students’ learning achievement, and to improve the learning program and activity. Therefore, learning assessment, in addition to emphasizing on the achievement of students’ learning outcome, also sees entire learning process from the assessment of student characteristic, learning method, curriculum achievement, learning tool and material, to that of school administration. Particularly, the objectives of assessment are: (1) giving information on the progress of students’ learning outcome individually, (2) improving the learning activity further; (3) giving feedback to determine the difficulty level in implanting remedial and enrichment activity; (4) motivating the students’ learning by means of self-identification and conception; (5) determining the effectiveness of learning; (6) giving accountability from the school management to those interested; (7) giving appropriate guide to choose the school according their skill, interest, and ability, (8) evaluating the performance of class teacher; and (9) clarifying the learning objective designed by teacher (Popham, 1995: 13; Cartono, 2006: 30; and Mansur, 2011: 24). Thus, the objectives of assessment aforementioned can describe that assessment in learning plays an important role in the attempt of improving learning quality. For that reason, the matters that should be taken into account in determining assessment in learning are: compatibility to learning material content, time, assessment instrument used in order to give accurate information about the students’ learning development and progress, teacher’s matter of consideration in making decision and in determining the best alternativesolution in learning process, thereby it can be accountable for to parents and society. Simply, performance assessment can be defined as an assessment of ability and attitude of students indicated with a

deed (action). Performance assessment is an alternative assessment to pencil & paper test using objective test set (Marzano, 1994:3; Popham, 1995:135). Sometimes the term alternative assessment is identical with other terms such as authentic assessment or performance assessment. It is called authentic assessment because alternative assessment is designed intentionally to ensure the authenticity and honesty of assessment and the result is reliable (credible). It is called performance assessment because the students are told to show their mastery of certain discipline, to explain certain events in the own words, or told to solve problem in correct way and product (outcome) (Marzano, 1994:3; Popham, 1995:135). Alternative assessment is defined by Marzano (1994; 4) as follows: “To describe alternatives to traditional, standardized, norm or criterion-referenced traditional paper and pencil testing. An alternative assessment might require students to answer openended question, work out a solution to a problem, perform a demonstration of a skill, or in some way produce work rather than select an answer from choices on a sheet of paper” This definition is in line with Danielson’s (1997:1) definition that: Performance assessment means any assessment of student learning that requires the evaluation of student writing, product, or behaviour. That is, it includes all assessment with the exception of multiple choice, matching, true/false testing, or problem with a single correct answer Some scholars’ opinions in line with the argument above suggest that




performance assessment is the one requiring the students demonstrating certain skill, showing the competency they master through their performance in the form of assignment set, or producing a certain product. So, performance assessment is not the one selecting an answer to alternative answer provided (Marzano, 1994:13; Popham, 1995:139; Zainul, 2001:11). From some opinions above, it can be concluded that performance assessment is the one that can show its performance result ability, both targeted knowledge and skill, by constructing open-ended problem answer, create product, make demonstration, or learn solving a problem. Thus, performance analysis is the assessment process, building on the student activityreally, either in learning process or in learning product, related to a variety of problems the students encountered. For example in Social Science learning, the students are asked to explain production process in their own words, to solve certain problem occurring in environment surrounding the students, to demonstrate the role in Social Science learning, or to make map, and etc. Demonstration of understanding and knowledge application, and this skill or performance becomes the object of performance assessment.

d. Product outcome is the ability of developing a certain product based on knowledge mastery e. Affective outcome is the achievement of certain attitude as a result of learning and applying knowledge. Performance analysis can assess a variety of students’ skill in learning, for example, assessing experimental/treatment procedure, either written or spoken communication, critical thinking in solving problem, cooperation and collaboration, management and administration, leadership, deliveringwork result either individually or in group, and the students can also obtain integrated knowledge. In addition, they can assessa variety of multiple intelligences, one of which is interpersonal intelligence within which there is a productive thinking habit (critical thinking). Furthermore, Zainul (2001: 12) explained that performance assessment can be manifested through performance assignments in many forms, such as: a. Computer adaptive testing, in this form the students are required to express themselves or to show their actual ability b. Extended multiple-choice test, is the test not only choosing the correct answer but also giving logical reason of the answer choice. c. Extended-response or open-ended question is the question not requiring the presence of one patterned correct answer, but has more than one answer. d. Group performance assessment is the tasks that should be completed in group. e. Individual performance assessment is the tasks that should be completed individually. f. Interview is responding to the question in spoken from.

Stiggins (1994: 179) and Marzano et al (1994: 15) suggested that performance assessment can see five learning dimensions. Those five learning dimensions are: a. Knowledge outcome is the students’ mastery of a subject’s knowledge substance. b. Reasoning outcome shows the students’ ability to reason and to solve a problem. c. Skill outcome is the ability of showing the achievement related to skill and the competency of students.




g. Observation, during completing the assignment, the students are observed either in opened or closed way, or in the form of participative observation. h. Portfolio, as a complication of students’ work is organized based on time order or activity category order. i. Project, exhibition, demonstration, the completion of complex assignment in a certain period of time that can reveal ability mastery up to certain level. j. Constructed response, the students is required to construct their own answer. Open-ended question is the form of opened question having many solutions or more than one correct answer (Hancock, 1995: 496; Brenson, 1995:83). Openended question gives the students discretion to express their answer to question creatively and appreciates the thinking diversity potentially arising in the completion of problem given. This can stimulate the students’ thinking creativity, and give the students an opportunity of acquiring new insight in their knowledge. Similarly, open-ended question gives the teacher an opportunity of helping the students understand and elaborate the ideas they have, in completing the problem encountered either personally or socially. The criteria requiring attention in organizing the assignment of open-ended question performance are: firstly, the assignment should be understood and conceived by the students, in order that the students are motivated to attempt to complete such the assignment as well as possible. Secondly, the assignment should be constructed and analyzed by the students in their own words, thereby giving them the opportunity of developing complex thinking skill in problem solving. Thirdly, the duty should be communicated clearly in the form of expected performance, and teacher has an

opportunity to find out what the students should know, in solving the problem given. Fourthly, the assignment should grow cooperation between students. Fifthly, the assignment should be assessable, using assessment criteria to estimate the value of students’ response or answer to the problem (Marzano, 1994:1516 ; Herman,et.al, 1992:198 ; Cooney, et al, 2002:64). To evaluate whether or not the assessment of open-ended question performance is high in its quality of use, it can be seen from seven criteria that should be met in the students’ performance assignment. They are: (1) generability, the students’ performance in doing the assignment given can be generalized to other assignment; (2) authenticity, the assignment given should be similar to what often encountered in daily life; (3) multiple focibility, the assignment given to the students can measure more than one intended ability; (4) teachability, the assignment given is the one with better result, because there is teacher’s teaching attempt in the class; (5) fairness, the assignment given has bee fair for all of students; (6) feasibility, the assignment given is relevant to do (cost, place, time or tool factor); and (7) scorability, the assignment given should be able to be scored accurately and reliably (Propham, 1995: 139). The criteria to organize the openended question performance assignment used in this research focus on: (1) criteria assignment given should be clear, contextual, and understandable to students, (2) performance assignment given should be able to be constructed and analyzed by the students in their own words, (3) the performance assignment given should be communicated clearly in the form of intended performance, (4) the performance assignment given can grow cooperation between students, and (5) the performance assignment given should be assessable through assessment criteria, used as the




basis to assess the whole performance of students. The planning of open-ended question performance assessment in Social Science learning is formulated through (1) identifying knowledge and skill by analyzing Standard Competency and Basic Competency, developing indicator, and determining learning objective; (2) organizing open-ended question that should be completed by students, item completing clue, and completion time determination; (3) organizing assessment rubric to asses critical thinking ability of students, started with determining rubric model, describing indicator of critical thinking, determining 1-4 scoring scale, and describing quality gradation. Score 4 means very good, 3 good, 2 enough, and 1 poor; and (4) communicating performance assessment to students, in order that they are motivated to complete the assignment consistent with determined criteria. Thus, the rubric of open-ended question performance analysis developed in Social Science learning can be used by teacher as guideline, to assess the students’ critical thinking ability objectively. The implementation of open-ended question performance assessment formulated in performance assignment and critical thinking rubric, developed through small- and large-scale trials using openended approach. The syntax of approach develops into six stages: orientation, organization, counseling, presentation, conformation, and feedback. Any of learning stage is assessed both individually and in group. The result of performance assessment in Social Science learning obtained that open-ended question that should be completed by students can be formulated in the form of daily life problems close to the students, in order to be understandable and to motivate the students to develop their mindset. Similarly, the rubric used to assess the students’ critical thinking ability can be formulated specifically in simple, practical and understandable, for individual

indicators of critical thinking to be achieved. Thus, it can facilitate the teacher in provide the students’ critical thinking ability value consistently and objectively. Evaluation in Social Science Learning with assessment rubric of open-ended question performance is conducted in learning process and outcome. The process assessment focuses on assessing the activity and critical thinking attitude of students in any learning activity, starting from orientation stage, organization, counseling, presentation, confirmation and feedback stage, observable and assessable with assessment rubric either individually or in group. The assessment of learning outcome is conducted through test in the form of open-ended question to assess the students’ critical thinking ability, in applying knowledge and experience they have. Considering the elaboration above, it can be found that the assessment of open-ended question performance put into open-ended question related to daily life problems close to students, and the assessment rubric used as guideline to provide the value of performance resultare relevant to apply to Social Science learning to make the students identify the concepts related to life occurring in their environment skillfully and apply knowledge and experience they have to solve the problem encountered by means of logical and critical thinking was, and can make consideration based on reason and evidence. Thus, it can be concluded that the assessment of open-ended question performancein Social Science learning, can exert significant effect on the improvement of students’ critical thinking ability. Critical thinking ability is an important part in an individual’s aspects of life to make decision considerately and can decide what they should think, what they should believe, and how to act for themselves. For that reason, critical thinking ability should be taught earlier to make everyone expresses they thought




skillfully, logically, systematically and practically.

D. CONCLUSION The attempt of improving the students’ critical thinking in Social Science learning in Junior High Schools (SMP) needs the role of teachers who are willing to change conventional learning into critical thinking ability learning paradigm, the ability of exploring knowledge possessed to solve the problems occurring in daily life. Similarly, through the change of objective test assessment emphasizing more on the low cognitive aspect, shifting to performance assessment paradigm, in addition to the students that can show their performance, they can also show critical thinking process, and experience in finding something new. The procedure of implementing the open-ended performance assessment model in Social Science learning is designed through the measures emphasizing on the students’ activity. For

that reason, teacher’s awareness is required to prepare learning set well, and developing performance assignment and assessment rubric independently and trying them out. Thus, a valid and reliable assessment instrument is obtained, used as guideline to assess the students’ critical thinking ability. Typical characteristic of openended question performance assessment is that it enables the teacher to see the students as individual having characteristic, need, and strength. When the number of students in a class is too large, it is difficult for the teacher to give optimum assessment to the students. Therefore, performance and rubric assignment to be used should be informed to the students, in order to motivate them. to learn completing open-ended question according to the specified criteria, and to participate actively in learning process, thereby helping the teachers assess the students objectively.

REFERENCES Al Muchtar, Swarma. (2004) Pengembangan Berpikir dan Nilai dalam Pedidikan IPS. Bandung : Gelar Pustaka Mandiri Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan. (2013). Panduan Teknis Kurikulum 2013. Jakarta : Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Bank, James. A (1985). Teaching Strategies For The Social Studies. New York and London : Longman Barr, R. Barth, J.L, Shermis,SS (1977). The Nature Of The Social Studies. ETC Publications, California, Palm Springs. Bassham,G. Irwin,W. Nardone,H. & Wallace,J.M. (2007). Critical Thinking : A Student Introduction. 2nd Edition. Singapore : Mc Graw-Hill Company,Inc. Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York : David McKay. Durr, Lahart, & Maas (1999). Improving Critical Thinking Skill in Secondary Math and Social Studies Classes. Saint Xavier University & Skylight Profesional Development. Field-Based Master Program. Chicago : illinois




Ennis. Robert.H. (1985). Goals for A Critical Thinking I Curriculum. Developing Minds A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking. Virginia: Association for Supervisions and Curriculum Development (ASCD), pp. 54-57. Ennis, Robert. H. (1996). Critical Thinking. USA :Prentice Hall, Inc Hasan, Hamid, S (1996) Pendidikan Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial. Jakarta : Depdikbud Ditjen Dikti Proyek Pendidikan Tenaga Akademik. Marzano, R.J., et al . (1994). Assessing Student Outcomes: Performance Assessment Using the Five dimensions of Learning Model. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Popham, W. James. (1995). Classroom Assessment: What Teachers Need to Know. Los Angeles: Allyn & Bacon. Santrock, John W. (2007). Perkembangan Anak. Jakarta: Erlangga. Somantri, Numan. (2001) Menggagas Pembaharuan Pendidikan IPS. Bandung : Remaja Rosdakarya. Stiggins, Richard J. (1994) Student-Centered Classroom Assessmen. New York : Maxwell Macmillan International. Wakefield, J dan Velardi, L. (1995). Up-front Assessment: Using Open-Ended Questions. Celebriting Mathematics Learning. Australia :The Mathematical Association of Victoria Walker, Paul & Finney, Nicholas. (1999). Skill Development and Critical Thinking in Higher Education. Higher Education Research & Development Unit, University College, London WC1E 6BT, UK. Zainul, Asmawi. (2001) Alternative Assessment. Jakarta : Proyek Universitas Terbuka Zainul, Asmawi and Agus Mulyana. (2003). Materi Pokok: Tes dan Asesmen di SD. Jakarta: Universitas Terbu




Cultural Development and Human Resources (A review of Psychology and Humanistic Approach)

Dr. Roemintoyo, M.Pd

Abstract: In entering the era of industrialization and globalization, Long-term development is still putting the human qualities and the quality of Indonesian society as the main target of national development. Judging from humanistic psychological approach, qualified human is one who can actualize themselves or the functioning sepenuhnnya. To realize the human quality of the education should be seeing human beings in a positive way and create a conducive learning atmosphere which allows learners to grow and develop optimally.

A. Introduction

T

oday the Indonesian nation is entering a stage of long-term development is focused on infrastructure development towards the realization of society advanced, just, prosperous, and independent based on Pancasila. To realize these goals, the Guidelines of State Policy (Guidelines) mandates of the Long Term Development. First: National development is carried out in the framework of the complete Indonesian human development and the development of Indonesian society. Second: In order to implement long-term development is the creation of human quality and the quality of Indonesian society that developed based on Pancasila in the atmosphere of a life of continuous and harmonious human relationships. Third: Recognizing that human beings are the main force development as well as development goals, it is necessary to improve the quality of people and quality of Indonesian society. Therefore, the development theme seems to be shifted from the political and economic development to the people-centered development. This concept by experts known as the concept of people-centered development.

What is described above is a tendency in the national perspective. This new era into the era known as the threshold of post-industrial life or the third era (Toffler, 2008). In the international perspective is called the era of globalization (Naisbitt and Aburdene, 2009). This era is known era of openness tend to prioritize the humanitarian issues that beresensikan moral-cultural of the national problem beresensikan precede political-ideological. Global insight, which is now perceived view of man as a citizen of humanity as a whole and believed not properly tethered within the territorial limits of the state. Toffler in his book The third wave suggested that the third wave as well as the first wave and the second wave, will bring tremendous changes and impact were also outstanding in aspects of human kehdupan as an individual, family or community members. Because of the changes that is extraordinary will happen in the new era, it can be expected to appear new challenges as well. New challenges it raises the need for human resource tool which should be prepared from now, which would indirectly also affect the development of our culture.




Anticipating changes and new challenges, the development of culture and human resources through education should be considered from now conceptually on the basics of implementation. This paper discusses the development of culture and human resources from the psychological point of view. Specifically reviews are shared here is a review of psychological humanistic views the human being in a positive perspective.

B. The importance of Cultural Development and Human Resources Above have been raised about the main target of long-term development is a human quality and the quality of Indonesian society. Similarly, on the impact of the changes that will occur for individuals, families or communities in the current era of globalization. Both the national and the international perspective, the human quality as resources become central. The question arises, why the issues of culture and human resources so important in the era of globalization? Various factors are presented below is an answer to the above questions first; advances in information technology, communications and transportation make the world a smaller, satellite, telephone, aircraft, and computers have shortened distances and even abolish human contact / culture becomes more widespread. In order to excel in the global market, the quality of work and the work of human Indonesia should be equal and should be able to surpass the results from other countries, meaning the need to improve the quality of human resources. Second; the advent of globalization has caused part of the world associated with other parts of the world. This allows the development of our culture associated with the network of cultural development of other countries as well as the related global network also

demanding their management level to a high standard. Without an increase in the quality and management systems, is expected to excel in tough global competition. Thirdly; along with advances in science and technology will impact the types of work or work activities now require knowledge and skills increasingly complex. Therefore do not be surprised if the issue of: ready-made education, improving the quality of education, labor market-oriented curriculum, educational product gaps and labor market, remains the subject of seminars, workshops, to succeed and excel in work and work. Fourth; current human capital to realize that natural resources are not adequate, especially the natural resources that are not renewable(unrenewable)numbers thinning, while the need is increasing because of rising living standards, population growth diasmping (Soekmono and Noegroho, 2000). Fifth; Among the ASEAN countries (Japan, Korea and Singapore) have proved that the key to success in improving the living standards of people, lies in the quality of human and not the availability of the natural potential (the three countries poor in natural resources). Sixth: the era of globalization made possible a style life is no exception global cultural development (Naisbitt and Aburdene, 2009), the films without censorship, print media, audio that show violence, sex has become the consumption of children and adolescents. Demikan also in big cities emerge night clubs, places of computer toys etc are all stylish internsional. From the overall discussion of the importance of developing budya and human resources, it can be concluded that in the era of globalization characterized by changes and challenges of human Indonesia requires a high




competence in all areas to be able to compete to achieve the best.

C. Characteristics of human quality. in discussing the theme perkembanagn cultural and human resources, it first needs to be clarified about the development of culture and human resources how ..? Humans in this paper is quality human or tough man. Humans according to a holistic approach is the result of interaction between the body, soul and the environment; known for being a bio-psycho-social. So the quality of human or tough is tough in aspects mentioned above; Healthy body, healthy psychological and healthy social (Robin Adi Wijaya, 2001). From various studies revealed that the tough man as the subject of development in the era of globalization are expected to display characteristics that are colored by the work ethic, Achievement, sensitive, innovative, moral (religious), flexible, resourceful, and swakendali (Bernadette Setiadi.dkk, 2005). While Soetandyo Wignjosoebroto argued that the characteristics of the strong which is expected to adapt to the post-industrial era or the third era or era filled megatrends are new people with postmodern personality .; mialah personality who is able to optimize the meaning of freedom and creativity in him, but remained strong in the autocontrol to always be aware of moral empan board. In the view of psychology humanistic as a reaction against psychoanalytic psychology and emphasizes the overall behaviorisme- the whole person and the importance of each of the personal subjective experience. The central concept of humanistic psychology is self-actualization needs (needforself-actualization).Another important concept is freedom. Man is able to choose and when people give people more freedom, they will be able and happy to take responsibility for their

own lives and do what is best (Maslow, 2002) common to identify the tough man with a self-actualizing people, according to Maslow, the following is characteristics of self-actualizing people, namely: 1. Viewing reality efficiently 2. Receive nature, others, and yourself 3. Spontaneous, simple, natural. 4. focusing focus on problems outside themselves 5. Requires privacy and independence 6. functioning autonomously 7. Having appreciation is always fresh 8.

Having experiences of mystical or peak

9. has a sense guyub in society 10. have the interpersonal relationships are good. Experts humanistic psychology others, Carl Rogers, used the term fully fungtioning to show to individuals who use capacities and their talents, realize potential -potensi them, moving towards a perfect introduction about themselves and their experiences are fully (Ziegler and Hjelle, 2006).

D. Implementation in Education. Various experts in the fields of science, especially social science and behavioral considers human beings are unique when compared with creatures -mahluk other life. From the idea that man is the animal sociale evolved into the notion man is animal rationale thatahirnya Cassirer shaken by the notion that man is animal symbolicum.The fact shows that humans communicate and dialogue with the environment through certain symbols considered to be a unique (Cassirer, 2005)




Psychology as a science has a rich, repertoire of theories and methodologies to help develop qualified human characteristics or respite. Development of human characteristics respite should follow the principles of modifier behavior in general, as described below: 1. The efforts must be sustainable by taking into support groups and community support. 2.

Business is concentrated on generating a need for change, which in turn becomes the driving factor or motivation changing behavior aspired.

3.

the individual concerned must be equipped with knowledge and skills sufficient to be able to implement changes in behavior which it aspires.

4. All concerned should get a chance to solve its problems related to the adoption of new behavior in real conditions . Implementation of humanistic psychology to establish the characteristics of self-actualizing people is to prepare individuals from an early age to adulthood through the institutions of informal education, the family, formal education schools and non-formal education community. through informal education, family, donations humanistic psychology that can be implemented among others: 1.

Compassion and self-esteem of parents becomes the basis of the success of the child later.

2. Parenting the most appropriate is the provision of freedom with certain limits. 3. children are given the opportunity to choose and make their own decisions

5. Pemebrian freedom must be balanced with discipline and respect for others and taught a value system. in formal education schools, the idea of humanistic psychology that could be developed among other things, as described herein: 1.

Education that provides greater pressure on developing one's potential, especially its potential to be human, to understand themselves and others and connect with them, achieving the satisfaction or basic needs of humans and grow toward self-actualization.

2.

the educational process is able to develop self-discipline, spontaneity and creativity.

3.

the educational process focusing more on the results to be achieved include the development of understanding, the ability to appropriately value, taste was sublime as well as knowledge about the ways of life.

4.

the practice should be more emphasis on suppression theory, teaching in class associated with real life. Aspects of the theory and practice is equipped with a third

aspect is self-knowledge, self-understanding and the ability to exercise a sense of and communicate with humanity. The views of humanistic psychology in the field of social reform among others, as exemplified below: 1.

4. children are given the opportunity to express what is thought, felt or needed in an atmosphere of freedom and acceptance

philosophy of man (nature, goals, capabilities, fulfillment) needs to change so that everything changed, including educational philosophy. Educational philosophy is the theory about ways to help people become




humane according to his ability and what he wanted. 2. People whose basic needs have been satisfied enough will begin to crave love and appreciation; tend to develop attitudes loyal, friendly and has a high awareness as citizens and tend to be parents, husbands, teachers, and employees better. 3.

People are better serving the community is an environment that stimulates the development of human potential. The basic element of the external environment are freedom, justice and order.

4.

Education is an important force to spur social improvement. Education is said to be good if it helps individuals develop their potential, to help achieve self-actualization.

In the community, especially in the field of industry or organizations, humanistic psychology views can also be implemented. 1.

Industry is seen as a source of knowledge can replace the laboratory. A form of a living laboratory to study the ongoing menganai learning problems, motivation, emotion, action and so on.

2. Theory Y proposed by McGregor (Schein, 2001), which is based on Maslow's thinking, gives assumptions as follows: Theof

a. Businessphysical or mental as in play or rest. b.

Supervision of the outside and the threat of punishment is not the only way to drive the business toward organizational objectives.

c. the responsibility on those goals is a function of the rewards associated with achieving these goals. d. in conditions appropriate, the average person not only learns to accept but to seek responsibility.

E. COVER. In the globalization era characterized by changes and challenges, the development of culture and human resources in Indonesia is an absolute prepared in a systematic and planned. Psychology, particularly the humanistic psychology as a discipline that examines the behavior of his being able to contribute to the establishment quality of Indonesian human characteristics or resilient cope with the changes and challenges of globalization. the implementation of the humanistic approach in education requires the creation of an atmosphere of teaching and learning (learning) quality through dynamic synergy between the various influencing factors.




RESOURCE LIBRARY

Cassirer, Ernest, 200, Man and Culture (Translation A, Nugroho), Jakarta: PT Gramedia. Hjelle, Larry A and Ziegler, Daniel J. 20 ...., Personality theoriesbasic research and aplicationsassumption, Tokyo, MC Graw -Hill Kogakusa Ltd. Maslow.AH, 200 .., Motivation and personality,New York, Harper and Row. Naisbitt, J 200 .... Megatrendsten new Reviews directions transforming ourlive, New York: Warner. Schein, Edgar H, 200 ..Organisationalpsychology,New York Precentice-Hall. Soetandyo Wignyosoebroto, 20 .... industrialization, globalization and psychology to Indonesia by 2020. Papers on psychology seminar prospects ahead of 2020. University of Vishnu wardana Malang 28 September 2000 Schultz, Duane, 1999. Growth psychology: Model of the healthpersonality.New York. D Van Nostrand Company. Toffier, Alvin, 20 ... The thirdhwave,London; Pen Book.




STRENGTHENING OF CHARACTER EDUCATION STUDENTS IN SLTAEDUCATION IN THE ERA OF GLOBAL Suyahman University lecturer PGSD Veteran Bangun Nusantara Sukoharjo email [email protected]

Abstract: It motivates researchers chose this topic based on their various negative events that hit among high school students today are very alarming, among them: free sex, drugs, alcohol, fights among students, bullying fellow friends, theft, rape, robbery, Circulation entertainment media that is pornographic, even murder. The events can be seen and heard through various mass media, both electronic (TV, radio) as well as non-electronic (magazine, newspaper). On the basis of the condition of high school students is the goal of the study is the first: to describe the factors that cause high school students do negative actions, both strengthening character education how that can be applied to high school students in education in today's global era. This research includes qualitative research study was the subject of strengthening character education and its object is the behavior of high school students in education in the global era. Informants in this study is the high school students of SMA Kartasura, SMK Muhmammadiyah Kartasura (SLTABased Religion), and Students of SMK Harapan Kartasura (SLTA-Based General). Data collection methods used were observation, interviews and documentation. To obtain valid data source triangulation done. Data analysis technique used is, an interactive model by Miles and Huberman (1987) which describes very helpful to understand the research process. An interactive model contains four interrelated components, namely (1) data collection, (2) simplification of data, (3) exposure data, and (4) withdrawal and testing conclusions. The results showed that the factors that cause high school students perform deviant behavior are: Lack of religious education in the family environment, moral collapse and mental adult education in schools is not good, existence of the negative impact of technological advances, not setabilnya social conditions, political, ekonomi.Keluarga were broken, attitudes paced want tasty, the desire for the fulfillment of all desires without having to work hard, marginalization in a milieu in society, as influenced her (his girlfriend), because he wanted to try it, because it was forced by his friend ( his girlfriend) and his family. Furthermore, to minimize juvenile delinquency can be done by strengthening character education high school in the form of: increasing the quantity and quality of extra-curricular activities are controlled and guided, provision of facilities and infrastructure for sport activities and Monday for high school students that can be used to develop the talents and interests of students , exemplary teachers, exemplary community, exemplary family, the increase in religious activity in schools, in families and in society, giving strict sanctions Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 561



for students who do mischief to mndapatkan aspects deterrent students, awards for students who become role models both at school and in the community , involving high school students in positive activities in school and community, providing education and entrepreneurship education to defend the country, during the long vacation do apprenticeship system in enterprises and private government mapun isntansi under guidance and close supervision. Based on the research results, it can be concluded first of many factors that affect delinquency high school students, both efforts to address student misbehavior high school education in the global era can be done by strengthening character education in many forms and models adapted to the characteristics the characteristics of high school students whether physical, psychological social mapun. Key words: Strengthening Education characters and Global Era. A. Introduction urrently the State of Indonesia is facing various kinds of problems in deviant behavior, whether committed by teenagers and involving the nation's leaders, for example brawl between students, promiscuity, alcohol, drugs, rape, robbery, theft, bullying even to the murder. Besides other phenomenon is anarchism motorcycle gang, tangled after the announcement of the exam, valenteen days and others. It is very obvious happens is the weak value of discipline, nationalism and patriotic values. It's a fact that is undeniable. The complexity of the problems facing teenagers today is already at stage IV means of handling serious need, because teenagers are human resource development that will continue the ideals of the nation. School postscript to become a vehicle for educating youth in order to have a good character, is now faced with the thorny issue, it is due to the turmoil of globalization is unstoppable again and already entrenched among school children. The results of field studies show that there is a tendency character of students just want easy and delicious that justifies any means though contrary to the cultural character of the nation, eg: cheating on general tests, told her to do homework with certain benefits, seta trying to find

C

an answer key or leaks when national exams. The complexity of this problem must be addressed and resolved, that in the future there are significant changes to the character of the school, especially high school students. This paper seeks to examine in depth the various phenomena that hit the world's character, especially in senior high school children. There are some problems to be studied in this paper are: Why is the character education in high school should be given to strengthening? How do I provide reinforcement of character education in high school in the Global Era? Two Based on the subject matter, the purpose of this research is the first to describe the need to strengthen character education high school students in the global era, second; how to provide reinforcement of character education on high school students in the global era. B. Methods This study includes qualitative research. According to Creswell (in Herdiansyah, 2010: 8), says: "Qualitaive research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic




picture, analizes words, the report detailed views of information, and conducts the study in a natural setting ". Meanwhile Meleong, defines that qualitative research is a scientific research, aiming to understand the phenomenon in the context of social naturally with the advanced process of interaction in-depth communication between the researcher and the phenomenon under study (Herdiansyah, 2010: 9) Another opinion research Qualitative is a research which is used to investigate, locate, describe, and explain the quality or features of the social influences that can not be described, measured or described through a quantitative approach (Saryono, 2010: 1). And Sugiyono (2011: 15), confirms that the research methods qualitative research method that is based on the philosophy postpositivisme, is used to examine the condition of the object that is natural, (as his opponent experiment) where the researcher is as an instrument of key sampling data source is purposive and snowbaal, collection techniques by triangulation (combined), data analysis is inductive / qualitative and qualitative research results further emphasize the significance of the generalization. From some of the theories above, we can conclude that the definition of qualitative research is a research method that is based on the philosophy postpositivisme, is used to examine the condition of natural objects. In order to understand a phenomenon in the context of natural social interaction process with the advanced in-depth communication between the researcher and the phenomenon under study. In qualitative research there are at least five stages as a benchmark in research, which is illustrated as follows: lift problems, Raising the research question. Collecting relevant data. Answering perform data analysis and research questions. Data collection methods used were observation, interviews and documentation.

Subjects in this study is the researchers themselves who collaborate with several teachers in SMA Negeri 1 Kartasura, Master Di SMK Harapan Kartasura and teacher at SMK Muhammadiyah Kartasura. The object of this research is the attitude and behavior of some students at SMA N 1 Kartasura, SMK Harapan Kartasura, and SMK Muhammadiyah Kartasura. To test the validity of the data do triangulation. Triangulation refers to the consistency of a study. But Patton (2001) warned that the inconsistency of an analysis should not be seen as evidence of weakness, but a chance to uncover the deeper meaning of the data. Miles and Huberman (1984) has a good way to explain concretely how triangulation works in an investigation against a riddle: Triangulation refers to the consistency of a study. But Patton (2001) warned that the inconsistency of an analysis should not be seen as a weakness of the evidence, but the opportunity to uncover the deeper meaning of data. "Detective involving instrumentation complicated. When the detective amasses fingerprints, hair samples, alibi, eyewitness and the like, a case that built probably fit on one allegation or more. Different types of measurements that provide recurring verification. There are 4 types of presentation of triangulation as follows: Triangulation Data (Data Triangulation) the researchers used a variety of data sources and evidence from different situations. There are three sub-types of people, data is collected from different people doing the same activity. Time, data and space. data collected in different places. And space, the data collected in different places, triangulated Inter-Researcher (Multiple Researchers) Involvement of several different researchers in the analysis process. The concrete form is usually an evaluation team consisting of colleagues who master the specific methods to the Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Triangulation




is commonly used professionals who master specific techniques with the confidence that the experts of different techniques to bring a different perspective. If each evaluator interprets the same, the validity upheld, and Triangulation Theory (Theory Triangulation) The use of multiple perspectives to interpret a set of data. The use of various theories can help provide a better understanding of the current sense of the data. If the diverse theory concluded the same analysis, the validity upheld, and triangulation methodology (methodological Triangulation) checks the consistency of the findings generated by different methods of data collection such as the incorporation of qualitative methods with quantitative data or complete the interview data with observational data. Results of surveys, interviews and observations, can be compared to see if the same results. If the conclusion of each of the same method, the validity upheld. In this study used triangulation method that combines data collection methods interview with observation. Data analysis techniques that I use in this study is the technique of interactive analysis that Interactive Analysis Model Miles & Huberman In qualitative research enables data analysis on the time researchers were in the field and after returning from the new field analysis. In this study, the data analysis has been carried out in conjunction with the data collection process. Flow analysis follow an interactive model as disclosed Miles and Huberman (1984: 23). Technical used in analyzing the data can be visualized as follows: 1) Data Collection, Data obtained from interviews, observation and documentation in the records of a field that consists of two parts: descriptive and descriptive reflektif.catatan is natural notes, (record of what is seen, heard, seen and experienced by researchers without their opinion and interpretation of research on

the phenomenon experienced. Note reflective is a record that contains impressions, comments, opinions, and interpretations of the researchers on the findings that were found, and is material data collection plan to the next stage. 2) reduction of Data After the data collected, created further data reduction, in order to select the data that is relevant and meaningful, focused data leading to problem solving, discovery, or purport to answer research questions. Then simplify and systematically arrange and describe the important things about the findings and its significance. In the process of data reduction, only the findings of the data or findings relating to research problems are reduced. While the data are not related to the research problem discarded. In other words, data reduction is used to sharpen the analysis, classify, direct and dispose of nonessential, and organizing data, making it easier for researchers to draw conclusions. 3) Presentation of Data Presentation of data can be in the form of writing or words, pictures, graphs and tables. The purpose is to combine the data display information so as to describe the situation. In this case, so that the researchers have no difficulty in mastering the information in whole or in certain parts of the research, the researcher must make a narrative, matrices or charts to facilitate mastery of information or data. Thus researchers can keep control of the data and conclusions are not drowning in information that can be tedious. This is done because the data is scattered and less structured can affect researchers in acting carelessly and taking an impartial conclusion, discontinuous passage and not fundamental. To display the data must be recognized as part of the data analysis. 4) Withdrawal Withdrawal Conclusion conclusions made during the research process took place as data reduction process, after the data collected is adequate then subsequently drawn conclusions while, and after the




data is completely full then drawn final conclusions. In a simple interactive analysis like the chart below:

C . Results and Discussion The age of high school students in general are in the range 15 / 16-18 / 19 years that is often referred to as the teenage years, therefore, before we discuss more about the characteristics of a high school student or a teenager characteristics we will discuss in advance what is actually meant by age the teenager. There are several views adolescence, according to experts, as according to According to Hurlock (1981) teens are those who are at the age of 12-18 years, then according to Monks, et al (2000) gave an age limit is 12-21 years old and teens also According to Stanley Hall (in Santrock, 2003) that are in the adolescent age range of 12-23 years. In view of adolescence in terms of age is different, but at least you can rely on that uis teenagers are above 12 years and below 24 years. Adolescence is a period where the young man who began to grow into a more mature than before. The development of an important personality in adolescence is a search for identity that becomes a unique process with a significant role in life in adolescents. The process of personality development may tend to result in a good personal might even make a person is not good, environmental influences in determining the outcome of the development of the

personality strong enough admittedly this is because adolescence is a time that is still vulnerable. Adolescence is a key to success in entering the next life stage. At the level of high school education is the teenage years because the population is aged between 15 to 18 years. At the high school period is the transition of children into adults who tend to prefer to try new things that have never been done. Personality characteristics of high school students so interesting to watch. High school who have 15-18 years of age are prone to say a person's transition from childhood into adulthood or the more often we are familiar with the term adolescence. Adolescence is a stage of transition to a higher status, namely status as adults. Based on the theory of development, adolescence is a time when the rapid changes, including fundamental changes in cognitive, emotional, social and achievement (Fagan, 2006). Often we see a lot of crimes committed mainly by teenagers at the high school level, and whether it is purely their mistake ?. The occurrence of a change that could be said quickly, whether the changes come from within the individual teenager and a change from the outside people (environment) can often lead to conflict, indecision and a sense of dependency. Conflicts often occur in adolescents may also be due to




emotional instability that is still not fully controlled completely, so no wonder they will experience difficulties and indecisive in determining the direction of the road of life ahead. Feelings are still unstable It can also cause a feeling of dependence on others because of their incapacity. Dependency properties are accompanied by the indecision could be harmful teens themselves, when they need something to rely on their own but still have doubts in his feelings are likely to make them fall into the negative things. This period can be regarded as future storms for someone, where there will be a major reshuffle to his life, so that in this phase is really needed role of parents, the teacher's role, the role of the environment, and the role of peers to bring him into the realm of positive of life. The provision of counseling to the teenager about the stages of development is very important to be sure that not one step. A transition period will not only adversely affect a teenager, the transition period could also provide benefits to youth that a longer period to develop a range of skills as well as preparing for the future. A teenager who was well aware of the importance of this stage will be more careful in taking a decision, with the attitude awasnya aSSkan make it as someone who has a sense of independence. Independence in determining the course of his life, determine which one is best for his future later. Various factors may also be in control in this phase-good factor that comes from inside or outside the individual adolescent, so in this paper will be discussed how the characteristics of young people, especially high school students in the stage of its development, the factors that hold a big hand in this stage, along with how how to support the development stage. According to Erickson adolescence is a time of identity crisis or identity search. Erickson idea is corroborated by James Marcia, who found that there are four

identity status in adolescence is identity diffusion / confussion, moratorium, foreclosure, and identity Achieved (Santrock 2003, Papalia, et al, 2001, Monks, et al, 2000, Muss, 1988 ). Characteristics of adolescents who are proceeding to seek self-identity is also often a problem in the adolescent self. From some of the above adolescence is a period in human life and the role that the age limit is often not very clear. Adolescence is often considered a transitional period, in which the times when the child no longer wants to be treated as children, but judging from her physical growth can not be said of adults phases of adolescence by Monks et al. (2004) is restricted between the ages of 12-21 years, 12-15 years division including early adolescence, 15-18 years including the period mid-teens, 18-21 years including late adolescence. Outstanding characteristics in middle school-age children is as follows: The existence kekurangseimbangan height and weight proportions. The first occurrence of the secondary characteristics. The emergence of the desire to learn and use a foreign language. The tendency of the ambivalence between the desire to be alone with the desire to get along with the crowd as well as the desire to be free from domination by the need for guidance and help from parents. Glad to compare norms, ethical values, or norms to the reality that occurs in adult life. Began to question the skepticism about the existence (presence) and the nature of mercy and justice of God. The reaction and the expression of emotions is still unstable. His personality has been demonstrated pattern but have not been integrated, and the tendency interests and career choices have been relatively more obvious. Meanwhile, according to Suryabrata (2002) adolescent phase is referred to as the longing- adored period characterized by the following characteristics: The child feels lonely




and miserable. He assumed that no one would understand, to understand her, and explain about things he felt. The first reaction of a child at this stage is a protest against perceived vicinity suddenly hostile, neglect,and do not want to understand him. Start growing urge to seek a way of life, looking for something to be valued, respected and revered deserve. A child suffered mental shock. He no longer wears a way of life in childhood, but he also does not have a new way of life. Feeling calm and a lot of contradictions in him. He was able to do something but do not know how to make it happen. He began to explore and develop the establishment or his outlook on life. In the process, it will pass through three steps, namely: A child will need a friend who can understand, help, and also feel the ups and downs they experienced. Because it has no way of life, a teenager would need something that can be considered as something of value, deserve to be appreciated, and dipanuti. At first, something that was worshiped it was not yet have a specific form. The teenager himself only knew that she wanted something but did not know what he wants. Things like this usually give birth to the poetry of nature At the second stage of the cult objects more clearly, ie individuals who support the personification of certain values that the child wants. In worship, young men and women have different ways of express it.At this time flourished sense of nationhood. In the third stage the teenager was able to appreciate the values separated from his supporters and value as an abstract thing, so it was time for the teenager to make choices or his establishment. This determination is usually many times through the process of ups and downs as he tested the value chosen in real life, to obtain the views / establishments which failed the test. These characteristics will bring implications for his life, one of the implications of the characteristics of the

high school students to education are as follows: Teens need people who can help him overcome difficulties were encountered. Personal educators (as a supporting value) directly influence the development of the establishment of adolescent life. Therefore, all the attitudes and behavior of educators must be accountable in terms of education and educators should: stand 'beside' them, not in front of him through the dictation and instructions; show sympathy but no authority, so as to gain the trust of their youth and gave him guidance; and instill patriotic spirit and noble spirit of others because this is his time. By looking at the characteristics of high school children is so complex, it became high school teacher is not an easy thing as we imagine, but being a high school teacher is a very difficult thing. Being a teacher means having a very large mandate that must be justified before men and before God Almighty. Teacher must face protégé who has psychic properties that vary from one another, both in terms of his mind, his will, his feelings, his family background and physical.A high school teacher should be able to understand the differences and should be familiar with the characteristics of learners, a teacher must have the maturity and authority in teaching, learning their students, using psychological principles and in terms of assessing their own way of teaching. Students at each school consists come from various backgrounds. Students in one class usually have a lifespan that is not much different, but they have different backgrounds. That is because they come from different environments. Some are from families are, some are coming from poor families. Some are smart, some are less intelligent. Their nature was different from one another. So we get that siswasiswa in one class backgrounds, nature, and the different characters, which should be understood by every teacher, so that learning activities can be run well.




Similarly, students in three schools, namely SMA N 1 Kartasura, SMK Harapan Kartasura, and SMK Muhammadiyah Kartasura also come from diverse backgrounds and have heterogeneous characteristics. Hence the task of teachers in the senior high school n3 should really be able to understand the needs of its students dankarakteristk

so as to help the process of development can really meaningful. However, the volatility of psychiatric high school students so that the impact on the global era certainly impact the karakteri students in three schools, based on the results of interviews conducted by researchers at the parents, the teacher and the student obtained the results as in Table 1 below: Table 1 interviews with teachers, parents, and students about the global era influence on the attitudes, behaviors and actions:

No 1

2

3

4

Question contans

Question Answer Parent Teacher Student

Teacher According to you as a Very impact on SLTA teacher all aspects of life whether the era of students in school global impact on your students You as a parent whether the impact on the global era of the sons of your

as a SLTA student and a young girl, do you feel any effects of the global era of yourself As a teacher, what concrete forms impact the global era against the students of your

Parent

Student

Yes I feel a tremendous impact on all aspects of my children at home life Yes I feel a real impact on me both in attitude, behavior and my actions

students like pocket (consumer culture) often admire foreign products and imitating characters singers, actors, soccer stars and so on (for identification), communication more dominated by sophisticated tools HP, when it chat, sms, twitter,




WA tend to be anti-social (because they do not want disturbed) 5

As a parent, what concrete forms impact the global era against the sons of your

6

As a student, can you give concrete examples of what form the concrete impact of the global era of yourself

7

According to you as a teacher Approximately attitudes, behaviors and actions students how under the influence of the global era

Primarily in bekomunikasi nationality character begins to wear off, as did the diet like weird, so pul amasalah clothes likes to imitate artists abroad etc. When I was a lot more to communicate with others through Hp for more fun, I'm always interested in the products of other countries because the life seem to be more cool than the products of our own country, song meaningful foreign-track more than the songs of Indonesia, models hair cool clothing foreign models of the Indonesian models smoke, like late, not in uniform, ditching, eating in classrooms, nosy with his friend, and there is even a watch porn at school




8

According to you as parents Approximately attitudes, behaviors and actions students how under the influence of the global era

Come home not timely, smoking, grumpy unwarranted, selfish, pastepaste images in room his irreverent, ptongan hair is not good, often wearing strange when you want to play well at home, not disciplined praying five times, always against parents

9

According to you as a student Roughly attitudes, behaviors and actions students how under the influence of the global era

10

You as a teacher what with a full actions have you done educational and on your students patience I give advice, advice to students whose attitudes, behaviors, and actions are less reflect the character of the nation's culture. But if the student is already outrageous example of smoking in class on his mischievous then

A lot of time I spend on HP ber ris, lazy learning, like snacks, like shopping, like swarming with peers, girldisruptive girls on the streets, lazy communicate with parents




I called her parents to look for solutions together 11

You as parents the actions that you have done on your sons

12

You as a student what actions have you done on the effects of the global era

From the table it appears that attitudes, behaviors and actions of senior high school students from the effects of the global era is varied. Similarly, the action taken by teachers, and parents are also varied. With the description of the attitude-behavior and actions of students as a result of the global era, then there are two basic actions to be carried out by teachers, namely: measures to

humanistic approach during sleep and moments of spare time, I gave an overview of the life of the future, it is time to change but easy to relapse again. I never apply hard even be fatal because children are more rebellious, I finally asked for the help of religious scholars and peers and have more mercy result I tried to find the religious milieu, I communicate more with religious leaders, community leaders and youth leaders. I use a lot of free time to activities that are positive.

strengthen done by the teachers nor the parents if the impact of the global era of the attitudes, behaviors and actions are positive, and action prevention and cure if the impact of the global era of the attitudes, behaviors, and actions are negative. For preventive and therapeutic measures that can be undertaken by teachers and parents is to strengthen the




character filter system in high school children. Here this an overview of attitudes, behaviors and actions N 1 Kartasura high school students,

vocational Kartasura expectations, and SMK Muhammadiyah Kartasura before and after the action be taken because the impact of the global era.

Table 2 Attitudes, behaviors and actions N 1 Kartasura high school students, vocational Kartasura expectations, and SMK Muhammadiyah Kartasura before and after the action be taken because the impact of the global era

No

1

2

Kind of attitudes, Each school was randomly selected as much as 5 students behaviors and actions SMA N 1 Kartasura SMK Harapan SMK kartasura Muhammadiyah Kartasura Often truant, disorderly Of the five students sometimes Of the Of the five students and undisciplined who answer more five students who who answer more often 2 answered more often 3 sometimes frequent 4 occasional smoke, do not obey From 5 students all From 5 students 4 From 5 students 3 school rules answered yes students answered students answered yes, while one yes, while two student answered no students answered no

3

Nosy like to disturb her

4

Memelak his friend

5

Alchoholic drink

6

Dare same his teacher

From 5 students one student answered yes while 4 students not answer From 5 students answered never completely

From 5 students ,3 student answer yes while 2 students answer not From 5 students 2 students answered yes and 3 students answered never completely From 5 students who From 5 students who answered ever one answered never 2 student while 4 students while 3 students do not students not

From 5 students answered yes while 4 1 students are not

From 5 students 2 students who answered yes, while three students are answere not

From 5 students 4 students who answered yes, while one student is not

from 5 students 3 students who answered yes, while two students were not

From 5 students all answered never at all

From 5 students who answered ever one student while 4 students do not




Table 3 Attitudes, behaviors and actions SMA N 1 Kartasura students, vocational Kartasura expectations, and SMK Muhammadiyah Kartasura after Awarded reinforcement No

1

2

3

4

Kind of attitudes, Each school was randomly selected as much as 5 students behaviors and actions SMA N 1 Kartasura SMK Harapan SMK kartasura Muhammadiyah Kartasura Often truant, disorderly From 5 students Of the five students From 5 students who and undisciplined answered no, who answer more answer more often 2 because doing so is often one sometimes sometimes not good and violating school rules smoke, do not obey From 5 students all From 5 students 2 From 5 students one school rules answered not do students answered student answered yes anymore because yes, while three while 4 students they interfere with students answered no answered no the health Nosy like to disturb his From 5 students 1 students answered From 4 students friend answered not want yes while the four answered yes while 1 nosy on her because I students did not students do not do not want more friends meddlesome Memelak his friend From 5 students From 5 students all From 5 students all answered never answered do not answered never at all completely

5

Alchoholich drink

Of 5 students do not harder because they conflict with religious law and state law

6

Equally brave teacher

Of five students answered still dare the teacher if the teacher action laudable but for a good teacher he would be obedient and submissive to him

Of the five students who answered ever one student while 4 students not because of forced interaction friend From 5 students 1 students who answered yes while 4 students do not

Of five students answered not do alcohol, which interferes with health

2 of 5 students of students who answered yes, while three students do not

From the description of the

strengthening it turns out there is a

results of research attitudes, behaviors,

change significantly. That's why a

and actions as a result of the impact of

teacher in performing basic tasks and

the

functions

global

era

before

and

after

should

always

provide




reinforcement of the attitudes, behaviors

D. Conclusion

and positively in the hope that the

Based on the above discussion

attitude, behavior and action will be

of

research

findings,

the

study

repeated so that it becomes a habit,

inidisimpulkan that there is a positive

contrary to the attitudes, behaviors and

impact reinforcement of the attitudes,

actions are negative must be done

behaviors and actions of high school

applied so as not to be a virus to other

students in the global era. Due to the

school friends.

reinforcement of this turned out to be change of attitude, behavior, p and negative actions into positive students.

References Azizy, A. Qodri, MA. 2003. Against Globalisation - Reinterpretation of Islamic teachings. Yogyakarta:Student library. Hurlock, E. B. 1980. Developmental Psychology. An Approach Throughout Range Life. Jakarta: Erland Monks, Knoers, Hadiyanto, S. R. 1982. Introduction to Developmental Psychology in its various parts. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. Noviasari, E., Saputri, K. N., Masrurroh, I. N. Subjects Adolescent Reproductive Education in Curriculum SMP for Teens Protects from Enforced Abortion Due Free Sex. 2010. Available from: URL: http: //kemahasiswaan.um.ac.id Susanto, Phil, Astrid. 1978. Introduction to Sociology and Social Change. Bandung: Bina Cipta. Syamsu, Yusuf.2011.Psikologi Development of Children and Adolescents Remaja.Bndung.PT Rosdakarya Santrock, J. W. 2002. Life Span Development. Jakarta: Erland Sarwono, S.W. 2002. Adolescent Psychology. Revised Edition. Jakarta: King Grafindo Persada. Soeparwoto, et al. 2004. Developmental Psychology. Semarang: UNNES PRESS. Topo Santoso and Eva Achajani. 2003. Criminology. Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada Law No. 35 of 2009 on Narcotics Act No. 23 of 2002 on Child Protection




The Improvement Of Teacher Competency Through Integrated Social Science Training Akhmad Arif Musadad Historical Education Study Program of Teacher Training Education Faculty – UNS Email: [email protected]

Abstract: This research aimed to describe: (1) teacher competency before training, (2) training model used to improve teacher competency, and (3) teacher competency improvement after integrated Social Science training. This study was conducted using research and development approach, taken place in Surakarta City with Social Science teacher in Junior High Schools as the population. This study resulted in the following findings: (1) Social Science teacher competency in Junior High Schools in Surakarta city was lower before training. It could be seen from their low ability of implementing learning; (2) training model used to improve teacher competency was integrated social science training model; this model was designed in three stages: training planning, implementation and evaluation; (3) after attending the training, teacher implemented the results of training to the learning in their own schools. Considering the corresponding principal’s assessment, teacher competency was good after attending training. It could be seen from their improved abilities of both planning and implementing integrated Social Science learning. Keywords: Teacher Competency, integrated Social Science training I.

Introduction ocial Sciences is a subject, the material of which is taken from basic concepts of social sciences, given to students at Junior and Senior High Schools. Sumaatmaja (2005) stated that Social Science subject aimed to develop the students’ potency in order to be sensitive to social problem occurring within society, to have positive mental attitude to the improvement of any gap occurring, and to deal with skillfully any problems befalling them and society life in genera. Regarding this, Zhao (2010) recommended the school to equip the students with skills, knowledge, and values to live within interconnected and interdependent society recently. The strategy of implanting values and value system in Social Science learning aimed to build and to

S

develop good mental attitude. Material and subject matter in Social Science are delivered using a variety of methods, used to build understanding, consciousness and possession of good values within the students. Through established values, their mental attitude becomes positive to their environmental stimulation, thereby their behavior and conduct will not deviate from noble values. Thus, their behavior and conduct will always be based on responsibility to themselves and their environment. Education and learning problem is inseparable from teacher, because in overall education and learning system, the role of teacher is very strategic. For that reason, teacher competency development is absolutely required. Teacher development can be carried out through on the job training and in service training (Mulyasa, 2007).




Furthermore, Saud (2009) suggested that the way usually done for developing teacher professional ability is in service training (penataran) in the attempt of refreshing and improving ability. Other activities can also be held: on the job training, workshop, seminar, panel discussion, meetings, symposium, conference and etc. Teacher training is a planned and programmed education process conducted in shorter period of time, aiming to improve human resource, particularly to improve knowledge, skill, and ability of preparing and improving teachers’ professional competency in undertaking their duty in the field for their school progress (Simamora, 2008). For that reason, a research should be conducted on the “Improvement of teacher competency through integrated Social Science training”. Considering the elaboration above, the problems of research can be formulated as follows: 1) how is teacher competency before training? 2) what training model is provided to teachers?, and 3) how is the improvement of teacher competency after training. Teaching profession is an obligation that can be undertaken by those having certain academic competency and qualification only. Teaching for those having no professional competency will just hurt the system. Broke and Stone (in Usman, 2009: 14) explained: “descriptive of qualitative nature or teacher behavior appears to be entirely meaningful”. Competency is a qualitative essential representation of apparently very significant teacher behavior. Anderson (in Martin 2008) stated that competency is a basic characteristics involving skill, knowledge, and other personal attributes distinguishing a performing individual from non-performing one. It means that competent individual has certain ability, knowledge, and personality different from non-competent one.

To improve teacher competency, training can be held. Training is a systematical process of changing employee behavior in one way to improve the attempt of achieving organizational objective. Training is related to employees’ skill and ability of doing work currently, having present orientation, and helping the employees attain specific skill and ability in order to do their duty successfully (Rivai, 2007). Training is the process of acquiring knowledge about subject matter by the participant and leading to individual action, encouraging the improvement at work (Lynton, 2007). Training is a process of giving the employees help to master special skill or of helping them correcting their weaknesses in doing their work (Nawawi, 2006). In detail, Nurtain (2005) explained that the objectives of teacher training are: (1) to improve teaching program and teaching-learning process thereby encourage the development of education, (2) to introduce the teachers to a variety of sources, media, and materials, (3) at least to establish four competencies: academic ability competency, professional ability competency, art competency, and technical competency, and societal skill competency, (4) to learn developing, to try applying, and to value the procedure and implementation of novelties in learning, (5) to equip the teachers constantly corresponding to the changes in school curriculum development, (6) to expand the horizon of academic, professional and technical knowledge in the form of content, method or skill to be mastered, and (7) to provide the teachers the opportunity of developing themselves professionally. Social Science is an integration of various social and humanity sciences including: sociology, history, geography, economy, politics, law, and culture. Social science is formulated based on reality and social phenomenon




realizing an interdisciplinary approach of social science aspect and branch. Social science or social study is a part of school curriculum derived from material content of social science branches such as sociology, history, geography, economy, politics, anthropology, philosophy, and social psychology (Depdiknas, 2006). II.

RESEARCH METHOD This research was designed using research and development approach. Sugiyono (2009) explained ten steps of research and development. Similarly, Sukmadinata (2006) citing Borg and Gall’s opinion stated that the implementation of research and development (R & D) involves ten steps. Sukmadinata (2006) simplified those ten into three steps: (1) preliminary study as needs and contents analysis; (2) development as design, development and evaluation; and (3) product effectiveness examination, as semisummative evaluation. For that reasons, this research was conducted in three steps: (1) preliminary study, (2) model development, and (3) training model validation. This study was expected to yield in a product in the form of training model and set functioning as the attempt of improving teacher competency in integrated social science learning. Training model and set tryout conducted in this model development step was carried out in two stages: expert team validation and field model testing. The population of this research and development consisted of all social science teachers of Junior High Schools existing in Surakarta City. From the population, 20 teachers were taken as the subject of field tryout. The data employed in this research and development included qualitative and quantitative ones. Qualitative data was obtained from (1) observation; (2) interview with chairpersons of Junior High Schools; (3) students’ response, assessment, and

expectation; (4) open-ended questionnaire about teachers’ need for training; and (5) recommendation, constituting expert team’s comment on model draft and training set. Meanwhile, quantitative data was obtained were: (1) questionnaire for participant; (2) questionnaire of teachers’ need for training; (3) questionnaire of training model and set evaluation from expert team; and (4) questionnaire of assessment from training participants. The questionnaires were developed in the form of Likert scale, and the result was analyzed using descriptive statistic analysis with percentage technique. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. Teacher Competency before training The quality of social science learning conducted in several junior high schools in Surakarta City is, in general, still low. The learning situation seems to be monotonous and dominated by teacher. Material delivery using lecturing method is less motivating, and the students tend to be passive. The low quality of learning managed by the teachers can be seen from: (1) less conducive class circumstance, as indicated with many students paying less attention to teacher, (3) majority teacher delivering material using lecturing method without (with very little) combination with other methods, (3) majority teachers only explaining material written in textbook without any improvisation or expansion attempt to generate the students’ interest and motivation, (4) most teachers not trying to implant values, attitude, and social skill relevant to and useful in living within society, and (5) students’ low learning activity, indicated with few students asking and answering the question actively. However, most students attend the learning passively. The research then distributed questionnaire to 30 students. From the students’ response to the questionnaire,




it could be concluded that: (1) generally, the students were less satisfied with teacher competency in Social Science learning; (2) students want the Social Science teacher not only deliver knowledge but also provide them with attitude, and social skill necessary to live within society, and (3) students want to learn the difference and diversity of culture, religion, ethnic and language existing proportionally. Data of prior teacher competency in Social Science was then obtained through interviewing headmasters.Headmasters assessed that Social Science learning process running so far remain to be improved for its

quality, particularly in the term of syllabus and RPP (Learning Implementation Plan) development, and material organization. It was because teacher only downloaded the material from internet or copied and pasted the material from subject teacher discussion. In doing so, teachers did not have ability to develop syllabus and RPP independently, moreover syllabus and RPP are the teachers’ duty to plan a learning likely different from that in other schools. Syllabus and RPP development and material organization should be adjusted with the characteristics of individual schools and students.

B. Integrated Social Science Training Model TRAINING PLANNING

TRAINING IMPLEMENTATION

Observation, questionnaire, document analysis, interview guideline

Term

Know Skill Att.

Border

Competency Training TeachingLearning process, teacher, student, headmasters

Training analysis

Teacher competency improvement

Training objective

Group

Analysis on relevant SCBC

need

SCBC List

ol TRAINING EVALUATION

Socialization: other teachers & students Training result: knowledge, skill and attitude

Andrago. approach

Social science curr. Of 2006

Syll.D evlp.

BC mapping relevant to the umbrella theme

Follow-up program implement.

Permendkn 41/’07: SP

RPP Monitoring Develp Social Figure 1: Integrated Science Training Model Format, & Evaluation Struc Goal, component, Outcom ture Description step e of Training Model In origin Sche Junior High Group/Inst. Program Seconddule Conference of the International Indonesian Forum forSchool Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University design & Improving the Teacher, Prete training set 578 training result Peer student/ st, competency Teach observer postt Group disc. By: Organizer, est Instructor,



Overall, integrated Social Science training model is divided into three main functions: planning, implementation, and evaluation. 1. Training Plan a. Training Need Analysis Training need analysis was competency, (c) syllabus development, conducted by means of analyzing data. (d) RPP development, (e) peer teaching, The data intended were obtained and (f) follow-up program development. through several sources and data collection instruments including (1) 3. Training Evaluation observation on teaching-learning a. Follow-up Program process conducted by Social Science Implementation teachers in several Junior High Schools The implementation of intended in Surakarta City, (2) questionnaire training follow-up program was the containing the students’ response to and program of socializing the result of assessment on Social Science teachers’ integrated Social Science training to competency, and their expectation for other teachers (rather than training competency improvement, (3) interview participants) and students. The results of with headmaster/deputy of headmaster training were ability, insight or for curriculum division, and (4) training knowledge, and skill the participants need questionnaire completed by Social have acquired during training. The Science teachers of Junior High Schools socialization of training result was in Surakarta City. conducted using andragogy approach, carried out in various methods. b. Training Objective Integrated Social Science b. Monitoring and Evaluation training aimed to improve teacher During the implementation of competency: follow-up program, monitoring and 1. in planning integrated evaluation were conducted. This Social Science learning; monitoring and evaluation was 2. in implementing integrated conducted to see the effect of training, Social Science learning; aiming to measure the implementation c. Program design and Training of competency the participants have Set mastered in individual schools. The Program design was the training evaluation of effect was conducted to designing steps, involving: (1) training assess the effect of training on the objective, (2) program structure, improvement of participants’ material, and timing, (3) description of competency in undertaking integrated training target, (4) description of result Social Science learning. and training effect, and (5) training schedule. In addition to developing C. The Improvement of Teacher training program design, training set was also developed. The intended training Competency After Training set was the material related to Having attended the training competency to be trained. completely, the participants undertake 2. Training implementation again their duty in their own school. This training was conducted They implemented the result of field with the participants consisting of Social training, by applying the results obtained Science teachers in Junior High Schools during training in teaching-learning of Surakarta City. This training process at school. This activity was implementation involves six activities: intended to find out the extent to which (a) competency training, (b) analysis of the mastered competency can be relevant standard competency and basic implemented to learning. In addition, it Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 579



was also intended to measure the improvement of teacher professional competency in implementing integrated Social Science learning. This implementation activity was devised jointly between participants and instructor, while the implementation was overseen and assessed by headmaster/deputy of headmaster for curriculum division in individual schools.

The mean total score of Headmaster assessment on teacher competency in planning the learning was 3.61, meaning that teacher competency in developing learning plan was very good. In detail, the result of headmaster’s assessment on teacher competency in planning integrated Social Science learning could be seen in the table below.

Table 1. Mean Score of Assessment on Teacher Competency in Developing Integrated Social Science RPP Post-Training N Assessed Aspect M Cate o ean gory The 3. 1 mapping of basic competency relevant to Very formulated umbrella theme 67 Good The 2 formulation of objective consistent with basic Very competency 3. Good 52 Teaching material selection corresponding to objective 3 and basic competency The chronological systematic organization of teaching 4 material consistent with time allotment Source and media selection corresponding to objective, 5 material, and student characteristics Clarity of learning procedure: beginning, main & 6 closing Every step reflects on strategy/method and time 7 allotment Every learning step reflects on teacher and student 8 activity The compatibility of assessment instrument to 9 objective, material, and student characteristics Instrument completeness (question, key, scoring 1 0 guideline) Total Mean

3. 72

Good 3.

46

Goo d

3. 74

Very Good

3. 76

Very Good

3. 60

Very Good

3. 46

Goo d

3. 53

Very Good

3. 65

Very Good

3. 61

Considering the table above, it can be seen that teachers who have attended training have very good competency in developing Learning Implementation plan (RPP). It means that integrated Social Science training can evidently improve teacher’s professional competency in relation to the development of learning implementation plan.

Very

Very Good

In addition to improving competency in developing RPP (learning implementation plan), integrated Social Science training can improve teacher competency in learning implementation. It can be seen from the result of headmasters/deputies of headmaster’s assessment on teacher competency in learning implementation, in the table below.



o


Table 2. Mean Score of Assessment on Teacher Competency in Integrated Social Science Learning Post-Training N Assessed Aspects M Category ean Pre-learning activity 3 1 Very .68 Good Learning Material Mastery 3 2 Very .73 Good Learning Approach/Strategy 3 3 Very .56 Good Learning Source and Media Utilization 3 4 Very .58 Good Learning generating student involvement 3 5 Good .47 Learning process and outcome assessment 3 6 Very .79 Good Language use 3 7 Very .65 Good Closing 3 8 Very .74 Good TOTAL MEAN 3 Very .65 Good

The table above shows that the total mean of headmaster/deputy of headmaster’s assessment on teacher competency in implementing learning is 3.65, meaning that teacher competency in implementing learning is very good. This competency is assessed from various aspects: pre-learning activity, material mastery, approach/strategy, source and media, student involvement, assessment, language use, and closing. The result of assessment above, compared with that of preliminary study mentioned earlier, shows that integrated Social Science training can improve teachers’ professional competency. Prior condition of teacher competency (before training) is low, as indicated with low ability of developing RPP, and of implementing the learning. Teachers’ professional competency can be finally improved through integrated Social Science training. D. Discussion

From the result of preliminary study, it can be suggested that teacher competency in Social Science learning is still low. It is reflected on the low ability of both planning and implementing the learning. Teachers’ incapability of planning the learning can reduce learning efficiency and effectiveness. It is in line with Imron (2009) stating that teachers’ teaching quality is actually a reflection on their mastery over competency. Competent teacher will be able better to teach effectively, thereby the students’ learning achievement will be optimal. Richey (2007) explained that learning is an activity starting from designing, developing, implementing to evaluating the activity that can result in learning process. Considering the teachers’ low competency in planning and implementing the learning, integrated Social Science training was conducted.




It can be seen that after training, teacher competency improved in developing RPP and implementing learning. It is line with Kamilah (2006) stating that training is a process of adjusting an employee’s knowledge, attitude, and skill to his/her duty area in the present by providing additional knowledge and skill supply consistent with occupation with which he/she is wrestling. Training is the process of reengineering individual/group behavior in such a way in the aspects of knowledge, skill, and attitude to improve work quality more optimally as the result of profession demand. In the training, an environment is created in which the employees can acquire or learn specific attitude, ability, skill, knowledge and behavior relevant to their occupation (Meldona, 2009). Training usually focuses on provisioning specific skills to the employees in order to be used directly to do their work and to help them correct their weaknesses in performance. Muharman (2007) stated that training is a part of education pertaining to learning process to acquire and to improve skill out of education system, running in short time, with a method emphasizing more on theory than on practice. IV. CONCLUDING REMARK Considering the result of preliminary study, teacher competency before training is low. It could be seen from their low ability of planning and

implementing learning. The low ability of planning learning is indicated with the analysis on RPP the teachers used considered as still poor by validating team. Based on the result of observation, the low ability of implementing learning can be seen from the following indicators: less-conducive learning circumstance, material delivery using lecturing method predominantly, teacher explaining the material as same as that written in the textbook, teacher not trying to implant relevant values, attitude and skills, and students’ low learning activity. Integrated Social Science training model consisted of (1) training planning including (a) need analysis, (b) training objective, and (c) program design and training set; (2) training implementation including (a) competency training, (b) analysis of relevant Basic Competency (BC), (c) syllabus development, (d) RPP development, (e) peer teaching, (f) follow-up program development; (3) training evaluation including (a) training follow-up program, and (b) field training result implementation. Having attended the training, teacher competency improved in either planning or implementing learning. It means that Integrated Social Science training can evidently improve teachers’ professional competency.

REFERENCE Depdiknas. 2006. Petunjuk Pelaksanaan Pengembangan Media Pembelajaran. Jakarta:Direktorat Pembinaan SMP- Depdiknas. Imron, A. 2009. Pembinaan Guru di Indonesia. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya. Kamilah. 2006. Manajemen Pelatihan. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya. Lynton. 2007. Pelatihan dan Pengembangan Tenaga Kerja. Jakarta: Karya Unipress. Martin. 2008. Kepemimpinan dalam Organisasi. Jakarta: Penerbit Indeks. Meldona. 2009. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia, Perspektif Integratif. Malang: UIN Malang Press. Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 582



Muharman. 2007. Profesionalisasi Kepala Sekolah. Jakarta: Depdikbud. Mulyasa, E. 2007. Menjadi Kepala Sekolah Profesional dalam Konteks Menyukseskan MBS dan KBK. Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosdakarya. Nawawi, H. 2006. Administrasi dan Supervisi Pendidikan. Bandung: Jemmars. Nurtain. 2005. Perencanaan Pelatihan. Jakarta: Pusdiklat Dikbud. Richey, R.C. 2007. Instructional Design Competencies: The Standart.Syaracuse, New York: Clearinghouse on Instructional and Technology. Rivai, V. 2007. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia untuk Perusahaan: Dari Teori ke Praktik. Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada. Saud, U.S. 2009. Pengembangan Profesi Guru. Bandung: CV. Alfabeta. Simamora, H. 2008. Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia. Yogyakarta: STIE YPKN. Sugiyono. 2009. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan: Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R & D. Bandung: Penerbit Alfabeta. Sukmadinata, N. S. 2006. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT. Remaja Rosdakarya. Sumaatmadja, N. 2005. Metodologi Pengajaran Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial (IPS). Bandung: Penerbit Alumni. Usman, M.U. 2009. Menjadi Guru Profesional. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya. Zhao, Y. 2010. “Preparing Globally Competent Teachers: A New Imperative for Teacher Education”. Journal of Teacher Education. Volume 61. No. 5. Halaman 422431. http://jte.sagepub.com/content/61/5/422. downloaded on April 28, 2012.







The Comprehension of Local History with the use of Mobile Electronic Devices: The Establishmentof the Islamic era and the Banjar Sultanate in South Kalimantan Muhammad Azmi, Hermanu Joebagio, Nunuk Suryani Post Graduate School of Education and Training at SebelasMaret University [email protected] Abstract: The study of local history of South Kalimantan is complicated as limited resources are available.The main problem is that most of the written historical data are not written in the local language but is the language of foreign researchers.This is especially in regards to the available material of the classicHindu period in South Kalimantan. As a result, understandingand the study of local history is very hardfor local students. Fortunately the technological advancement has made it somewhat easier by the establishment of translation programs that can be incorporated in modern mobile devices. Therefore, this study will assist to providea solution to the problem of limited resources in local history and explain the advancement of mobile learning devices in research. The research in mobile electronic device usein this study applications is in respect to the entry of the Islam religion and secondly the establishment of the Banjar Sultanatein South Kalimantan. The aim of this paper is to; understand how to uncover local historical material on South Kalimantan,how to develop proper mobile learning applications to obtain useful local history data, analyze the result with expert judgment and obtain user responsein the utilization of mobile learning applications. The discussion in this paper is divided into three parts. Firstly to develop material for local history research with the application of the theme indicated above. Secondly, to develop the application of mobileuse learning applications, and thirdly analyze the result obtainedfromassessment teamof experts and analyze the user responses in the use of mobiledevices with learning capacity applications. Keywords:mobileelectronic devices, local history, South Kalimantan, Islamic era,Sultanate.

INTRODUCTION In the context of history, local history can be interpreted by an event in the past that happened in a certain scope. According Priyadi (2012: 2), there are three elements that distinguish the sense of local history to national history in general, namely (1) political administrative unit, (2) units of cultural ethnic unity, and (3) as a unitary administrative of cultural ethnic. Firstly, the local history room is acceptable when dealing with the political history involved with the local area, such as provincial, prefectural, county, Kawedanan, districts and villages.

Secondly, the local history room is acceptable when dealing with an event relating to the identity of a etniskultural, like the kingdom that was built within the scope of an ethnicity. Thirdly, the scope of local history is acceptable when dealing with administrative unit as a collection cultural ethnic, as a region formed by the deal number of cultural ethnic that inhabit the area.According Porda (2009: 18), the teaching of history has a role to actualize the two elements, learning and education. Elements actualized learning is an element of learning and intellectual education, while the element of education is




actualized learning and moral education and democratic nation is responsible to the future. According Woodill (2011: 24), the main advantage in the use of mobile devices in learning can be described as follows: (1) portability, (2) anytime, anyplace connectivity, (3) flexible and timely access to e-learning resources, (4) immediacy of communication, (5) empowerment and engagement of learners, particularly those in dispersed communities, and (6) active learning experiences. He also adds other advantages obtained when the classroom learning using mobile devices such as an increased ability to use a computer (computer literacy), communication skills and community development, improvement of creativity, collaborative learning, and mentoring. Another potential which can be used as an advantage in the use of mobile devices in learning can be described as follows: (1) improved retention, the use of mobile learning can improve the ability to explore and store new knowledge, especially when faced with a situation where the work, (2) efficiency, the use of mobile learning to make highly efficient nature that is portable where resources can be used anytime and anywhere when connected, (3) the cost saving, the use of mobile learning can reduce expenses used during the learning process, such as expenses incurred in learning outside the classroom, both staff wages and cost of travel. This is because the use of mobile devices in learning can reduce the needs that should be done outside the classroom, and (4) the time saving, the use of mobile devices in learning can reduce the time required to achieve learning objectives have been determined. The use of mobile devices to learn basically not limited by space and time. In other words, the use of mobile devices for learning can be done anytime and anywhere (Woodill 2011: 24-25)

The development of smartphone users in Indonesia is directly proportional to the development of internet users. According to veteran analyst Horace Dediu through his blog H. asymco.com, the android-based smartphone operating system in the world in 2013 has reached 1 billion, beating the Apple operating system, iOS, which only reached 700 million users. In addition, also mentioned that the active smartphone users in Indonesia in 2013 reached 47 million, or about 14% of smart phone users in the world. This figure puts Indonesia at the sixth position in the household population of mobile phone users in the world under China, US, India, Brazil and Japan (Heriyanto, 2014) The survey conducted byCourseSmart, provider in eTextbooks and digital training materials found that college students can not survive long without checking on their digital devices, whether smartphones, laptops or other. Especially when it comes to checking email, facebook, twitter and other social media. Checking The course uses the internet connected to their electronic devices, especially smartphones (CourseSmart, 2011) According to studies conducted by the Fuxin Andrew Yu of the University of Arkansas, concluded that there are changes in teen behavior when the smartphone into the life of a teenager, is no exception in academic activities. In college, students seemed addicted to the use of smartphone technology. In terms of functionality and aksessibilitas, smartphones are more superior than the laptop. This makes the student can not be separated from their smartphone. Especially if it is connected to the Internet, then the frequency of use of smartphones will increase. The activities often do is check text message (SMS), email and social media (Yu, 2012) Mike Sharples in a paper entitled Future Gazing for Policy




Makers presented at the Seminar in BT Becta Government Innovation Centre, UK explains that there are three phases in the development of mobile learning has the following characteristics: (1) focus on the device; (2) focus on learning outside the classroom; and (3) focus on the movement (mobility) learners. The development of mobile learning phase is influenced by the development of a device (device) and technological developments such as the internet and operating systems. The development of the device is characterized by berkembanganya devices from cellphone (mobile phone), Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), tablet and smartphone. The development of technology is characterized by the appearance of the operating system that starts from Java, Symbian, iOS, Android and Windows, whereas the development of Internet technology is characterized by the development of GSM, CDMA, HSDPA and LTE final. (Pachler, et al, 2010: 30) METHOD The method used in this research is the development method proposed by

Thiagarajan et al (1974) consisting of four stages: define, design, development and dissemination. This paper describes the results of the second phase includes the development of materials, application and the results of the assessment team of experts and user responses. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Material Development Generally, the material of local history in South Kalimantan divided into six periods: pre-history era, ancient past (Hinduism Era), the classical period/ Islamic Era (1500-1900), pioneer period of independence (1901-1942), the Japanese occupation (1942-1945) and the war of independence/ physical revolution (1945-1949). The division is based on the book titled History of Banjar which is a collection of the writings of local historians are accommodated by the Provincial Government of South Kalimantan in 2003. The collection of these writings headed by Muhammad SuriansyahIdeham who is a researcher from the Research and Development Agency of South Kalimantan Province

Material Period of Local History of South Kalimantan Period Pre History    Ancient Past  (Hinduism Era)  Classical  Period/ Islamic  Era(1500-1900)  Pioneer  Period of  Independence  (1901-1942), Japanese  Occupation (1942 1945)  War of 

Subject Matter Period of hunting and gathering food simple level Period of hunting and gathering food advanced Period of farming Period of metal processing Arrival of Hinduism in South Kalimantan Ancient Hindu Kingdom of Nan Sarunai, NagaraDipa, and NagaraDaha The spread of Islam and the establishment of the Sultanate of Banjar The state of political, economic and social kingdom of Banjar Banjar War (1859-1905) Dutch East Indies government in South Kalimantan The living conditions of the people in South Kalimantan The state of organization of the movement in 1928-1942 in South Kalimantan The end of Government Indies in South Kalimantan The Government in Japanese Occupation Period The living conditions of the people in South Kalimantan The reaction of the people of South Kalimantan against the




Independence/ Physical  Revolution (19451949) 

proclamation of August 17, 1945 Growth and development of paramilitary troops of Navy Division IV for Defense of Kalimantan Guerrilla Struggle and the formation of Government of Governor Navy Division IV for Defense of Kalimantan  Sovereignty and the struggle of the Navy Division IV for Defense of Kalimantan Government recognized RI outside the classroom; and (3) focus on the movement (mobility) learners. In Based on the analysis of the this study, the focus of the development needs of local history learning materials, is application or media focused on the it is known that the material of the device. ancient past (Hinduism Era) and The focus of development is classical (Islamic Era) can be based on the ability of the media categorized as poor by the source. The developed in the form of integrated main source of the material under software tools that run in a variety of discussion is limited to the traditional mobile device operating systems, historiography which are a primary namely Android, iOS and Windows source, such as Hikayat Banjar, Tutur Phone. Thus, development of Candi and Hikayat Raja-raja Banjar and instructional media is in the form of a Kotawaringin. The discussion on ancent learning applications using mobile past material has a learning resource that devices that can be reusable. can be said to be limited. This is because In this study, developed media of the material that is based on format is an application that will be traditional historiography and is more embedded into the operating system that religious-magical, so it leads to a can be used anytime and anywhere in narrative alone. The source of the accordance with the principle of material learned in the discussion of the mobility of mobile devices. Therefore, classical period has been a lot written by the media format selected in this study is the local historian who has made learning objects that can be used again interpretation of the various primary and (reusable learning object). This is in secondary sources. Therefore, the accordance with the format of learning material developed in this study media in the form of software that is determined the discussion of the embedded in the mobile device classical period that is still associated operating systems and can be reused with the discussion of the ancient pas repeatedly. period included the material discussed Based on the explanation above within the scope of the transition from description, it was concluded that the classical times to the Hindu. development of instructional media in Application Design this study is a learning application with the material of local history by using a The development of application mobile device planted inside the in this study consisted of two phases, the operating system and can be reused selection of media types and media repeatedly. The operating system is formats are developed.Based on the planned in the development of the media views expressed by Mike Sharples in his is an android, iOS and Windows Phone. paper in Becta Seminar in BT These three operating systems are Government Innovation Centre, UK widely used by mobile device there are three phases in the manufacturers now. However, based on development of mobile learning that has preliminary studies on the use of mobile the following characteristics: (1) focus devices among students, the operating on the device; (2) focus on learning Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 588



system used is Android and iOS. Thus, applications developed in this study using two mobile operating systems Android and iOS devices. The Result of Assesment Team of Experts and User Responses Assessment material in this study conducted by a team of subject matter experts consisting of two lecturers of History Education Studies Program Faculty of Teacher Training and Education LambungMangkurat University, Mohammad Zaenal Arifin Anis and Mansyur. Selection of the team is based on the scientific background and experience as a researcher of local history. Viewed in terms of scientific background, both being graduates of master of science study program history Gadjah Mada University and the University of Diponegoro. The terms of research experience, both local history researchers often conduct field research into various cities and districts in South Kalimantan, even to East Kalimantan. The result of assessment team about material is an average of 3.4 out of 4, which is included in the excellent category. Assessment of media in research conducted by a team of media experts consisting of two lecturers of History Education Studies Program Faculty Teacher Training and Education University Mangkurat Banjarmasin, HerryPordaPutroNugroho and HeriSusanto. Selection is based on a team of expert scientific background and teaching experience courses. Based on the scientific background, both lecturers have the educational background of history who are alumni of the Master of History EducationSebelasMaret University. The terms of teaching experience, the lecturers is a permanent lecturers that administer education courses in History Education Studies Program and is often a team of courses, such as Introduction to Education and Learning Media History.The result of assessment team about material is an

average of 3.9 out of 4, which is included in the excellent category. The trial of one by one involving to three students were given the opportunity to simulate the use of the media developed. Selection of students in this randomized trial that is part of the research object. The trial was designed to get a user response to the media developed. Once the user has finished the test, they are welcome to make an assessment on the response sheet that has been provided. Assessment conducted on three aspects with a total of 15 assessment indicators. The average result is 3,15 out of 4, which is included in the excellent category. Small group trial involving seven students were given the opportunity to simulate the use of the media developed after the revision of the test one-on-one. Selection of students in this trial were randomized which is part of the research object. The trial was designed to get a user response to the media developed after obtaining a revision of the trial of one by one. This improvement results from the trial will produce a final draft of the media developed. The average result of this trial is 3,6 out of 4, which is included in the excellent category. CONCLUSSION The conclusions can be drawn from the discussion aboveare: (1) The material developed in this research is the material of ancient times until the classical period considered to the limited resources that discuss the matter of Hindus and Muslims in southern Kalimantan, (2) the development of the media format in this research is reusable learning object to consider the practicality in the use and development, and (3) the assessment of a team of experts and user response indicates that applications developed included in the excellent category. So, the research cancan continue the next step.




REFERENCE CourseSmart. (2011). Digital dependence of toda'ys college students revealed in new study from coursesmart™.Diaksesdarihttp://www.reuters.com /article/2011/06/01/idUS141122 01-Jun2011 PRN20110601 pada 5 Juni 2015 Heriyanto, Trisno. 03 Februari 2014. Indonesia Masuk 5 Besar Negara Pengguna Smartphone. Diaksesdarihttp://inet.detik.com/read /2014/02/03/171002/ 2485920/ 317/indonesia-masuk-5-besar-negara-pengguna-smartphone pada 28 April 2015 Pachler, N., Bachmair, B.,& Cook, J.(2010). Mobile learning: Structures, Agency, Practices. London & New York: Springer & Dordrecht Heidelberg. Porda, H., N. P. (2009). PembelajaranSejarah. Banjarmasin: C.V.Batur Raya. Priyadi, S. (2012). Sejarah Lokal: Konsep, Metode dan Tantangannya. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak Thiagarajan, S., Semmel, D. S &Semmel, M. I. (1974). Instructional Development for Training Teachers of Expectional Children. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Leadership Training Institute/Special Education, University of Minnesota. Woodill, G. (2011). The Mobile learning Edge: Tools and Technologies for Developing Your Teams. New York: McGraw-Hill. Yu, F. A. (2012). Mobile/Smart Phone Use in Higher Education. Arkansas: University of Central Arkansas.




Interpretation of Serat Wedhatama in Mangkunegaran, Surakarta Renny Pujiartati1, Hermanu Joebagio2 and Sariyatun3 1 Renny Pujiartati S.Pd, Post Graduate Student at Sebelas Maret University 2 Prof. Dr. Hermanu Joebagio, M.Pd., Professor at Sebelas Maret University 3 Prof. Dr. Sariyatun, M.Pd.,M.Hum, Professor at Sebelas Maret University ABSTRACT Serat Wedhatama is one of teaching from Mangkunegara IV. He was a Prince of Mangkunegaran Palace in Surakarta, reigned from 1851-1881. Serat Wedhatama was Javanese philosophy to teach aristocrats of The Mangkunegaran Palace. It’s composed in several poetic matter called macapat i.e Pangkur, Kinanthi, Pucung, Gambuh and Sinom. The social setting when the Serat Wedhatama was written, Mangkunegaran being modernization. The core of Serat Wedhatama was (1) ethic values in daily life; (2) moral value i.e to be humble, responsibility, hardwork, cooperation, respectful, and tolerace; (3) Serat Wedhatama have been contradiction, because Mangkunegara IV want to withdraw the land of empire to be the sugar plantations. So he have to take over the land of empire of the aristocrats. The political interpretation of Serat Wedhatama that a tool to pressure the aristocrats to take the land of empire to supported the modernization of Mangkunegaran. Keyword: Serat Wedhatama, ethic, moral, Mangkunegara IV.

INTRODUCTION The end of the 19th century marked the beginning of an era of modern industrialization on the Island of Java. Modernization give positive and negative impact. The positive impact is the sugar industry of Mangkunegaran progress and developing. Economic Mangkunegaran become stabilize. Negative impact is the influence of west culture and Arab culture was very resilient and getting up in Mangkunegara society. Many Javanese people stylized west culture and Arab culture Ardani (1998: 38). Mangkunegara concern arose that the west culture and Arab culture will destroyed identity and java culture. So, Mangkunega IV build all sorts of wreath which stresses the importance of preserving the characteristics identity of Javanese culture Social setting Central Java in the th 19 century mentioned above have a change. The changes include all aspects

such asd political, economic and social and cultural. The dominant factor in constitute change are westernisasi. Westernisasi is a process of the western culture. The process of westernisasi changed in all aspects, for examples changed the way think people from reflect pralogis and traditionally to be logical rational and modern (Wasino,2014:3-6). For Mangkunegaran goverment, westernisasi had significant modernization in economy aspect. Modernization exetuted by Mangkunegara IV to build sugarcane equipped with sugar industry (Wasino,2008: 45). Westernisasi, then given rise to many reaction from Bumi Putera people. The first is a oppose and the second is that are conformist group. Opposing group an influx of westernisasi do satire through the art of painting, performing arts and literature. Meanwhile, Mangkunegaran government is able to adjust himself with new situation in the




colonial. Mangkunegara IV succeeded throne ( 1853-1881 ) and succeeded in advance and industrial estate sugars. Because, the westernisasi effect Mangkunegara writing Serat METHOD The type of this study is library research. Data in this research carried out from texts or manuscripts stored in libraries, specifically Reksa Pustaka library in the Mangkunegaran palace in Surakarta. The inventory of the manuscripts was carried out by recording the contents of the manuscript catalogue in the Reksa Pustaka Library at the Mangkunegaran Palace in Surakarta using a catalogue study (Baried, 1985), which succeeded in establishing the Serat Wedhatama as a data source for the research. Data obtained from the literature search. As for the validity of the data maintained by triangulation theory. Data analysis was performed with data presentation, discussion of the data, and conclusions. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Contents of Serat Wedhatama Serat Wedhatama is sastra wulang, which contains theachings in the eminence and perfection of life of the Javanese. All the elements of Serat Wedhatama are teaching to be ideal figure of a Janese person who has (spiritual) vitality and (physical) strength for life, orginating from “nobleness and power (wirya), prosperity (arta), and knowlegde (winasis). All three works in such a way that the “ultimate truth” will appear: Bonggan kang tan mrelokena/ Munggah ugering ngaurip Uripe lan triprakara/ Wirya arta tri winasis Kalamun kongsi sepi/ Saka wilangan tetelu Telas tilasing janma/ Aji godhong jati aking Temah papa paparingan ngulandara// (Serat Wedhatama, Sinom pupuh 15)

Wedhatama. The goal of Mangkunegara IV writing Serat Wedhatama is to serves form and the manners of a character. Serat Wedhatama explain about morality, self identity, human quality, true Javanese spiritual teaching and the identity of the Javanese (Darusuprapto, 1975). The Serat Wedhatama not only shapes the figure of an eminent human being as a person, but also as a social figure who will develop and be able to show his identity with a Javanese character (….rehne ta sira Jawi). The writer’s awareness of the reality of the universe and totality of human life is described as the destiny of life in a much broader and more perfect dimension. a. Ethic values The word of ethic come from the Greek means habitual. Etics is an orientation of human effort to answer fundamental question how a person should act (Suseno, 1989:13-14). Serat Wedhatama teaching principle to selfcontrol that is implemented well will give rise to the ability for a life system to engage in a continual process of renewal in order to maintain the integrity of a person’s overall awareness. Every person is required to have the ability to cooperate with others, complement each other and synergise according to his own competence and professionalism, and must always endeavour to solve all problems peacefully, without conflict, as an essential asset of his social and religious life. b. Moral value Moral values are the highest values with four main characteristics: responsibility, conscience, absolute obligation, and formality. They are also related to what should not be done due to the values that have to be highly praised. The moral values in Serat




Wedhatama include, among others, simple life, affection, responsibility, conscience development, love to others, humbleness, not being proud, religious obedience by conforming to the religious rules and avoiding what is prohibited, good positions through sincere work everywhere, wealth through hardwork, and knowledge that other people can benefit from. Such values are absolute moral values that are fixed and formal in nature.

Pangkur Pupuh Pangkur explain that a person must to avoid angkara murka (mingkar mingkur ing Angkara). Mangkunegara IV teaching her son form of tembang (sinawung reseming kidung). He also teaching that religion is a lifeline valuable (agama ageming aji). In pupuh pangkur also explain the goal he write Serat Wedhatama. The goal Serat Wedhatama written is a person had behavior that are pleasing and understand the feelings of true. Jinejer neng Wedhatama/ mrih tan kemba kembenganing pambudi mangka nadyan tuwa pikun/ yen tan mikani rasa yekti tan mikani rasa/ yekti sepi asepa lir sepah samun samangsane pakumpulan/ gonyak ganyuk nglilingsemi. Sinom Nulada laku utama/ tumraping wong tanah Jawi Wong Agung ing Ngeksiganda/ Panembahan Senopati Kapati amarsudi/ udaning hawa lan nepsu Pinesu tapa brata/ Tanapi ing siang ratri Ama-mangun karyenak tyasing sasama.

Panembahan Senopati was founder of Mataram Kingdom. He was diligent to asceticism to reduce the passions. A person was diligent to asceticism will be serene and going to beneficial with each other. The templet teaching moral that person must beneficial to the other person. Pupuh Sinom also explain that a person to be ideal figure of a Janese person who has (spiritual) vitality and (physical) strength for life, orginating from “nobleness and power (wirya), prosperity (arta), and knowlegde (winasis). Pocung Ngelmu iku/ kelakone kanthi laku lekasane lawan kas/ tegese kas nyantosani setya budya pangekese dur angkara. The doctrine that science can be achived with governed, which begins with strong volition. To be good person must be destroying angkara murka itself. Gambuh Pupuh Gambuh explain four sembah such as sembah raga, cipta, jiwa dan rasa. The concept of Javanese Sufism, the mystical concept of the union between man and God (manunggaling kawula- Gusti). In order to attain a deep understanding of this union with God, a formula known as sembah catur, or “four kinds of homage”, is described (body, mind, soul, and feeling) as a way of gaining the grace of God. Samengko ingsun tutur/ sembah catur supaya lumuntur/ dihin raga/ cipta jiwa, rasa, kaki, ing kono lamun tinemu/ tandha nugrahaning Manon. Kinanthi Kinanthi explain that sharpen feeling sensibility to get rid of a feeling of lust that became a good man virtuous by semedi from the crowd in order to receive equanimity and soul. Always be




alert to always know a barrier in life and always deprive of uncertainty in the liver that steady in stepping to do good deeds. Deprive of envy spiteful, not be on guard heat, do not interfere with others and not wreak lust , but only silence so that it was quiet. Doctrine that follow a goog value who had to be taught as a step so as to achieve the glory. The conclusion of pupuh Kinanthi

contains the teachings or concept about how to live life well. Kawruhe mung ana wuwus/ wuwus gumaib-gaib/ kasliring thithik tan kena/ mancereng alise gathik/ apa pandhita antiga/ kang mangkono iku kaki/

Table 1 Central themes in Serat Wedhatama No. Name of Themes of the Text of verses Song 1-14 Pangkur In Pangkur the writer explain about identity, the importance of knowledge, human nature and character, competence and the concept of perfection for describing the figure of a complete Javanese human being. 1-18 Sinom Elaborates on a Javanese person who has been given clothes, has identity and character, is professional, is aware of his rights and obligations, and knows the spiritual foundations for life. 1-15 Pocung The section which explains the position and status of man in the cosmos, that is, the importance of striving to gain knowledge to obtain wirya (power), arta (wealth), and wasis (skill) as the basic requirements of life 1-35 Gambuh The concept of Javanese Sufism, the mystical concept of the union between man and God (manunggaling kawula- Gusti). In order to attain a deep understanding of this union with God, a formula known as sembah catur, or “four kinds of homage”, is described (body, mind, soul, and feeling) as a way of gaining the grace of God 1-18 Kinanthi Contains the teachings or concept about how to live life well c. Political Interpretation The end of the 19th century marked the beginning of an era of modern industrialization on the Island of Java. Before Mangkunegara IV

become the king of Praja Mangkunegaran, some land of praja allotter to aristocrats. This land named Lungguh Land and Apanage Land. Serat Wedhatama have been contradiction, because

Mangkunegara IV want to withdraw the land of empire to be the sugar plantations. So he have to take over the land of empire of the aristocrats. The political interpretation of Serat Wedhatama that a tool to pressure the aristocrats to take the land of empire to supported the modernization of Mangkunegaran. Modernization

exetuted


by



Mangkunegara IV to build sugarcane equipped with sugar industry CONCLUSION Serat Wedhatama is a sastra wulang (educational literature) which contains teaching on perfection of live of the Javanese. The values in Serat Wedhatama offers an alternative to moral education, especially history lesson. The ethic values in Serat Wedhatama can be used by students to daily life. Moral value in Serat Wedhatama as character education. i.e

to be humble, responsibility, hardwork, cooperation, respectful, and tolerace as character education. Serat Wedhatama offers an alternative to face various turmoil of era. The emergence of transitional phases, each which their own characteristics, forms and characters, is an important lesson that can be used as reflection, data and valuable information for the society’s life at the present moment.

REFERENCES Darusuprapto. (1975). Penulisan sastra sejarah tinjauan tentang struktur, tema, dan fungsi. Yogyakarta: UGM Press. Ardani. (1998). Al- Qur’an dan Sufisme Mangkunegara IV: Studi Serat-Serat Piwulang. Yogyakarta: Dana Bhakti Wakaf. Baried, S. B. (1985). Pengantar filologi. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI. Wasino. (2014). Modernisasi di Jantung Budaya Jawa. Jakarta: Gramedia. . (2008). Kapitalisme Bumi Putera: Perubahan Masyarakat Mangkunegaran. Yogyakarta: LKis. Suseno. (1987). Etika Dasar: Masalah-Masalah Pokok Filsafat Moral. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.







Culture of Democracy in Gorontalo: From Traditional Kingdom Until Hegemony Dutch Colonialism

Andris K. Malae Jebres, Panggungrejo, Surakarta, Sebelas Maret University Post Graduate Program of History Education Corresponding email: [email protected] Abstract: This article review culture democracy over the kingdom of traditional Gorontalo (limo lo pohalaa) until the Dutch colonialism. In this article writer would like to break existence of a democratic system in the kingdom Gorontalo which has a implementasikan long before system or cultural democracy is in know collectively in Indonesian. But with the presence of Dutch colonialism, the democratic system that has been membudaya and rooted in public and own service Gorontalo, gradually in abolish and replaced with electoral system directly –a place where sweep of democracy– by the dutch without involving members - a member of the royal, bantayo poboide, and the as decision makers legitimate own service. Keywords: Culture Democracy, The Community, The Traditional, Dutch Colonial.

Introduction

N

ot the things that stranger to understanding culture that is all the activity and treatment is the man who done consciously, good that in nature materil or non materil. This is in line with whatever is at tell you by van peursen in his book, he said that culture covering everything the works of men (Peursen, 1988: 10 – 11) .Therefore in participate in community events and different shapes and name the state, culture comes up with a notch significant are always on take care of, be preserved, even in believe –because having value luhur– by a community groups in continuity. The existence of a culture the regions is the value of sublime representation of the people inhabiting the area. An easy way to guard over it is by introducing culture relic of it on to the next generation so as not faded and easily forgotten, even In drowned by a current of globalization are

increasingly Indonesian.

take

root

in

the

earth

Regional Gorontalo more especially, having a relics a culture still coloring life community culture. It is in mark with enthusiasm the community in maintaining a relics the culture. Culture in gorontalo also not separated from alkulturation culture from the other regions who are near sulawesi and international sulawesi (e.g. tradition ketupat or the celebration of the feast of ketupat). This tradition of 1925 (Basri Amin, 2012: 122 – 123) –awal the tribe Java– until now, still the routine on implementing almost all the community that is in Gorontalo. This is meeting culture state of the culture java – applied especially Solo Jogja– with the community Gorontalo resulting in culture or tradition this has become part of life culture of society gorontalo, and still many more alkulturasi culture outside Gorontalo that cannot be in mention one by on. But it




cannot be denied, there are several culture in this area that is culture native the original Gorontalo, for example tradition tumbilo tohe / put the (implemented three days before idul fitri), tujai, and culture “democracy” or election /removal of king / sultan (the focus) study and still many other culture. Various meet the cultural Gorontalo to result in an area unique and multikultural like the other regions in Indonesian Where it, this essay is the results of the study authors when dissected books, and article about history and culture that is Gorontalo. The results of the study, there are several its own unique found author of the existence of history and culture the kingdoms of the in gorontalo. The uniqueness is also electoral system head of Government or tribe / olongia (I distinguish firmly time the ethnik and the leadership of king or sultan, because in Gorontalo did not have the influence of the Hindu – Buddhist so for the use of king / sultan only with the kingdom of Islam in the days before good large muslim community or small –atau lipu– led by a sachem. It is in line with the statement ricklefs et al, that period proto history synonymous with ethnic (Ricklefs M.C. Et al, 2013: 30) and the sovereign / king (over the Kingdom of Islam) According to author, it is a culture really unique owned by royal limo lo pohalaa collective investment people in Gorontalo. In the Gorontalo kingdom, much earlier already know the system and election process under consideration of the aspect of the community (or now it is more is the democracy), which in this case in wakili by bate, banthayo poboide (bate is customary stakeholders and representative the people who were entitled to vote autonomous king, while banthayo poboide is the council, the tribunal the chief, representative institutions / deliberation) and members of the royal other (Alim Niode & M. Husein Mohi, 2003: 10 – 11). Headed to the concept of culture delivered Van Peursen earlier, then the system in apply by royal in Gorontalo this is one of cultural political (borrow terms of

kuntowijoyo, 1994: 62) that is fruit thought with owned by the community is own service Gorontalo.

Research Methods This research in a historical research which includes a heuristic, criticism, interpretation and historical writing. On the stage a heuristic, writer trying to find a sources in accordance with the topic that was the restriction. Has studied is part of local history (Gorontalo), but a sources of those relating to the Gorontalo local history. So direction and certainty of have focus on problems. After a source of source of – relevant to research obtained hence writers in at the that both the criticism source or in language Daliman (2012: 65) the validation. In criticism source of a writer faced two processes that but distinct very important to do, eacs like criticism external and criticisms internal. At the criticism external writer do checking the references have been collected especially in connection with history local (Gorontalo), what is the sources him the real or not. Because a writer needs to consider this. The object is to avoid discharging sources that do not appropriate (or reference false) by research. So is the case with internal criticism, in criticism internal writer have a to the contents of. So in internal criticism, the contents of source have been collected have to be in check more in history which includes a heuristic, criticism, interpretation and the writing of history. At the a heuristic, writers strove triangulates the sources in accordance with the topic that was. The next stage is interpretation and historical writing. Both this stage interconnected from each other. After all the has collected (a heuristic) and has done criticism deep (good internal and external) to the sources, so should be done interpretation. Interpretation is a process interpret every language in the text or writing contained in source. At this stage writer need ability to analyse the text or writing in place. Interpretation coincided




with writing or presentation of the stage, because besides do interpretation and analysis, a writer directly pour or provides the results of the interpretation and the analysis was in the history.

Culture Democracy In The Traditional Kingdom Gorontalo Term “democracy” is not a concept which born and developed in Indonesian country. But in fact this concept has been a political understand ideology that lead people involved in political percaturan nation, especially Indonesian nation. The concept of democracy began known in kompherensif on the leadership of the period Soekarno, a parliamentary democracy (1945 – 1965), guided democracy (1959 – 1965), the period in the aftermath of new order (1998) (sejarah-demokrasi-di-indonesia teoripolitik.com/. In the date 18-04-2016 access , 00: at 47). This concept very high in stood for and Successfully become very icon among the people of Indonesia. By it that, in the process of selection of head of government both the President, Governor, regent even up at the level of the village head done in a democracy. So momentum like this was assumed by all indonesian people as “democracy party” to be celebrated together. Historically, long before soekarno in democracy know universally, the concept originally has been mentioned by H.O.S Cokroaminoto congress on Islamic Sarikat held in Bandung. In the congress Cokroaminoto told that Indonesian must adopt a democratic system, according to her this system be compatible with the teachings of islam (see video interview anhar gonggong themed sarikat islam and Marxism, by mizan youtube, in access 18 – 04 – 2016 date, 01 pm: 00). Cokroaminoto aware that the pressure done dutch colonial seem not give motion to for the people of Indonesian to be set this country. But along the way, culture democracy, seeds start looking at independence, namely by Soekrano / Hatta by the people as

President and vice President to lead indonesia. If collectively the concept of democracy known and new run in the reign of Soekarno. But in contrast with the Gorontalo, who has run the democratic system from the traditional the kingdom of (Hasanudin, 2014: 14). Here what I tell a thing unique. Uniquely is, as i have mentioned earlier, if in the other regions in Indonesian in the selection of a king based on children and without community involvement and a member of the royal, so in the traditional Gorontalo –before islam and the islam–, although based on children, but election and determination of a leader/king or olongia located on the / bate, banthayo poboide and a member of the royal (to explain, that the difference between a democratic system over the kingdom of traditional with a democratic system in the today. Today the democratic system in the selection of a head of government done by involving the sound of all people without exception, while democracy over the kingdom of traditional only representative of the course. But the noise representatives of the people have represent the sound of populace as a whole). Which in turn king / olongia that will be elected on the basis of konsiderasi and decision. So culture democracy in Gorontalo does not discredit the role of the –although pushing– who is also an important part own service. In one book in written by Hasanudin and Basri Amin explained that: “In the tradition of oral (Vansina Jan , 2014: 43) Gorontalo be said that the origin his empire in shape as via fellowship 17 clumps small communities called linula. Each group linula led by a olongia, and integrate into an empire (lipu hulontalo) under the king wadipalapa or ilahudu around 1385” (B.J Haga , 1981: 1 – 3). The statement can be interpreted as a form of consolidation done by royal the small in the Gorontalo to form one




force integrated into an empire center with one supreme leader (Wadipalapa as king). This is a hybrid from the culture “democracy” that is aware of unity and mutual agreement in this matter. Integration is integration done in the similarity culture, (one language , one tribe and one purpose along) so without done with any political integration, it will be achieved. Continuity culture democracy is maintained in the Islamic, with continued cling to old culture. The system and everything in the selection of a king still use the sound of the people and members of the royal as decision makers legitimate.

The transition: of democracy to dutch colonial 1677 a year of the entry of voc early in Gorontalo. according to one source, VOC expansion in Gorontalo started from the defeat of Ternate who in the areas it controls Gorontalo collectively (J. Bastiaans , 1990: 231. See also Yayasan 23 Januari, 1982: 24). Because of that, with ternate takluknya by hence gorontalo VOC who was under his dominion falling into the hands of VOC. VOC with so that the method is conducting various approach to the people, especially approach on leader or a king who at that ruling. It is performed by VOC with the purpose to obtain recognition to hegemony in the land of gorontalo. This method also done to provide facilities for VOC to intervene directly in the administration system in the kingdom of Gorontalo (Andris K. Malae, 2014 : 81). At the time VOC in, regional Gorontalo divided into five fellowship the kingdom or known as limo lo pohalaa, namely Pohalaa Hulonthalo, Limutu, Boalemo, Atinggola, Suwawa. Eachs the kingdom has head of his reign. In between one of royal the, the kingdom of Hulonthalo having the role of largest, and four the kingdom of was subordinate of the kingdom parent (Medi Botutihe & Farha Daulima, 2007 : 38). So that when VOC in, the kingdom of hulonthalo who become

the main target in conquest. The concept of holland is bury leaders are something absolute, because if leader have been controlled so the the kingdom of subordinate will follow. Fifth royal or Pohalaa the, very keep culture democracy was an inheritance from the an ancestor before. As do regional other regions in Indonesia, VOC early existence in Gorontalo limited only to the interaction of trade with the local communities in the kingdom. But with an ambitious attitude and for the purpose of exploitation of the regions then a colony in the voc the next start running its main purpose. In starting by making VOC participation in regulating regulate all matters in the kingdom, but the king who lead do various sorts resistance to reject the interests of the VOC, so in 1678 year king who represent his kingdom carpel in invite by the governor Padtbrugge to the Moluccas. The goal been invited king gorontalo was not another is to adhere to the treaty pushing in patbrugge by the governor. One of the contents of the treaty among others: that king and magnifying kingdom must admit power VOC in Gorontalo (Hasanudin & Basri Amin, 2012: 62 – 63). By agreement was officially even though happened the revolt of the king in the kingdom of Gorontalo are in the hands of VOC and must go all rules in apply by VOC. This went on until the reign of directly by indian – dutch replace voc who has went bankrupt to corruption in the 1799 (C.R. Boxer , 1985: 107. See also Joni Apriyanto, 2012: 16). After government in hold by Indian – dutch, there have been some changes fundamental changes within a government system. In the 1824, the kingdom of gorontalo which is still below gubernemen ternate included in Manado resident (Alim Niode & M. Husein mohi , 2003: 34. See also Hasanudin & Basri Amin, 2012: 67) . Next the east indies government dutch raised gouvernement radja as the dutch interests in gorontalo. Can be analysis that removing this is the first step done by the east indies




government holland to take care of the interests of the kingdom of Gorontalo. Although the that kingdom still in was led by the king, but its role we have set and controlled by the east indies government dutch. See the authority the netherlands for the interests of the kingdom have started to dominate, it can be concluded that in the culture of democracy in the kingdom of Gorontalo have begun abolished. Because in the process of the appointment of a king in then later, bate the people, Banthayo Poboide and members of the royal no longer could find a place as usual. So that in the 19th century it can be said the collapse of the culture the kingdom of gorontalo democracy. The role of the king has been replaced by the role of a person the dutch people. System of government has been completely in control by the dutch, to the king only was a symbol of government. To the king only be used as the extension to interfere with foremost in the interest of the people of the Dutch. Finally in 1856 the east indies government dutch government implemented the system of direct, and formally 1889 system of government the kingdom was abolished (Joni Apriyanto & Sri Wahyuni Pinau , 2013: 17. See also Apriyanto , 2012: 16). So, starting there was no would the king within a government system Gorontalo, the reign of king has been replaced by Marsaoleh.

hegemoninya in Gorontalo, the smooth political culture this democracy in remove and replaced with a system of government directly. So that from that moment king will not have the authority in regulating system of government in the kingdom, and the kingdom in replace by a marsaoleh that is in lift directly by the east indies government the Dutch.

Conclusion In this essay I say that the concept of democracy in the kingdom of traditional Gorontalo as a culture. Because of a system of kingdom that is still in all sukuan until at the stage of the kingdom, a political system democracy has become culture in the kingdom of Gorontalo the community. From election process came to the removal of a process of a tribe (before islam) and the sovereign/king of islam) done with tradition of democracy that have become a hereditary the royal court Gorontalo. But when voc (which continues to indian government dutch) imparting Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 601



References Anhar Gonggong dengan tema Sarikat Islam Dan Marxisme. Dalam Video Wawancara Oleh Mizan Tube. (di akses tanggal 18-04-2016, pukul 01:00). Alim S. Niode & M. Husein Mohi, 2003. Abad Besar Gorontalo. gorontalo. Penerbit: Presnas Publishing. Andris K. Malae 2014. Perubahan Sistem Politik Kolonial Belanda Di Gorontalo Tahun 1824 – 1942. Skripsi, tidak diterbitkan. Basri Amin, 2012. Memori Gorontalo, Teritori, Transisi dan Tradisi. Yogyakarta. Penerbit: Ombak. Boxer C.R, 1985. JAN KOMPENI: Sejarah VOC dalam Perang dan Damai 1602 – 1799. Jakarta, Penerbit: Sinar Harapan. Bastiaans J, 1990. Perseketuan Limbotto dan Gorontalo. Dalam Sejarah Lokal di Indonesia, Taufik Abdullah (Ed), Yogyakarta, Penerbit: Gadjah Mada Universty Press. Daliman, 2012. Metode Penelitian Sejarah. Yogyakarta, Penerbit: Ombak. Haga B.J, 1981. Lima Pahalaa: Susunan Masyarakat, Hukum Adat, dan Kebijaksanaan Pemerintahan di Gorontalo. Jakarta, Penerbit: Djambatan. Hasanudin, 2014. Sistem Pemerintahan Tradisional Kerajaan Gorontalo. dalam Jurnal Esagengan. Penerbit: Balai Pelestarian Nilai Budaya Manado. Hasanudin dan Basri Amin, 2012. Gorontalo: Dalam Dinamika Sejarah Masa Kolonial. Yogyakarta, Penerbit: Ombak. Joni Apriyanto, 2012. Sejarah Gorontalo Modern. Yogyakarta, Penerbit: Ombak. Joni Apriyanto & Sri Wahyuni Pinau, 2013. Dari Gorontalo Untuk Indonesia: Sejarah Heroik Patriotik 23 Januari 1942. Yogyakarta, Penerbit: Ombak. Kuntowijoyo, 1994. Demokrasi Dan Budaya Birokrasi. Yogyakarta, Penerbit: Bentang. Medi Botutihe & Farha Daulima, 2007. Mengenal Perkembangan Pohala’a di Daerah Gorontalo. gorontalo, Penerbit: Forum Suara Perempuan LSM Mbui Bangale. Peursen Van C.A, 1988. Strategi Kebudayaan. Yogyakarta. Penerbit: Kanisius. Ricklefs M.C. et al, 2013. Sejarah Asia Tenggara: Dari Masa Prasejarah Sampai Kontemporer. Depok, Penerbit: Komunitas Bambu. Teoripolitik.com/sejarah-demokrasi-di-indonesia/ (di akses tanggal 18-04-2016, pukul 00:47). Yayasan 23 Januari, 1982. Perjuangan Rakyat di Daerah Gorontalo: Mentang Kolonialisme dan Mempertahankan Negara Proklamasi. Gorontalo, Penerbit: Gobel Dharma Gorontalo. Vansina Jan, 2014. Tradisi Lisan Sebagai Sejarah. Yogyakarta. Penerbit: Ombak.




PARALLEL SESSION RESUME INTERNATIONAL INDONESIAN FORUM FOR ASIAN STUDIES CONFERENCE DAY 1 A. SESSION 1 PRESENTERS: 1. Nanang Rizali- Sebelas Maret University The Influences of Chinese Mythology in Creating Lasem’s Batik 2. Bani Sudardi- Sebelas Maret University Javanese Batik Power in Cultural Diplomacy 3. Suryo Ediyono- Sebelas Maret University Ethno Pedagogy Through Pencak Silat Martial Art 4. Renny Pujiartati- Sebelas Maret University The Interpretation of Serat Wedhatama of Mangkunegaran 5. Dwi Sulistiyorini & Bani Sudardi- Sebelas Maret University Multicultural Ritual Ceremony in Tribute Ancestors in Kawi Mountains as Cultural Expression Participants

Questions

Presenters

Answer/ Respond

Yudi, Ms.

Why is pencak silat less Suryo, Mr. popular than other martial arts?

There are so many ‘padepokan’ (refers to a place to learn pencak silat). Everyone of them has their own culture. Meanwhile, international committee give a condition: a sport can be a part of olympic if it has the guide book (means, it will need a unity/unanimousity). Government also give a small potion of attention to this sport.

Ika, Ms.

Printing batik is one of the Bani, Mr. factor that harm the existence of traditional batik. So, what can we do to protect traditional batik?

Truthfully, batik is a special textile. It was used by aristocrats of Surakarta. In 19th century, there was a batik pattern that was for nonaristocrat. Printing batik couldnt be called as batik. its due to the uniqueness of batik that coudnt be had by printing batik. How to protect traditional batik? lets use traditional




batik again. It is possible more expensive than printing batik, but it will save traditional batik.

Nares, Mr.

Could you intepret ‘the Renny, Ms. pupuh pangkur’ of serat wedhatama?

Pupuh pangkur of serat wedhatama tells us to maintain our physical, psychological, and spiritual need.

What has IPSI done to Suryo, Mr. support pencak silat martial arts in international?

IPSI has tried their best to unite all of padepokan. They need to socialize it more.

B. SESSION 2 PRESENTERS: 1. Siti Marfuah- Sebelas Maret University The Development of Local History Learning Model Based on Local Newspaper Archieve to Improve Historical Thinking 2. Heri Herdianto- Sebelas Maret University The Development of Instructional Media Based on Visualization of Nyangku Tradition to Improve Resiliance of Local Culture 3. Syaiful Jazil Maftukhan- Sebelas Maret University Application of Learning Model Numbered Head Together (NHT) in Learning IPS for Improving Motivation and Learning Achievement 4. Herry Porda Nugroho Putro The Idea of Historical Learning for Empowering Nationalism through Saintific Approach in Bajarmasin, South Kalimantan 5. Mutiani Form Irrational to Rational: The Dynamic of Mental Hospital Sambang, Lihum, South Kalimantan 6. Dimas Anggoro

C. SESSION 3 PRESENTERS: 1. Suyahman- Sebelas Maret University Strengthening of Character Education Student in SLTA Education in Global Era 2. Suwardi- Sebelas Maret University The Use of Local Cultures to Increase the Students Thematic Learning Outcomes in Madrasah Islamiyah (Islamic Elementary School) of Karang Pakel Boyolali Central Java 3. Singgih Prastawa- Sebelas Maret University Second Conference of the International Indonesian Forum for Asian Studies (IIFAS) and the Post Graduate School of Education Sebelas Maret University 604



Optimizing Process Approach to Improve Student’s Ability in Developing Idea to Write Recount Text: A Classroom Action Research of the First Grade Student of SMK Kristen Margoyudan in Academic Year of 2012/2013 4. Khamidun- Sebelas Maret University Education Based on Environmental to form 5-6 Years Character (case study at PAUD Sekolah Alam Ar-Ridho Semarang) 5. Lanjar Utami- Sebelas Maret University Developing Teachers Professional Competence in Designing Teaching Material Through Collaborative Study Group 6. Elys R.R. Misrohmawati Culturally-Friendly Critical Thinking: Classroom Answer for The Consercative View Participants

Questions

Presenters

Suyahman, Mr.

Why is it more difficult to Singgih, write than read? Mr.

Lanjar, Ms.

What is the objective of Singgih, your research based on your Mr. problem statement?

Answer/ Respond Because writing needs listening, speaking, and reading skill. So everyone need to improve listening

DAY 2 A. SESSION 4 PRESENTERS: 1. Sunarmi- Sebelas Maret University Comodification of Pracimayasa Building in Pura Mangkunegaran Surakarta 2. Agus Efendi- Sebelas Maret University The Origini of True Puppeteer in Ruwatan 3. Trubus Semiaji & Bani Sudardi- Sebelas Maret University The Power in Jemblung Banyumasan Performing Art 4. Kresna Hendrawan- Sebelas Maret University Puppet Golek Cepak Tegalan in The Shaping of Nation Personality 5. Karkono & Bani Sudardi- Sebelas Maret University Kembang Kepatihan: Folktales-based Audiovisual Instructional Media as a Transformation Participants Nazirwan, Mr.

Questions

Presenters

Why do people like Trubus, jemblung? When that Mr. culture begin to arouse? What do you mean with hegemony in surakarta culture?

Answer/ Respond People like jemblung because jemblung is a representation of our daily life. It comes as a spontaneous art. Keraton Surakarta prefer some arts with orderliness and beauty to a spontaneous




art. Dwi, Ms.

What factor modification pracimayasa?

did

cause Sunarmi, of Ms.

-the fallen of Mangkunegaran authority which is happened soon after the cancellation of Swapraja status of Mangkunegaran. -capitalism influences mangkunegaran. -the pressure of modernity in Mangkunegaran

What factor did marginalization Jemblung?

cause Trubus, of Mr.

Jemblung is being marginalized cause its a spontaneous art and the storyline is all about middlebottom class people.

B. SESSION 5 PRESENTERS: 1. Maskota Delfi- Andalas University Traditional Tattoos in Mentawai: Cooperation in Preservation of Regional Heritage Values in Indonesian in Association with AEC and Global Linkage 2. Fariz Abdul Aziz, Bayu Kurniahadi, Aufa Andiani Aziz, Ina Nafilla Zahrah, Rosyiana Mutmainnah and Sarini- Universitas Islam Indonesia (UII) Yogyakarta Optimalization of Cocoa Production to increase Local Income and Chocolate Consumption 3. Murtini and Bani Sudardi The Origins of Food According to Javanese Tradition 4. Diah Ayu Intan Sari, Martin Purnama Chandra, and Hasrah Juri HarahapPadjajaran University Indonesian Maritime Diplomacy towards China: An Effort to achieve the Agenda of World Maritime Axis Participants Irawan, Mr.

Questions

Presenters

What kind of benefit Martin, Mr. that Indonesia get from China in the cooperation for Maritime Axis? There are many countries that are able to support Indonesia to build Maritime Power like South Korea, Japan, etc. I think this cooperation is more beneficial for china rather than Indonesia. As you know, China not only participate in some

Answer/ Respond This cooperation is beneficial for indonesia since china provides technology, investation, etc. Of course it will be a mutualism relation. I will do some researches again to complete this paper.




investation but also exported thousands worker to Indonesia. Alline, Ms. A few days ago, we And heard a news that: a Nazirwan, fisherman boat is hit by Mr. china marines ship, but government do nothing. What do you think in your point of view?

That condition is possible since indonesia want to keep the peace and cooperation with China.

Johan Richard Weitré

Based on statistic, it will increase their income but of course cocoa isnt the only one plant that need to be increased. Cocoa is the third biggest so basically there are another plants to be optimalized.

Are you really sure if ‘increasing cocoa production will increases their income too’? isnt there any other plants?

No 1

Participant Question Presenter Answer/respon Fatmawati Why you Andris K. M Term “democracy” is not a concept mention that which born and developed in concept of Indonesian country. But in fact this democracy concept has been a political known and understand ideology that lead people new run in the involved in political percaturan reign of nation, especially Indonesian nation. Soekarno? The concept of democracy began known in kompherensif on the leadership of the period Soekarno, a parliamentary democracy (1945 – 1965), guided democracy (1959 – 1965 ), the period in the aftermath of new order ( 1998 ) concept very high in stood for and Successfully become very icon among the people of Indonesia. By it that, in the process of selection of head of government both the President, Governor, regent even up at the level of the village head done in a democracy. So momentum like this was assumed by all indonesian people as “democracy party” to be celebrated together

2

Rahmi S.Hanida

Why you’r Megawati interested to Irawan

As human being, Waria have their rights to improve their economic




examining this waria (transvestite) organizations?

3.

Renny Pujiartaty

all the people Agus Efendi in there still believed the tradition?

4.

Evan Edo there is Dimas Asido something Angoro Tamba typical of the way people fought a landmark during the revolution?

condition, in order to avoid living the street life as sex worker. My spirit towards running the project is important but I missed something that is more important. It is a process to understand them well as well as recognize the way they think and their perspectives. I had done a small research previously, but it was not enough. It was only a small conversation with an organization that focused in LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) issues. On the other hand, I also did not talk about the transvestites directly, that has become one of the reasons why the LGBT activists in the organization were not very welcome with my project plan, other than my project plan being a very sensitive issue. Of course they are... the evidence of this case the Ruwatan tradition still survive until now

Same as usual , women help prepare the food and men participate together with TNI
