Interdisciplinary Cultural Studies

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The International Journal of

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Intercultural Sensitivity among Private University Students in Jakarta, Indonesia

ANASTASIA TEORIMAN, JUNEMAN ABRAHAM, AND JOHANNES A. A. RUMESER

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The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Cultural Studies

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Intercultural Sensitivity among Private University Students in Jakarta, Indonesia Anastasia Teoriman, Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia Juneman Abraham, Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia Johannes A. A. Rumeser, Bina Nusantara University, Indonesia Abstract: ASEAN Economic Community, which started in 2015, promotes the need for college students to prepare themselves with competencies that facilitate performance in cross-cultural work environments. This study aimed to map the development of Intercultural Sensitivity (ICS) among students of Bina Nusantara University and other private universities in Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia (n = 317), using Bennett’s DMIS theoretical framework (2004). The data was analyzed by using Z-score descriptive statistics, t-tests, and one-way ANOVA. The research results showed that the majority of Bina Nusantara University’s students are in the Acceptance stage, in which one is already able to value, respect, and appreciate different values, beliefs, and behaviors from other cultures. Meanwhile, the majority of other private, religious-based universities’ students are in the Defense stage, in which one still has a persistent belief that Indonesia’s culture (“Indonesia” as defined by their lens) is the most valid among the world’s cultures. Keywords: Intercultural, Acceptance, Defense, Sensitivity

Introduction ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), which began in 2015, will increase competition in job searches because of the free flow of skilled labor policy. The free flow of labor policy will make it easier for people from other ASEAN countries to work in Indonesia. Due to this situation, it is essential for Indonesia’s workforce to prepare itself by studying Intercultural Sensitivity (ICS). ICS is one of the reliable predictors of an employee’s performance quality in an intercultural working environment (Panggabean 2004). In an intercultural working environment, which is susceptible to conflicts about different beliefs and cultural values, ICS facilitates the affectivity of interpersonal interaction, so that more engagement of intercultural work teams in their performances could be expected (Maznevski, quoted in Lloyd and Härtel 2010).

Preprint / Non-Typeset version International Journal of Interdisciplinary Cultural Studies, 11(2), 29-41. Article URL: http://ijicst.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.268/prod.86 Online: June 15, 2016 (IJICST) - doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2327-008X/CGP

The differences in behavior, attitude, and values between Indonesia and other countries can cause misunderstandings which potentially develop into intercultural conflicts. That is why it is necessary to measure Indonesians’ ICS levels, as a preparation for welcoming AEC 2015. This need especially applies to graduating college students who will face jobsearching competition from people of other countries. Shaftel, Shaftel, and Ahluwalia (2007) showed that college students who successfully develop intercultural competence in terms of tolerance to individual difference, ability to adapt with many behavioral patterns and ability to understand another person’s viewpoint, will be more successful and valued in the eyes of companies than those who do not develop it. Conceptually, Bhawuk and Brislin (1992) define ICS as one’s ability to adapt to different cultures. Chen and Starosta (quoted in Kashima 2006) define ICS as one’s emotional needs to recognize, value, and accept cultural differences. Meanwhile, Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman (2003) define ICS as one’s cognitive ability to discriminate and experience cultural differences. Recently, Pourakbari and Chalak (2015, 3) define ICS as “the affective dimension of intercultural communication competence that refers to the emotional desire of a person to acknowledge, appreciate, and accept cultural differences.” In this research, ICS is defined as the ability to navigate and experience relevant cultural differences, a definition that comes from Bennett’s theoretical Development Model of ICS (DMIS) (Bennett 2004; Bennett 1998; Hammer 2015). The psychological theory underlying the developmental concept of DMIS is George Kelly’s personal construct theory (Bennett 2004). Personal construct theory explains that one’s personal experience is a function of mental categories that one uses to interpret certain situations (Winter 2013). As one’s mental categories become more complex, the ability to experience cultural differences increases. In other words, one’s ICS depends on the complexity of cultural differences in relation to mental categories (Bennett 2004). Sizoo (2007) found that for workers who are in cross-cultural interactions, ICS has implications on job satisfaction, revenue contribution, social satisfaction, service attentiveness, and interpersonal skills. By using role theory and dramaturgy paradigm that considers the individual’s behavior as the actions of an actor on various stages, Sizoo determined that role conflict will occur if everyone reads scripts (e.g., values and norms) from their own cultures and applies those scripts to show inappropriate performances in another culture’s script. Sizoo emphasized the importance for companies to invest in the measurement, testing, training, and supervision of cross-cultural competence of their workers.

PREPRINT / NON-TYPSET VERSION INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY CULTURAL STUDIES, 11(2), 29-41. JUNE 15, 2016 (IJICST) - DOI: HTTP://DX.DOI.ORG/10.18848/2327-008X/CGP ARTICLE URL: HTTP://IJICST.CGPUBLISHER.COM/PRODUCT/PUB.268/PROD.86

Pedersen (2009) stated that social psychology, evolutionary psychology, and developmental psychology can help us to understand ICS. Using a social psychology perspective, one can view the development of ICS as a dynamic between social categorization versus social decategorization, as well as heuristic versus complex cognitive views. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, group segregation is historically and naturally adaptive. Therefore, we were not born with a set of ICS. From a developmental psychology perspective, ICS is compatible with Piagetian developmental stages, which include the concepts of assimilation, accommodation, and meaning-making (Pedersen 2009). The Development Model of ICS explains that ICS will develop inner quality and that the development will take place in six stages that are continuous and gradual (Bennett 2004; 1998). The six stages of intercultural activity development ranging from the lowest to the highest are Denial, Defense, Minimization, Acceptance, Adaptation, and Integration. Movement from one DMIS stage to the next is influenced by one’s cognitive ability in interpreting cultural differences. Although each stage has a different characterization, one can sum up the lower stages (Denial, Defense, and Minimization) by stating that the individual’s perception and judgment about another culture still has ethnocentric characteristics (Bennett 2004; 1998). This means that their perception and judgment are oriented in their inherited culture. Meanwhile, the higher stages (Acceptance, Adaptation, and Integration) are ethnorelative, meaning that the individual feels comfortable with any culture, and his or her perceptions and judgments are suitable within the contexts of other cultures (Bennett 2004; Bennett 1998; Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman 2003). Bennett (2004; 1998) emphasized that DMIS is not only a descriptive status about one’s cognitive or affective behavior related to cultural differences, but also a theoretical concept that explains the change in one’s perspective about cultural differences, moving from ethnocentric stages to ethnorelative stages, then resulting in the development of ICS orientation.

The six stages of ICS are shown in Figure 1, from the lowest to the highest. DMIS has been used by many researchers to measure the development of ICS (Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman 2003; Holm, Nokelainen, and Tirri 2009; Patterson 2006; Romano et al. 2007). The Denial stage is marked by the rejection and ignorance of cultural differences, and by the belief that one’s inherited culture is the only “correct” culture in the world. Nevertheless, this condition is not permanent. The nature of ICS can be learned and developed. All people have the potential to move to higher stages, culminating in the highest stages, Adaptation and Integration (Bönte 2014). In the Defense stage, one presumes that his or her own culture is the greatest culture in the world. One indicates that cultural differences are real, but perceives them as negative and openly shows that he or she feels threatened by other cultures. People in the Defense stage separate the world into “us” and “them.” “Us” represents people from their culture, who are considered superior and identified with positive stereotypes. “Them” represents people from different cultures, who are considered inferior and identified with negative stereotypes (Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman 2003).

Figure 1: Stages of ICS Source: Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman 2003.

Unlike the Defense stage, people who are in the Minimization stage no longer feel threatened by cultural differences. This happens because they use more familiar categories to explain the similarities between cultures. They believe that there are physical universalism and transcendence universalism which apply to any people from any culture. Physical universalism is a belief that there are physical similarities or commonalities among people from any culture, and transcendence universalism is a belief that there are similarities between abstract concepts (religions, economies, and philosophies) that apply universally (Arevalo-Guerrero 2009). In the Minimization stage, one expects to identify intercultural similarities. This expectation often makes people in the Minimization stage try to change the behaviors of people from other cultures to match their expectations. In the Acceptance stage, an individual regards his or her own culture as one of many possible views of the world and believes that other cultures


are as complex as their own. They accept and appreciate other cultures. People in this stage accept the fact that people from other cultures have different values and behavior patterns, but they are still human beings. People in the Acceptance stage are also better at identifying how cultural differences affect daily human interactions (Bennett 1993; Bennett 2004; Hammer 2015). It is important to underline that in the Acceptance stage, one’s acceptance of cultural differences does not always result in agreement with other cultural practices. Bennett writes, “Acceptance does not mean an agreement” (2004, 69). Someone in the Acceptance stage can accept, but they can disagree with some aspect of another culture. Those judgments are not ethnocentric because they are still respecting other cultures’ values. In the Adaptation stage, an individual’s perceptions and behaviors are already aligned with those of other cultures, and one’s world view is broader because it contains perspectives from other cultures. Another characteristic from the Adaptation stage is the ability to show empathy. A person in this stage will be able to see something from another culture’s perspective, resulting not only in cognitive changes (e.g., the ability to understand another perspective), but also affective and behavioral changes. One is able to give the appropriate responses in the forms of feelings and behaviors, according to the context of a different culture. It is important to note that what happens in the Adaptation stage is not cultural assimilation. In cultural assimilation, one has to let go of one’s own cultural identity in order to adapt to new cultural values. In the Adaptation stage one does not replace his or her own cultural values and lifestyle with those of another culture. Instead, one expands his or her values and beliefs systems by incorporating those of another culture. The expansion of values and beliefs systems in the Adaptation stage can cause people to maintain effective relationships in different cultural settings (Bennett 1993; Bennett 2004; Hammer 2015). In the Integration stage one’s experience expands to cover one’s interaction with many different cultures. Bennett explains that, “Movement to the last stage does not represent a significant improvement in intercultural competence. Rather, it describes a fundamental shift in one’s definition of cultural identity” (2004, 72). It means that one’s movement from the Adaptation stage to the Integration stage does not represent any

significant change in ICS quality. Since there are no fundamental differences between the Adaptation and Integration stages, any ICS measurements based on DMIS theory does not include both stages on measuring scales (Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman 2003; Holm, Nokelainen, and Tirri 2009). As ICS is dynamic and can be developed, various studies have attempted to find factors that can influence, or at least have a significant relationship with, the development of ICS. Some of these factors are: (1) Overseas study (Williams 2005; Anderson et al. 2006; Straffon 2003); (2) Intercultural education (Margarethe, Hannes, and Wiesinger 2012; Bradshaw and Biggs 2007); and (3) Overseas travel experience (Baños 2006). The objectives of this research were to compare the ICS between graduating students from Bina Nusantara University and religious-based private universities in Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia. Research comparing ICS between religious-based and non-religious-based universities is pivotal because there is evidence that religious bias can be implanted and grow in students in educational settings (Ari and Laron 2014). The bias can cause a student to lack appreciation for a diversity of cultures and perspectives. This bias may persist after the student leaves school, requiring long-term change efforts to remove it. This study is pivotal because for young people the campus is the last dialogical place, an environment that may influence them to become trapped in ethnocentrism, or to become open to multicultural perspectives (Ari and Laron 2014).

Method Participants and Design This research is a quantitative-descriptive-comparative study, with the objective to provide an overview of ICS among graduating students in Bina Nusantara University and religiously affiliated private universities in Jakarta, Indonesia. The decision to use sample clusters was based on the capability of those universities to provide multicultural opportunities for their students. The participants of this study were students with these criteria: (1) Students in the final year of their undergraduate program; and (2) Students at Bina Nusantara University and other private universities in Jakarta. In the era of globalization there is a high demand for fresh graduates to equip themselves with intercultural competence before entering the cross-cultural working environment. This is supported by


findings from Shaftel, Shaftel, and Ahluwalia (2007), who found that college graduates who successfully develop intercultural competence as undergraduates will be more successful when they enter the working world. In this study, the participants are college students in their final year, specifically in the seventh and eighth semesters. The researcher chose students who were in their final year because, among students, the need to develop ICS quickly is highest for those who will soon enter the labor market. Bina Nusantara University, with its vision, “A world class university in continuous pursuit of innovation and enterprise” by 2020, aims to prepare its graduates to compete with foreign labor when AEC 2015 takes effect. There is a significant need for Bina Nusantara University students to prepare themselves with intercultural competence, such as ICS, before they enter the working world. Other private universities in Jakarta are also included in this research for purposes of comparison. Although not as salient as Bina Nusantara University, the other three universities (University X, University Y, and University A) in this study have visions or missions related to international cooperation. University X wants to be a leading international university, both academically and professionally. University Y, in addition to its goal to excel at the international level, also has a mission to build and develop a network abroad. University A’s mission is to establish partnerships with relevant institutions abroad. The sampling technique used for this study was cluster sampling. Figure 2 shows the process for using cluster sampling in this research. Bina Nusantara University’s last semester classes in each department of the regular bachelor’s degree programs form self-selected clusters. The researcher used simple random sampling in order to choose one class from each department from which to obtain data. The data were taken from every participant in the selected cluster, which resulted in 387 pool samples. Then, with a simple random method, the researcher took ten people from each cluster, which resulted in 170 samples to be used in the research. The procedure ensured that every participant in the population had the same probability to be chosen in the research samples, which is in accordance with the terms of cluster sampling technique (Schofield 2006).

Figure 2: Study’s Sampling Procedure

To take samples from religiously affiliated private universities in Jakarta the researcher used a nonprobability sampling method, incidental sampling. Incidental sampling is a technique in which an incidental factor is the main factor used to determine the sampling procedure (Schofield 2006). In using the incidental method, the researcher will search coincidentally and conveniently to find a sample which matches the characteristics of the study; in this case, undergraduate students in their final year at private universities in Jakarta. There were one hundred Bina Nusantara University students and employees in the sample used to implement the pilot study. Meanwhile, there were 317 people in the sample used during the field study stage, with 170 people from Bina Nusantara University and 147 people from other private universities in Jakarta. The sample in this study is in line with the recommended minimum sample outlined by Mantra and Kastro (2006), so the research is expected to provide representative results for the population. Instrument The ICS measuring tool (questionnaire) in this study was constructed by using Bennett’s theoretical model of ICS development, which is known as DMIS. There are five scales of ICS included in this study, which measure the Denial, Defense, Minimization, Acceptance, and Adaptation stages (see Table 1; Bennett 2004). The Integration stage is not included in this study’s measuring scale, because it does not represent a significant improvement of ICS quality compared to the Adaptation stage (Bennett 2004). The ICS measuring tool in this study is the Likert scale. The Likert scale measures how strongly participants agree or disagree with a statement (Sekaran 2006). This study uses a Likert scale with six response options: Strongly Disagree (score of 1), Disagree (score of 2), Somewhat Disagree (score of 3), Somewhat Agree (score of 4), Agree (score of 5), and Strongly Agree (score of 6).


The results of the validity and reliability tests were as follows: the Denial scale consisted of eight favorable items and one unfavorable item (reversely scored). The value of Cronbach’s Alpha of Denial scale was 0.759 after the removal of three items. The lowest value of corrected item-total correlations (item validities) was 0.368, and the highest was 0.691. The Defense scale consisted of twelve favorable items and two unfavorable items. The value of Cronbach’s Alpha Defense scale was 0.796 after the removal of two items. The lowest value corrected of itemtotal correlations was 0.257, and the highest was 0.673. Table 1: ICS Scale’s Blueprint Stage   Denial    Defense    Minimization

  

Acceptance

  

Adaptation

 

Indicator Believing that one’s own cultural beliefs and values are the only correct beliefs and values in the world Believing that one’s own behavioral cultural patterns are the only correct behavioral patterns in the world Having no interest in cultural differences Having no interest in or ability to differentiate between cultures from other countries Maintaining the belief that one’s own culture is the greatest culture in the world Feeling threatened because of the existence of other cultures Associating other cultures with negative stereotypes Minimizing cultural differences based on the belief of physical universalism Minimizing cultural differences based on the belief of transcendent universalism Trying to change other people’s behavior to fit one’s own cultural expectations Assuming that one’s culture is one of many possible complex world views Considering people from another culture as different but equal Able to identify how cultural differences operate in daily human interactions Having the ability to perceive things according to the contexts of other cultures Having the ability to behave according to the contexts of other cultures Having empathy (taking another culture’s perspective)

Source: Bennett 1993; Bennett 2004; Hammer 2015; Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman 2003.

The Minimization scale consisted of nine favorable items and two unfavorable items. The value of Cronbach’s Alpha Minimization scale was 0.665 after the removal of five items. The lowest value of corrected item-total correlations was 0.252, and the highest was 0.651. The

Acceptance scale consisted of ten favorable items and two unfavorable items. The value of Cronbach’s Alpha of Minimization scale was 0.745 after the removal of two items. The lowest value of corrected item-total correlations was 0.258, and the highest was 0.555. The Adaptation scale consisted of nine favorable items and three unfavorable items. The value of Cronbach’s Alpha Minimization scale was 0.893 after the removal of one item. The lowest value of corrected item-total correlations was 0.380, and the highest was 0.778. The results indicate that the scales are reliable (Cronbach’s Alpha > 0.6) and valid (Corrected item-total correlations > 0.25). A participant’s scores in the five ICS scales are converted to Z-scores. The scores will become the base used to identify the participant’s position between the five stages of ICS development. The data are then processed by descriptive and comparative analyses by using independent sample t-tests and one-way ANOVA, aided by the SPSS 22 program. Every participant who completed the ICS test received scores on the five scales of ICS development, Denial, Defense, Minimization, Acceptance, and Adaptation. Each score was created differently, so they could not be compared directly with each other. To overcome this, the researcher counted the participant’s mean score on each scale and then converted the mean score into a standard score (Z-score). According to Gravetter and Wallnau (2009), converting the raw score into a Z-score will enable a researcher to compare between scores, though those scores come from different score distributions. In this research, the conversion of each raw score into a Z-score made the participant’s mean score on each scale comparable to other participants’ scores. This procedure enabled the researcher to identify which scale had the highest mean score for each participant. The researcher concluded that the scale with the highest Zscore was the position of the participant’s ICS developmental stage.

Results The general description of the 170 participants from Bina Nusantara University was as follows: (a) Based on sex: 97 were male (57%), 73 female (43%); (b) Based on age: Age range 20–24 years old; 116 (68%) were 21 years old, 37 (22%) were 22 years old, ten (6%) were 20 years old, and seven (4%) were 23 years old. The general description of the 147 participants from other private universities in Jakarta was as follows: (a) Based on university: University X (X religion based) 52 (35.4%), University Y (Y religion based) 51


(34.7%), and University A (A religion based) 44 (29.9%); (b) Based on age: Age range 20–27 years old; the majority of participants were as follows: 86 (58.5%) were 21 years old, 41 (27.9%) were 22 years old, and 11 (7.5%) were 23 years old. Based on the data gathered from research participants, the researcher was able to describe the participants based on their ICS stage. Table 2 shows the distribution of participants in Bina Nusantara University and other private universities in Jakarta based on their ICS developmental stage. The highest number of Bina Nusantara University participants (49 participants, 29%) were in the Acceptance stage, in which one already accepts and appreciates that there are differences between cultures. Meanwhile, the lowest number of Bina Nusantara University participants (22 participants, 13%) were in the Defense stage, in which one acknowledges cultural differences, but views other cultures as inferior and associates them with negative stereotypes. By comparison, students from other private universities in Jakarta found their highest concentration in the Defense stage (49 participants, 33.3%) and their lowest concentration in the Acceptance stage (18 participants, 12.2%). Table 2: Description of Participants based on ICS Stages Bina Nusantara University ICS Stage Denial Defense Minimization Acceptance Adaptation Total

n 23 22 37 49 39 170

% 14% 13% 22% 29% 23% 100%

Other Private University (Religiously Affiliated) n % 27 18.4% 49 33.3% 29 19.7% 18 12.2% 24 16.3% 147 100%

To enrich the analyses of this research and to determine if there are any significant differences between Bina Nusantara University and other private university students’ ICS, the researcher performed comparative tests of the ICS mean scores of the students. The comparative tests were only for the Defense and Acceptance stages, because the majority of participants in Bina Nusantara University and other private universities were in those two stages. The researcher used an independent sample ttest to compare the ICS scores. There was a significant difference (t(25, 722) = -3.270, p = 0.003) between ICS scores for the Defense scale of

Bina Nusantara University students (M = 4.56, SD = 0.61) and other private universities (M = 5.02, SD = 0.30). The results of the t-test showed that other private university students obtained significantly higher scores in the Defense stage compared to Bina Nusantara University students. Meanwhile, there was also a significant difference (t(65) = 0.047, p = 0.121) between ICS scores for the Acceptance scale of Bina Nusantara University students (M = 5.18, SD = 0.34) and other private universities (M = 4.91, SD = 0.68). The t-test results showed that Bina Nusantara University students had significantly higher scores in the Acceptance stage compared to students from other private universities in Jakarta.

Discussion The results of the ICS overview showed that the majority of Bina Nusantara University students in the sample were in the Acceptance stage. The results indicated that the majority of Bina Nusantara University students were already capable of developing their ICS quality. They could accept the fact that Indonesian culture is different from—but also equal to—foreign cultures. Acceptance of this difference made them able to value, honor, and appreciate other cultures’ values, beliefs, and behavioral patterns. This situation at Bina Nusantara University can be analyzed using Bennett’s opinion about the nature of ICS development. According to Bennett (2004), every person is born and socialized to be ethnocentric (Denial, Defense, and Minimization stages). People with ethnocentric ICS quality will make a judgment in orientation to their own cultural values and beliefs. However, if they spend more time socializing in intercultural environments, there is a strong possibility that their ICS will develop in a more ethnorelative way (Acceptance and Adaptation stages), and they will feel comfortable and able to adapt their judgments and behaviors to match other cultures’ expectations (Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman 2003). As a private educational institution, Bina Nusantara University has a multicultural environment which allows its students to develop their ICS quality in order to move to ethnorelative stages, such as Acceptance and Adaptation. The first reason that Bina Nusantara University has a multicultural environment is because of its openness to accept students who want to study there. Bina Nusantara University does not discriminate against students based on their nationalities, cultural backgrounds, or religions.


Openness to students from any cultural background makes Bina Nusantara University a diverse meeting place for students. The second reason Bina Nusantara University is multicultural is because it frequently holds cultural diversity events. Some examples are “World Cultural Week” in May 2012, “Japanese Culture Week” in 2012 (BINUS International 2012) and 2014 (Youtube.com 2014) and “Korean Culture Week” in 2012 (Facebook.com 2012). These cultural themed events are open to every Bina Nusantara University student. These regular events help Bina Nusantara University students become more open to other cultures. The third reason Bina Nusantara University is multicultural results from its physical and built environment. Bina Nusantara University has many spaces and structures, including gazebos (see Figure 3), that represent other cultures’ signature buildings, such as those of Japan and China. By filling its built environment with gazebos and other foreign structures, Bina Nusantara University helps its students become more familiar with other cultures’ architecture.

Figure 3: Bina Nusantara University’s Gazebo

Research by Margarethe, Hannes, and Wiesinger (2012) and Bradshaw and Biggs (2007) showed that an educational institution can support the development of their students’ ICS by providing courses on cultural diversity topics. Based on the results of a questionnaire and interviews, the researcher found that Bina Nusantara University has a course which discusses cultural diversity issues, called “Character Building: Interpersonal Relationship.” This course is compulsory for fourth semester students from every discipline and teaches strategies to develop interpersonal skills, including a section on building interpersonal relationships in multicultural environments. The researcher believes that this course is another factor that has helped Bina Nusantara University students’ ICS development reach the Acceptance stage. Another significant factor that enables more rapid development of ICS levels is Bina Nusantara University’s use of virtual environments, such as online gaming and Olympic Games (Bingo.binusbinary.club 2015). Coffey et al. (2013), in their empirical research, found that interaction attentiveness, the willingness and effort of individuals to understand what


happens in intercultural interactions, is an important element that produces ICS and can be facilitated by such virtual environments. Finally, a key factor that has resulted in Bina Nusantara University students reaching the Acceptance stage is their widespread experience with other countries’ cultures. Based on the data acquired for this study, 64.7 percent of the Bina Nusantara University participants had had at least one international travel experience. This explanation is in line with the results of Baños (2006) and McMurray (2007), who found that the experience of travelling abroad can improve the quality of one’s ICS. Moreover, it can contribute to the development of ICS because when a person travels abroad he or she is in contact with values, beliefs, and behavioral patterns of other cultures, helping the person achieve a higher, more ethnorelative stage of ICS development. As mentioned earlier, study participants from other private universities in Jakarta were more highly concentrated in the Defense stage. These students maintained their belief that Indonesia’s culture (“Indonesia” as defined by their own lens) is the finest and the only correct culture in the world. Their worldview and judgment of foreign cultures are derogatory and stereotypical. To explain the reasons why the majority of other private university students were in the Defense stage, the researcher analyzed factors that could influence those students’ ICS development. Based on data gathered from the questionnaire and interviews with the study’s participants, the researcher found that the three other private universities (all religion-based), X University, Y University, and A University, do not have a mandatory course which relates to cultural diversity issues. From an interview, the researcher learned that there is a subject called Multiculturalism in X University. However, it is not a mandatory subject. Based on research by Margarethe, Hannes, and Wiesinger (2012) and Bradshaw and Biggs (2007) about the effects of cultural diversity studies on the development of ICS, the researcher assumes that the absence of a mandatory course focused on cultural diversity issues is one of several factors that contribute to these students’ position in the ICS Defense stage. In addition, according to Ameli and Molaei (2012) religious affiliation can be used as an index of communication development. Since religious/faith-based universities can be subject to homogeneity, being a

student on such a campus could reduce the opportunities to develop intergroup communication. Thus, it is not surprising that the ICS level becomes lower on such campuses. To explore further why the majority of students from other private universities are in the Defense stage, the researcher conducted interviews with three participants from that stage. Based on these interviews the researcher determined that at each of the three universities it is rare to find students from foreign cultures, and there are almost never events with multicultural themes. Supporting those interviews are the researcher’s observations about the campuses which, unlike Bina Nusantara University, feature no obvious buildings, symbols, or other physical elements that derive from foreign cultures. Those findings indicate that the environments at X, Y, and A are less proactive about promoting foreign cultures. Based on Bennett’s work (2004) about the role of a multicultural environment on the development of ICS, the researcher concluded that the other universities’ lack of a multicultural environment is one of the key factors that explain why the majority of the participants from those schools are in the Defense stage. Besides our discussion about the ICS stages of the majority of participating students, this study also aimed to discuss the results of our comparison between students in the Defense stage and the Acceptance stage from Bina Nusantara University and other private universities in Jakarta. The results of comparative tests showed that there were significant differences in the scores in the Defense and Acceptance stages between Bina Nusantara University and other private universities. Students from religion-based private universities had higher scores in the Defense stage than Bina Nusantara University students. This condition could have been caused by a number of factors, including their universities’ lack of cultural diversity courses and multicultural programs. Meanwhile, analysis of the Acceptance stage results showed that Bina Nusantara University students had higher Acceptance stage scores than the other universities’ students. This condition could have been caused by a number of factors which strengthened Bina Nusantara University students’ ICS development, including the university’s course offerings on cultural diversity issues, multicultural programs, and architecturally diverse built environment.

Conclusion


According to the ICS comparison of students in private universities in Jakarta, Indonesia, students from non-religion-based universities are at a more advanced ICS stage than students from religion-based universities. However, religion is not the only explanatory-discriminant factor in this case. The ICS stage in college students is also impacted by physical environment, curriculum, and activities organized by the college that intentionally facilitate the development of ICS. In the context of psychotechnology, intervention in those three aspects is recommended for colleges that want to increase the ICS of the community. ICS is one of the central variables that can be learned and developed and plays an important role in predicting the professional survival and success of Indonesian college graduates following the formation of the AEC (ASEAN Economic Community) in 2015.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Anastasia Teoriman: Alumna, Psychology Department, Faculty of Humanities, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia Juneman Abraham: Senior Faculty Member, Psychology Department, Faculty of Humanities, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia. Secretary-General of Asian Psychological Association (APsyA); Head of Organizational Compartment, National Office of Indonesian Psychological Association (Himpsi); Head of Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians - Indonesia Chapter (ABRAindonesia); Editorial Board Member of Asian Journal of Behavioural Studies (ISSN 2398-4295) and Asian Journal of Quality of Life (ISSN: 2398-4279) Johannes A. A. Rumeser: Dean, Faculty of Humanities, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia

The The International International Journal Journal of of Interdisciplinary Interdisciplinary Cultural Studies is is one one of of eight nine thematically Cultural Studies thematically focused journals the family offamily journals that support the focused in journals in the of journals that support Interdisciplinary Social Sciences knowledge community— the Interdisciplinary Social Sciences knowledge its journals, book series, book conference, online and community—its journals, series, and conference community. The journal explores and exemplifies online community. It is a section of The International disciplinary and interdisciplinary Journal of Interdisciplinary Socialpractices Sciences.in the study of human cultures and cultural interactions. The journal explores and exempliﬁes disciplinary As as papers ofpractices a traditional scholarly this andwell interdisciplinary in the study oftype, human journal invites case studies that take the form of cultures and cultural interactions. presentations of practice—including documentation of and exegeses analyzing Associally-engaged well as papers of practices a traditional scholarly type, this the effects of those practices. journal invites case studies that take the form of

presentations of practice—including documentation of The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Cultural socially-engaged practices and exegeses analyzing the Studies is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal. effects of those practices. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Cultural Studies is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal.

ISSN 2327-008X