Indoor and Built Environment

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Assessment of Airborne Total Volatile Organic Compounds of Niagara Falls Residences as Compared to Resident Lifestyle Paolo N. Grenga, Michael J. Gallagher, Megan E. McGahan, Danielle M. Raymond and Ronny Priefer Indoor and Built Environment 2011 20: 226 originally published online 24 November 2010 DOI: 10.1177/1420326X10389277 The online version of this article can be found at: http://ibe.sagepub.com/content/20/2/226

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Original Paper

Indoor and Built Environment

Indoor Built Environ 2011;20;2:226–231

Accepted: October 10, 2010

Assessment of Airborne Total Volatile Organic Compounds of Niagara Falls Residences as Compared to Resident Lifestyle Paolo N. Grenga Michael J. Gallagher Megan E. McGahan Danielle M. Raymond

Ronny Priefer

Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Physics, Niagara University, NY 14109, USA

Key Words Asthma E Dwellings E Lifestyle E Niagara Falls E Smoking E TVOC

households and asthmatic households gave a linear relationship (R2 ¼ 0.96).

Abstract An indoor air study was conducted during the summers of 2007 and 2008 to determine the effect(s) of resident lifestyle on the concentrations and distributions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in residences of the city of Niagara Falls, New York. A GrayWolf Sensing Solutions Total Volatile Organic Compound (TVOC) detector was used to measure TVOC concentrations and generic air readings of five predetermined locations within each of 58 residences. Factors including smoking, asthma, furnace filter condition, pest infestations and air conditioning and their effect(s) on TVOC concentrations were evaluated. The general distributions of TVOC within each residence were determined. Examining the latter three variables revealed no significant differences. However, TVOC concentrations increased as high as 20% in smoking households. Asthmatic households exhibited TVOC levels elevated as high as 33%. Additionally, TVOC levels from smoking

As outdoor air pollution has been of widespread concern in recent years, the risks associated with indoor air pollution have become increasingly imperative for further examination. Indoor air pollution is of special concern particularly because it has been shown that people spend nearly 90% of their time within enclosed buildings [1]. This substantial amount of time can lead to harmful exposure to a particular class of airborne pollutants known as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which have shown the capacity to more seriously pollute indoor air than outdoor air [2]. The potential for human exposure to VOCs is highest in indoor settings [3]. At low, controlled levels VOCs are not harmful to humans. However, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that VOCs are known to cause moderate to severe health problems at high

ß SAGE Publications 2010 Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC DOI: 10.1177/1420326X10389277 Accessible online at http://ibe.sagepub.com

Dr Ronny Priefer, Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Physics, Niagara University, NY 14109, USA. Tel. 716 286 8261, Fax 716 286 8254, E-Mail [email protected]

Introduction

concentrations, such as eye, nose and throat irritation, nausea and central nervous system damage [4,5]. Sources of VOCs are numerous in indoor environments. It has been shown that total volatile organic compound (TVOC) levels are noticeably higher in newly finished homes [5–7] and homes in which painting has occurred [8]. Storing gasoline in garages, using mothballs or chemicals like furniture polishes and stain removers are also attributed to increased levels of specific VOCs [9]. In certain laboratories, volatile solvents are thought to be responsible for higher than normal VOC levels [10]. Smoking has been considered a chief VOC emitter and has been shown to elevate levels of VOCs up to 10 times the original amount present prior to smoking; the levels of which subsequently decrease linearly but slowly, long after smoking has ceased [11]. Other data suggest that indoor VOCs dissipate slowly [5], taking 6–12 months to reach more satisfactory levels in newly finished buildings [7]. This prolonged dispersal time may contribute to the harmful effects of VOCs on humans. To date there are no US government-issued directives for maintaining adequate VOC levels in enclosed buildings. However, studies have proposed their own guidelines and assessment protocols [12–14] for acceptable indoor air quality (IAQ) in such structures. Some groups have categorised VOC concentrations into comfort (0.2 mgm3), multifactorial exposure (0.2–3.0 mgm3) and discomfort (3–25 mgm3) ranges [15,16]. Current studies examine various techniques for lowering the concentration of TVOC in the indoor environment [17,18]. The city of Niagara Falls, New York faces serious air quality concerns due largely in part to the presence of three sites. Love Canal, the site of 30 years worth of chemical waste in downtown Niagara Falls, is known for its hazardous levels of compounds including chlorobenzenes, trichlorophenol [19], dibenzofurans and dioxins [20–22]. The Niagara Falls region is also surrounded by the highly traveled Whirlpool, Lewiston–Queenstown, and Rainbow bridges connecting the State of New York to Canada. High bridge traffic, such as the Peace Bridge located near the neighboring city of Buffalo, has been attributed to increased risk of adult asthma [23]. The Allied/BFI landfill, which houses waste from the Western New York region as well as from New York City, is located about 3 miles east of downtown Niagara Falls [24]. Modern Landfill Inc. is located about 7 miles to the north in Model City [25]. The objective of this study was to assess TVOC concentrations and distributions within Niagara Falls

The distribution of TVOC within each household was determined (Table 1). The highest concentrations of TVOC were, on average, in the kitchen. One home was eliminated from the study as when we entered the home the owner was cooking. Another residence, whose data was omitted from statistics due to its anomalous TVOC levels, exhibited a TVOC concentration of 2100 ppb in its

TVOC in Niagara Falls Homes

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city homes and to compare the results with assessment protocols of pertinent studies.

Methods A total of 58 Niagara Falls city homes were visited during the summer of 2007 (26) and 2008 (32) following census tracks with the Niagara Falls Health Department Healthy Neighborhoods Program. All homes were built prior to 1975, with the newest refurbishment being 1995. Only one home had furniture younger than 4 years. All but two homes were carpeted. Homes were a mixture of concrete and brick basements with wood framing and vinyl or brick exterior. Homes had either a baseboard heaters or radiators. Two homes were eliminated from the study as the TVOC levels were exceptionally high. For one, the home owner was cooking, and the other had recently cleaned the laminate entrance flooring with bleach and Lysol. A GrayWolf Sensing Solutions TG-502-PPB TVOC detector (photo ionisation detector with a 10.6 eV lamp) was used to record TVOC concentration (range 5–20,000 ppb), and temperature in five specific locations within each of 58 residences. The locations of data acquisition were the main entrance, kitchen, hallway, basement (if present and/or accessible) and outside. Outside readings were taken on the sidewalk directly in front of each home with the probe facing away from the sun. Outside TVOC readings were considered background levels. Temperature range was 28.78C  3.28C, and relative humidity was 38.4%  4.1% for days that readings were performed. The average of two readings taken over the course of 15 s was recorded as TVOC concentration in order to compensate for momentary reading shifts. The detector was calibrated to 7.5 ppm isobutylene gas as well as to a mixture of O2 (20%), CO (0.5 ppm), CO2 (1 ppm), H2O (5 ppm) and THC(CH4) (0.1 ppm).

Results

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Table 1. Average TVOC concentrations (ppb) and SD for five specific locations Main entrance {58} 326.92 (118.58)

Kitchen {58}

Hallway {53}

Basement {43}

Outside {58}

365.75 (138.15)

346.11 (135.64)

346.19 (125.01)

298.13 (117.39)

Note: {} denotes number of readings.

Table 2. TVOC concentrations (ppb) and SD for active or inactive air conditioning

Households without air conditioning {27} Households with air conditioning {31}

Main entrance

Kitchen

Hallway

Basement

304.80 (147.13) 313.47 (108.68)

381.29 (195.73) 349.82 (108.62)

359.37 (188.63) 333.21 (109.91)

321.37 (128.53) 337 (132.42)

Note: {} denotes number of readings.

Table 3. TVOC concentrations (ppb) and SD based on presence pests

Households without pests {49} Households with pests {9}

Main entrance

Kitchen

Hallway

Basement

333.45 (122.41) 322.29 (119.34)

369.20 (133.16) 413.00 (172.37)

354.69 (135.37) 374.86 (145.37)

349.31 (123.20) 345.92 (120.81)

Note: {} denotes number of readings.

Table 4. TVOC concentrations (ppb) and SD based on furnace filter condition

Households with clean furnace filters {31} Households with missing/dirty furnace filters {12}

Main entrance

Kitchen

Hallway

Basement

329.99 (121.62) 305.05 (126.91)

383.11 (142.34) 375.10 (163.06)

357.344 (127.12) 346.90 (175.29)

351.26 (140.91) 329.68 (105.45)

Note: {} denotes number of readings.

Table 5. TVOC concentrations (ppb) and SD based on smoking in the household

Smoking households {34} Non-smoking households {24}

Main entrance

Kitchen

Hallway

Basement

336.32 (130.35) 318.53 (101.31)

376.19 (158.73) 357.85 (108.53)

364.65 (164.04) 329.90 (92.61)

353.88 (120.68) 341.06 (132.72)

Note: {} denotes number of readings.

main entrance. Resident reported cleaning the floors with bleach and Lysol 24 h prior to data acquisition, and bleach is a known VOC emitter [4]. Such TVOC concentrations also correspond to the multifactorial range described above. Air conditioning in the examined households showed no significant effect on TVOC concentrations (Table 2). A comparison of TVOC in each location with respect to a pest presence was examined (Table 3). No statistically relevant difference was observed. The condition of the

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Indoor Built Environ 2011;20:226–231

furnace filter exhibited a subtle, but unexpected effect on TVOC concentrations (Table 4). Clean furnace filters showed a slightly elevated level of TVOC in all rooms tested. Households in which at least one smoker resided showed higher TVOC concentrations in all indoor data acquisition sites when compared to the average nonsmoking home (Table 5). In addition, residences in which asthmatics resided (Table 6) exhibited noticeably higher TVOC levels than households without asthmatics.

Grenga et al.

Table 6. TVOC concentrations (ppb) and SD based on occurrences of asthma

Households with asthmatics present {20} Households without asthmatics present {38}

Main entrance

Kitchen

Hallway

Basement

351.68 (96.33) 314.22 (127.80)

428.50 (139.83) 330.89 (125.99)

408.44 (146.49) 314.94 (120.29)

372.84 (94.80) 333.21 (136.59)

Note: {} denotes number of readings.

3.80

TVOC concentrations (ppb) of smoking households

3.75 3.70 3.65 y = 0.481x+169.9 R2 = 0.962

3.60 3.55

y = 0.481x + 169.9 3.50

R 2 = –0.962

3.45 3.40 3.35 3.30 350

370

390

410

430

TVOC concentrations (ppb) of households with asthmatics present

Fig. 1. TVOC concentrations (ppb) of smoking households vs. TVOC concentrations (ppb) of asthmatic households.

Discussion Activities such as cooking and cleaning are frequent in this room, may explain the higher TVOC levels in kitchen (Table 1). Kitchen TVOC levels were about 68 ppb above the background outside levels. Second to the kitchen, in terms of TVOC concentration, were the hallway and basement, which exhibited similar TVOC levels about 48 ppb above the background level. A lack of ventilation and narrow passages (for hallways) may explain those levels. The main entrance, which was usually left open during the summer months, exhibited TVOC concentrations only about 30 ppb above the outside background level. These TVOC concentrations correspond to the multifactorial exposure range (0.2–3.0 mgm3) [15,16]. The general TVOC distributions of households with and without air conditioning (Table 2) were similar to the general distributions (Table 1), with the kitchen exhibiting the highest TVOC concentrations, and the hallway and basement showing comparable levels. The concentrations of TVOC in the 37% of dwellings that used air conditioning units were neither significantly reduced nor raised. The presence of mice, rats and/or roaches, was not shown to significantly alter TVOC levels when compared

to those households that did not complain of pest infestations (Table 3). The greatest difference in TVOC levels was in the kitchen. Households who complained of pest infestations showed an average TVOC concentration increase of 43 ppb in the kitchen when compared to households without pests. Only 13% of homes were known to have pest problems. Increasing the residence sample size may yield more reliable data regarding how or if infestations affect TVOC levels. Contrary to what was hypothesised at the onset of the study, households that were known to have clean furnace filters in place showed slightly higher levels of TVOC in all rooms tested than households in which furnace filters were dirty or missing (Table 4). Nearly 28% of the residences were known to have either dirty or missing furnace filters. Had the study been conducted in the fall or winter months, when furnaces are considerably more likely to be in use, a more distinct trend may be discovered. Smoking households showed, on average, a 20% increase in TVOC levels when compared to their average background levels (Table 5). Also, the average TVOC levels in homes with smokers were 11% higher in hallway compared to the average non-smoking hallway. TVOC emitted during smoking has been reported previously [11] and explains the observed trend.

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A noteworthy trend was discovered when comparing TVOC concentrations with residences in which asthmatics resided (Table 6). Households with asthmatics present exhibited noticeably higher TVOC levels than households without asthmatics. For example, the average kitchen for a household with at least one asthmatic exhibited TVOC levels 97 ppb greater than kitchens of non-asthmatics. While the TVOC levels obtained in smoking homes are below the levels that would be considered the discomfort range, the scent of cigarette smoke from these households was commonly quite noticeable. It was found that 44% of homes with smokers had at least one resident that was asthmatic, compared to 21% in homes with no smokers. This correlated to an average of 0.63 asthmatic individuals in homes with smokers compared to only 0.26 asthmatics in non-smoking homes. Plotting the TVOC levels of smoking households versus households with asthmatics showed a linear relationship (Figure 1). It is not conclusive whether or not high TVOC levels trigger asthma, it however would seem that higher TVOC levels may be associated with asthma. The likelihood of at least one asthmatic residing in the observed households did increase by 460% in smoking homes, which exhibited the elevated TVOC concentrations. In nearly all cases the asthmatic was a resident other than those recorded as active indoor smokers, usually children. If elevated TVOC concentrations are found to be responsible for triggering asthma in residential buildings, it is most likely due to indoor smoking.

the concentrations and distributions of VOCs, common pollutants to indoor air. The TVOC distributions were highest in the kitchen, followed by the hallway. Basements exhibited the third highest TVOC levels. It was observed that the main entrance exhibited levels of TVOC similar to the background levels. Households in which at least one resident smoked indoors showed higher TVOC levels in each site of data acquisition than comparable nonsmoking households. TVOC levels were significantly higher in households with at least one asthmatic. A linear relationship was found when plotting TVOC levels from smoking households against TVOC levels from households with asthmatics. Whether elevated TVOC levels trigger asthma is still uncertain.

Disclaimer The work that provided the basis for this report was supported by funding under the Community Outreach Partnership Centers Program with the US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of University Partnerships. The authors are solely responsible for the accuracy of the statements and interpretations contained in this report. Such interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views of the Government.

Acknowledgements Conclusions A residential building is a dynamic system within which many factors contribute to its overall living conditions. An IAQ study conducted over the course of two summers in Niagara Falls city homes provided data that reflected

The authors thank the Niagara University Academic Center for Integrated Science Niagara University: Community Outreach Partnership Program for their financial support. Thanks are also expressed to the US Department of Housing and Urban Development: Office of University Partnerships as well as Niagara County Health Department: Environmental Division: Healthy Neighborhoods Program.

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