International Journal of Higher Education Management

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International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) Vol. 1 Number 2

February 2015

International Journal of Higher Education Management Volume 1 Number 2 February 2015 The International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) is approved for listing in EBSCO Host, ProQuest and Cabell`s Directory of Refereed Publication

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A Journal of the Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM) www.ijhem.abrmr.com


February 2015

Mission Statement Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM) The Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM) seeks to contribute to progress and prosperity through research and managerial excellence. It publishes prominent academic journals each year, as well as organizing international academic conferences and delivering high impact training. ABRM is committed to advancing research, education, theory and practice in the field of management. Its various journals provide a respected vehicle for theoretical insights and developments in the field of business, management and economic development. Articles published in these journals empirically examine theory-based knowledge. Its conferences are truly international and aspire to nurture young aspiring academics and well as to ensure interaction with some of the finest minds from academia. ABRM is committed to working to uphold the highest standards of probity and academic rigor in all that its endeavours.

Mission Statement International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) (Print) ISSN 2054 - 9849

(Online) ISSN 2054 -9857

The mission of this journal is to publish empirical research that tests, extends or builds educational management and contributes to the better understanding of the educational sector. All empirical methods including qualitative, quantitative, field, laboratory and combination methods are welcome. In order to be published in IJHEM, a manuscript must make strong experiential and theoretical contributions and highlight the significance of those contributions to the field of educational management and teaching and learning. Thus, preference is given to submissions that test, extend or build strong theoretical frameworks while critically examining issues with high importance for best practice and educational management theory and innovative solutions. IJHEM is committed to working to uphold the highest standards of probity and academic rigor in all that its endeavours. The International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) the editors, the Editorial Board are not responsible for authors’ expressed opinions, views, and the contents of the published manuscripts in the IJHEM. The originality, proofreading of manuscripts and errors are the sole responsibility of the individual authors. All manuscripts submitted for review and publication in the IJHEM go under double-blind reviews for authenticity, ethical issues, and useful contributions. Decisions of the reviewers are the only tool for publication in the IJHEM. Final decision, is, however, taken by the editorial team at IJHEM IJHEM reserve the rights to add, amend, modify, or delete its rules, policies, and procedures affecting its relationship with contributors as deemed necessary by the administration. Any such amendment, modification, addition, or deletion shall not be Reconsidered a violation of the relationship between ABRM and contributors.

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International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) Editors and Editorial Board Editor –in-Chief Dr. P. R. Datta Academy of Business & Retail Management, Middlesex, London, UK Managing Editor Mark T Jones Director, Centre for Innovative Leadership Navigation (CILN), UK Associate Editors Professor Rana Raddawi American University Sarjah, UAE Professor A A Okaredia University of South Africa

Editorial Board Members Professor Chanchal Singh Shantou University, Guandong, China Professor Chiloane-Tsoka Jerminah University of South Africa Professor Mudrajad Kuncoro Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia Professor Malcolm Prentice Soka University, Japan Dr Michael Ba Banutu-Gomez Rowan University, William G. Rohrer College of Business, USA Professor Marie Holm Grenoble Ecole de Management Patricia Nomzamo Jourbet University of Swaziland, Swaziland Prof. Atchara Sriphan Naresuan University, Thailand Dr Igor Todorović University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina Professor Gabriela Marinescu University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Gr.T.Popa”, Romania Professor David R. Borker Manhattanville College, New York, USA Professor ManojKumar Gandhi Jaysingpur College of Arts, Commerce, Science and Computer Science, Maharashtra State, India Latha Krishnadas Mazumder Al Khawarizmi International University, UAE Professor Yaw M. Mensah, Rutgers University, NJ, USA Dr Yoruba Taheerah Mutakabbir Texas Southern University, USA

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Dr Jacqueline Hall University of Sheffield. United Kingdom Professor Huserynova Khatira Academy of Public Administration under the President of Republick of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan Professor Nagaraja Nanje Gowda University of Mysore, India Prof. Lothar Auchter University of Applied Science, Kaiserslautern, Germany Prof. Maria Sheluntcova, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia Professor Aamir Chughtai Forman Christian College, Lahore, Pakistan Prof. Ryszard Borowiecki Cracow University of Economics Poland Prof. Alan James Thompson BPP University, UK Prof. Shushil K Sharna Ball State University, Indiana, USA Professor Sharifah Rohayah Sheikh Dawood Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia Dr. Srinivas Sampalli Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada Ghasemali Sabouri Shafagh University, Mazandaran State, Iran Achalapathi Venkat Kamarajugadda., Osmania University, Hyderabad, India Dr Cletus Akenbor Federal University, Nigeria



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Volume 1 Number 2 February 2015 (Print) ISSN 2054 - 9849

(Online) ISSN 2054 -9857

Statement of Editorial Policy The IJHEM is a scholarly and refereed journal that provides an authoritative source of information for scholars, academicians, and professionals in the fields of Higher Education Management. The journal promotes the advancement, understanding, and practice of teaching and learning. Manuscripts offering theoretical, conceptual, and practical contributions are encouraged.

Aims and Objectives IJHEM is a peer reviewed journal and is a research publication platform for international scholars. Their research can be in any aspect teaching & learning covering the interests of developed and emerging countries alike. The Journal seeks to reach a worldwide readership through print and electronic media. The main aims of the Journal are:  Publish high quality and scholarly empirical based research papers, case studies, reviews in all aspect of teaching & learning, education management and leadership with theoretical underpinnings.  Offer academics, practitioners and researchers the possibility of having in depth knowledge and understanding of the nature of teaching and learning practices and.  Create a forum for the advancement of education management research for the High Education sector.

Readership The readership for this journal include academics, researchers, Departmental/Faculty Heads, professionals engaged in running and managing colleges and universities, policy makers, educational theorists and practitioners as well as anyone who has an interest in education beyond the secondary level stage.

A statement about open access IJHEM is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. IJHEM is committed to publish all full text articles online for immediate open access to readers and there is no charge to download articles and editorial comments for their own scholarly use.

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International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) Volume 1 Number 2 February 2015 Editorial Comments This edition of the International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) contains nine thoroughly researched and scholarly articles. Conforming to the Academy’s editorial policy, they have been selected such that the basic objective of dissemination of knowledge both applied and theoretical is adhered to. These articles speak volumes of the current dynamic within the higher education sector. Leadership and management teams are facing multiple challenges and increased demand as never before. Where once there was a degree of uniformity about the types of offering, now shifting expectations and demands from various stakeholders means that higher education institutions are not only having to manage scarce resources with greater skill, but need to be cognizant of unprecedented levels of scrutiny. At IJHEM we are fully committed to a robust selection process and from the outset seek to ensure that this academic journal makes a positive and purposeful contribution to the understanding of issues affecting higher education management. I wish to salute the successful contributors for their endeavours and feel confident that others will find this journal both engaging and worthy of considerable thought. The first article in this edition is entitled: Education Reforms and Development in Japan Language and Culture Education for Global Competitiveness by D. Wilkinson. Those familiar with Japan’s history will be aware that for a considerable period of its history Japan consciously chose to shut itself off from the wider world. Japan’s policy of sakoku (isolationist foreign policy) came to an end following the intervention of Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy in the mid-nineteenth century and the signing of the Convention of Kanagawa (1854). Having been largely hermetically sealed from events further afield throughout the latter part of the nineteenth century Japan gradually opened itself up to external influences and in some cases readily embraced them. Wilkinson’s paper is a timely reminder that whilst Japan has changed beyond recognition in some respects there is an increasing awareness that the homogeneous nature of its society and a tendency towards introspection has hampered Japan when it comes to higher education. For all Japan’s economic success in the decades post-1945 this paper elucidates the fact that there are a number of trends that have caused misgivings about the country’s ability to compete long term, namely a falling birth rate, an ageing population and a perception of poor proficiency when it comes to use of the English language. We are reminded that a university education is not an end in itself and these days must be viewed with regards to employability and skills that a graduate bringing to the world of work. Higher education institutions are very familiar with the charge that they are not educating students to meet the needs of the business community, but it would appear that Japan has serious concerns as to whether its current approach is delivering the results that it needs. In highlighting the issue of the study of English, Wilkinson and his extensive literature review makes it clear that embracing English as the language of globalisation is not as easy as it might seem. Elsewhere there is a realisation that competitive advantage is tied up with offering degree programmes in English; in France for instance a number of highly prestigious institutions v



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have chosen to follow the English language route, a decision which has caused considerable angst and in some quarters dismay and anger. This paper makes clear that the a number of stakeholders including the national government, business and even universities themselves recognise that a problem exists and as a consequence have begun a series of initiatives aimed at equipping Japanese students accordingly. The fact that Japan will host the 2020 Olympics would appear to have concentrated minds further and the steps taken by Soka University provide a fascinating insight into the difficulties faced and the measures taken. The author makes clear that Soka University is not alone in endeavouring to address a range of issues, yet the fact that it is a private education institution reminds us of the importance of being both relevant to the needs of students and to the wider society. Linguistic competitiveness, certainly for an entire nation cannot rest solely with the efforts of the private sector and thus it is important for us to appreciate what Wilkinson mentions in regard to such an ambition being a national effort, one that involves providing not merely leadership, but appropriate funding and resources. The second paper is entitled: The efficiency of a University Teaching and Learning Training Program (UTL) on Developing the Teaching Competencies of the Teaching Staff at Al Iman Mohammed Ibn Saud Islamic University by Alrowaithi and Al Saleem. Saudi Arabia’s higher education sector has undergone a period of unprecedented growth in recent years, with a particularly interesting aspect of this expansion being the increase in the number of young women furthering their studies. The Arab World is not alone in having at times appeared to have neglected the preparation of those pursuing the path of teaching and lecturing and thus this research affords a timely opportunity to explore an issue of relevance to all who are desirous of an effective higher education sector. Traditionally students have often been viewed as empty vessels to be filled with the knowledge and wisdom of those charged with educating them, this approach has often been compounded by certain cultural norms and expectations, a fact that none of us can afford to ignore. The fact that this research takes as its focus female teachers and lecturers is significant and this alone raises a range of questions around the issue of gender, perception, societal expectations and local context. Alrowaithi and Al Saleem were certainly ambitious in endeavouring to see whether the UTL they examined should be applied nationally. Whilst some might raise questions over the size of the study, the core focus is relevant to all educational institutions, not just in Saudi Arabia but throughout the globe. The issue of the “chain of influence” is an important one and those in leadership and management roles all need to ensure effective training, the question is how do we go about measuring effectiveness and quantifying its outcomes? This research does at least attempt to explore some of these issues. It findings are revealing, especially when we examine the role of self awareness, appraisal, security and professional support. In discovering that the asking of questions was only moderately impacted by the training program I found myself wondering what ownership the participants in the training had on the training itself and whether they had been afforded the opportunity to shape future training sessions. Further insight into local cultural conditions and the role of gender, especially in a leadership and management capacity would have added to this research. Whilst invariably a case can be made for expanding or rolling out training it would have been useful to discover something of the practicalities in this regard and whether those delivering and receiving the said UTL program vi



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were satisfied with the time and resources allocated. We all would do well to reflect on the support provided to those at the sharp end of working wonders via teaching and lecturing and whether locally or nationally can benefit considerably by re-examining our own programs and their effectiveness. Those in leadership positions in higher education have never been keener to gain insight into market segmentation, a topic which if addressed effectively can not only increase student footfall, but potentially help an institution consolidate its areas of expertise as well as enhancing its reputation. The third paper in this volume: Teaching Market Segmentation: The Eight Step Process by Guzman offers not only a logical means of enabling students to understand market segmentation more effectively it provides a useful template for management and leaders endeavouring to understand their target clientele. The author makes clear that he; “seeks to update the segmentation curriculum”, this is in itself a laudable aim, assuming of course that there is a general consensus that the curriculum is not fit for purpose. Emphasis is placed on collaborative and heuristic learning, a feature that is as important to the world of work as it is to academia. One of the greatest challenges faced by those responsible for designing and managing any academic programme is to ensure that it is relevant, practicable and able to be assimilated and applied in real life situations. In explaining the various steps of the said process one of the merits of this method is its clarity and accessibility of the language and examples deployed to explain them. When explaining Step 5 - Operationalizing the selected variables the author talks of the process not being an exact science, the same is true of Higher Education Management. The fact that we are dealing with human beings and not automatons goes a long way to explain the variables that have the potential to challenge research findings and implementation processes. The world of education requires reflection, re-evaluation and the desire to find improvements, for if we fail to test, appraise and develop we surely stagnate as a society. What has been presented in this Eight Step Process is an attempt to offer an improvement aimed not only at engagement and comprehension, but also in application in the world beyond the classroom or lecture theatre. Guzman reminds us that we must not sit back and be content with the status quo, but should work assiduously to ensure that we equip students with the necessary skills, insight and understanding to move from the theory to implementation. As in all such formulae the ultimate test of their effectiveness lies with those who use them and thus let us hope that over time evidence is garnered that will enable a measured and thorough examination of whether The Eight Step Process enhances the teaching of market segmentation and helps optimise its understanding and application. The fourth paper of this edition: Financial Management of Higher Education Institutions with reference to Financing, Pricing, Accounting Standards and Gaps in Practices in Universities and Colleges by M.M. Gandhi tackles head on one of the fundamental challenges facing education for the foreseeable, namely funding. Whilst education is viewed as a societal good, one that has been able to be measured with varying degrees of success the fact that resources are not limitless raises questions about foresight planning, efficiencies and the allocation of resources. Gandhi makes it clear that India as the world’s largest democracy and as the country that has the largest education sector is faced with the prospect of having to address the issue of burden sharing. In common with most other countries India has realised that the financing of higher education vii



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from the public purse (i.e. from general taxation) in the medium to long term will not be sustainable. Whilst India’s expansion of the higher education sector since Independence has been impressive the author now believes the point has been reached where there will need to be some form of; “shifting the financial burden to the individual domain from the social domain”. Many countries have already begun to journey along a similar path and as a consequence faculties, departments and courses have been assessed for their economic viability and many discontinued with the resultant loss of jobs, expertise and choice. The profit and loss approach to higher education is enormously controversial and raises important questions as to the exact purpose of education and research within society. This paper shines a light on the disparities between the expansion in student numbers, in India’s case an increase of 600% over the last three decades and the fact that the numbers of faculty members has only increased by 400% over the same period. Little wonder then that there is a perception of deteriorating standards, with considerable discussion ensuing as to the reasons for such a decline, assuming that the said decline has existed. Gandhi nails his colours firmly to the mast when he states that the higher education system in India is in a; “critical state – resistant to change” and his opinion; “in danger of becoming irrelevant”. Whilst he lays out reasons given by others for this supposed decline, he fails to explain his own trenchant criticism. Equally on the issue of loans to developing countries the author states that one of the conditions for such loans was a 10% cut in investment in higher education, yet there are no sources quoted or referenced to support this. The reader is given a useful insight into how successive Indian administrations have endeavoured to address higher education. Change or the need for change has not been helped by the fact that there are multiple layers when it comes to funding and what is more education funding has become highly politicised and thus hotly contested. Furthermore the issues of transparency and auditing would appear to be matters of concern and therefore Gandhi advocates a measure of restructuring, something which could well prove a monumental task, particularly in India where bureaucracy and inertia are often seen as reigning supreme. To those unfamiliar with the Indian higher education sector it would be unwise to generalise and for all the wealth of challenges that exist there are a number of innovative and exciting initiatives that illustrate India’s ability to excel in a domain it holds dear. In theory higher education institutions should be at the forefront of data collection and data mining, but in reality there is often a culture of resistance when it comes to optimising information systems. The next paper: The Use of Education Management Information Systems in Higher Education Institutions: An Empirical Investigation of the Effect of Degree of Interactivity by El Said highlights something of the opportunities currently available and the reluctance of some to adopt and utilise the technology currently available. In recent decades we have witnessed in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) a gradual recognition that attitudes and approaches need to change, that said if one examines the spread of the likes of Top Quality Management (TQM) the process in many countries has been painfully slow. Bodies such as the Universities and Colleges Information System Association (UCISA) have come in to being in the United Kingdom, but El Said is clear that an absence of appropriate technology or a lack of adequate resources continues to hamper greater usage of Education Management Information Systems. In addition generational differences and the prevailing mindset amongst leadership and viii



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management must be significant factors, as there are many who are not only fearful of technological change, but who also find it difficult to comprehend its potential and thus are reluctant to prioritise introduction and sanction the funding streams required. This research provides some fascinating insights and its findings have lessons that are relevant far beyond the institutions that were included. One aspect that resonated with me in particular was with regard to perception, as this is often plays a key role either in the ready adoption of processes or the marked reluctance to embrace change. In my experience (and I believe that I am far from being alone in this respect) are often seats of reactionary opinion and thus bulwarks against change. The subject of technology, its relevance, purpose and effectiveness often engenders fear and thus is resisted by individuals regardless of their ideological standpoint. This research makes use of number of highly respected models and thus is given added weight. Whilst we are told that more females than males participated it would have been interesting to discover whether there were any differences in the findings in regards to gender. Equally, the age range could well be telling, as it is reasonable to assume that younger participants might well be more open to deploying new technology. The findings certainly have much to tell us and raise questions about how higher education institutions set about not only collecting data, but ensuring that it is interpreted in a judicial and impartial manner. Sadly, there are those who fear that the primary objective behind data collection is to use it to justify departmental closures and carry out job cuts. El Said has certainly produced a stimulating piece of research that provides food for considerable thought. It seems appropriate that for our sixth paper we now move from institutional use of information systems to individual student confidence with new technology. Computer Self Efficacy, Computer-related Technology Dependence and On-Line Learning Readiness of Undergraduate Students by Chinaza et al is a timely study, especially when one thinks about how higher education institutions go about measuring their value-added impact. At the core of this research is self-believe, something which is crucial to personal development. Computer self-efficacy in any society is bound to be influenced by socio-economic factors, chiefly the ability to afford and access technology, as well as gender, where in many societies males are deemed either more worthy of being furnish with new technology, or where new technology is viewed as largely a male orientated domain. As universities and colleges require confident independent learners it is essential that all students regardless of gender or economic background be able to operate efficiently and with discernment. In quoting the research of Shu, Tu and Wang (2011) this paper raises the subject of “technostress”, something which this research would appear to show dissipates with greater student ITC usage. Interestingly the findings also show that whilst males appear to have an advantage earlier on, female students readily embrace and use new technology, a point that has clear implications for policy makers as well as those within HEIs endeavouring to ease the transition for freshmen and women. Whilst this research has considerable merit, it would have been interesting to read more about the Nigerian context, not least because as Africa’s most populous nation there would appear to be wide regional disparities, something that would surely have a bearing on the nature of research of this nature. In addition when exploring the issue of on-line learning readiness there would also be differences in areas of study, a fact that itself would be significant, as we appreciate that males ix



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and females often prefer to opt for different degree programmes. Those in leadership and management roles can benefit considerably from working to understand the levels students are at upon their arrival and thus it is clear that this cogent analysis of important topic adds to our understanding of an issue that is set to take on an ever greater significance as ITC becomes ever more fundamental to pedagogy and andragogy across the globe. Our next paper is entitled: Nexus between Quality of Higher Education and Economic Development: The Indian Story by Lobo. The contribution that higher education makes to national development is a perennial point of discussion. We have already seen in an earlier paper that for a country the size of India its importance cannot be underestimated and yet ensuring value for money is far from certain. Both M. M. Gandhi and Radhika Lobo provide the reader with some idea of the local context, yet even here we see disparities that are both telling and a warning to academics, policy makers and students alike. A case in point when comparing the two papers is with regards to the figures quoted concerning the number of universities and colleges in India at the time of Independence, Gandhi’s paper states; “There were only 20 universities and about 500 colleges at the time India attained independence.” whilst Lobo makes mention of their being; “26 universities and 695 colleges at the time of independence”. India’s progress in many respects has been remarkable, but for all this Lobo still reminds us that India has the lowest Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of any of the so-called BRICS economies. Her point about the need to; “harness the energies of youth” is well made and for all the existing strategies the main point of focus would still need to be in broadening access and reducing regional/state disparities. Universities and colleges the world over are in a constant quest to demonstrate their quality and relevance and this would appear to be equally true of the higher education in India. The issue of funding is a complex one, a source of constant anxiety to those in leadership and management. Yet for all the examples of undoubted success when it comes to development there is clearly a feeling of angst, particularly in regards to progress made by China. The author makes the point that the; “Chinese system is more directly focused on quality”, a comment that some might see as somewhat unfair on India, as Communist China has the ‘advantage’ of total central planning and direction, whilst in India the workings of democracy, regional states and bureaucracy acts as a collective break on rapid change. The enormity of the task must not be underestimated and for those looking for quick and easy solutions, well they are likely to remain elusive. Lobo lays out with clarity a number of challenges and we would do well to reflect on the value of India finding Indian solutions for Indian problems. That said, whilst India may well be facing challenges on a far grander scale, all higher education providers can empathise with what is taking place and in actuality acknowledge that many of the challenges are universal. The penultimate paper in this edition comes from the Middle East and is entitled: The Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Student Achievement from a Faculty Members’ Perspective at the World Islamic Science & Education University, Jordan by Yahaya & Al Hadid. Funding and day to day staffing issues often result in those in leadership and management roles losing sight of students at individuals. This relatively small piece of research helps us re-focus upon those that an institution is meant to serve, namely the students themselves. Key to whether students fulfil their potential is the rapport that they establish with teaching staff and thus an exploration of x



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Emotional Intelligence (EI) is always something of value. Educators recognise that self-worth and academic achievement go hand in hand and as a consequence those Higher Education institutions that fail to factor this into their thinking are likely to be less effective. The literature review provided here helps appraise us with current thinking and provides a useful backdrop for the research itself. Here we see a piece of research that benefits considerably from the clarity of the questions at its core. Societal norms and expectations are enormously important and thus no study of this nature can afford to ignore the role of hierarchy and religion. Jordan as a patriarchal society that has the teachings of Islam at its heart is bound to have certain codes that shape behaviour. That said, this research elucidates a number of issues that are common to all higher education institutions and therein lies its merit. The issue of gender is a significant one, especially when it comes to perception; males (especially older males) in academia are often seen as holding entrenched views and thus viewed as conservative and even at times reactionary, something that likely to create distance and possibly fear. Such a finding is further complicated by the fact that within Arab societies age is associated with wisdom and thus deserving of respect. The findings concerning the differences between attitudes to those who hold PhDs and Masters degrees are interesting and warrant further examination both with regards to the training and support provided to staff and whether students are encouraged to accord all staff with respect or are inculcated with a culture of deference for those with elite qualifications. Al Hadid’s research is certain to stimulate discussion, but as someone who has himself lived and worked in Jordan for two years, I feel that it raises further questions about societal change. The higher education sector and societies in which they operate are in a state of flux and we need to be alive to the fact that what held true several decades ago may well not hold true now. Even conservative societies are undergoing a period of unprecedented change and thus it is more important than ever that we work assiduously to appreciate the role and importance of Emotional Intelligence. The final paper is entitled: Effective Management of Teaching – Learning and Working Conditions in Vocational Education in Nigeria by Ahaiauzu Levi Uche. Society places considerable emphasis on what it expects from Higher Education institutions, but invariably pays scant attention to how this is achieved. Employment is often seen as an end in itself, yet regardless of one’s field of endeavour job satisfaction is generally agreed to be integral to positivity and productivity. When we talk of good working conditions it is important to have an agreed set of norms, and this is as true of the world of education as it is of any other area of employment. Where this paper could be further be strengthened is in regards to seeking define “good working conditions”, whether these come from a key ministry, unions or specific institutions. The author points out that there is a paucity of literature on this subject when it comes to Nigeria and this in itself should be a matter of concern. Whilst some naturally point the finger at the Ministry of Education, there could be multiple reasons for such perceived inaction, geographic distance, under staffing, differing priorities can all play their part. Equally, the lexicon often frames the debates and can either result in a polarised stance or one of constructive engagement. Employees often feel aggrieved or ignored, whilst ministry officials become defensive and somewhat prickly. Agreed standards are essential as is a forward plan that invests in staff with a xi



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view to measuring outcomes and efficiencies. The ‘Us and Them’ attitude that poisons relations is something that is both counterproductive for individual institutions as well as for the nation as a whole. What would be helpful would be examples of best practice, as these provide practical templates for others to move forward. Nigeria in common with other developing nations is experiencing growing pains and it is inevitable that there is frustration with existing structures and mechanisms. This paper makes it clear that there is considerable disquiet on the ground in educational institutions, something that damages morale, productivity and staff retention. It is important that this is not seen as Nigerian problem, in point of fact it is one that is recognised the world over. What matters is that there is acknowledgement that problems exist and that commitments are made to affect positive change that involve all stake holders. This paper highlights some familiar problems, that rather than being ignored deserve to be addressed in a measured and sympathetic manner as part of a national development strategy. This edition of IJHEM has brought to our attention a range of issues that whilst they may have regional perspectives or focus have a relevance that is universal. When authors themselves reflect on their work it would be helpful to hear more about how they feel their research will benefit others, as well as balancing this with comments as to particular limitations. We all need to be open to new ideas and to seek fresh perspective and insights, and I look forward to IJHEM continuing to play its role as a means of broadening horizons as well as being a conduit for academic papers that add to the body of human knowledge and understanding.

Mark T Jones Managing Editor of the International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) and Director of the Centre for Innovative Leadership Navigation (CILN), London, UK

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International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) Volume 1 Number 1 August 2014 www.ijhem.abrmr.com

Contents Editorial Articles

Page no.

Educational Reforms and Development in Japan: Language and Culture Education for Global Competitiveness Darrell Wilkinson

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The efficiency of a University Teaching and Learning Training Program (UTL ) on Developing the Teaching Competencies of the Teaching Staff at AlImam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University Eman Mohammad Alrowaithi; Basmah Issa Tlelan Al Saleem

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Teaching Market Segmentation: The Eight Step Process Francisco Guzmán

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Financial Management of Higher Educational Institutions- with reference to Financing, Pricing, Accounting Standards and Gaps in Practices in Universities and Colleges M.M. Gandhi

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The Use of Education Management Information Systems in Higher Education Institutions: An Empirical Investigation of the Effect of Degree of Interactivity Ghada Refaat El Said

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Computer Self Efficacy, Computer-related Technology Dependence and On-line Learning Readiness of Undergraduate Students Nwosu Kingsley Chinaza; Achukwu Chimezie B; Akuezilo Juliana; Uzoekwe Helen Efeyaelu

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Nexus Between Quality of Higher Education and Economic Development: The Indian story Radhika Lobo

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The Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Students' Achievement from Faculty Members' Perspectives at the World Islamic Sciences &Education University Shama Yahaya Bader Al Hadid

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Effective Management of Teaching-Learning and Working Conditions in Vocational Education in Nigeria Ahiauzu Levi Uche

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Educational Reforms and Development in Japan: Language and Culture Education for Global Competitiveness DARRELL WILKINSON

Soka University, Tokyo, Japan World Language Center

Keywords Japanese Education, Educational Reform, Globalization, Curriculum Design, Bilingual Education, English as a Lingua Franca

Due to an increase in globalization, international business, and the Tokyo Olympics being held in 2020, Japan faces a growing need to develop a population with the English language skills and cultural awareness needed for global success. The need to address these goals has been noted by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) who is spending large amounts of money on various initiatives in schools, universities, and businesses across Japan. This papers outlines some of the key policy changes and educational initiatives that are being spearheaded by MEXT in order to develop the Japanese populous’ English language proficiency and to create a more international higher education system in order for Japan to remain competitive on the global arena. These initiatives will then be framed within the concept of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) or English as an international language (EIL). Finally, this paper specifically describes a number of programs, all of which have received considerable funding from MEXT, that have been developed at one university in Tokyo to develop globally minded bilingual individuals capable of performing in international academic or business contexts. Results of some of these programs are described in terms of language gains, study abroad placement, and post-graduation employment statistics.

1. Introduction: Educational Reforms and Development in Japan The perceived ineffectiveness of the Japanese education system in developing individuals who are able to communicate effectively in English has provoked widespread calls for change from the businesses, politicians, educators, and the general public (Butler, 2007). In response to such criticisms of the English education system, along with concerns over other issues such as the falling number of Japanese students studying abroad, and the relatively low number of international exchange students coming to Japan, the Ministry of Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has implemented a number of educational reforms and initiatives in Elementary schools and universities over the last few years, and is recommending an overhaul of the university entrance exam system in order to shift the focus of high school English education from grammar and reading to a more four-skills, communicative approach (Shimamura, 2013, 2014). In addition, the trend of increasing focus on content and language integrated curricula in Japan has led to a dramatic increase in the number of universities offering such programs. According to Miichi (2010), over 190 universities offered English-medium content courses in 2008.

1 A Journal of the Academy of Business and Retail Management (ABRM)

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A number of these initiatives and changes will be outlined and discussed below in order to show the degree to which these issues are considered important to the current Japanese government. However, before moving on to specific actions taken by the government, it is prudent to provide a summary of a recent statement issued by the chief minister of MEXT, which shows the centrality of the issues of globalization and global competiveness to Japan: As globalization takes root in numerous fields, and global spanning issues like environmental problems emerge, no one country can stand alone. Faced with the issues of the falling birth rate and aging population, which is decreasing the working-age population, Japan has no other course than to enhance the capabilities of each and every citizen through education if it wants to continue to grow as an affluent nation and keep its position within the world. It is paramount that Japan focuses on its higher education system, particularly through internationalization of universities, in order to foster highly capable people with a global perspective and abilities who can play an active role in many fields and strengthen Japan’s international competiveness. (Shimamura, 2013). As seen above, globalization and internationalization seem to be very important issues for the Japanese government, and the initiatives and changes in the education system outlined below indicate the role that English as a foreign language (EFL) plays, and highlights the steps government is taking in practical terms to address Japan’s perceived needs.

2. Main Body Changes to Elementary School EFL Education MEXT formally released its revised plans for the EFLcurriculum within the elementary school system in 2008 and 2009 (Yoshida, 2009). However, although beyond the scope of this paper, as noted by (Mondejar et al, 2012), MEXT has still not made it clear to teachers and administrators how the new policies should be implemented. In addition, very little pedagogical training seems to have been provided to teachers working under this new curriculum. However, the changes that have now been implemented in the Japanese elementary schools system are briefly outlined below. From2011 English was implemented for 5th and 6th graders for the first time on a national level. This new EFL focus took the form of one 45-minute English lesson held once a week with a focus on simple verbal communication (singing songs and playing games). However, English is not an officially required subject, but instead is offered as part of an ‘International Understandings Studies’ curriculum(McKenzie, 2010). However, it has recently been reported that the Education Ministry is considering starting English education from the third grade by 2020. In addition, in response to a government education panel’s call for “developing human resources needed in this age of globalization”, they are considering increasing lessons for fifth- and sixth-graders to three times a week, as well as upgrading them to “full-fledged language classes” with more focus on spoken and written English. (MEXT, 2014). It could be argued that this focus on introducing EFL at a younger age is a major step towards bringing Japanese language education closer to that of other countries.


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Global 30 This 5-year plan was launched in 2009 to attract 300,000 exchange students to Japanese universities. Under this plan, significant financial support was given to 13 universities with the goal of creating a university-wide international environment. This plan was in part a result of the falling exchange rate student numbers at the time (Shimamura, 2013), but also in response to general criticisms of the university education system from the professional or business sector, which was said to lack the international level education and research output of other developed countries. However, this program has been widely viewed as unsuccessful as international students enrollment increased by only 12,000 from 16,000 in 2008 to 28,000 in 2013 (Shimamura, 2013) as a result, which is a long way off the target of 300,000. However, under this program, 155 new English-only degree programs were created, and as Japanese students are able to take these degrees, it has been noted that an indirect although not yet quantifiable benefit, is increasing the English proficiency and international perspectives of Japanese university students at these universities. In addition, as students taking these courses have first-hand experience of studying in English with international students, a further result could be an increased interest in, and ability to succeed in study abroad opportunities for Japanese students, something which has also been noted as a key goal of MEXT in previous years (Shimamura, 2013, 2014. MEXT, 2014).

Top Global University Project 37 universities have been accepted (13 type A & 24 Type B) to this new initiative which aims to facilitate system reforms through 10 years of financial support. According to MEXT (2014), the aim is to bolster the international competitiveness of Japanese higher education research and teaching thorough internationalization and university reform; developing international-level educational research. There is a focus on supporting universities in internationalization through inviting educational experts from foreign universities and creating new opportunities for young foreign faculty. Again, according to MEXT (2013, 2104), the plan is to create 1,500 new full-time faculty positions for “young and foreign faculty members”. With regard to language, specifically English, the plan aims increase the number of courses carried out in English, reduce student-teacher ratios in language classes, and double the number of Japanese students studying abroad, and the number of foreign students studying in Japan by 2020.Each of the 13 Type A universities will receive ¥420 million (USD 3.9 million) annually in subsidies, and each of the 24 Type B universities will receive ¥170 million (USD 1.6 million) annually. Therefore, this significant amount of spending is another example of how Japan is aiming to create a more international educational environment to improve Japan’s global competiveness, and English education plays a significant role in this plan.

Changes to employment within JET program and ALTs in general In recent years there have been a number of changes to the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) program, a program which sends young foreign graduates into Japanese elementary, junior and senior high schools to work as assistant language teachers (ALTs), predominantly in an EFL context. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss all of the changes in the program,


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but some of the main issues are described. First, there is a shifting focus in terms of the native language of JET English teachers. In 2000, 90% of ALTs on the JET program came from USA, Canada, UK, Australia, NZ (in order), but by 2008, only 2,701 out of 4,707 (57%) came from these countries (McKenzie, 2010). This, it has been argued, has shown a shift away from requiring native speaker models (inner circle), and a move to more world Englishness such as those spoken by expanding or outer circle speakers of English (McKenzie, 2010). In addition, the number of ALTs is increasing, not just through JET, but also through other employment opportunities. There are currently about 10,000 English speakers working as ALTs in Japan, but this set to increase due to the changes in elementary school English education described above (Shimamura, 2103, MEXT, 2014).

Private Sector Initiatives: Cool Japan There have been a number of initiatives carried out by other governmental departments such as the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Tourism. An example of one such initiative is the proposal to create ‘Special English Zones’ which refers to specific areas of Japan where English would be established as one of the primary languages of business “in an effort to strengthen Japan’s ability to participate in international cultural and economic exchanges in the lead-up to the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.” (Japan Today, 2014). It has been proposed that companies within the zones that adopt English as their working language will be eligible for tax deductions. This idea falls under the broader campaign called ‘Cool Japan’ which aims to promote various aspects of Japanese culture and society to raise the profile of the country and increase international business and tourism. In addition to the ‘Special English Zones’, other proposals under the ‘Cool Japan’ initiative include providing funding to TV networks to increase the number of bilingual broadcasts and programs using English subtitles, and either employing or recruiting volunteers comprising of speakers of numerous foreign languages to assist tourists visiting Japan during the 2020 Olympics. As seen above, it is not just within the education system that the Japanese government is trying to improve and expand the use of English within Japan. There is also a great deal of time, effort, and money being spent on increasing the use of English within the private sector.

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) or International language (EIL) Although there seem to be numerous positive steps being taken in terms of English language education in Japan, there are still a number of problems or issues being widely discussed. One such issue relates to what form of English should be taught in Japan. According to McKenzie (2010), a third of the world’s population are speakers of English, and English is increasingly spoken as a lingua franca “between individuals from different nations who have learned English as a foreign language as well as to communicate with speakers who have learned English as first language and/or in the former colonies, in all likelihood, as a second language.” (p. 2). The fact that a large proportion of people now speak English as a foreign or other language, and that a great deal of English interactions involve speakers whose first language is not English, and therefore, may not represent a ‘native model’ calls into question what form of


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English should be taught to learners of EFL. In fact, whether the term EFL should be used at all has been questioned, with many calling for the terms ELF (English as a Lingua Franca), or EIL (English as an International Language) to be used instead. This point is noted in McKenzie (2010) who states that “the increasing use of English for international purposes calls into question the validity of the notion that those who have learned English as a first language can claim its sole ownership. Indeed, for many, English may no longer be associated with specific countries in, for instance, the US, the UK or Australia … for the time being English as Lingua Franca (ELF) and English as an International Language (EIL) as it is still sometimes known, is a fact of life” (p. 3). Given the fact that English can no longer be understood as being a specific or concrete language form such as that used by the British or Americans, but is a language that is used for global communication with many different acceptable and effective forms, the pedagogical question is what should learners of English strive for; ‘native-like proficiency’ or just proficiency. Kirkpatrick (2012) states that the goal of English education among the outer and expanding circle countries should be set at the level of successful ELF users rather than that of Native Speakers. As noted in Block (2010), the fact that most learners are presented with an unrealistic and unnecessary goal of reaching native-like proficiency, and that global pedagogical practices such as communicative language teaching (CLT) that were developed in one context such as the UK or the US, but are then imported and used by teachers in other contexts and cultures without giving thought to their suitability to learners from different backgrounds with different goals, is an issue of importance. Adopting a CLT approach using western designed materials and models, and expecting learners to reach native proficiency is not always well suited to the purposes and goals of many students, but is nevertheless what is often expected by course designers and administrators. In addition, materials do not always represent situations and context in a real way, something which can cause problems for students when they study abroad or encounter English for real world purposes. For example, how are we preparing Japanese learners to cope with real world English’s spoken in business or academic contexts by non-native speakers from places such as China, India, and Singapore after years of being exposed only to British or American English? In other words, how are materials that present inner circle models (McKenzie, 2010) of English preparing students for communication with English speakers from outer or expanding circles, which now represent the majority of English speakers worldwide? It has been stated that approximately 70% of business interactions carried out by Japanese employees take place with non-native speakers of English (Bircan, 2013), however, current curriculums and materials used in Japan present only native-speaker models. Especially in terms of understanding accents and vocabulary of non-native speakers of English, Japanese students are not being well prepared for real world or international English. These issues are not discussed in any meaningful way within the Japanese English education context. While, as mentioned, there have been positive steps towards providing English instruction that does not focus on inner circle models in Japan (see the section on JET program developments), there is still clearly a strong preference for inner circle models in terms


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of teachers, textbooks, materials and standardized test (Block, 2010; McKenzie, 2010). As a result, Japanese learners, even those who have reached a relatively high level of English proficiency, are often unprepared or unequipped to communicate, especially in terms of spoken discourse, with other speakers of English as a foreign language. This point has been repeatedly mentioned by my students who have come back from study abroad experiences in places such as China, the Philippines, India and Europe; they are fine when talking to British or American speakers, but have serious difficulties in comprehending local speakers of English. For many students, not only is this situation surprising, but can also be very demotivating or embarrassing. Therefore, English education that offers students the realistic and attainable goal of reaching proficiency not native-level, that focuses on communication, and which provides listening materials and language taken from real world use is needed in Japan. The next part of this paper describes some programs that have been developed at one private university with these goals in mind. One of these programs have been recognized by MEXT as an exemplary program, and all of them can be seen to fit into the current Japanese government’s educational goals as described in the first part of this paper.

Case Study: Programs at Soka University aimed at developing globally minded bilingual graduates Soka University, a private university in western Japan, has a relatively long history of creating and developing intensive programs aimed at equipping learners with high-level English proficiency. These programs also aim to develop various academic and business skills needed for success in international academic and business contexts. First, this paper will provide a fairly detailed overview of the longest running program; the International Program (IP), which has been running for more than 10 years, and which has received significant levels of funding from MEXT, and has been acknowledged for its innovative practices and success in terms of language gains and employment statistics. Then, a number of newer programs will be briefly described; however, as these are newer programs, less quantitative results are available.

The International Program: Curriculum Design and Assessment The International Program (IP) in the Department of Economics at Soka University hopes to serve as a model of effective English, content and skills development after 12 years of development and assessment. According to Aloiau (2008), “The IP is an intensive Englishmedium economics program that provides academic preparation for undergraduate and graduate study-abroad, and preparation for students’ future employment in international contexts.” (p. 108).The program was recognized for distinctive good practice by the Japanese Ministry of Education under its Distinctive University Education Assistance Programs in 2007. After two years of initial piloting, “the IP was officially established in 2001 to meet the needs of Soka University economic majors who aspire to achieve one or more goals” (Aloiau, 2008, p. 108). Many students highlighted a desire to (1) study economics-related content in English, (2) to gain high proficiency in English as a foreign language (EFL), and (3) to gain the skills and knowledge necessary to study abroad at undergraduate or graduate level, or (4) to work in an


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international context. Therefore, a curriculum was designed that would allow students to attain these goals.

The International Program Curriculum Level 1, Semester 1.Due to the challenging nature of EFL learners taking Englishmedium content courses (Grabe and Stoller, 1994), combined with the IP goals of developing relatively high EFL skills, highly intensive EAP courses were designed. In the first semester, students do not take any English-medium economics courses. However, they take six hours of English classes, which involve substantial (10-15 hours) out-ofclass work per week. The focus of these courses is to increase students’ English ability in order to be successful on their upcoming English-medium economic courses, , improve study skills, and help with the attainment of increased standardized test scores, such as TOEFL and TOEIC. Material and content used as a medium for skills such as reading, writing and listening also serve the purpose of introducing students to a variety of economic themes. Level 1, Semester 2.During the second semester, students not only continue with the above English courses, but also begin taking three hours of an introductory English-medium economics lecture taught by a professor of economics. The economics content lecture, and all related work including outlines of each chapter of the class text, three economics tests, and inclass discussions, is carried out in English. In the EAP classes, not only does the level and complexity of the course materials and activities intensify, but the academic reading and outlining is integrated with the content of the introductory economics course. Level 2, Semesters 3 and 4.Starting in the third semester, the curriculum moves to a fully adjunct format along the CLIL continuum. An EAP Economics Laboratory course is paired with an English-medium microeconomics lecture in the spring semester and a microeconomics lecture in the fall semester. The economics lecture is taught by a professor of economics using English university level textbook. The required coursework includes outlines of textbook chapters, discussion on micro / macroeconomic concepts and a research paper and presentation. The research project consists of a 25+ page paper on the analysis of a business (microeconomics) and the analysis of a country’s economy (macroeconomics). The EAP laboratory course is fully integrated with the economics lecture, focusing on the academic outlining of the textbook chapters, essays on economic themes covered in the lecture and the drafting process for the semester long research project. The focus clearly shifts in Level 2 from the foundational language skills developed in Level 1 to the application of these skills in a university level content course. With the use of a university level English economics text, the advanced economics lecture and a research project, the program provides an immersion-like environment with the support of a fully integrated EAP laboratory. The objective of level 2 is to prepare the students for study abroad coursework in their home country. Level 3, Japan-Asia Studies (JAS) Program. These courses are all specialized, international level, English-medium economics courses taught by either Soka University faculty, or a host of visiting professors from overseas institutions. Students must maintain a GPA of 3.0 over the first four semesters and achieve the required TOEFL ITP test scores of 530 in order to be eligible. The courses typically contain 60-70% international students, and 30-40% IP students. As


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a result, students able to participate in an overseas-like study environment while in Japan. Students can take more than one course per semester, and can access these courses until their graduation. From semester 5, students do not take any EFL courses.

International Experience In order for all students to further improve their English language ability, as well as increase their cultural or global awareness, the university offers a number of study abroad opportunities for all students. Although these programs are not specifically part of the curriculum, many IP students take part in at least one of the programs offered, and as such study abroad for between one and two semesters.

Measurements of Success Gains in TOEFL ITP and TOEIC scores. All students who complete two years on the IP obtain a TOEFL ITP score of 530 out of a maximum of 677 (minimum entry score for semester 4), and many students achieve TOEIC scores of well over 800 (out of 990). Enrolment and Grade Point Average (GPA) performance. In both 2010 and 2011 over 70% of all incoming freshmen in the faculty of economic enrolled in the IP. Furthermore, IP students must maintain a higher than university average GPA average of 3.0. Percentage of participants in study-abroad programs and international internships. Economics students now typically account for almost 50% of all participants on the various programs each year. Job placement and postgraduate education results. Over the last 8 years, between 20 and 45% of IP graduates have obtained jobs within a company listed on the Section 1 of the Tokyo Stock Exchange. Almost 100% of students who complete the full program find full-time employment, or are accepted to postgraduate programs, within one year of graduation, which is much higher than the 2011-12 national average of 63.9% (MEXT, 2012).

Global Citizenship Program (GCP) Soka University launched the Global Citizenship Program (GCP) in April 2010. According to the university website, “The GCP, which is the equivalent of an Honors Program at foreign universities, strives to develop broad humanistic and humanitarian perspectives on global issues for undergraduate students who seek careers on the international stage.” (para 1, n.d.). Unlike the IP, which is only open to Economics majors, the GCP is open to students from any of the faculties. The course involves taking intensive English language courses for two years (4 semesters) which focus on both academic English skills and English medium content in addition to regular classes taught in Japanese. The English component involves 3 hours per week of four-skill instruction with a focus on raising students’ TOEFL test scores. and an additional three hours of content-based instruction on a variety of subjects where students are required to read and listen to academic content, carry out further research, and complete a variety of written and verbal response and synthesis assignments. In the third year, a large number of GCP students study abroad in an English speaking environment, although not necessarily in an inner circle country; many students study in India, the Philippines, or Europe, for example. Therefore, while moss students begin with a TOEFL iBT score of around 40 to 50,


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they are expected to graduate with scores of around 90 to 100, and many of the current third and fourth years students have already attained this level. Based on comments from regular and visiting faculty, and potential employers, students have been credited with not only high levels of English proficiency, but also cultural awareness and international mind-sets. As there are no graduates from this course as of yet, there are no employment statistics, however, over 50% of the current students have already secured either full-time employment or post-graduate study places.

Faculty of Letters Dual Degree Course Another program offered at the university aiming to develop globally minded bilingual speakers, with either Chinese or English as their second language is Faculty of Letters Dual Degree Course. Students who enrol in the Dual Degree Course spend their freshmen and senior years studying at Soka University, where they take either EFL or Chinese as a foreign language courses, although not intensively, but study abroad in their second and third years. They can choose from one of two institutes: Beijing Language and Culture University for those who seek proficiency in Chinese, or England’s University of Buckingham for English-language learners. Those who complete the program are eligible to earn degrees from both Soka University and the foreign university. Due to spending two years studying in the foreign language, most, if not all of these students graduate with high level proficiency in the second language which they have chosen to focus on. Again, very high numbers of these students gain either full-time employment or postgraduate study places by graduation; approximately 85%.

Faculty of International Liberal Arts In 2014 a new faculty, Faculty of International Liberal Arts (FILA) was set up at Soka University with the help of considerable financial support from MEXT. FILA aims to“prepare students to meet the demands of a fast-changing global environment. An international liberal arts education will prepare Soka University students for participation in a global society, developing 21st century job skills.” (Soka University, Faculty of International Liberal Arts, 2014). This program involves intensive EFL study combined with multiple basic content classes in the first semester. Then students study abroad in the U.S., the U.K., or Australia for one academic year during their second and third semesters. Then, upon returning from overseas, the remainder of their studies in the second through fourth year are carried out solely in English. Therefore, it is clear through the mission statement above, and the curriculum design that this program aims to develop learners with very high English skills as well as global perspectives Again, according to the faculty website “Student outcomes will include the development of English language and cross-cultural skills, philosophical foundations, interdisciplinary awareness, analytical skills, and effective communication skills. Initial language gains show that students made an average of 15 point increase on the TOEFL iBT test over one semester, with the lowest level students increasing from an average of 20 to 40 points. It is aimed for all students to have an iBT score of 80 by the end of the fourth semester.


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Summary of Soka Programs As seen above, Soka University has put a lot of time and effort in developing various programs and faculties that aim to develop bilingual individuals who have a international perspective and globally desired skill set. Also, as seen in the mission statements of the programs, the goals are very much in line with the goals of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Technology as stated in the various documents and announcements cited earlier in this paper. Soka University is not unique in its focus given that, as mentioned earlier, as of 2008 over 190 universities had offered English-medium content courses in 2008 (Miichi, 2010), and that there have been widespread developments of English curricula in Japan of late (Mondejar et al., 2012).

3. Conclusion As noted above, the Japanese Ministry of Education is pushing through fundamental and widespread reforms to its English education system and university environments in order to remain globally competitive. However, not enough training is taking place, there is a lack of concrete advice, and the issue of English as a Lingua Franca or English as an International Language have not been considered enough. With financial assistance from the government, Soka University has developed a number of innovative and successful programs that are helping students reach high levels of proficiency in English, and gain international experience and cultural knowledge. If other universities can do the same, which many are, and if the changes take place in the school system as planned, it can be expected that the level of English proficiency in Japan will be raised significantly in the future.

References Aloiau, E. K. W. (2008). The Design of the International Program English Curriculum. The Soka Economic Studies.37, March 2008. 107-127. Bircan, E. (2013). English as a lingua franca for global business communication. American Academic & Scholarly Research Journal, 5(6). Block, D. (2010). Globalization and Language Teaching. In N. Coupland (Ed.), The Handbook of Language and Globalization (pp. 287-304). Boston, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Butler, Y. G. (2007). Foreign language education at elementary schools in Japan: Searching for solutions amidst growing diversification.Current Issues in Language Planning, 8(2), 129-147. Grabe, W. and Stoller, F.L. (1997). Content-based instruction: research foundations. In M.A. Snow & D.M. Brinton (eds.), The content-based classroom. White Plains, NY: Longman. 5-21. Kirkpatrick, A. (2012). English as an International Language in Asia: Implications for language education. In Kirkpatric, A. & Sussex, R (Eds.). English as an International Language in Asia: Implications for language education . Dordrecht: Springer. McKenzie (2010).Relevant Language Attitude Research.The Social Psychology of English as a Global Language (Vol. 10, pp. 41-71): Springer Netherlands. Miichi, K. (2010, 7, 17). More colleges offer courses taught in English. The Asahi Shimbun.Retrieved October, 25, 2010, from


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http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201007160463.html Mondejar, M., Laurier, J., Valdivia, L., Mboutsiadis , B., & Sanchez , E. (2012). Language policy in Japan: Shifting paradigms. In K. Bradford - Watts, R. Chartrand, & E. Skier (Eds.), The 2011 Pan - SIG Conference Proceedings. Matsumoto: JALT. N.A. (2014).English Education Reform Plan Corresponding to Globalization.Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Tokyo. Accessed on November 7th 2014 from http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2014/01/23/1343591_1.pdf N.A. (2014). Faculty of Liberal Arts: Overview. Soka University, Tokyo.Accessed on November 7th 2014 from http://fila.soka.ac.jp/en/overview.html N.A. (2014).Global program to develop human resources. Soka University, Tokyo. Accessed on November 7th 2014 from http://www.soka.ac.jp/en/department/global/ N.A. (2014).National University Reform Plan (Summary).Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).Tokyo. Accessed on November 7th, 2014 from http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2014/01/23/1343591_1.pdf N.A. (2014). Special English zones proposed as part of Cool Japan tourism initiative. Japantoday.com. Aug. 28, 2014 06:51AM JST. Accessed on Nov 5th from http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/special-english-zones-proposed-aspart-of-cool-japan-tourism-initiative Shimomura, H. (2014). Statement by Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan on the October 12 International New York Times article "Japan's Divided Education Strategy". Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). October 31, 2014. Accessed on Nov 10th, 2014 from http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/1353287.htm Shimamura, H. (2013). Global 30 Universities.The Japan Times, Sept. 30. 2013. Accessed on Nov 10th from http://info.japantimes.co.jp/ads/pdf/20130902_global_30_universities.pdf Yoshida, K. (2008). TEFL in Japan: An overview. AILA Presentation. August 25, 2008. Retrieved on November 2nd, 2014 from http://pweb.cc.sophia.ac.jp/1974ky/TEFLinJapan.pdf


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The efficiency of a University Teaching and Learning Training Program (UTL ) on Developing the Teaching Competencies of the Teaching Staff at AlImam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University EMAN MOHAMMAD ALROWAITHI BASMAH ISSA TLELAN AL SALEEM Al Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud University-Saudi Arabia

Key Words UTL Training program Active learning Saudi Arabia University Teaching Learning, teaching staff

This study aimed at presenting the University Teaching and Learning training program UTL and determining the efficiency of the UTL on developing the teaching competencies of the teaching staff at Al Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University in Saudi Arabia. The study subjects were (30) female university instructors from AL Imam University. A training group of university instructors was studied at the beginning of their training and one year later. Evidence is reported of changes over time relating to the teaching competencies performance scale improved by the researchers focusing on six competencies; Lecture Planning, Lecture Orientation, Teaching the Lecture, Asking Questions, Course Materials, and Classroom Management. The current study reports evidence of a range of positive changes in instructors' teaching competencies in the training group. The results revealed that there were statistically significant differences between the performance of the training group before and after training on the pre and post-observation scale, favoring to the post –observation in improving the teaching competencies. The study recommends adopting the UTL training program used in this study to develop the teaching competencies of instructors in Saudi Universities. It also recommends organizing the content of the university text books to cope with the creative learning forms.

Introduction University teacher education is now recognized in every university in Saudi Arabia and is becoming increasingly common in many other countries around. From being small in scale, low in credibility and poorly supported, university teacher education is now well rooted in many institutions, is often compulsory and is sometimes linked to experimentation or occupation. The term "University Teacher Education" or training of university teachers often involves relatively sophisticated processes underpinned by theoretical models of professional development (Schon, 1987) and change over time in teachers’ conceptions of teaching (Trigwell, 1994). The main objective of these training programs is to enhance the teachers’ performance and help them acquire new knowledge and skills. According to Salleh (1995), Teacher education training programs are widely used to keep teachers up-to-date on various educational areas. These programs are commonly used as means to enforce responsible self-renewal for teachers and institutions. Trainers are often articulate


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about what they are trying to achieve and sophisticated about their training methods, even if they are not yet sophisticated about finding out whether they are successful. Dilts (2002) indicates that teacher education programs help teachers: (i) to be better able to handle difficult students, to develop a great understanding of different learning styles; (ii) to enhance learners’ self-esteem and therefore their desire for positive reinforcement; and (ii) to become more creative, imaginative and stimulating in their presentation. Teacher education take dissimilar styles; Nielson (1979) stated that the teacher education programs take different forms, such as training workshops, courses offered by the educational institutions or local agencies where the teachers work, or even courses offered by the institutions of higher education, such as college course work (Monjan and Gassner, 1979; Killoran, 2001).Furthermore, UTL include workshops, curriculum development sessions, peer observation, independent study, and selfassessment. According to Jones and Lowe (1990) the effective training programs should have at least two potential outcomes: (i) change of teachers’ classroom practice, and (ii) change in teachers’ belief and attitudes. At the college level, it might include specific training and educational courses in counselling. These techniques are typical short-term strategies used for changing individual instructors' teaching methods and attitudes. In fact, the importance of teacher preparation has generally emerged because it prepares teachers and provides them with the competencies necessary for achieving success in their work. This movement has had an enormous effect in preparing teachers for teaching. The university teacher education movement came as a response to traditional educational methodologies used in university teaching. This movement arose as a resent of criticism directed towards traditional teacher educational methodologies where outputs depended on the amount of knowledge and the ability to retrieve it (Huizen, 2005). The teachers' education training programs depend on analyzing the learning/teaching process into a group of competencies that every teacher must acquire, in order to increase his/her chances of successful achievement of objectives (King, 2001). Borich (1977) categorizes teacher training programs based on competencies into three types: (i) knowledge competencies (where a knowledge competency means a cognitive understanding derived from the instruction process or subject-matter content that the teacher is expected to demonstrate); (ii) performance competencies (which are the behaviours the teachers demonstrate in the classroom, ); and (iii) consequence competencies (which are the outcome of the teaching and learning process between the teacher and his students). On the other hand, Houston (cited in Saeed and Mahmood, 2002) categorizes teaching competencies into five stages: (i) cognitive competencies, which are related to knowledge and intellectual skills and abilities that are expected of the learners; (ii) performance competencies, in which the learner demonstrates that he or she can do something; (iii) consequence competencies, to bring change to others; (iv) affective competencies, which are expected attitude and values that tend to resist the specificity and are more difficult to assess than the first three stages; (v) exploratory competencies, which includes activities that provide opportunities for teachers to learn about teaching. Furthermore, for Lerner (2003), the teachers in the university lecture room are in need of two kinds of competencies: (i) competencies in knowledge and skills, which include the


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professional knowledge, and (ii) competencies in human relationship abilities, such as cooperation, which requires teachers to be helpful, deferential, empathic, and open. The UTL requires competencies in assessment and diagnosis, curriculum, teaching practices, managing student behaviours, planning the teaching and learning environment, as well as monitoring and evaluation. Ismail (2009) measured the effect of a training module in improving knowledge competencies for special education teachers in Jordan. The module consisted of 10 training sessions, covered three domains, namely, planning, instruction and classroom management, and evaluation competencies. The sample of the study consisted of 50 teachers. The participants of the sample were distributed into two equal groups, with 25 teachers in each group. The teachers in the experimental group were attached with the training module for five weeks; whereas the teachers in the control group were exposed for the same period to the conventional training adopted by the Ministry of Education in Jordan. The results of (ANCOVA) revealed that there were statistically significant differences between the means of the two groups' means on the post-achievement test, favouring to the experimental group. Bataineh (2010) identified the core competencies belonging to general education teachers in Jordan. The sample of study consisted of 320 male and female teachers. The results revealed that teachers’ competencies of classroom management on a subscale ranked first, and those teachers’ competencies of definitions, characteristics, assessing, and rights of students came in the last rank. The results also indicated that there are significant differences due to the interaction between gender and teaching experience. The results of Brownell (2005) has vividly shown that teachers need specific competencies for the advancement of their knowledge and skills, which are program characteristics that include extensive field experience, collaboration, and program evaluation, although the ways in which programs incorporated these components varied. In another empirical study, Gilberts and Lignugaris- Kraft (1997) search for classroom management competencies address to teacher ability to manage the educational environment, and directly manage and assess students’ classroom behaviour. In that study classroom management competencies are divided into four categories address the educational environment: (i) arrangement of the physical environment to facilitate student management, (ii) formulation of a standard for student behaviour in the classroom, and two categories address teachers’ management and behavioural assessment; (iii) implementation of strategies to increase appropriate behaviour or reduce inappropriate behaviour, and (iv) assessing the effectiveness of the implemented strategies. In these programs, teacher educators used a variety of strategies to help students examine their beliefs about instruction; integrate the knowledge; acquire academic, social and cultural knowledge about their students; and reflect on the impact of their instruction. In a detailed training programme designed explicitly to change teachers' conceptions of teaching, UTL has demonstrated this chain of influence through training goals and training processes, to teachers’ approaches and to their students’ approaches. UTL has oriented towards


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changing the teachers’ approach to teaching they can, therefore, if they are successful, this will improve both student learning processes and outcomes.

Method Population and Sample The population of the study composes (120) female university instructors participated in the UTL program at Imam University during the period from 2009 till the end of the year 2013. They are distributed within (8) colleges. The sample of the study consisted of 26 female instructors. All the twenty six instructors were chosen according to the stratified random sampling. The teachers in the experimental group enrolled into the UTL training program module based on instructional competencies for five-weeks. Tools In order to measure the level of teaching competencies among the training instructors, a classroom observation checklist was developed by the researchers based on the UTL teaching competencies. The checklist was given to a group of referees for validation and modification purposes. The final version of checklist was categorized into six competencies; Lecture Planning, Lecture Orientation, Teaching the Lecture, Asking Questions, Course Materials, and Classroom Management. The inter-raters reliability is the constancy of the agreement and disagreement among the observers concerning the observed subjects, for testing the inter-raters reliability in this study, ten university instructors (pilot study) were randomly selected and each was observed by four (4) different observers. The overall percentage of the inter-raters reliability (0.78), which is a reasonably satisfactory percentage. This research reports the administration of a scale observation checklist to the training instructors. The observation checklist was administered twice: once as near as practicable to the beginning of the UTL training program and the trainee teachers’ own course, and once approximately one year later, after the training was completed. The observation checklists were machine read, data were collected and an individual report produced for each training instructor, showing their own scores before and after training in the UTL program. For the analyses undertaken below the entire training group data are combined. What matters here are any differences between the teaching competencies of the training groups in terms of the size or direction of change between before and after participating in UTL. The observation checklist consists of six competencies: Lecture Planning, Lecture Orientation, Teaching the Lecture, Asking Questions, Course Materials, and Classroom Management.

Objectives of the study The current study aims at: -Presenting the University Teaching and Learning training program UTL to develop the teaching competencies in Imam University. -Finding out the extent of efficiency of UTL on developing teaching competencies among the teaching staff at Imam University.


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Questions of the study This study attempts to answer the following two questions:1- What is the University Teaching Learning training program UTL? 2- To what extent is the efficiency of the UTL training program on the development of the teaching competencies of the teaching staff at Imam University in Saudi Arabia?

Importance of the study The importance of this study is represented by the following: -It may suggest a full program about university teaching competencies and teaching skills during the service to train teaching staff members in Saudi universities which will be ended by giving them a professional specialized certificate. - The study may help teaching staff members in Saudi universities to develop modern teaching competencies and improve them. -It may help the people who are intended to improve university`s curricula and allow the use of the new active learning methods and encourage it through improving the teaching competencies of their teaching staff. -It may help researchers to do more researches about the efficiency of training programs which focus on teaching competencies at universities.

Findings and Discussion Question Number One: What is the University Teaching and Learning training program UTL? The University Teaching and Learning training program (UTL) is a professional development program for university teachers designed to enhance teaching effectiveness and provide an educational context for ongoing career development. It integrates key concepts of teaching and learning, teaching strategies and skills, reflection and the experience of actual teaching within a cooperative and scholarly learning environment. UTL offers immediate practical support as well as a framework for ongoing reflective practice and further development or study. Topics include teaching for active learning; assessment; group work; eTeaching; teaching as part of an academic career; and teaching in a culturally diverse university. The teaching practice component brings together theory and practice in higher education as participants plan and implements a short teaching and learning episode. Reflective practice, collegiality in professional development, the application of research and other educational literature to inform teaching, and the use of feedback to improve teaching are emphasized as participants jointly explore pertinent issues, engage with relevant research and literature, undertake peer observation of teaching, respond to student evaluations, develop their teaching philosophy, and explore an aspect of their teaching practice through an independent project. UTL consists of two units: Unit1: Building Blocks. A five-day intensive on foundational ideas and processes in teaching, learning, assessment and evaluation in higher education. Unit2: Peer Observation. A structured set of observations of teaching. Through active participation in UTL, instructors were able to apply their developing understanding of learners and learning to their teaching; design and implement effective learning experiences for their students; reflect upon feedback from students and colleagues in


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order to evaluate and improve their teaching practice; access and use University policies and guidelines relevant to teaching, learning and assessment; access and utilize literature on teaching, learning and assessment in higher education; value and share their own and their colleagues’ experiences and knowledge of teaching; conduct a structured and scholarly exploration of an aspect of teaching and learning in their own context. UTL was designed to help participants become more informed about teaching and learning in higher education, familiar with critical issues, and able to apply developing knowledge and insights to their teaching; independent learners in the field of university learning and teaching, able to access ideas and practices from a variety of sources, and critically evaluate and apply these in the context of their own teaching practice; problem solvers when confronted with challenging issues in teaching, able to respond to these critically and creatively, seeking to attain high standards through flexible, innovative approaches to teaching; effective communicators about teaching and learning, willing and able to share ideas and practices with colleagues in the university and beyond; and responsible university teachers who are aware of the impact of their teaching on students and colleagues and who act with a high degree of integrity as a part of the local, national and international community of university teachers. UTL is normally completed over two semesters. An extension can be requested by completing the UTL Application for Extension form. Participants will be recorded as discontinued in week 1 of the third semester if this procedure is not followed.UTL Unit 1 is offered before the commencement of each teaching session and involves a series of face-to-face sessions over five days. Participants can then undertake Unit 2. According to UTL assessment process; first, Unit1 is assessed through a teaching practice report prepared by each trainee. Its length is between 800-1200 words. This task requires the trainees to report on their teaching practice session, including their plan for the session, summary of, and response to, the feedback they received, what they have learnt through watching a video of their session, and a short statement of their conception of teaching. Second, Unit 2 is assessed through preparing a Peer Observation Report between 1500-2000 from each trainee. Reflection is an active process involving exploration of the trainees' own experiences, conversations with their colleagues, feedback from students, and ‘conversations’ with educational literature. These dimensions are canvassed in the assessment for this Unit. Question Number Two: To what extent is the efficiency of the UTL training program on the development of the teaching competencies of the teaching staff at Imam University in Saudi Arabia? To answer this question the researchers used an observation tool of teachers' teaching competencies (See appendix 1) based on the focused competencies of UTL program .This observation tool was used in the trainees' classes before and after training. The first observation was at the beginning of the academic year 2012/2013 and before the training program .The second observation took place at the end of the academic year 2012\2013 and after training. The collected data was analyzed and a comparison was undertaken of matched pairs of before and after data for the trainee competencies that completed the UTL both before and after training


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(sees Table 1). Table 1 displays an almost identical pattern of change to that for the entire training group. Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Teaching Competencies before and after UTL program at Imam University Teaching Competencies Lecture Planning Lecture Orientation Teaching the Lecture Asking Questions Course Material Class Management

Test

N

Mean

Std.Deviation

Std.Error Mean

pre post pre post pre post pre post pre post pre post

26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26

22.26 28.27 11.81 21.81 19.65 28.85 12.12 15.42 11.42 14.38 22.27 27.54

1.85 2.27 1.65 2.02 2.19 2.14 1.54 1.74 1.065 1.26 1.66 2.21

.364 .446 .324 .396 .429 .421 .295 .343 .209 .249 .326 .434

From the first sight of the table, it is obvious that teaching competencies scores were improved .The training groups’ scores on the six competencies, which concerned about teaching skills, were compared before and after training. The training group’s scores after training improved significantly on all six competencies. The maximum score on each scale is 30. One scale of the teachers' competencies increased significantly for the training group after training; teaching the lecture was the competency that improved the most (m=28.85) this was not the case before training (m=19.6) .This result reflects that UTL main focus was on the teaching methods inside the lecture hall. However, asking questions competency was improved very slightly; since the UTL dedicated very small number of training hours to improve this competency. The researchers recommend modifying the number of the training hours of asking questions to guarantee the improvement in parallel with teaching methods inside the classroom. The t-test analysis was run to determine whether the difference between the means of the preteaching competencies and Post – teaching competencies of the experimental group are statistically different. Table 2 summarizes the descriptive statistics for the performances of the participants before and after training. Table 3: T. Test Pre-Post Teaching Competencies of the Participants in UTL Program at Imam University Teaching Competencies

Lecture Planning

Paired Differences

Mean -14.65

Std.Deviation 2.966

Std.ErrorMean .582

95% Confidence Interval of the difference Lower Upper -15.852 13.456


t

Sig. 2tailed

-25.1

.00

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International Journal of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) Vol. 1 Number 2 Lecture Orientation Teaching the Lecture Asking Questions Course Material Class Management

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-10.00

2.383

.467

-10.963

-9.037

-21.3

.00

13.192 -3.308

3.453

.677

-14.587

-19.4

.00

2.112

.414

-4.161

11.798 -2.455

7.9

.00

-2.962 -5.269

1.777 2.987

.349 .586

-3.679 -6.476

-2.244 -4.063

-8.4 -8.9

.00 .00

To examine whether there is a significant statistical difference at (α=0.05) between the groups’ mean scores and to test the assumption that the participants across the two observations are equivalent in term of the level of teaching competencies, t-test technique was conducted. Table 2 presents the results of the t-test, showing the overall differences in the teaching competencies performances of the pre-TC and post –TC of the training group. These significant differences are in favour of the experimental group. Table 2 also shows differences in the performance of the experimental group at pre and post-TC, and the differences are in favour of the post -TC. From the previous results in table 2, it is very obvious that the level of sigma (α=0.05) is less than.01.This means that the difference between pre teaching competencies and post teaching competencies of Imam's instructors is statistically significant at (α=0.05) after UTL training program. Based on this result, UTL training program has changed the teaching competencies of Imam's instructors positively. The result is proved by the negative value of (t). In short, after the completion of the UTL training program with the experimental group members, they have achieved their objectives of developing the teaching competencies. It is clear that the training program has developed the teaching competencies of Imam's instructors. The analyses of the data of the post-observation for the experimental group members support the results of the study.

Conclusion The discussions of the qualitative and the quantitative results revealed the importance of in-service training programs, especially who adopt the workshop method aiming at enhancing the performance of the teachers and improving their teaching competencies in order to help them acquire the skills and the knowledge .This program keeps the university instructors informed about the latest developments in the educational field of higher education. It was also found that there are significant effects of the UTL training program based on teaching competencies in improving the knowledge, performance, professional, and personal competencies of the experimental group's instructors. These effects can be attributed to content of the UTL training program. It included instructional experiments, activities, and instructional skills, which helped provide the instructors with the appropriate teaching competencies to develop their knowledge and performance. Furthermore, the UTL training program based on teaching competencies play an important role in upgrading skills, knowledge, and performance of university instructors to be more effective.


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In Addition, as it was mentioned in the introduction of this study, the in-service training programs have improved the competencies and skills for special education teachers; the training program was presented through workshop which used module method. Ysseldyke and Algozine (1982) indicated that in-service training programs are important methodologies used to develop and improve teachers’ skills in order to enhance their instructional competencies and provide them with the latest about educational developments. The UTL training program module was adapted and organized in a way that is according to define criteria in term of the content and structure. In addition to the instructional and the evaluation activities, the discussion sessions among the teachers themselves and between the teachers and the trainer had a great impact on increasing interaction between the trainees and the training program. It also enhanced the teachers’ knowledge of instructional methodologies and developed various instructional competencies. The display of the live models and learning by observation had effective effect on improving the instructional competencies of the teachers. The training program included video, demonstrations; data show presentations and practicum observations by personal visits to peers in the same college. The data presented here provide support that UTL training can increase the extent to which instructors adopt active learning skills as a strategy that maximizes students roles and minimizes teachers' role at university lectures. Active learning strategy is known to be associated with students taking a deep approach to a greater extent, and hence to improved quality of student learning outcomes, and so this is an important ending. In addition, UTL training program can improve a number of aspects of instructors’ teaching competencies. Without the support of training, changes may be insignificant or negative. Moreover, UTL training program can change instructors such that their students’ improve their learning. Without the support of training no such positive change in student learning is evident. Whereas the positive impact of training is easy to understand, the sometimes negative impact of no training requires some explanation. On the training programs teaching was seen to be valued and the improvement of teaching encouraged. Innovation and change were supported and openly discussed. These and other forms of support and encouragement may well have contributed to the positive changes in the instructors' identified in this study. In light of the findings of this study, the researchers recommend Imam University to use and support this program for a larger number of trainees in the university .In addition; it is recommended that the Saudi Universities adopt the UTL program as one of the successful development programs in Saudi Arabia.

References Bataineh S, Dababneh K, Baniabdelrahman A. (2010). Competencies of learning for general education teachers in regular classroom in Jordan. University of Sharjah. J. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 7: 27-45 . BorichG .(1977). The appraisal of teaching: concepts and process. Menlo Park, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Brownell M, Ross D, Colon E, McCallum C. (2005). Critical features of teacher preparation: A comparison with general teacher education. J. Spec. Educ. 38: 244-251.


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Dilts R. (2002). Training, modeling and consUTLing. Santa Cruz: CA. Gilberts G, Lignugaris-Kraft B. (1997). Classroom management and instruction competencies for preparing teachers’. Teach. Teach. Educ. 13: 597-610 Huizen P, Oers B, Wubbels T. (2005). A Vygotskian perspective on teacher education. J. Curriculum Stud. 37: 267-290 Ismail H, Al-Zoubi S, Bani Abdel Rahman M, Al-Shabatat A. (2009). Competency Based Teacher Education (CBTE): A Training Module for Improving Knowledge Competencies for Resource Room Teachers in Jordan. Eur. J. Soc. Sci. 10: 166-178. Jones V, Lowe M. (1990). Changing teacher behavior: effective staff development. Adult Learn. 7: 8-10 King S, King M, Rothwell W. (2001). The complete guide to training delivery: Acompetencybased approach. New York: American Management Association. Killoran J, Templeman T, Peters J, Udell T. (2001). Identifying paraprofessional competencies for education. Council of Education. 34: 68- 73. Lerner J. (2003).Teaching strategies, (9 th ed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Monjan S, Gassner S. (1979). Critical issues in competency based education. New York: Pergamon Press Inc. Nielson L. (1979). An in-service program for university teachers. J. Learn. Disabil. 6: 70-74. Saeed M, Mhamood K. (2002). Assessing competency of Pakistan University Teachers in mathematics, science and pedagogy. Int. J. Educ. Manage. 16: 190-195. Salleh A. (1995). In-service training needs assessment for Malaysian university teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Michigan. Ysseldyke J, Algozzine B. (1982). Critical issues in education. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Appendices Appendix 1 :Teaching Staff's Teaching Competencies' Tool Information of Teaching Staff member Name: Department: Major: Course Code: Subject: Date: Time\Start: Time\Finish: Number of Students: Competencies

Performance Indicators

Excellent

Very Good

Good

Not very well

Not at all well

Determines the level of the target learners Defines the goals of the lesson


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Lesson Planning

Lesson Preparation

Teaching the lesson

February 2015

Determines the learners' preliminary consideration(previous knowledge) Defines the students' expected learning skills Expects learning problems Determines strategies to solve the learning problems Chooses teaching tools and technical aids that are suitable for the lesson. Introduces the lesson in an appropriate way that motivates students to learn more. Spends an appropriate time for the introduction. Divides students into suitable groups. Follows suitable teaching methods. Uses appropriate worksheets. Determines the required time of the lesson Determines the required period of time to do assignments. Defines the teacher's activities Give students clear instructions before each assignment. Encourages students to learn and do their activities by themselves. Provides students with interesting experiences Connects the lesson with learners` real life. Puts learners into learning challenging situations. Provides students with realistic problems and situations


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Guides students to follow the steps and strategies of solving problems.

Asking Questions

Course Materials

Class Management

Asks clear questions Enhances the distinguished answers and shows them to the learners to take their advantage. Gives students time to think about the answers. Enhances learners` answers. Uses the b.board effectively. Uses lecture aids in an interesting way for the learners. Uses the right lecture aid for the lesson. Uses the course book in an active way. Makes learning process interesting and negotiates with students about meanings and ideas. Helps students to communicate. Observes students` discussions and interferer to offer help. Divides students into bilateral groups for discussion Divides the roles between students in cooperative groups Uses suitable communication skills with the students


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Teaching Market Segmentation: The Eight Step Process FRANCISCO GUZMÁN University of North Texas, Texas, USA Keywords Segmentation Marketing Strategy Teaching Method

Although market segmentation is one of the most important strategic management tools available for business managers, and has been part of the marketing/business curriculum for years, it is commonly taught from a theoretical perspective leaving students illprepared to tackle this challenge in the real world. This paper seeks to bridge the gap between segmentation as practiced by marketers and as commonly taught in the classroom. An eight step process that was developed, refined, and has been successfully implemented in multiple live case/consulting projects during the past ten years at the undergraduate, graduate, and executive education level is presented.

1. Introduction Years have passed since it was first recognized that different consumers transform needs into wants in different ways. Product differentiation responds to this lack of homogeneity in demand; segmentation disaggregates demand and recognizes “several demand schedules where only one was recognized before” (Smith 1956, p. 5). Market segmentation is considered to be one of the most important strategic management tools available for business managers (Dickson and Ginter 1987; Johnson 1971; Kamakura and Russell 1989), and has been part of the marketing and business curriculum for years. However, the way that marketing instructors have traditionally taught students how to segment a market is confusing and inefficient (Schibrowsky, Peltier, and Collins 1999). In the 1960’s Haley (1968) suggested that segmenting a market based on causal factors—benefits-sought approach—rather than descriptive factors would yield a better understanding of consumers and the market. The problem with this approach is that it is difficult to execute in a classroom and it seldom yields a consistent set of segments (Schibrowsky, Peltier, and Collins 1999). As a consequence, instructors commonly explain segmentation as splitting the market into groups of customers that share certain characteristics based on different kinds of variables—demographic, psychographic, socioeconomic, etc.—but do not explain how to perform the analysis. Students are thus left to figure out how to actually develop a segmentation strategy. This undermines the strategic importance of segmentation and prevents students from intuitively comprehending how is it that it can become one of the most powerful competitive advantages for a company. Companies today are using profound consumer insights in order to segment their markets, so focusing on segmenting a market based on traditional variables (cf. Beane and Ennis 1987) limits the marketing curriculum and does not equip graduates with the necessary tools to be successful in their careers. Schibrowsky, Peltier, and Collins (1999) addressed this issue and developed an alternative experiential learning approach. Their work, however, is at least fifteen years old and has room for improvement. Its main weakness resides on the fact that the first step they propose focuses on the product and not the consumer, which can very well lead to confusion and a product orientation. Although new marketing textbooks address the need and


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the power of focusing on benefit/behavioural segmentation or usage occasion, the few that provide an explanation (process) on how to perform it (Boone and Kurtz 2014; Grewal and Levy 2014; Perreault, Cannon, and McCarthy; Pride and Ferrell 2014) do not provide enough detail for the student to be truly prepared to segment a market, as the processes they describe are more conceptual that a true step-by-step process. This paper thus seeks to update the segmentation curriculum by providing support to the current business perspective on segmentation and a detailed Eight Step process that will guide any marketing student to better comprehend and develop a powerful segmentation strategy. This Eight Step process is the result of years of consulting, tutoring, and teaching and has been successfully implemented in over one hundred different live cases (student-led consulting projects). It is best understood with a hands-on approach, and thus it is recommended that the theory explanation is followed by an in-class case study to practice its implementation and, ideally, further practiced within a real or simulated strategic live-case marketing or business plan development project. The Eight Step process allows marketing and business educators to expose their students to benefit/behavioural segmentation, as well as to teach them how to develop a segmentation strategy from scratch.

2. The Eight-Step Process Explained Traditional segmentation approaches commonly split the market based on static characteristics of the consumer while ignoring the individual’s consumption dynamics; this means that the same individual might make different consumption decisions depending on different circumstances “within a single product market at the same point in time” (Sismeiro, Mizik, and Bucklin 2008, p. 64). For example, if a male college student were deciding what to cook for dinner, his decision would vary if he was cooking only for himself or for a date. While his cooking abilities might be limited to boiling pasta, he might decide to purchase dry pasta, tomato sauce, a can of tuna and frozen vegetables to eat by himself, while if preparing dinner for a date he might purchase fresh pasta and fresh vegetables in order to prepare a more experiential meal. The underlying difference between these two consumption decisions cannot be explained by any static variable. The consumer is the same, his income level is the same, and his demographic and geographic characteristics are the same. In other words, traditional segmentation variables would not allow us to predict that this particular consumer will behave any different on any given night. But we all know that this does not make sense. As consumers we constantly make different decisions in what could be considered different situations. What varies then is his motivation. While in the first scenario his need is to satisfy his hunger, in the second scenario his need is to make a good impression on his date. In other words, the same individual will make a different consumption decision depending on the underlying sought benefit. From a brand perspective, the approach should be the same. Let us consider Montblanc, the writing instrument. From a functional perspective, a Montblanc pen satisfies the need to write. But we all know that no one would buy a $500 pen only to write when a 30 cent Bic pen can perform the same function. From a product category orientation both Bic and Montblanc are pen brands. But from a marketing/solution orientation, Montblanc and Bic are in different businesses. What need does Montblanc really solve? Many different answers can be given to this


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question. For example, we could argue that Montblanc pens are mostly purchased as gifts while Bic pens are purchased as school or office supplies. What is a common graduation gift, a ten pack of Bic pens or a nice more expensive pen and pencil such as a Montblanc? So here is where the first strategic decision should be made. Based on its mission, a company must decide what business it is in. While Bic might be focused on the office and school supply business, it seems reasonable to think that Montblanc is in the gift business. The definition of a company’s “business” is what is done in step 1 of the segmentation process.

Step 1- Defining the reference market A reference market is defined by answering three questions: what functions/needs are being solved?; who is the consumer group we are seeking to satisfy?; and how can their needs be met? (Lambin 1997). The what of the reference market should always be defined in terms of a solution or a need, never in terms of a product. Defining the what in terms of a product would lead to a product oriented business. The who of the reference market refers to groups of clients that represent different businesses for the company. In general, it is possible to argue that the only potential groups of clients are consumers (B2C), other businesses (B2B), and governments (B2G). Each of these groups of customers represent a very different kind of business for companies, to an extent that some devote a completely different business unit to better address each of these markets’ needs. At this level of analysis, it is important not to micro-segment given that we are still only defining the business the company is in. For example, from a business standpoint, does it really make a difference for Montblanc to sell a pen to a young female professional or to an older male retiree? Not at all; both consumers would go to any Montblanc brick and mortar or online retailer to purchase a pen. However, selling to a company that requests 150 pens with its corporate logo engraved on each would represent a different business for Montblanc. This corporate consumer might contact Montblanc directly to order the 150 pens and Montblanc would be happy to fulfil this order. Similarly, government customers represent a different kind of business for a company given that governmental purchases are normally initiated through a procurement process. In sum, the possible “who’s” in a reference market are those that represent “different battles” for the company. Finally, the how of the reference market responds to all of the possible alternatives that can solve the need defined in the what. In other words, with the how of the reference market we identify all of the substitute products, services or technologies that consumers might use to solve the need; we identify ‘how else’ the need could be solved. It is very important that the alternative technologies that could satisfy the need within the reference market be truly substitute products and not complements. In the case of Montblanc, a graduating student might receive a portfolio, a tie, or jewellery as a gift (not surprisingly Montblanc has developed brand extensions in all these “gift” categories). From this point forward, each step of the process will be illustrated with a fictional example for Yoplait yogurt. (Please refer to the Appendix for the detailed illustration of the 8 step segmentation process): If Yoplait yogurt identifies its reference market as being in the business of “health”, the competitive technologies for providing health could be, for example, granola bars, smoothies, or fruit, and not a gym membership or running shoes. Clearly these last two technologies are also in the business of health; however, people who go to the gym or for a


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run are normally those who will eat the healthy yogurt. In other words, the consumption decision for these technologies is complementary, or could be assigned to a different budgetary allocation, than the consumption decision for a healthy snack

Step 2- Selecting a macro-segment Once the reference market has been defined, the next step in the segmentation process is to elect one macro-segment or product market. According to Lambin (1997), a macro-segment is a combination of one what, one who, and one how. So for example, if we continue describing the segmentation process for the yogurt brand, we could say that the selected macro-segment to analyze is the one that’s configured by the “health”, the who “consumers”, and the how “yogurt”. This macro-segment can be described as offering health to people/consumers with yogurt. Although in the real world companies are focused on multiple product markets, sometimes managed by different business units, for pedagogical purposes I suggest that students focus on only one macro-segment to learn how the remaining six steps are developed.

Step 3- Identifying variables for micro-segmentation The third step of the segmentation process could be considered the first step of what traditionally has been called micro-segmentation. In contrast to macro-segmenting where we asked the questions what, who and how, the question to ask to begin micro-segmenting is why? Why is it that consumers could be interested in the solution we are offering? By understanding the motivations behind consumers’ intention to purchase, we can identify different groups of people that relate in a way that allows for creating segments. These motivations could be explained by the static variables we have previously discussed, but most commonly it is possible to find reasons why that transcend these static variables and provide more insight. For example, if we were trying to understand why people are trying to satisfy their need for health with yogurt, we might find that there is a group of people that are motivated by the nutrients yogurt provides, while another group of people is motivated by the potential weight-loss benefits. However, depending on the category being analyzed and the way that reference market has been defined, different kinds of variables could shed some light on why consumers make their choices. This is why in step 3 all possible variables that could explain different decisions should be identified: psychographic, demographic, and/or socioeconomic.

Step 4- Choosing variables for micro-segmentation Once we have identified all the possible variables that could explain consumption behavior, the next step is to select some variables in order to segment the market. Although statistical software can generate clusters with multiple variables, for pedagogical purposes I recommend that only two or maximum three variables are chosen to segment the market. The variables that are selected must be the ones that the marketer believes provide deeper insight into why consumers make the consumption decision. These variables would have been previously identified after conducting extensive exploratory research to understand the different motivations. So in step 4 we make a strategic decision by selecting the variables we believe will allow us to classify the consumers within the product market in ways that are relevant for the company and the brand, and be beneficial to the company’s bottom line (i.e., by generating a


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competitive advantage). Continuing with our yogurt example, two variables that could have been chosen that respond to why people are looking for a healthy snack solution could be the level of interest in losing weight and the level of interest in performing well in sports.

Step 5- Operationalizing the selected variables If step 4 has been performed correctly, the variables selected will be very insightful about consumer motivations but, for the same reason, normally difficult to measure. Operationalizing each of the selected segmentation variables is crucial for the implementation of the segmentation strategy. In other words, it does not suffice to just intuitively understand what makes consumers tick, but it is also necessary to find ways to measure those motivations. Hence, step 5 is where we develop these measures. This is not an exact science, more consumer data and information would make this step easier. However, when developing a segmentation strategy within a classroom, step 5 can become a great challenge since strategic intelligence/intuition is a key for completing this step. However, any approximation that is intuitively solid should suffice. Taking into consideration the two variables we chose in step 4, it seems to be true that understanding how much people want to lose weight or how much they want to perform well in sports could be very insightful for a firm selling yogurt. So, how do we measure this level of interest? Should we ask the consumer on a scale from 1 and 10 to tell us how important it is for them to lose weight? Let us suppose that subject A answers 7 and subject B answers 9. How can we really know if A’s 7 is not higher than B’s 9? We cannot. Therefore, it is crucial to come up with some sort of objective measure that allows us to discriminate between different types of consumers. An example would be to ask consumers what percentage of meals they prepare themselves at home. If subject A responds 85% and subject B responds 20%, then we have a more objective and measurable way to assess the level of interest a consumer has in eating healthy and losing weight. In a similar manner, the level of interest in performing well in sports could be gauged by measuring hours a week they workout. Increased experience and knowledge of the market will lead to identification of better ways to operationalize the variables for micro-segmentation. The challenge for the student in this step is to come up with an objective way to measure the level of interest or degree to which the selected variables describe each consumer.

Step 6- Micro-segmenting Having found a measure for each of our chosen variables, we are ready to segment the market. If the chosen metric to measure a variable is discreet, deciding how to demarcate segments might be more straightforward. However, if the metric is continuous, some strategic intuition is again needed. After all the previous analysis and understanding of the market, the marketers should have a pretty good idea of how it makes sense to split the market. The number of splits or cells in the segmentation matrix is another crucial decision. If we split each variable in two, we will have a total of four segments. However, if we split one or each variable in three, we will end up with six to nine resulting segments. Therefore, it is also very important that marketers assess what makes the most sense, as the resulting segments must be measurable, substantial, accessible, differentiable, and actionable (Kotler and Keller 2008). If we are dealing


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with segmentation in a very mature—hyper-segmented—market, then a higher number of splits will be more useful. However, if we are in a new or growing market, it will be better to have fewer splits for each variable. We will explore this aspect of the process in more detail when we describe step 8. Step 6 is concluded after naming and describing in detail each of the resulting segments. The use of demographic, psychographic, and lifestyle characteristics is very useful for this purpose.

Step 7- Electing target segments Once we have segmented the market, the next step is to select the target segments that the company wants to pursue. If the process has been followed correctly, the segments identified in step 6 comprise all of the market interested in solving the need with the technology we offer. Each identified segment would represent groups of people that have similar characteristics based on the selected segmentation variables. In other words, people within each segment have similar levels of motivation based on the segmentation variables. Most likely, especially in mature markets, the company will want to focus not on the whole market but on only some of the segments that have been identified. This is why we select target segments. In the case of our yogurt example, we might want to focus on those people that are interested in performing well in sports without really caring much about weight loss, because our specialty is a yogurt that is prepared with whole milk and has a high level of protein content. In the case of a brand such as Yoplait, that offers low fat yogurts, and its brand promise is to keep you healthy and lean, the target segments it might go after are those that are motivated by a low caloric content given that the need they are trying to solve is losing weight.

Step 8- Capturing the target segments The last step in the segmentation process is deciding how we are going to capture our target segments (cf. Kotler and Keller 2008). There are three possible strategies— undifferentiated, differentiated, and concentrated. An undifferentiated strategy would be when a firm goes after the whole market ignoring segment differences. A differentiated strategy would be either when a firm goes for the whole market recognizing segment differences or for a specific number of segments in order to specialize on a specific market interest. A concentrated, or niche, strategy would be when a firm focuses on one specific target segment. The strategy to choose depends on the profitability of each target segment and the company’s objective. But most importantly, it depends on the level of maturity of the market. In mature markets we would have to select a differentiated strategy, regardless of the desired extent of market coverage, while in new or growing markets the strategy to follow should be undifferentiated in order to avoid hindering the market’s potential growth. A concentrated strategy would make sense if we are following a niche competitive strategy or if the market is in the latter stages of maturity or decline. In the case of our yogurt example, assuming that the business of health is well established but still growing, maybe in the latter stages of growth, we could argue that it would be appropriate to follow a differentiated strategy. For more on strategic decisions based on the stage of the solution life cycle please consult Lambin (1997).


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3. Conclusions This paper describes an eight step process for teaching market segmentation. The eight step process allows for students to intuitively understand the competitive actionable power of a meaningful segmentation. It seeks to highlight the importance of basing the process on consumer insights and staying away from product-characteristic-led segmentations which lead to product oriented businesses. As a competitive tool, this segmentation process should lead to measurable, profitable, and accessible segments based on a business definition that provides value for the customer. We would expect competitive brands to differ in how they segment their markets, with each segmentation strategy unique in how it serves as a foundation for differentiation and brand positioning. In other words, if the illustrated example would have been for a different brand of yogurt that focuses less on health and weight loss and more on a sensorial or adventure type experience, the eight steps for this yogurt brand would have been different. As with any strategic tool, the key to success with this segmentation process is repeated use. As previously mentioned, the best way for students to learn the process is through an experiential project or case study performed in teams. Additionally, since this is not an exact science, students that go through the exercise typically benefit from group discussion and decision-making. However, the more the students have access to real consumer insights and real market information, the better for the end result. Most problems students experience arise when moving from the theory to the implementation. Most ‘first-timers’ are confused on steps 4 and 5. It is therefore important that the instructor makes sure that insightful and relevant variables are selected before how to measure them is decided. The easy way out is to come up with measurable variables that do not provide any insights into why consumers make their decisions. Another common mistake is to decide on capturing the target segments with a strategy that is not consistent with the current market circumstances—e.g., focusing on a differentiated strategy when the market under analysis is clearly still in early stages of growth. For these reasons, practicing the eight step process under a heavily coached environment, such as part of a formal class project, leads to the best results. Finally, it is worth pointing out to students that segmentation is not only a tool for big and consolidated companies. For entrepreneurs and small business owners, a segmentation strategy may be the most important marketing tool they use, as it will not only clarify for them the business that they are in, but also who they should consider within their competitive set, and the most efficient way for them to define and capture their intended target market.

References Beane, T.P. and D.M. Ennis (1987). Market Segmentation: A Review. European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 21 (5), 20-42. Boone, L.E. and D.L. Kurtz (2014). Contemporary Marketing, 16th ed. Mason: Cengage Learning. Dickson, P.R. and J.L. Ginter (1987). Market Segmentation, Product Differentiation, and Marketing Strategy. Journal of Marketing, 51 (April), 1-10. Grewal, D. and M. Levy (2014). Marketing, 4th ed., Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.


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Haley, R.I. (1968). Benefit Segmentation: A Decision-oriented Research Tool. Journal of Marketing, 32 (July), 30-35. Johnson, R.M. (1971). Market Segmentation: a Strategic Management Tool. Journal of Marketing Research, 8 (February), 13-18. Kamakura, W.A. and G.J. Russell (1989). A Probabilistic Choice Model for Market Segmentation and Elasticity Structure. Journal of Marketing Research, 26 (November), 379-90. Kotler, P. and K.L. Keller (2012). Marketing Management, 14th ed., Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall. Lambin, Jean-Jacques (1997). Strategic Marketing Management, London: McGraw-Hill. Perreault Jr., W.D., J.P. Cannon, and E.J. McCarthy (2011). Basic Marketing, 18th ed., Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Pride, W.M. and O.C. Ferrell (2014). Marketing, 17th ed. Mason: Cengage Learning Schibrowsky, J.A., J.W. Peltier, and R.H. Collins (1999). Bootstrap Benefit Segmentation as an Experiential Learning Activity. Journal of Marketing Education, 21 (April), 34-43. Sismeiro, C., N. Mizik, and R.E. Bucklin (2008). A New Dynamics-based Segmentation Approach for Maximizing Long-term Marketing Impact. Marketing Science Institute Reports, Issue 2, Report No. 08-109, 63-92. Smith, W.R. (1956). Product Differentiation and Market Segmentation as Alternative Marketing Strategies. Journal of Marketing, 21 (July), 3-8. APPENDIX The Eight Step Segmentation Process for Yoplait Yogurt Step 1- Defining the reference market What Hea lth

Who Energy Ba rs Gra nola Ba rs

People (B2C)

Businesses (B2C)

Governm ent (B2G)

Sm oothies Fruit Yogurt

How

Step 2- Electing a macro-segment From the 15 identified macro-segments, we select the highlighted product market. It can thus be stated that the firm is the business of providing: health for people with yogurt. Step 3- Identifying variables for micro-segmentation (These are only a few possible examples)


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

Searched benefits: taste, value, covering nutritional needs, losing weight, feeling well, performing well in sports  Demographic variables: gender, family size, income, age, lifecycle stage, profession  Psychographic variables: lifestyles, personal values, activity level, self image, eating habits Step 4- Choosing variables for micro-segmentation  Level of interest in losing weight  Level of interest in performing well in sports Step 5- Operationalizing the elected variables  Level of interest in losing weight: percentage of meals that a person prepares for him/herself  Level of interest in performing well in sports: hours on average that the person works out Step 6- Micro-segmenting

Level of Interest in Performing well in Sports (# of hours a week working out)

Level of Interest in Losing Weight (% of meals a week prepared by themselves) Low 0-20%

Med 21-50%

High >50%

High >9hrs

The football player

The martial arts sensei

The professional dancer

Med 3-9hrs

The “I love to play but also to eat”

The recreational athlete

The “I want to have a six pack”

Low Attitude, Intension to Use & Actual Use: Previous research investigating the effect of system’s interactivity and users’ attitude suggests that higher degree of interactivity positively influences users’ attitude (Kettanurak et al, 2001). This research hypothesizes that the degree of interactivity of an information system will play a positive significant role in building positive attitude, intension to use, and actual use of that system, as stated in the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: Perceived Degree of Interactivity of HEMIS will have a significant effect on User’s Attitude towards that System Hypothesis 2: Perceived Degree of Interactivity of HEMIS will have a significant effect on User’s Intention to Use that System Hypothesis 3: Perceived Degree of Interactivity of HEMIS will have a significant effect on User’s Actual Use of that System Hypothesis 4 & 5: Attitude -> Intension to Use-> Actual Use: According to Davis (1989) user’s intention to a system is preceded by the user’s attitudes towards that system, this research postulates the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 4: User’s attitude towards HEMIS will have a significant effect on the Intention to Use that System. Hypothesis 5: The user’s Intension to Use HEMIS will have a significant effect on the Actual Use of that System.


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2.3 Implementation of Three HEMIS Different in Degree of Interactivity The design of the three HEMIS was drawn from the interactivity aspects (Frequency, Range, Significance, and Modality) discussed earlier in this paper. These broader aspects are translated into specific design features which, in turn, are implemented as three HEMIS prototypes, as listed in Table 1. In the non-interactive prototype, related fields (data of undergraduate/ cohort) are grouped and included in sequence of screens, where participants could browse screen by screen in a linear fashion, using Next (right arrow) and Previous (left arrow). Modality is limited to text, images, and graphics. User selects from number of pre-prepared reports list, where content and format of reports are fixed. In the search module, user type search keyword(s) with no support/correction from the system. In case of no match items, an error message appears with a suggestion to try different keyword(s) or to check spelling of keyword(s) used. The low-interactive prototype includes all features of the non-interactive prototype, with the following additions: The Previous arrow is dimmed on the first screen and the Next arrow is dimmed on the last screen. First and Last buttons are provided to go directly to the start and end of the screens. A line of text at the bottom of the screen indicates how many screens available and which screen the current one was. User can go directly to a particular screen by pressing the screen number instead of browsing using the Next and Previous Button. Modality is limited to text, images, graphics, and videos. User selects from number of pre-prepared reports list, where content and format of reports can be edited. User can delete fields, change layout, fonts and spacing, adding logos and subtitles. In the search module, user types search keyword(s) with a spelling auto-correction and advanced search features enabling search by combination of fields. System reports all search results matching with all or part of keyword(s), sorting descending by percentage of matching. Clickable Texts for terms, thesaurus, and abbreviations are marked in blue, once clicked; a pop-up small yellow label appears with short definition and explanation. Frequency of the clickable texts is few.


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In the high-interactive prototype, related fields are grouped and included in different tabs presented in one screen. When moving the mouse over the top of each tab, list of data included in the tab pops up. Participants can select between tabs based on information needs, with the possibility to select any tab at any order. Modality did not lack any of the multimedia elements. User has the option to either use a pre-prepared template of report, or design a new one. In designing a new template, a wizard tool supports the user by providing the list of fields to drag and drop from. Drawing menu is also available for users to draw lines, borders, and titles. User can import statistics and figures from other tools such as MS-Excel. User can save the report as template to be reused. In the search module, user type search keyword(s) with a spelling autocorrection and advanced search features enabling search by combination of fields. The system stores search keyword(s)/ text previous used by users, and has the capability to suggest accurate search text. While typing a keyword(s) / text, the system provides instant suggestions from keyword(s) previously used by the user, and/or the most possible matching keyword(s) based on the content of the system. In case of no typical matching, a message appears with system’s suggestions for more accurate search. The System reports all search results matching with all or part of keyword(s), sorting descending by percentage of matching. The Clickable Texts are more widely used. Hyperlinks for some topics are available for more in-depth discoverybased analysis. For example in the retention rate report, hyperlinks to the term definition and equation are provided; in addition to international standards on retention rate and statistics of other higher education institution.

2.4 The Experiential Survey This research is based on experiential survey method (Gefen, 2000), where participants are introduced to different information retrieval systems and they are asked to perform predefined tasks (to browse the system, and search for set of information) and subsequently report on their perception of information use by filling out a survey, while the interaction with the system is fresh in their minds. The use of experiential survey method was found to be a valid empirical tool for hypothesis testing by providing credible evidence of relationship among the research constructs


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(Gefen, 2000). According to Gefen and Straub (2003) experiential survey method simulates realworld use with a live environment, ensuring a natural reaction of user, which increases the external validity of the research. A common argument about experimental settings is that it might affect participants’ perception and attitude, giving a feeling that participants are being tested in a laboratory. In the current research, all sessions were conducted in the users’ actual work place, during their working hours, and with real work-related information and systems. Steps were taken to provide a more real-life situation, thereby making the participants’ responses more natural.

2.4.1 Structural Equation Modelling Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is the main model analysis tool in this research. SEM technique investigates the goodness-to-fit of the assumed research model with all its paths, representing the observed data in terms of a number of structural parameters, hence bringing data and theory together (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2000). While statistical tools such as regression, correlation, and factor analysis have the limitation of analyzing only one layer of linkages between independent and dependent variables at a time, SEM models relationships among multiple independent and dependent constructs simultaneously (structural model analysis), and also calculates the loadings of measurements on constructs (measurement model analysis). Thus, in SEM, factor analysis and hypotheses are tested in the same step (Chin, 1998). Lately, SEM has been increasingly used in Information Systems and behavioural science studies (Gefen, 2000). Consequently, several software packages are now available to perform SEM such as LISREL, AMOS and PLS-Graph. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and PLS-Graph software are applied in the model testing of this research, aiming to confirm the hypothesized relationships between the model’s constructs.

2.4.2 PLS Analysis Partial least squares method (PLS) is the statistical method used in this study. PLS allows optimal empirical assessment of the measurement model and the structural model. The measurement model links each construct with the set of items measuring that construct, while the structural model includes a network of causal relationships linking multiple constructs (Keil, Tan, Wei, Saarinen, Tuunainen, and Wassenaar, 2000). The PLS-Graph calculates high R2 and significant T-values, consequently rejecting the null hypothesis of no-effect, and show the goodness to fit of the assumed research model with all its paths (Thompson, Barclay and Higgins, 1995). Partial least squares (PLS) performs an iterative set of path analyses combined with factor analyses until the difference in the average R2 of the constructs becomes insignificant. Path coefficients and correlations among the latent variables are estimated together with the individual R2 and AVE (Average Variance Extracted) of each of the latent constructs. Once the measurement and structural paths have been estimated in this way, PLS applies either a Jack-Knife or a Bootstrap approach to estimate the significance T-values of the paths (Thompson et al, 1995). In Partial least squares (PLS), a good model fit is recognized with significant path coefficients, acceptably high R2 and internal consistency (construct reliability) being above 0.70 for each construct. Assessing the confirmatory factor analysis in PLS is then


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done by verifying constructs’ convergent and discriminant validity by checking that the AVE of each construct is larger than its correlation with the other constructs, and that each item has a higher loading on its assigned construct than on the other constructs.

2.4.3 The Sample The sampling method in this study is based on convenience sampling technique. The convenience sampling method, also called the grab method, is “undoubtedly the most commonly used non-probability technique” (Krathwohl, 1997: p.171). Participants were employed on the bases of Within-Subject Testing (Nielsen, 1993), means same participants will be evaluating the three HEMIS prototypes. While the three prototypes share some features, participants might form a perception of interactivity while using a specific prototype, which will transfer to the other prototypes. Therefore, the three prototypes were open on the computer’s desktop for participants to select with which they prefer to start. Participation in the study was voluntary. The sample size depended on the number of volunteers who were willing to participate in the experiment. The sample includes 110 administration staff with different managerial levels and responsibilities (registrar, academic advisors, alumina coordinators, secretaries, human resources and public relations) from seven higher education institutions in Egypt. They are all permanent staff, working in their higher education institutions for at least three years. They all own a university degree in different disciplines, and within the age range of 30 to 50 years. All participants show either intermediate or high technology familiarity, and with intermediate or high Internet usage. Males represent 40% of the sample and females represent 60%.

2.4.5 Session Administration Experiential sessions were conducted in the seven different higher education institutions under similar conditions. All sessions took place in the computer lab of the institutions where participant are working. Consistency of computers settings was ensured in all labs, in terms of computers configuration, operating systems, Internet speed, and Internet browsers. Participants of the experiential sessions were asked to perform tasks representing the most common queries performed on HEMIS in general. Participants were asked to complete two tasks. First: search for an under graduate, track his/her year-to-year grades, calculate length of time to graduation, print an undergraduate report card with tracked data from first year to date. Second: query for a specific cohort of graduates, track the cohort input (students quality and diversity), support (student retention, academic success, grade point average), and output (graduation rates, job placement).The experiential task were meant to be short, simple, within the practical information needs of the participants, representing a typical of what a higher education administrative staff might routinely perform. Participants were given an introductory session with information about purpose, duration, and tasks of the session. Participants were introduced to the three different prototypes of HEMIS and were asked to select one prototype to start with, and were given as much time as they need to browse the first selected prototype of the HEMIS, and then they were asked to start to perform the pre-set tasks. Following, participants were asked to fill the post-experiential


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survey based on their interaction with the selected HEMIS. Participants were asked to select the second, then the third HEMIS prototype and repeat the previously listed steps in each time. Most participants took about 30 minutes to complete tasks on each prototype. Since the session was relatively short, no breaks were scheduled. After handing the survey to the experimenter, participants were thanked and dismissed. Participants were asked to record their use of the three prototypes for two weeks period. After two weeks, same participants reported to the researcher, by email, the number of hours spent on each system over the two weeks interval.

2.5 Analysis and Results The measurement model links each construct with the set of items measuring that construct. Analysis of the measurement model is done through assessing reliability of item and construct, construct validity, and item correlations.

2.5.1 Measurement Model Analysis 2.5.1.1 Item Reliability and Correlations Item reliability was checked in the current research through assessment of items loading, as well as the correlation between each item and its corresponding construct (Chin, 1998). In the current research, all items loading and all item-construct correlation exceeded 0.65, which matches the acceptable level of item reliability of 0.60 for items loading and item-construct correlation (Chin, 1998). Correlations between items measuring same construct were computed through discriminant validity of items, in which an item would correlates more highly with other items measuring the same construct than with items measuring other constructs (Keil et al, 2000). A further item correlation analysis is done in PLS, using bootstrap technique to generate the T-value of item loadings. In PLS loading of an item in the factor analysis would be much higher on its assigned construct than on the other constructs (Gefen, 2000). In the current research, all items were found to have much higher loadings in their assigned constructs than in the other constructs.

2.5.2.2 Construct Reliability and Validity According to Keil et al (2000), Cronbach’s Alpha assess how well a set of items measures a single construct; hence assessing construct validity. Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.6 is considered satisfactory, while a value of 0.8 or higher is preferred. In the current research, Cronbach’s Alpha scores, exceed 0.6. Construct validity is measured through the correlation coefficient between each construct and its assigned items, using Pearson Correlation Coefficient (Krathwohl, 1997). In the current research, a significant correlation was found between all constrict of the research model and all their assigned items.

2.5.3 Structural Model Analysis The structural model includes a network of causal relationships linking multiple constructs. Analysis of the structural model is done through calculation of the percentage with which the independent variables explain the variation in the dependent variable (R2 Value), as well as Path Coefficients and T-Value.


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PLS uses a Bootstrap technique to obtain T-values for each path in the structural model. Support for each hypothesis is assessed by examining the sign and statistical significance of the T-value for its corresponding path. The acceptable T-value is 2.326 with a significance level of 0.01 (Keil et al, 2000). Table 2 shows the path coefficients and T-values for the three degree of HEMIS interactivity. For the overall dataset and the three HEMIS prototypes, the value of R2 is highest in ATT, followed by ITU, and finally by AU. This suggests that the model mainly provides explanation of the variation of attitude on the largest degree, followed by explanation of the variation of the intention to use on a less degree, and finally explanation of the variation of the actual use. Furthermore, the PDI->ATT path is particularly valid, where they explain 58% of the variation in ATT. Followed by the paths of PDI->ITU where they explain 52% of variation in ITU. Followed by the paths of PDI->AU where they explain 48% of variation in AU. This again suggests the strength of model in explaining mainly the variation of the attitude construct, more than the other two dependent constructs. For the non-interactive, low-interactive, and high-interactive systems, the results propose that perceived degree of interactivity has a positive effect on attitude (t = 5.745, p