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IJEM 20,6
Influence of managers’ empathic skills on school success Fatih To¨remen, Abdurrahman Ekinci and Mehmet Karakus¸ Faculty of Education, Fırat University, Elazıg˘, Turkey
490 Abstract
Purpose – The main purpose of this investigation is to find out the influence of empathic skills of managers on the success of schools. Design/methodology/approach – In this study, survey based descriptive scanning model was used. This study was fulfilled in Batman city on teachers working at public and private primary schools in 2003-2004 education year. According to the results of the central evaluation examination, schools were divided into three success groups (each group having seven schools). About 10 teachers were randomly selected from each of these schools, and then the 23 itemed questionnaire was administered. Findings – As a result of the research it was seen that empathic skills of managers and school success had a very close relationship. There were meaningful differences between the first group and the other two groups. Successful schools’ managers clearly had better empathic skills and unsuccessful schools’ managers had little empathic skills. The same situation was seen between the second group and the third group as well. Research limitations/implications – The results of this research may be affected by local conditions in which it was conducted. Practical implications – The empathic skills which are revealed as important indicators of success should be taken into consideration during the selection and training of managers. Originality/value – This paper discusses the empathic aspect of school management which has been rarely taken up and displays the importance of empathic skills on school success. Keywords Managers, Skills, Schools, Critical success factors Paper type Research paper
International Journal of Educational Management Vol. 20 No. 6, 2006 pp. 490-499 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0951-354X DOI 10.1108/09513540610683739
Introduction In societies in which institutions are widespread, the lives of individuals are completely covered by them (Ac¸ıkalın, 1998, p. 15). In this view, organizations can be thought as a web of human relations. These relationships among people, as a social factor, shape their organizational behavior (Bas¸aran, 1992, p. 11). Organizations, having been founded on the basis of a range of communicational interactions, can only stay alive with the continuance of these interactions. So, communication is a vital process for foundation and existence of an organization (S¸is¸man and Turan; 2004, p. 102). A manager who wants to achieve managerial effectiveness should regard human side (not material side) of things fundamentally in every managerial action (Ac¸ıkalın, 1998, p. 16, Bas¸aran, 1992, p. 11). This is much more important for educational institutions in which humane relationships and human needs are the basic indicators of effectiveness. A headmaster who is educated and well trained in behavioral sciences can provide great benefits to his or her school (Bursalıog˘lu, 1999, p. 25). If an individual is not able to interact enough with his or her surroundings, or is unable to make intimacy with those around him or her, it will cause loneliness and unhappiness, and can even cause important individual problems (S¸ahin, 1998, p. 13). In such an environment it is very
difficult to bring together employers and employees, to provide agreement and to keep incessant working relationships. In such a situation, it will be impossible to maintain effective managerial functions (Sabuncuog˘lu and Tu¨z, 1995, p. 24). For effective communication one must be aware of the internal and external world in detail. A good communicator recognizes his/her internal world in other words his/her attitudes, behaviors and sensations. He/she comprehends what they mean and is able to evaluate behaviors and attitudes of others correctly (Cu¨celog˘lu, 1994, p. 68). A mutual understanding and recognizing each other contribute to the development of confidence based relationships. To achieve such a mutual understanding, individuals must have empathic skills. Meaning of “empathy” In Germany, at the end of the last century in the fields of aesthetics and psychology, a conception titled “einfuhlung” was put forth. Lipps who firstly used that term defined it in 1987 as: reflecting oneself to an object in front of him, feeling oneself within it, and by this way imbibing it. According to Lipps, through “einfuhlung” as one of the ways of acquiring knowledge, one can permeate other people’s inner worlds (Do¨kmen, 2002, pp. 337-338, Gu¨lseren, 2001, p. 134). Titchener benefited from the old Greek “empatheia” conception for the “einfuhlung” term and translated it into English as empathy in 1909 (“em” means inside, “pathia” means perception in Greek). After this determination, the studies and investigations on empathy conception have shown constant progress. (Do¨kmen, 2002, p. 341; Goleman, 2002, p. 129). The definitions of empathy are based on Roger’s explanations in 1970. According to Roger, empathy is the process of putting oneself in the place of another person, seeing matters from the other’s perspective, perceiving the other’s feelings and thoughts and conveying this awaring to that person (Eisenberg and Delaney, 1998, p. 105-106; Do¨kmen, 2002, p. 135). In other words, it is the skill of understanding and perceiving an individual correctly in the communication process (O¨zbay and S¸ahin, 2000, p. 104). Lacking of empathy in relationships may cause conflicts. As a result of the meaninglessness of interactional behaviors, communication process remains as the totality of separated emotional reactions. Empathic relationships prevent these kinds of communicational conflicts (Batlas¸ and Baltas¸, 2000, p. 56; Goleman, 2002, p. 126). Classifications on “empathy” The classifications on empathy are often roughly divided into two categories. These are cognitive (observation and mental processing or mental perspective taking) and emotional (sensitivity or the vicarious sharing of emotion) approaches (Smith, 2006; Hashimoto and Shiomi, 2002). But some researchers emphasize the communicative empathy (communication of understandings to one another), as an important component of this concept, complementing the cognitive and emotional perceptions (Wiseman, 1996). In a managerial aspect, Cooper (2004) classifies empathy into four categories. These are: fundamental empathy (basic characteristics and means of communication needed to initiate empathic relationships), profound empathy (a rich understanding of others in their social, historical and relational contexts), functional or relative empathy (as a necessity of the working conditions, setting rules, codes and treating contingently), feigned empathy (showing overt signs of empathy such as smiling or beeing pleasant
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and positive but in essence lacking sincerity and concealing more dubious motivations) (Cooper, 2004, pp. 15-17). The process of “empathy” Empathy can occur subconsciously as well as consciously, with inanimate objects as well as animate, it may involve the mind or psyche and it can cause pain as well as joy (Wiseman, 1996). There are three important elements of empathy which are titled as empathic circle by Rogers (Gu¨lseren, 2001, p. 136; Bellous, 2004; Do¨kmen, 2002, pp. 135-137): (1) Putting oneself in the place of another person and seeing matters from the other’s perspective. The most important thing here is to permeate the other person’s inner world. (2) Understanding and perceiving correctly the other person’s thoughts and feelings. Understanding correctly is necessary for exibiting correct reactions. (3) Conveying empathic considerations to the other people. If one does not convey his empathic thoughts and feelings, an empathic relationship cannot emerge. Not only good relationships but also a person’s sense of beeing understood can be counted among the benefits of empathic considerations (Silah, 1999, p. 84). Empathy comprises understanding knowledge that is given during the communication process, keeping it in mind and making a linkage between the old and the new knowledge (Eisenberg and Delaney, 1998, p. 106). Perceiving and feeling the world of an individual in front of us as if our world will give us the opportunity of seeing the world through his eyes (Von Bergen and Shealy, 1982, p. 22; Batlas¸ and Baltas¸, 2000, p. 56). This perspective is important for providing us with healthy knowledge about the sources of an individual’s behaviors and sensations. Setting a healthy empathic climate is important for preventing communicational problems and for coping with difficult situations. Empathical approach to administration Understanding people gives us power in solving communicational problems (Karip, 2000, p. 82). An effective empathic approach gives a person this message: “I see not only the visible side of your actions but also the reasons behind of them.” Being understood deeply supports deeper understanding in future. Listening people empathically requires concern. A real and proper empathic approach plays a supportive and sensitive role in communication leading from superficial to deep understanding (Eisenberg and Delaney, 1998, p. 106). A manager’s empathic tone creates an emotional bank account that can absorb relational difficulties which occur along the way (Mendes, 2003). Removing perceiving differences, permeating someone else’s emotional world (Karip, 2000, pp. 81-2) and seeing people with their unique peculiarities (Gu¨lseren, 2001, p. 136) can only be possible with an altruistic and empathic approach. Empathy and altruism are closely related concepts. Altruism can be defined as a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another’s wellfare (Eisenberg, 1991, p. 128). Empathic emotion produces genuinely altruistic motivation (Dovidio, 1991, p. 126). Keeping in mind that altruism is an important indicator of organizational citizenship (Smith et al., 1983) and organizational commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1997),
it can be said that managers’ empathic emotions leading to altruistic behaviors are important components of managerial effectiveness. Beeing an empathic manager requires some affective, cognitive and communicative skills. Such as: communication skills, perception of feelings within self and others and hidden feelings, objectivity, not judging others (Wiseman, 1996), self awareness, reflective skills (Baillie, 1996), active listening, paying attention to nonverbal responses, using an affirmative and respectful language, beeing honest and outspoken (Mendes, 2003), showing enthusiasm, beeing appreciative, accepting and open (Cooper, 2004). An empathic manager makes teachers feel supported and cared about, influences and renders their unbearable feelings more bearable (Hanko, 2002), makes them feel understood, valued and their needs to be satisfied (Wiseman, 1996) and creates a moral climate in school (Cooper, 2004). An empathic manager concerning teachers’ physical and emotional needs tends to conduct more ethically and to build a moral climate in school (Goleman; 2002, p. 138). For schools, in which human factor is the most important indicator of effectiveness, it can be said that managers’ empathic skills are closely related with success. The purpose of ınvestigation The main purpose of this investigation is to find out the relationship between empathic skills of managers and success of schools. For this purpose the schools were divided into three success groups according to the results of the province-wide central examination. Then the relationship between empathic skills and school success was examined. Methodology In this study, survey based descriptive scanning model was used. The population of this study consists of teachers working at primary schools in Batman city center during 2003-2004 academic year. Then, there were 38 primary schools and 1,300 teachers working in them in Batman city center. According to the results of the annual central evaluation examination which was executed in spring semester in 2004, schools were divided into three success groups. The most successful seven schools were the first group, the intermediate seven schools were the second one and the least successful seven schools were the third one. About 10 teachers were randomly selected from each of these schools, and then the questionnaire was administered. Collection of data and analysis After the literature on empathy was examined, the questionnaire draft was developed by the investigators. The opinions of specialists and teachers were taken about the content and language of this draft and necessary improvements were done. For determining the reliability and validity of this questionnaire, it was administered on 110 teachers that were randomly selected from the schools in Batman city center. Later it was analyzed by factor analysis test of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) and Cronbach a coefficient was computed. According to the results, KMO was 0,91; Barlett test was 2,388.8 and Cronbach a coefficient was 0,96. The final case of the questionnaire had 23 items. the answers given to the questions were graded as never: . rarely; . sometimes;
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. .
usually; and always.
The datum were analyzed by SPSS programme in computer, their standard deviations, arithmetic averages were computed and the technique of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used in order to determine if there were any differences between groups. During the interpretation, arithmetic averages were graded as; never, 1.00-1.80; rarely, 1.81-2.60; sometimes 2.61-3.40; usually 3.41-4.20; always, 4.21-5.00. The fındıngs and ınterpretatıons (1) The manager of school “listens to my matters actively”: Although all three groups agree with that item at “mostly” level, the agreement rates increase ¼ 3.97 . X ¼ 3.59 . X ¼ 3.11). According to along the success range (X this, the more sensitive the managers to their teachers’ matters, the succesful the schools. So, it can be stated that active listening, as an important component of healthy communication, takes a significant part in school success. (2) “He is sensitive to my sentimental needs”: in this item, the teachers working in the ¼ 3.54) as more sentimentally most successful schools rate their managers (X ¼ 2.85 and sensitive in comparison with the other two groups (intermediate: X ¼ 2.64 of success groups). So, sentimentally sensitiveness can be low level: X thought as an important managerial trait of succesful schools. (3) “He has a calming effect on me”: the agreement rates with that item increase ¼ 3.27 . X ¼ 2.65 . X ¼ 2.24). Keeping in mind along the success range (X that calming effect of managers on personnel has a positive effect in decreasing anxiety and facilitating communication. So, it can be said that decreasing the level of stress and anxiety has a positive role in school success. (4) “He behaves compatibly with my mood and motivation”: in this item, agreement rates increase along the success range ¼ 3.35 . X ¼ 2.95 . X ¼ 2.42). These differences among groups reveal (X the fact that contingent behaviors and the communication abilities of the managers are significant in school success. (5) “He understands me perfectly even though I don’t express my feelings directly”: in this item, the teachers working in the most successful schools rate their ¼ 3.24) as more considerate and discerning in comparison with managers (X ¼ 2.62 and low level: X ¼ 2.40 of success the other two groups (intermediate: X groups). So, consideration and discernment can be thought as significant managerial traits of successful schools. (6) “He is good at understanding my feelings from my facial expressions”: in this item, the teachers of the most successful schools evaluate their managers ¼ 3.12) as more understanding in comparison with the other two groups (X ¼ 2.70 and low level: X ¼ 2.50 of success groups). So, it can be (intermediate: X said that the managers of successful schools have more effective communication skills. (7) “He is aware of small social signs that can be a sign of my needs”: in this item, ¼ 2.97) and the intermediate level the teachers of the most succesful (X
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
¼ 2.71) groups evaluate their managers as more sensitive to their needs in (X ¼ 2.30). comparison with the low level of success group (X “He can feel my feelings strongly”: in this item, the teachers of the most ¼ 2.95) as having more empathic successful schools evaluate their managers (X ¼ 2.58 and feelings in comparison with the other two groups (intermediate: X low level: X ¼ 2.24 of success groups). So, it can be said that the managers of successful schools have more empathic feelings. “He supports me in increasing my motivation in order to reach my goals”: in this item, agreement rates increase along the success range ¼ 3.55 . X ¼ 2.85 . X ¼ 2.44). So, it can be said that managers’ (X supportiveness, motivating abilities and their efforts that provide teachers to realize their goals may lead to the success of school. “He looks at situations from my point of view when it’s necessary”: in this item, agreement rates increase along the success range ¼ 3.30 . X ¼ 2.84 . X ¼ 2.37). So, managers’ abilities of looking at (X situations from others’ perspectives can be thought as an important managerial trait of succesful schools. “He understands my feelings and thoughts correctly”: in this item, the teachers ¼ 3.45) as more of the most successful schools evaluate their managers (X ¼ 2.97 understanding in comparison with the other two groups (intermediate: X and low level: X ¼ 2.74 of success groups). So, it can be concluded that there is a significant relation between the managers’ understanding of teachers’ feelings, thoughts and the school success. “He makes me feel that he understands my feelings and thoughts correctly”: in ¼ 3.40) and this item there is a significant difference between the first group (X the other groups (second: X ¼ 2.97 and third: X ¼ 2.61 groups). So, it can be said that there is a meaningful relation between the school success and the managers’ making the teachers feel that they understand their feelings and thoughts correctly. “He assists me whenever I need help”: In this item, agreement rates increase ¼ 3.80 . X ¼ 3.15 . X ¼ 2.74). According to along the success range (X this, it can be said that the more benevolent and helpful the managers the more successful the schools. “He highlights cooperation and harmony”: In this item, the teachers of the most ¼ 4.10) as more highlighting successful group evaluate their managers (X cooperation and harmony in comparison with the other groups (intermediate: ¼ 3.54 and low level: X ¼ 3.42 of success groups). So, it can be said that X building cooperation and harmony is a matter that must be taken seriously by managers on the way to successful school. “He is sensitive to my feelings and reactions”: In this item, there is a meaningful ¼ 3.45) and the least (X ¼ 2.78) successful difference between the most (X groups. So, it can be said that managers’ efforts of being sensitive to teachers’ feelings, reactions and responding their needs are imporant in healthy communication and school success.
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(16) “He can look at situations from other persons’ points of view when problems arise in communication process”: In this item, agreement rates increase along ¼ 3.35 . X ¼ 2.81 . X ¼ 2.42). So, managers’ abilities the success range (X of solving communicational problems looking at situations from others’ perspectives can be thought as a managerial trait of successful schools. (17) “He examines my latent interests and needs (apart from the things I express obviously)”: In this item, there is a meaningful difference between the most ¼ 3.10) and the least (X ¼ 2.58) successful groups. So, managers’ abilities of (X creating an atmosphere of trust concerning teachers’ even latent needs and interests can be thought as an important managerial component of successful schools. (18) “He contemplates the unseen and unconsidered sides of communicational matters”: In this item, agreement rates increase along the success range ¼ 3.20 . X ¼ 2.80 . X ¼ 2.38). So, managers’ abilities of seeing the (X hidden aspects of behaviors and attitudes as an element of effective communication may lead to the success of school. (19) “He struggles to form a climate of intimacy and trust in school”: In this item ¼ 4.01) and the other there is a meaningful difference between the first group (X two groups (second: X ¼ 3.45 and third: X ¼ 3.34). So, it can be said that there is a significant relation between managers’ efforts of forming a climate of intimacy and trust and school success. (20) “He respects my values and beliefs”: In this item, the teachers of the most successful ¼ 4.22) as more respectful for their values and group evaluate their managers (X ¼ 3.61 and low level: beliefs in comparison with the other groups (intermediate: X ¼ 3.37 of success groups). So, it can be said that managers’ respectfulness for X teachers’ values and beliefs is a significant component of successful schools. (21) “He approaches to my mistakes constructively and transmits me his feelings and thoughts that I can compensate for my mistakes”: The teachers of the most ¼ 3.78) as more constructive and successful group evaluate their managers (X ¼ 3.17 and third: forgiving in comparison with the other groups (second: X ¼ 3.02 groups). So, constructiveness and forgivingness can be counted X among the managerial traits of successful schools. (22) “He doesn’t impose his own considerations and practices on me”: The teachers ¼ 3.51) as more of the most successful group evaluate their managers (X ¼ 2.91 democratic and flexible in comparison with the other groups (second: X and third: X ¼ 2.84 groups). (23) “He expresses his feelings and thoughts sincerely during the communication process”: In this item, there is a meaningful difference between the first group ¼ 3.81) and the other groups (second: X ¼ 3.37 and third: X ¼ 3.00). So, it can be (X said that, as a manner of achieving effective communication, managers’ expressing their feelings and thoughts sincerely and intimately may lead to the success of school. Conclusıon and dıscussıon If there is not an effective communication, it is not possible to develop healthy relationships and leading this relationship web towards organizational objectives. One of the most important duties of managers is setting healthy communication channels between individuals and developing an empathic consideration. That can
only be possible with managers having empathic sensitivities and equipped with effective communicational, social and leadership skills. In this research, schools were divided into three groups according to the success range. Then, in the view of teachers, the relationship between managers’ empathic skills and school success was examined by twenty-three itemed questionnaire. It was seen that the empathic skills of managers and school success had a very close relationship. There were significant differences between the first group and the other two groups in all items. Successful schools’ managers clearly had better empathic skills and unsuccessful schools’ managers had little empathic skills. The same situation was seen between the second group managers and the third group managers as well. According to the results, the empathic skills that successful schools’ managers have can be summarized as follows: active listening, sentimentaly sensitiveness, calming and relieving, facilitation, behaving compatibly with teachers’ moods, consideration and discernment, sentitiveness to teachers’ needs, supportiveness, motivating abilities, looking at situations from others’ perspectives, understanding of teachers’ feelings and thoughts, benevolence and helpfulness, building cooperation and harmony, seeing the hidden aspects of behaviors and attitudes, forming a climate of intimacy and trust, respectfulness for teachers’ values and beliefs, constructiveness and forgivingness, flexibility, sincereness and intimacy. It can be proposed that these empathic skills should be taken into consideration during the selection of managers and current managers should be equipped with these skills to achieve succesful schools. References Ac¸ıkalın, A. (1998), Toplumsal, Kurumsal ve Teknik Yo¨nleriyle Okul Yo¨neticilig˘i. (School Management with Social, ˙Institutional and Technical Aspects), Pegem A, Ankara. Baillie, L. (1996), “A phenomenological study of the nature of empathy”, Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 24 No. 6, pp. 1300-8, available at: http://search.epnet.com/login. aspx?direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 8550480 (accessed 12 March 2006). Bas¸aran, ˙I.E. (1992), Yo¨netimde ˙Insan ˙Ilis¸kileri. (Human Relations in Administration), Kadıog˘lu Matbaası, Ankara. Baltas¸, A. and Baltas¸, Z. (2000), Stres ve Bas¸a C¸ıkma Yolları. (Stres and the Ways to Cope with), Remzi Kitabevi, ˙Istanbul. Bellous, J.E. (2004), “Considering empathy, some preliminary definition”, available at: www. mcmaster.ca/mjtm/bellous1.htm (accessed 15 July 2005). Bursalıog˘lu, Z. (1999), Okul Yo¨netiminde Yeni Yapı Ve Davranıs¸.(New Structure and Behaviour at School Management), Pegem A Yay, Ankara. Cooper, B. (2004), “Empathy, ınteraction and caring: teachers’ roles in a constrained environment”, Pastoral Care in Education, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 12-21, available at: http://search. epnet.com/ login.aspx?direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 14002906 (accessed 26 October 2005). Cu¨celog˘lu, D. (1994), ˙Ic¸imizdeki C¸ocuk. (The Child within Us), Remzi Kitabevi, ˙Istanbul. Dovidio, J.F. (1991), “The empathy-altruism hypothesis: paradigm and promise”, Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 2 No. 2, p. 126, 3p available at: http://search.epnet.com/login. aspx?direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 7396536 (accessed 17 January 2006). Do¨kmen, U¨. (2002), ˙Iletis¸im C¸atıs¸maları ve Empati.(Communicative Conflicts and Empathy), Sistem Yay, ˙Istanbul.
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Eisenberg, N. (1991), “Values, sympathy, and ındividual differences: toward a pluralism of factors ınfluencing altruism and empathy”, Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 2 No. 2, p. 128, 4p available at: http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 7396540 (accessed 17 January 2006). Eisenberg, S. and Delaney, D.J. (1998), Psikolojik Danıs¸ma Su¨reci.(The Process of Psychological Quidance), M.E.B., ˙Istanbul. Goleman, D. (2002), Duygusal Zeka. (Emotional IQ), Varlık Yay, ˙Istanbul. Gu¨lseren, S¸. (2001), “Es¸duyum (Empati): Tanımı ve Kullanımı U¨zerine Bir Go¨zden Gec¸irme” (“Empathy: a review on its definition and usage”), Tu¨rk Psikiyatri Dergisi (Turkish Psychiatry Journal), Vol. 12 No. 2. Hanko, G. (2002), “Promoting empathy through the dynamics of staff development: what schools can offer their teachers as learners”, Pastoral Care in Education, Vol. 20 No. 2, p. 12, 5p [online], available at: http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 6632859 (accessed 18 March 2006). Hashimoto, H. and Shiomi, K. (2002), “The structure of empathy ın Japanese adolescents: construction and examination of an empathy scale”, Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, Vol. 30 No. 6, p. 593, 9p available at: http://search.epnet.com/login. aspx?direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 7730680 (accessed 18 March 2006). Karip, E. (2000), C¸atıs¸ma Yo¨netimi.(Conflict Management), Pegem A, Ankara. Mendes, E. (2003), “What empathy can do”, Educational Leadership, Vol. 61 No. 1, pp. 56-9, available at: http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 11861324 (accessed 18 March 2006). Meyer, J.P. and Allen, J.N. (1997), Commitment in the Workplace – Theory, Research and Application, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA. ¨ zbay, Y. and S¸ahin, M. (2000), “Empatik Sınıf Atmosferi Tutum O¨lc¸eg˘i: Gec¸erlilik ve Gu¨venirlik O C¸alıs¸ması” (“Empathic classroom climate attitude scale: validity and reliability work”), ¨ niversitesi Eg˘itim Faku¨ltesi Dergisi, sayı, p. 19. Hacettepe U ¨ rgu¨tsel Psikoloji. (Organizational Psychology), Ezgi Sabuncuog˘lu, Z. and Tu¨z, M. (1995), O Kitabevi Yay, Bursa. Silah, M. (1999), “C¸alıs¸ma Yas¸amında Etkiles¸im Analizi Yaklas¸ımı ve Empatik Etkiles¸imin O¨nemi” (“Importance of interactional analysis approach and empathic interaction on work life),” Ekonomi ve Yo¨netim Bilimleri Dergisi, cilt: 1 say1:1. Smith, A. (2006), “Cognitive empathy and emotional empathy ın human behavior and evolution”, Psychological Record, Vol. 56 No. 1, pp. 3-21. Smith, C.A., Organ, D.W. and Near, J.P. (1983), “Organizational citizenship behavior: ıts nature and antecedents”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 68 No. 4, pp. 653-63. S¸ahin, F. (1998), “Grupla ˙Iletis¸im Becerileri: Eg˘itimin U¨niversite O¨g˘rencilerinin ˙Iletis¸im Beceri Du¨zeylerine Etkisi” (“Group communication skills: effect of education on university students’ level of cummunicative skills”), Eg˘itim ve Bilim, cilt: 22 say1: 110. ¨ rgu¨tlerde Semboller ve Sembolik Liderlik” (“Symbols and symbolic S¸is¸man, M. and Turan, S. (2004), “O leadership ın organizations”), Kuram ve Uygulamada Eg˘itim Yo¨netimi, y1l:10, say1:37. Wiseman, T. (1996), “A concept analysis of empathy”, Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 23 No. 6, pp. 1162-7, available at: http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct ¼ true& db ¼ aph&an ¼ 8554631 (accessed 18 March 2006). Von Bergen, C.W. Jr. and Shealy, R.E. (1982), “How’s your empathy?”, Training & Development Journal, Vol. 36 No. 11, p. 22, 5p available at: http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx? direct ¼ true&db ¼ aph&an ¼ 9069129 (accessed 18 March 2006).
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Appendix: Table of variance analysis between three success groups
The successful group(1) (N ¼ 70) Item No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
The group of ıntermediate level(2) (N ¼ 70)
The unsuccessful group(3) (N ¼ 70)
X
SD
X
SD
X
SD
F
P
3,97 3,54 3,27 3,35 3,24 3,12 2,97 2,95 3,55 3,30 3.45 3,40 3,80 4,10 3,45 3,35 3,10 3,20 4,01 4,22 3,78 3,51 3,81
1,02 1,05 1,14 1,11 1,09 1,11 1,06 0,96 1,19 1,08 1,07 1,08 1,08 1,20 1,05 1,05 1,09 1,13 1,09 0,88 1,08 1,15 1,14
3,59 2,85 2,65 2,95 2,62 2,70 2,71 2,58 2.85 2,84 2,97 2,97 3,15 3,54 3,12 2,81 2,88 2,80 3,45 3,61 3,17 2,91 3,37
1,12 1,21 1,23 1,23 1,22 1,19 1,24 1,18 1,28 1,24 1,26 1,26 1,23 1,07 1,03 1,14 1,13 0,97 1,21 1,19 1,26 1,21 1,19
3,11 2,64 2,24 2,42 2,40 2,50 2,30 2,24 2.44 2,37 2,74 2,61 2,74 3,42 2,78 2,42 2,58 2,38 3,34 3,37 3,02 2,84 3,00
1,03 1,02 1,04 0,95 1,05 1,00 0,99 0,99 1,07 0,91 1,03 0,99 1,04 1,08 1,02 1,07 1,10 0,98 1,21 1,11 1,06 1,12 1,36
11,509 12,708 14,347 12,372 10,428 5,882 6,575 8,015 15,681 12,682 7,340 8,647 15,702 7,830 7,324 12,829 3,772 10,870 6,535 11,819 8,696 7,031 7,598
0,000 * 0,000 * 0,000 * 0,000 * 0,000 * 0,003 * 0,002 * 0,000 * 0,000 * 0,000 * 0,001 * 0,000 * 0,000 * 0,001 * 0,001 * 0,000 * 0,025 * 0,000 * 0,002 * 0,000 * 0,000 * 0,001 * 0,001 *
The groups having differences (LSD)
499
(1-2) – (1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-3) (1-2)-(1-3)-(2-3) (1-3) (1-2)-(1-3)-(2-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3) (1-2)-(1-3)
Note: * p , 0.05
Corresponding author Fatih To¨remen can be contacted at:
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Table AI.
