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resulted mainly from the boom of township and village .... Notes: PF, paddy fields; DL, dryland; FL, forested land; GL, grassland; LR, natural lakes and rivers; AP, ...
Front. Environ. Sci. Engin. China 2010, 4(4): 438–448 DOI 10.1007/s11783-010-0273-3

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Industrial development and land use/cover change and their effects on local environment: a case study of Changshu in eastern coastal China Yurui LI1,2, Hualou LONG (✉)1, Yansui LIU1 1 Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research (IGSNRR), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China 2 Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

© Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

Abstract The interactions among industrial development, land use/cover change (LUCC), and environmental effects in Changshu in the eastern coastal China were analyzed using high-resolution Landsat TM data in 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2006, socio-economic data and water environmental quality monitoring data from research institutes and governmental departments. Three phases of industrial development in Changshu were examined (i.e., the three periods of 1990 to 1995, 1995 to 2000, and 2000 to 2006). Besides industrial development and rapid urbanization, land use/cover in Changshu had changed drastically from 1990 to 2006. This change was characterized by major replacements of farmland by urban and rural settlements, artificial ponds, forested and constructed land. Industrialization, urbanization, agricultural structure adjustment, and rural housing construction were the major socio-economic driving forces of LUCC in Changshu. In addition, the annual value of ecosystem services in Changshu decreased slightly during 1990– 2000, but increased significantly during 2000–2006. Nevertheless, the local environmental quality in Changshu, especially in rural areas, has not yet been improved significantly. Thus, this paper suggests an increased attention to fully realize the role of land supply in adjustment of environment-friendly industrial structure and urban-rural spatial restructuring, and translating the land management and environmental protection policies into an optimized industrial distribution and land-use pattern. Keywords industrial development, land use/cover change (LUCC), driving forces, environmental effects, ecosystem services value (ESV), water environmental quality, Changshu Received March 19, 2010; accepted September 10, 2010 E-mail: [email protected]

1

Introduction

China’s economy has been developing rapidly ever since the economic reform and the adoption of open-door policy 1978. With its rapid socio-economic development, its physical and ecological environments have been interrupted by intensive human-transformed agricultural systems. Besides a dense population and socio-economic activities [1], China is facing drastic change in land use/ cover characterized by massive farmland loss and significant environmental deterioration [2–6]. The diminishing farmland and deteriorating rural environment have become the obstacles towards fulfilling national food security and the coordination of urban-rural development [4,7,8]. Land use/cover change (LUCC) study is a synergistic approach to understanding the effects that human and biophysical forces have on land use and land cover, and reveal the environmental and social impacts of these changes [9]. This kind of study has been extensively researched in China [10–16]. Industrial development, accompanied with LUCC, can damage the local environment through such means as associated water and soil pollution. For example, the growth of municipal and industrial waste discharges and limited wastewater treatment capacity are the principal driving forces of water pollution. Currently, about 67% of the total waste is directly discharged into rivers, lakes, and seas from the industry. About 80% of industrial waste remains untreated, where most of the untreated discharge comes from rural industries [17]. To some degree, China has suffered from its ever-increasing pollution and gradual deterioration of surface water quality and soil associated with waste discharge and acid deposition that resulted from industrial development since 1978 [4,18]. Eastern coastal China, where majority of China’s

Yurui LI et al. Industrial development and LUCC and their effects on LE: a CS of Changshu in EC China

economic development is located, has been increasingly suffering from drastic LUCC, farmland loss, and environmental deterioration [19,20]. Although many studies have analyzed the environmental effects of LUCC in eastern coastal China [1,16,21–25], few have studied the interactions between industrial development, LUCC, and environmental effects in these developed regions. The purposes of this paper are: (1) to briefly analyze the industrial development phases of Changshu city in eastern coastal China since 1978; (2) to reveal the spatio-temporal dynamics and driving forces of LUCC in Changshu, especially farmland change in three developing phases (i.e., 1990 to 1995, 1995 to 2000, and 2000 to 2006) using high-resolution Landsat TM data of 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2006, and local governmental socio-economic data; and (3) to explore the effects of industrial development and LUCC on the local environment, especially the ecosystem services value (ESV) and environmental water environmental quality.

2

Study area

Changshu, a county-level city of southern Jiangsu Province (usually called “Sunan”) in eastern coastal China (Fig. 1), is located inside the Yangtze River Delta economic area. The spatial coverage of Changshu ranges from 31°31′ N to 31°50′ N, 120°33′ E to 121°03′ E. Three of the largest cities in China are located around Changshu: Shanghai (to the east and the economic center of China),

439

Nanjing (to the west and the capital of Jiangsu Province), and Hangzhou (to the south and the capital of Zhejiang Province). Changshu has a total area of 1264 km2 with an average elevation of 3 m–7 m and is surrounded by rivers and lakes. Changshu is experiencing rapid urbanization and industrialization with a booming economy. In 2006, the proportions of the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors accounted for 2.16%, 59.84%, and 38% of its total GDP, respectively. The GDP per capita in Changshu amounted to 9,859 US dollars, which was much higher than the average GDP per capita (2042 US dollars) in China [26,27]. The net income per capita for the low-class was 1,166 US dollars in 2006, which was 2.6 times the national average. The urbanization level increased from 17.60% in 1990 to 51.55% in 2006. The boom of regional economy has attracted migrant laborers from all over the country. In 2006, the temporary residency was 742,000, which was only 313,000 less than the local population. The population density in Changshu was up to 1,421 persons/km2 in 2006, which was much higher than the average population density in China (137 persons/km2) at the time [26,27]. However, with the population growth and economic development, land use in Changshu has changed drastically as evidenced by the continuous decline of farmland and rapid increase of construction land [23]. Moreover, due to the loose and unattended protection of the local environment, the consequences of uncontrolled rural industrialization in this region are particularly damaging [28]. The rapid loss of farmland and ongoing deterioration

Fig. 1 Location and land use of the study area, Changshu

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of the local environment has greatly concerned the public and local government given that Changshu plays a lead role in China’s success in building a new countryside [8] and coordinated rural-urban development.

3

Materials and methods

3.1

Data source and processing

The vector data of land use/cover change was obtained through detection analysis of historical Landsat TM images in 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2006. Due to the difficulty in obtaining all required data from the same resource, some LUCC data used in this study during 1990, 1995, and 2000 were from the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research (IGSNRR) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and those from 2000 and 2006 were from China National Environmental Monitoring Center (CNEMC). An efficient classification system was drafted and an effective research team was organized to work on these remotely-sensed image data through human–machine interactive interpretation to guarantee a consistent and accurate classification. The interpretation accuracy had an average of 97.6% [5]. Based on the Landsat TM data, 10 types of land use and land cover (LULC) were defined for Changshu: paddy fields, dryland, forested land, grassland, natural lakes and rivers, artificial ponds, urban settlements, rural settlements, unused land, and construction land mainly for industry, mining and transportation [23]. Then, the conversions among the different LULC types were measured by rasterizing all LULC vector maps into 100 m by 100 m grids using Spatial Analysis Module of ESRI’s ArcGIS. Usually, error in the maps will result in the observed differences between two points in time among categories of land cover in maps. To test the accuracy of the maps that show land use/cover change over time, Pontius et al. [29,30] implemented some effective methods. In this study, the data from IGSNRR were only used to detect the changes during the first two periods to eliminate the observed differences due to error in the maps made with different mapping techniques, and the data from CNEMC were used to analyze the changes from 2000–2006. In addition, some related time-series socio-economic data from 1990–2006 [27,31] and water environmental quality monitoring data of 206 villages in 2006 were collected from the local government and research center. These data were used to analyze the interactions between industrial development, LUCC and local environmental effects in the study area. 3.2

First, the five gridded LULC maps were used to detect the internal conversions of LULC in Changshu for the three periods. For each pair of compared data sets, an extended change matrix was constructed [32,33]. The maps from the initial and subsequent time were overlaid to produce a matrix that provided the LULC areas by categorical transition between the two points in time. The off-diagonal entries comprise the proportions of the landscape that experienced transition from one category to another while the on-diagonal entries indicated a persistence of categories. The row totals at the right denote the proportion of landscape by LULC category in initial time and the column totals at the bottom denote the proportion of landscape by category in subsequent time [32,33]. To make the data comparable, the land-use data in 2006 in change matrix was obtained based on the transitions in percentages of different LULC types during 2000–2006 from CNEMC and the land-use data in 2000 from IGSNRR. Then, for each LULC category i in the change matrix M, the change between each of the three periods could be calculated according to Eq. (1) [22]. CHi ¼ ðpþi – piþ Þ=piþ  100,

where CHi is the change of LULC in column i relative to the previously compared year, p+i is the column total percentage for category i, and pi+ is the row total percentage for category i. For each LULC type, the percentage of “conversion loss to” or “conversion gain from” was calculated in relation to the total loss or total gain conversion of a LULC type according to Eq. (2). PlossðiÞ,j ¼ pi,j =pi:loss  100,

i≠j,

PgainðiÞ,j ¼ pj,i =pi:gain  100, i≠j,

(2)

where Ploss(i),j is the percentage of category i converted to category j in the total loss of category i, Pgain(i),j is the percentage of category i converted from category j in the total gain of category i, Pi.loss and Pi.gain are the total loss and total gain of category i, respectively, Pi,j and Pj,i are the individual entries in the change matrix. ESV [34] was introduced and estimated in this study to quantitatively and synthetically study the effects of industrial development and concomitant LUCC on the local environment. LULC data obtained from satellite images and previously published value coefficients [35] were used to estimate the changes in ESV delivered by each LULC category. The total ESV represented by each LULC category was obtained by multiplying the estimated size of each LULC category by the value coefficient of the biome used as the proxy for that category, as shown in Eq. (3) below [36].

Methods

ESV ¼ The following quantitative methods were used to analyze the dynamics of LULC and associated changes in ESV.

(1)

n X ðAi  VCi Þ, i¼1

(3)

Yurui LI et al. Industrial development and LUCC and their effects on LE: a CS of Changshu in EC China

where ESV is the estimated value of ecosystem services, Ai is the area (ha) of LULC category i, VCi is the value coefficient (US$/(ha$a–1)) for LULC category i, and n is the number of land-use types. The change in ESV was estimated by calculating the difference in the estimated values between two selected years. The value of individual ecosystem functions was estimated according to Eq. (4) [37]. ESVf ¼

n X ðAi  VCfi Þ,

(4)

i¼1

where ESVf is the estimated ESVof function f, Ai is the area (ha) of LULC category i, VCfi is the value coefficient of function f (US$/(ha$a–1)) for LULC category i, and n is the number of land-use types.

4

Results

4.1

Industrial development phases in Changshu

Since the reform and open-door policy was initiated in 1978, the industrial development in southern Jiangsu has been focusing on the development of rural industries, which experienced three different phases. In the first phase from 1978 to 1995, the boost of regional economy had resulted mainly from the boom of township and village enterprises (TVEs) in rural areas. This model of rural industrialization development is widely known as the “Sunan Model,” a model originally coined by the eminent sociologist Fei Xiaotong who referred to the rapid development of the regional economy in southern Jiangsu (Sunan) based on the massive surge of collectively owned TVEs that prospered from the 1980s to the early 1990s [38]. In the second phase from 1996 to 2000, the majority of TVEs in Sunan experienced a tough period of transformation from a collective ownership to a shareholding system or private ownership [39,40]. During this

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period, the entire region suffered a short-term delay of economic development [40,41]. In the third phase since 2001, the positive effects of TVEs transformation on its economy began to emerge and continued gradually due to the new vitality for rural industries motivated by private enterprises and foreign investment enterprises. The latest development model was presently described as the “New Sunan Model” [39]. As a typical county in Sunan, Changshu has experienced the same development dynamics since 1978. Indicators of main socio-economic factors used to measure the industrial development in Changshu during 1990–2006 were fluctuant (Figs. 2 and 3). During the three periods of 1990–1995, 1995–2000, and 2000–2006, the total investment in fixed assets had increased by 30.66%, 6.39%, and 29.49%, annually, respectively. Similar trends had occurred on the gross industrial output value (increased by 39.40%, 11.63%, and 24.22%, respectively), gross domestic product (increased by 34.20%, 10.29%, and 20.99%, respectively), and per capita annual net income of rural households (increased by 21.04%, 3.00%, and 9.03%, respectively). As such, economic growth in Changshu was significantly delayed during 1995–2000, which was a transition period for rural industries, and the county-level economy has regenerated since 2000. 4.2 4.2.1

Dynamics and driving forces of LUCC in Changshu Dynamics of LUCC in Changshu

Land use and land cover has changed significantly from 1990 to 2006 in Changshu (Tables 1–3). During the three periods of 1990 to 1995, 1995 to 2000, and 2000 to 2006, paddy fields decreased by 6%, 2%, and 33%, respectively, and dryland by 15%, 3%, and 83%, respectively. In contrast, urban settlements and rural settlements increased by 92% and 49%, 11% and 9%, and 89% and 27% in three compared periods, respectively. Construction land that was used mainly for industry, mining and transportation,

Fig. 2 Changes of total investment in fixed assets (TIFA) and gross industrial output value (GIOV) in Changshu from 1990 to 2006 (Data source [27] )

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Fig. 3 Changes of gross domestic production (GDP) and per capita annual net income of rural households (PCANIRH) in Changshu from 1990 to 2006 (Data source [27]) Table 1 Transitions in percentages of the total landscape under observed during 1990–1995 year 1990

1995

total (1990)

loss

changes in 1995

PF

DL

FL

GL

LR

AP

US

RS

CL

UL

PF

57.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.6

1.4

1.6

0.0

0.0

61.3

3.6

– 5.8

DL

0.0

10.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

1.0

0.0

0.0

12.8

2.0

– 15.4

FL

0.0

0.0

1.4

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.4

0.0

– 0.1

GL

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

0.0

LR

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

13.9

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

13.9

0.0

0.0

AP

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.1

0.0

28.6

US

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.5

0.0

92.1

RS

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

5.3

0.0

0.0

5.3

0.0

49.2

CL

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

UL

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

total (1995)

57.7

10.8

1.4

0.7

13.9

2.7

4.9

7.9

0.1

0.0

100.0

5.5

gain

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.6

2.3

2.6

0.0

0.0

5.5

0.0

Notes: PF, paddy fields; DL, dryland; FL, forested land; GL, grassland; LR, natural lakes and rivers; AP, artificial ponds; US, urban settlements; RS, rural settlements; CL, construction land mainly for industry, mining and transportation; UL, unused land

Table 2 Transitions in percentages of the total landscape under observed during 1995–2000 year 1995

2000 UL

total (1995)

loss

changes in 2000

PF

DL

FL

GL

LR

AP

US

RS

CL

PF

56.6

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.4

0.6

0.0

0.0

57.7

1.1

– 2.0

DL

0.0

10.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.0

10.8

0.3

– 2.9

FL

0.0

0.0

1.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.4

0.0

– 3.1

GL

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.0

– 0.4 – 0.2

LR

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

13.9

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

13.9

0.0

AP

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.6

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.7

0.0

4.6

US

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

4.9

0.0

0.0

0.0

4.9

0.0

11.2

RS

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

7.9

0.0

0.0

7.9

0.0

9.3

CL

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

118.8

UL

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

total (2000)

56.6

10.5

1.3

0.7

13.9

2.8

5.4

8.7

0.2

0.0

100.0

1.5

gain

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.5

0.7

0.1

0.0

1.5

0.0

Notes: PF, paddy fields; DL, dryland; FL, forested land; GL, grassland; LR, natural lakes and rivers; AP, artificial ponds; US, urban settlements; RS, rural settlements; CL, construction land mainly for industry, mining and transportation; UL, unused land

Yurui LI et al. Industrial development and LUCC and their effects on LE: a CS of Changshu in EC China

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Table 3 Transitions in percentages of the total landscape under observed during 2000–2006 year 2000

2006 PF

DL

FL

GL

LR

AP

US

RS

CL

UL

total (2000)

loss

changes in 2006

PF

29.7

0.3

4.8

0.7

0.9

7.1

3.9

6.4

2.9

0.0

56.6

26.8

– 32.6

DL

5.6

1.2

0.6

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.6

0.8

1.3

0.0

10.5

9.3

– 83.0

FL

0.1

0.1

0.9

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

1.3

0.4

469.1

GL

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.7

0.6

71.2

LR

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

13.1

0.2

0.0

0.1

0.1

0.0

13.9

0.8

6.1

AP

0.3

0.0

0.1

0.1

0.1

1.8

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.0

2.8

1.0

252.9

US

0.2

0.0

0.3

0.0

0.1

0.0

4.4

0.2

0.1

0.0

5.4

1.0

89.2

RS

2.1

0.1

0.7

0.1

0.1

0.3

1.2

3.2

0.8

0.0

8.7

5.5

26.7

CL

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.2

0.1

2483.6

UL

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

total (2006)

38.1

1.8

7.6

1.1

14.7

9.8

10.2

11.0

5.6

0.0

100.0

45.6

gain

8.4

0.6

6.7

1.1

1.6

8.0

5.8

7.8

5.5

0.0

45.6

0.0

Notes: PF, paddy fields; DL, dryland; FL, forested land; GL, grassland; LR, natural lakes and rivers; AP, artificial ponds; US, urban settlements; RS, rural settlements; CL, construction land mainly for industry, mining and transportation; UL, unused land

artificial ponds, and forested land experienced a sharp increase from 2000 to 2006. For example, in 2006, construction land, artificial ponds, and forested land had increased by 2484%, 253%, and 469%, respectively, compared to the area in 2000. The changes in grassland, natural lakes and rivers, and unused land were slight from 1990 to 2006, even though grassland increased sharply by 71% from 2000 to 2006. To a large extent, land-use change from 1990 to 2006 in Changshu was apparently coupled with the phases of industrial development, characterized by a serious replacement of farmland by urban and rural settlements, artificial ponds, forested land, and construction land. A further description of farmland (including paddy fields and dryland) dynamics is given in Table 4. From 1990 to 1995, rural settlements, urban settlements, and artificial ponds accounted for 47%, 42%, and 11% of farmland loss, respectively. Similarly, the expansion of rural settlements, urban settlements, artificial ponds, and construction land accounted for 47%, 36%, 9%, and 8% of the loss of farmland from 1995 to 2000, respectively. However, this pattern changed greatly from 2000 to 2006. The expansion of rural and urban settlements accounted for only 24% and 15% of the decreased amount of farmland, respectively, while artificial ponds, forested land, and construction land encroached upon more farmland compared to the period from 1990–1995, accounting for 24%, 18%, and 14% of the converted farmland, respectively. However, only a small section of farmland loss was compensated by the consolidation and reclamation of rural settlements. During 2000–2006, farmland had increased by 4088 ha, accounting for only 10% of the farmland loss during the same period. Even though farmland decreased continually, the annual change rate fluctuated significantly from 1990 to 2006. From 1990 to 1995, the annual loss rate of farmland

was 1.54%, which was 10 times that of China (0.15%), during the same period [26], but it decreased to 0.43%, which was 1.23 times that of China (0.35%), from 1995 to 2000, and finally increased rapidly to 8.28%, which was 9.6 times that of China (0.86%) from 2000 to 2006. In other words, the farmland decreased at a relatively high speed from 1990 to 1995, a moderate speed from 1995 to 2000, and an egregiously high speed from 2000 to 2006. 4.2.2

Driving forces of LUCC in Changshu

1) Industrialization The boom of the secondary industry has proven to be the key to promoting the economic development of Changshu and the original power of local rural urbanization [1,22,42]. The fluctuating secondary industry development was the dominant driving force of LUCC in Changshu. Prior to the mid-1990s, TVEs in Changshu developed rapidly and led to the rapid development of the local economy. However, the lack of corresponding rural land-use planning and construction planning caused TVEs to scatter in suburbs, towns, villages, or beside the transport corridors in rural areas. The extensive growth of TVEs directly caused the rapid expansion of towns and villages as seen by a sharp increase of urban settlements and rural settlements (Table 1). Due to the lack of planning guidance and environmental control countermeasures, small- and medium-sized enterprises were less active in adopting environmental management initiatives than larger companies [43]. As a result, the decentralized rural industrial development caused major environmental problems in Changshu [44]. The centralized industrial park, which was helpful for improving the level of pollution control and promoting the intensive use of land resource, became a realistic necessity and was highly recommended and adopted by the local government during

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Table 4 Dynamic characteristics of farmland conversion from 1990 to 2006 1990–1995

1995–2000

annual change rate

– 1.54%

– 0.43%

2000–2006 – 8.28%

conversion loss to

RS: 47.3%

RS: 47.3%

AP: 23.8%

US: 42.1%

US: 35.7%

RS: 23.5%

AP: 10.7%

AP: 8.9%

FL: 17.7%

CL: 8.1%

US: 14.8% CL: 13.9%

conversion gain from

RS: 100%



RS: 70.9% AP: 9.3% US: 6.6% FL: 4.8% LR: 4.6% GL: 3.7%

Notes: FL, forested land; GL, grassland; LR, natural lakes and rivers; AP, artificial ponds; US, urban settlements; RS, rural settlements; CL, construction land mainly for industry, mining and transportation

1995–2000. The adoption of industrial park caused a sudden increase (119%) of construction land that was originally and mainly used for industry, mining, and transportation (Table 2). After the ownership transformation of TVEs, the secondary industry, which used to be dominated by TVEs before 1995, was transformed into a mixed-ownership role. Diversified enterprises gathered in newly built industrial parks or expanded development zones, which resulted in the loss of 5455 ha of farmland during 2000–2006. The correlation coefficients between farmland and total investment in fixed assets, between farmland and gross industrial output value, and between farmland and employed persons in the secondary industry from 1990 to 2006 were – 0.8929 (P < 0.01), – 0.9278 (P < 0.01), and – 0.4964 (P < 0.05), respectively. These strong negative relationships indicated that industrial development had contributed significantly to the loss of farmland. 2) Urbanization As one of the most important factors driving land-use change [22], urbanization greatly contributed to the LUCC in Changshu. During 1990–2006, the urban population in Changshu increased by 199.08%, and the level of urbanization increased from 17.60% to 51.55%. This process caused large amounts of farmland on the periphery of the city and towns to be converted to construction land for habitation, commercial, and infrastructure construction. For example, from 2000 to 2006, urban settlements had enlarged by 89% and encroached about 5823 ha on farmland (Table 3). The expansion of urban settlements and construction land accounted for 42%, 44%, and 29% of the loss of farmland during the periods of 1990 to 1995, 1995 to 2000 and 2000 to 2006, respectively (Table 4). In addition, the negative relationship between the urban population and farmland area from 1990 to 2006 (r = – 0.9213, P < 0.01) strongly supported this process. 3) Agricultural structure adjustment Since 1990,

agricultural production in Changshu has become increasingly more market-oriented. Through field investigation, farmers were observed to have the tendency to obtain more profit by converting farmland from grain production to artificial ponds for aquaculture production or to forested land for horticulture production. As a result, marketoriented agricultural structure adjustment characterized by rapid expansion of aquaculture occurred widely and became the major contributor of farmland loss in Changshu (Table 4). For example, artificial ponds increased by 253%, which was about 9330 ha taken from farmland during 2000–2006 (Table 3). The correlation coefficients between the farmland and output of aquatic products and between the farmland and fruit yield from 1990 to 2006 were – 0.8451 (P < 0.01) and – 0.7925 (P < 0.01), respectively, demonstrating the role of agricultural structure adjustment in the loss of farmland in Changshu. 4) Rural housing construction The expansion of rural housing land was a result of rural industrialization in eastern coastal China. In fact, many factory buildings existed in the residential backyards of the villagers in coastal China [23,40]. Rural industrialization together with the demands for improved living conditions resulted in the expansion of rural settlements in Changshu during 1990– 2006, which consumed a large amount of farmland. According to Tables 1–3, more than 93% of the increased rural settlements were from farmland. Temporarily, rural settlement expansion accounted for 47%, 47% and 24% of Changshu’s farmland loss during the three periods, respectively, and was the biggest contributor to farmland loss (Table 4). 4.3 Environmental effects of industrial development and LUCC

In the early 1990s, 80% of China’s TVEs were located in hamlets and villages, 12% located in small towns, and 8%

Yurui LI et al. Industrial development and LUCC and their effects on LE: a CS of Changshu in EC China

of them located in industrial parks [45]. Due to the lack of planning guidance and environmental control countermeasures, the rapid and decentralized development of TVEs before the mid-1990s brought about serious environmental problems to the rural areas [3,17,44]. Recently, Changshu actively undertook the transfer of world manufacturing in order to pursue rapid economic growth, which resulted in a further increase of proportion of high energy consumption and polluting industries in the county’s economy. As shown in Table 5, the seven high energy consumption and polluting industrial sectors accounted for 41.93% of the total number of enterprises, 32.49% of value added to industry, and 27.19% of total profits and tax in 2000; however, the proportions increased to 48.18%, 45.36%, and 38.85% in 2006, respectively. Changshu’s economic growth increasingly depends on the seven industrial sectors. With local industrial structure changes, industrial pollution emission has experienced a rapid increase in recent years. Figure 4 shows that the volume of industrial wastewater discharged (VIWD) in 2000 and 2006 was 1.57 and 2.06 times greater in 1995, respectively; the volume of industrial waste gas emission (VIWGE) in 2000 and 2006 was 1.07 and 2.72 times greater in 1995, respectively; and the volume of industrial solid wastes produced

445

(VISWP) in 2000 and 2006 was 1.16 and 3.09 times greater in 1995, respectively. Economic growth-oriented industrial structure change and concomitant land-use change has placed a high concern for environmental protection and a healthy ecosystem. As such, great efforts have been made on environmental governance in Changshu since 2000. The ratio of direct investment in environmental improvement and ecological protection to GDP remained above 2.5% during 2002–2005. Furthermore, greening construction projects have been carried out vigorously by local governments. As a result, forested land, grass land, and artificial ponds have increased sharply during 2000–2006 (Table 3). ESV was used to assess the effect of LULC that resulted from industrial development on the local ecological environment. Estimations show that ESV decreased slightly from 1990 to 1995 and from 1995 to 2000, but increased by 24.43% from 2000 to 2006 (Table 6). A net increase of 22.11% had appeared between 1990 and 2006. Among different LULC types, the annual ESV of paddy fields and dryland decreased by 37.76% and 85.99%, respectively, from 1990 to 2006. However, the decrease was compensated by the extensive increase of annual ESV of forested land and artificial ponds (Table 6). Also, from 1990 to 2006, the contribution of raw materials, gas

Table 5 Changes of industrial structure in Changshu from 2000 to 2006 number of enterprises

6

value added of industry/(10 ¥)

6

total profits and tax/(10 ¥)

2000

2006

2000

2006

2000

2006

seven high energy consumption and polluting industrial sectors

187

740

2727

18425

792

4538

total 33 industrial sectors

446

1536

8391

40616

2913

11682

41.93

48.18

32.49

45.36

27.19

38.85

proportion of the seven sectors in the total/%

Notes: the seven high energy consumption and polluting industrial sectors include manufacture of textile, manufacture of paper and paper products, manufacture of raw chemical materials and chemical products, manufacture of chemical fibers, manufacture of plastics, smelting and pressing of ferrous metals, smelting and pressing of non-ferrous metals; Data source [27]

VIWD, volume of industrial wastewater discharged; VIWGE, volume of industrial waste gas emission; VISWP, volume of industrial solid wastes produced

Fig. 4

Increasing trend of industrial pollution emissions in Changshu from 1995 to 2006 (Data source [31])

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Front. Environ. Sci. Engin. China 2010, 4(4): 438–448

regulation, climate regulation, water regulation, waste treatment, biodiversity maintenance, and aesthetic landscape to ecosystem services function had increased, while the contribution of food production and soil formation decreased (Table 7). The complex change was largely caused by the rapid loss of farmland and the sharp increase of forested land and artificial ponds. The comprehensive service function of the ecosystem had noticeably improved during 1990–2006, even though it was degraded during 1990–2000, largely due to the sharp increase of ESV of forested land and artificial ponds from 2000 to 2006 (Tables 6 and 7). Since 2000, great efforts have been made to solve the environmental problems, and have resulted in improved ecosystem services function (Tables 6 and 7). However, the local environmental quality in Changshu has more to improve on. Based on the village-scale water environmental quality monitoring data obtained from Suzhou Environmental Monitoring Center, the water environmental quality in Changshu was still problematic. For example, among the 206 monitoring sections in 206 villages, the sections with water environmental quality belonging to Class I~III, Class IV, Class V, and below Class V accounted for 24%, 61%, 13%, and 2% of the total monitoring sections, respectively (Fig. 5). However, according to Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water (GB

Fig. 5 Water environmental quality classification of 206 monitoring sections in the villages of Changshu in 2006. The data shown above are introduced in order of class, number of sections, %. (Data source: Suzhou Environmental Monitoring Center)

3838–2002) [46], the water source for Class IV or below was polluted and not suitable for direct human consumption. In fact, about 76% of the total monitoring sections in Changshu belonged to Class IV or below. Other studies showed that the soil and water bodies in Changshu were severely polluted [47,48]. As such, Changshu has much to improve on reducing environmental quality caused by industrial development, which in itself is of much concern for present pollutant emission and cumulative effects of previous pollution.

Table 6 Estimated annual ESV (106 US$) for each LULC type in Changshu during 1990–2006 LULC type

1990

1995

2000

2006

paddy fields

36.65

34.51

33.83

22.81

dryland

7.64

6.47

6.28

1.07

forested land

2.95

2.95

2.85

16.25

grassland

0.59

0.59

0.59

1.01

natural lakes and rivers

47.65

47.65

47.58

50.47

artificial ponds total

7.09

9.12

9.54

33.66

102.58

101.29

100.67

125.26

Notes: rural settlements, urban settlements, unused land and construction land mainly for industry, mining and transportation were assigned no ESV

Table 7 Estimated annual ESV (106 US$) of different ecosystem function in Changshu during 1990–2006 ecosystem function

1990

1995

2000

2006

food production

6.30

5.91

5.80

4.23

raw materials

2.94

2.79

2.74

3.58

gas regulation

5.18

4.90

4.81

5.75

climate regulation

8.43

8.12

8.01

9.24

water regulation

27.48

28.00

28.04

39.64

waste treatment

25.97

26.05

26.00

32.86

soil formation

9.27

8.67

8.50

7.72

biodiversity maintenance

10.43

10.15

10.05

12.21

aesthetic landscape total

6.57

6.70

6.71

10.03

102.58

101.29

100.67

125.26

Notes: rural settlements, urban settlements, unused land and construction land mainly for industry, mining and transportation were assigned no ESV

Yurui LI et al. Industrial development and LUCC and their effects on LE: a CS of Changshu in EC China

5

Conclusions and recommendations

The industrial development of Changshu has experienced three phases: rural industrialization characterized by the boom of TVEs during 1978–1995, a short-term delay of economic development due to industrial transformation from a collective ownership to shareholding system or private ownership during 1996–2000, and the “New Sunan Model” phase since 2001. Along with the three industrial development phases driven by rapid industrialization and urbanization, LUCC in Changshu has experienced drastic change during 1990–2006, which was characterized by a major replacement of farmland by urban and rural settlements, artificial ponds, forested land, and construction land. Industrialization, urbanization, agricultural structure adjustment, and rural housing construction are the major socio-economic driving forces of LUCC. Economic growth-oriented industrial structure change and concomitant land-use change has put a high strain on local environmental protection and healthy work ecosystem. The ESV in Changshu decreased slightly during 1990–2000, but increased significantly during 2000–2006, which resulted from the sharp increase of ESV of forested land and artificial ponds. However, the local environmental quality in rural Changshu has not yet improved significantly, which was shown by the water environmental quality of 76% of the total monitoring sections still belonging to class IV or even worse. This paper argues that Changshu still has much to improve in its environmental quality deteriorated by its industrial development and associated LUCC, which are affected by land management and environmental protection policies. As such, there should be a greater concern to fully realizing the role of land supply in environmentfriendly industrial structure adjustment and urban-rural spatial restructuring, and translating the land management and environment protection policies established by central/ local governments into an optimized industrial distribution and land use/cover pattern. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Knowledge Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. KZCX2-YWQN304), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 40771014 and 40635029), and the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (No. 2007BAC03A11-01).

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