Nov 29, 2012 ... International Relations (Ravesh Tahghigh dar Olum-e Siasi va Ravabet-e.
Beinolmelal). 7th ed. Tehran: Farzan Rooz Publication, 2011. Print.
IRAN’S ISLAMIC PARADIGM IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS International Studies Association - Global South Caucus
by Farzan Sabet, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Roozbeh Safshekan, University of Alberta
Menton, France 29 November - 01 December 2012
1
INTRODUCTION In 1980 the Islamists following the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who had emerged as the winners of the political struggle of the 1979 revolution in Iran, embarked on a new phase of their project to implement their version of Shiite political Islam in Iran. This phase was called the “cultural revolution” and targeted universities, which were a hotbed of leftist activity before and during the revolution.1 In carrying out the cultural revolution in universities, the newly established regime sought to rid the country of what it viewed as corrosive Western paradigms and replace them with its own authentic Islamic paradigm. Although the conventional historical narrative views the main phase of the cultural revolution as having been between 1980 and 1983, it never formally ended, and the set of policies associated with it have intensified since the election of Principalist president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in 2005. The humanities and social sciences in Iran, known collectively as the “human sciences”, have been one of the primary targets of the cultural revolution. Despite the role the cultural revolution has played in shaping the human sciences in Iran, its mechanisms and outcomes have yet to be systematically analyzed. Through what mechanisms has the cultural revolution attempted to implement the regime's Islamic paradigm in the human sciences? What have the practical results of the cultural revolution been, especially in terms of creating an Islamic human science which can displace Western human science in Iranian universities? This paper proposes to begin exploring the mechanisms and outcomes of the cultural revolution in the human sciences by looking at how it has been carried out since 1980 and specifically studying the state of International Relations (IR) in Iran as a subset of the human sciences. It is suggested that the cultural revolution has been implemented in the human sciences through two main mechanisms, namely the “Islamification” of (1) the physical university space and (2) the curriculum. The first has entailed the creation of an Islamic “atmosphere” in universities, especially through the purge of students and faculty in the human sciences, while the second has entailed attempts at implementing an “Islamic” paradigm in the curriculum in order to create an authentic Islamic human science. Despite these efforts over the past 32 years, a preliminary analysis of the main IR texts for research and teaching produced by the Islamic Republic's leading academics indicates that Western paradigms continue to dominate in this field. This paper explores the mechanisms and outcomes of the cultural revolution in the human sciences, and IR specifically, in six parts. Part one systematically lays down the question, hypothesis, methodology and concepts at the heart of this paper. Part two unravels the historical
1
Mojab, Shahrzad. “State-university power struggle at times of revolution and war in Iran.” International Higher Education, 36 (2004), 11-13. Print.
2
genealogy of the cultural revolution, which has its origins in the concept of Westoxification before the revolution and is today grounded in the Islamic Republic's concept of “soft war”. Part three lays out the history of the modern university in Iran, from the foundation of the University of Tehran by Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1934 until the Islamic Revolution of 1979, highlighting its Western roots. Part four looks at the mechanisms of the cultural revolution, including the Islamification of universities' physical space and curriculum, particularly during its initial phase between 1980 and 1983 and its intensification since 2005. Part five analyzes a database, consisting of foundational texts for the study of IR produced by academics in Iranian universities, in order to assess the impact of the regime's efforts to replace the dominant Western paradigms with an Islamic paradigm. Part six draws preliminary conclusions about the mechanisms and outcomes of the cultural revolution in IR, and suggests ways forward. PART ONE: QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESESES, METHODOLOGY & CONCEPTS Questions As outlined in the introduction, this paper attempts to tentatively answers to two main questions: Question 1: Through what mechanisms has the cultural revolution attempted to implement the regime's Islamic paradigm in the human sciences in Iranian universities, and Question 2: What outcomes have resulted from the cultural revolution, especially in terms of creating an Islamic human science which can displace Western human science in Iranian universities? Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: The cultural revolution has attempted to implement the regime's Islamic paradigm in the human sciences in Iranian universities by (a) Purging Western influences from the physical university space, including “Westernized” students and faculty and replacing them with “Islamic” students and faculty, and (b) Purging Western paradigms from the university curriculum and replacing them with an Islamic paradigm Critically, it is shown how the cultural revolution never ended, de jure and de facto, and that it has intensified since 2005 in reaction to the intellectual opening which occurred in universities during the Reformist era (1997-2005).
3
Hypothesis 2: Despite these efforts, Western paradigms remain dominant in Iranian universities in part because the regime has been unable to create an Islamic human science to displace Western human science. Methodology Hypothesis one is demonstrated by analyzing the set of policies implemented by the Islamic Republic in universities, primarily between 1980-1983 and from 2005-2012. Hypothesis two is tested by analyzing foundational texts used in the research and teaching of international relations (IR) in Iranian universities. A database of these foundational texts has been constructed using a list compiled by the Iranian Council for Reviewing Books and Texts of Human Science (ICRBTHS).2 The ICRBTHS is an advisory body tasked by the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology (MSRT) with compiling a list of domestically produced human science texts deemed suitable for research and teaching in Iranian universities. Each text is peer reviewed by at least two Iranian academics with the relevant expertise and, once approved by the ICRBTHS, is forwarded to the MSRT for recommended use by universities. Our database has extracted 32 IR-relevant texts from a total list of 193 texts in the political science section of the ICRBTHS. Each text has been categorized as either “Western paradigm”, “Western-applied”, “WesternIslamic hybrid”, or “Islamic paradigm” based on its meta-theoretic assumptions.3 Categorization is done through an examination of each text, including at the very least its table of contents, introduction, conclusion and, where applicable, methodology chapter. In cases where this has not been sufficient for ascertaining its appropriate category the text has been examined in greater depth. A tally of the number of texts in each category, presented as a percentage of the total, helps us better understand the outcome of the cultural revolution in terms of eliminating Western paradigm(s) and replacing it with an Islamic paradigm that serves as a basis for an Islamic human science. By its very nature this kind of analysis gives us a static image rather than a dynamic trend. Furthermore, IR may not be representative of the state of play in other human science 2
Iranian Council for Reviewing Books and Texts of Human Science (Shora-ye Barresi-e Motun Va Kotob-e Olum-e Ensani). . The human science disciplines covered by the ICRBTHS' mandate include: Persian literature, Arabic literature, History and archaeology, psychology, linguistics, Islamic jurisprudence and law, philosophy and Ilm al-Kalam, management, economics, education, social science (including sociology), and political science. The political science group of the ICRBTHS first came into existence in 1996. This list is updated on an ad-hoc basis. Unfortunately, older versions of the list are not available online for comparison with the current list. 3
These include the ontology, epistemology, and methodology used in the text.
4
disciplines, but may in fact be an exception. As such, our conclusions are preliminary and by no means conclusive. Given the constraints of time and space however, we argue that this analysis is a good starting point for understanding the outcome of the cultural revolution in human sciences and can open up avenues of further research. Concepts Cultural Revolution: This paper defines the term cultural revolution in a narrow historical and institutional sense. On the one hand, the Iranian cultural revolution is defined according to its most common understanding in academic literature as the period between 1980 and 1983 when universities were formally closed in order to reform them along Islamic lines. This paper updates the term through two innovations. First, this paper argues that de jure and de facto the cultural revolution did not end after the reopening of universities in 1983, but rather had become embedded in universities and continued through more covert mechanisms. Second, this paper argues that while these mechanisms loosened somewhat during the tenure of Reformist president Mohammad Khatami, they have become more harsh and overt during the tenure of president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad due to the perception that Western influence is dangerously expanding in and through universities. While this has been called by some in the media as a “second” cultural revolution, we prefer to see it as a new phase of an ongoing process. Western paradigm: This designates a work in which the meta-theoretic assumptions of Western human science dominate. Examples of these meta-theoretic assumptions can include a materialist ontology, empiricist epistemology, and positivist methodology. The Western paradigm(s) under consideration here exclude religious texts and the spiritual dimension of human beings as a source of knowledge. Texts under this designation are direct translations of original Western works or replications of said works by Iranian authors in their own words. Western applied: This designates a work in which the meta-theoretic assumptions of Western science dominate. However, works under this designation apply Western paradigms in new ways (mainly in the Iranian context), thus constituting production of knowledge by Iranian universities. Islamic paradigm: This designates a work in which the main texts of Islam, including the Quran and Hadith, and the spiritual dimension of human beings are a valid source of knowledge and are central to the work itself. Western-Islamic hybrid: This designates a work in which there is an attempt to combine and reconcile the Western and Islamic paradigms. 5
PART TWO: HISTORICAL GENEALOGY Historical background Why did the pro-Khomeini Islamists feel compelled to carry out the cultural revolution beginning in 1980? The answer to this question may lie in Iran's social, political, economic, and military decline and encounter with Western imperialism during the 19th and 20th centuries. During the early 19th century Iran, under the rule of the Qajar dynasty (1785-1925), suffered a series of military defeats at the hands of Tsarist Russia which led to significant loss of territory in the Caucuses and Central Asia.4 These defeats marked the beginning of a long period of Iranian decline characterized by increasing European, and especially British and Russian, intervention in Iran's domestic and foreign affairs. By the early 20th century decline and imperial encroachment had reached new levels, with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 essentially dividing Qajar Iran into British and Russian spheres of influence,5 and the Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919, which never came into effect, giving Great Britain near paramount power over Iranian financial and military affairs.6 Iranian decline and Western imperial encroachment sparked movements in Iran which challenged European hegemony at a social, economic, and political level. This was certainly an undercurrent in the Tobacco Revolt (1891) and Constitutional Revolution (1905-1906).7 After the Russian Revolution (1917) and the victory of the Soviet Union in the Second World War (1945), antiimperialism (focusing on Western Europe and the United States) emerged as a discourse in Iranian opposition politics, especially as seen in the Jangali Revolt (1919-1921) and the rise of Iran's pro-Soviet communist party, the Tudeh Party (1941), as a key political opposition player until 1979. Whereas the anti-imperialist discourse began as a mainstay of the Iranian left, after the 1953 Central Intelligence Agency – Secret Intelligence Service-backed coup d'etat against Iran's democratically elected nationalist prime minister Mohammad Mossadegh, it increasingly became a dominant discourse of nearly all of Iran's political opposition, and migrated into the thought and discourse of Shiite political Islam where it became a broader anti-Western discourse that also encompassed the Soviet Union. Westoxification to Soft War 4
"Golestān Treaty." Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. .
5
"Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907" Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. . 6
"Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919." Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. . 7 Abrahamian,
Ervand. Iran between Two Revolutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1982. Print.
6
As a result of strong anti-Western sentiments, brought on by Iranian decline and Western imperial encroachment, Iranian thinkers in the 20th century were attempting to find alternatives to Western modernity. 8 In the 1960s Jalal Al-e Ahmad, a leftist who gradually migrated to Shiite political Islam, synthesized the anti-imperialist discourse of the left with a his own nativistic critique of “Westernized” Iranian modernity, arguing for the need to return to an authentic Iranian-Islamic essence. Al-Ahmad captured the threat he saw posed by the West in the term “Westoxification”. For Al-Ahmad, Westoxification destroyed the Iranian on a number of levels. For example, Western technology destroyed traditional Iranian industries unable to compete, transforming the Iranian into a dependent consumer of Western goods; and Western culture alienated the Iranian from his native culture. Thus, al-Ahmad rejected Western modernity (including the Soviet version) entirely and called for an alternative and authentic Iranian-Islamic modernity. 9 Anti-imperialism and Westoxification increasingly came to dominate the Iranian political oppositions critiques of the ruling Pahlavi dynasty (1925-1979), which since its inception had been a relentless modernizer (and Westernizer) and had benefited from the 1953 coup d'etat that had restored Shah Mohammad-Reza Pahlavi to the throne. Both anti-imperialism and Westoxification were also major themes of the Islamic Revolution of 1979. The Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and his Islamists (early on represented by the Islamic Republic Party) adopted Westoxification, initially as a justification for their wholesale nationalization of foreignowned and private medium and large enterprises as part of their project of creating an Islamic economy and transforming Iran into an Islamic state and the umm ul-Ghura.10 As the pro-Khomeini Islamists turned their attention to fighting the revolutionary political opposition, universities, which were dominated by leftists groups and were the main centres responsible for producing elites and knowledge in Iranian society, became a new focus of the struggle for the fruits of the revolution. Here Westoxification came to be deployed in its cultural, sense, with important consequences. Westoxification and the need to create an alternative Islamic modernity (although it was not always expressed in these terms) became the basis of the assault on universities, known as the cultural revolution.
8
Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. Iranian Intellectuals and the West: The Tormented Triumph of Nativism. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 1996. Print.
9
Hanson, Brad. "The 'Westoxication' of Iran: Depictions and Reactions of Behrangi, Al-e Ahmad, and Shariati." International Journal of Middle East Studies 15 (1983): 1-23. Print.
10
Feirahi, Davood. Political System and State in Islam (Nezam-e Siasi Va Dolat Dar Islam). 8th ed. Tehran: Samt, 2010. Print.
7
Today, Westoxification as a concept has gradually fallen into disuse. However the spirit and legacy of this concept has been carried forward by new concepts. One of the terms, which has come into greater usage since the controversial 12 June 2009 Iranian presidential election, is “soft war”. According to Iranian supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei: “Today a military war is not highly likely - I’m not saying it is completely impossible - but it is not highly likely. However, the war that exists, if not more threatening [than a military war], is not less threatening...In military warfare the enemy seeks our border strongholds...In psychological warfare and what is referred to as soft war in the world today, the enemy seeks spiritual strongholds in order to destroy them; they seek our beliefs, knowledge, resolve, foundations, and the fundamental pillars of a regime and a country.”11 In the regime’s discourse soft war, like Westoxification, alienates Iranians from their own culture and the regime by attracting them to the West. If soft war is successful, Iranians on a large scale could turn against the Islamic Republic, making soft war a major regime security issue. It is in this context that universities were seen as purveyors of Westoxification in the first decade after the revolution and as vectors for soft war in the last few years. Viewed from the perspective of Iranian decline and Western imperial encroachment, and fears of Westoxification and soft war, the cultural revolution begins to make sense a policy aimed at curtailing Western influence in Iran and creating authentic Iranian-Islamic elites and knowledge.
PART THREE: A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY IN IRAN Historical Background The introduction of modern Western higher education in Iran coincides with a period of Iranian decline and Western imperial encroachment lasting from the early 19th to the early 20th centuries. This century of decline and imperial encroachment gave cause for a great deal of reflection by Iranians, particularly among the Iranian nobility and upper strata of Qajar Iran. One of the main problematiques of this period was why decline and encroachment had come about and how this process could be reversed. Some viewed the cause of these ailments to be Iran’s civilizational shortcomings and the solution as emulation the West. But if Iranians were to reproduce the West in Iran, they would require modern modern Western higher education in the form of universities. The impulse to emulate the West and attempt to reproduce this modern education system in Iran in the form of colleges and universities met with resistance from existing social, political, and economic forces which viewed this as a challenge to status-quo. In 11
"Speech in a meeting with the Assembly of Experts (Bayanat Dar Didar-e Azay-e Majlis Khobregaan Rahbari.)" The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works ỗof Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 24 Sept. 2009. Web. .
8
the realm of higher education, the latter were represented by the Shiite Islamic clergy (or ulema) and the system of religious education which had been in place in one form or another since the Safavid dynasty (1501-1736). Religious education during the century of Iranian decline and imperial encroachment was available to a wide range of social strata, from the nobility down to wealthy peasants, and aside from basic literacy was designed to inculcate pupils in subjects such as Persian literature and Quranic studies. This system began at the elementary level with the maktab and went all the way up to the post-secondary hawzeh, which was dominated by the ulema and dedicated to the study of what we would consider exclusively religious subjects and produced the ulema. The challenge to this traditional system of education began with the nobility and upper classes. Seeing the potential utility of a modern education and the lack of the institutions which provided it inside Iran, those with the means to educate their children in the West did so, sending sons abroad to study a wide range of subjects including law, medicine, and military science. Before long, the demand for Western education and difficulties of studying abroad compelled Qajar reformers to push for the establishment of Western style colleges inside Iran. The first of these, the Dar al-Fanun in Tehran, was founded by the reforming prime minister Amir Kabir.12 The Dar al-Fanun utilized Western experts and Western educated Iranians to provide a limited number of degrees in Western subjects such as foreign language, law, medicine, geology, and military science, among others. Although this was a step in the direction of the modern university, it fell short in a number of ways. Despite shortcomings, the Dar al-Fanun and other colleges proliferated from this period onward and played an important role in shaping Iranian elites. The Qajar and Pahlavi eras and the Shiite Islamic hawzeh Before the establishment of colleges and universities in Iran, the archetypal institution of higher education in Iran was the hawzeh which perpetuated the Shiite Islamic system of learning in a similar manner up until the Islamic Revolution of 1979. The hawzeh was dedicated to the production of two types of graduates: The akhoond, who had carried out a basic and shorter curriculum of study similar to the bachelor, and the faghih, who carried out an advanced and longer curriculum of study similar to the doctorate. The subjects taught in the hawzeh were almost exclusively religious and Islamic, perhaps with the exception of philosophy and reason which looked at non-Islamic thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle.13
12
"Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr Kabīr." Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. . 13 Amanat, Abbas.
Apocalyptic Islam and Iranian Shi'ism. London: I.B. Tauris, 2009. Print.
9
The akhoonds carried out many of the day to day functions of the ulema, including serving as preachers in mosques, leading important ceremonies such as Ashura, and give advice to lay people. The faghih, in contrast, carried out the more advanced functions of the ulema, including the production of knowledge which was primarily done through the system of Shiite jurisprudence. The faghih used the input-output system of jurisprudence to answer questions facing Muslims, whether these were about day-to-day matters or larger social, political, and economic issues. This system of jurisprudence was composed of four main elements: (1) The Quran (2) The Hadith (transcribed oral traditions of the practice of the Prophet Mohammed and his companions) (3) Aghl and (4) Ijma (precedent and consensus among the community of foghaha).14 Whereas modern Western universities were in many ways products of the enlightenment which function on a different meta-theoretic basis, the hawzeh system of the production of knowledge was almost exclusively based on the system of jurisprudence and its four constituent elements. Understanding the the hawzeh and its differences with the modern Western university will be important for our discussion of the cultural revolution and the Islamic Republic's attempt to creating an Islamic paradigm in human science. The Pahlavi era and the creation of the modern university in Iran Under Shah Reza Pahlavi, the founder of the Pahlavi dynasty and an aggressive modernizer and Westernizer, Iran established its first modern university, the University of Tehran (UT), in 1934 which was completely based on Western models. Although colleges in Tehran such as the Dar alFanun were drawn upon (in terms of personnel and curriculum) to create the constituent faculties of the UT, this new entity was built almost entirely from scratch and is considered Iran's first university. The new UT buildings were designed by Westerners, especially French and Germans, and a not inconsiderable proportion of the faculty were composed of Westerners, again with French and Germans prominent among them. This extended to the curriculum, which directly imported Western degree subjects and ontology, epistemology, and methodologies. This process intensified under Reza Pahlavi's son and successor, Shah Mohammad-Reza Pahlavi, with the caveat that the American influence was much more pronounced. American architecture, professors, and textbooks played an increasingly important role and decreased the European influence. Pahlavi University (now the University of Shiraz), which was based on the University of Pennsylvania, used English as the language of instruction, and flew in professors from UPenn to teach courses, was illustrative of this process. Likewise, Aryamehr University of Technology
14
Feirahi, Davood. "Introduction to Political Jurisprudence.(Daramadi bar Fiqh-e Siasi)" Davood Feirahi. http:// www.feirahi.ir/?article=140.
10
(now Sharif University of Technology) was based on and had direct institutional ties with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). As the system of Western higher education quickly expanded beyond the Iranian upper classes during the Pahlavi era, it came to pose a threat to the hawzeh and displace it almost completely as a center for producing elites (except for the ulema) and knowledge (except in the field of Shiite jurisprudence). The Western university threatened to completely supplant the Shiite Islamic hawzeh, and by extension Shiite Islam and the ulema, in Iran. PART FOUR: THE ISLAMIC & CULTURAL REVOLUTIONs, 1979-1983 and 2005-2012 The Islamic Revolution of 1979 and the modern university The contradiction of a rapidly expanding Western system of higher education juxtaposed against a declining but still powerful Shiite Islamic system of education came to a head during the Islamic Revolution of 1979. The Pahlavi dynasty had represented one of the more extreme modernizing and Westernizing impulses in Iran. However it was not alone. The majority of liberals, nationalists, and leftists during the Islamic Revolution were also essentially Western in their outlook, although the left tended to be anti-imperialist and pro-Soviet Union. Thus, once the Pahlavi regime was overthrown by the revolution in 1979, a second conflict emerged within the revolutionary forces between Islamists supporting the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, or Khomeinists, and the rest of the opposition. In this context, the modern university represented a twofold threat, one immediate and political and the other more longer term and existential. First, in the years leading up to and during the revolution university campuses had become a hot-bed of leftist activity, enabling secular leftist and left-Islamist groups to recruit and rally support for their respective causes. Within universities, the Anjoman-e Daneshju-yan Mosalman (Muslim Student Association, People's Mojahedin of Iran (PMOI) supporters) and the Sazeman-e Pishgam (Pishgam Organization (secular leftists)) were the most powerful. The Anjoman-e Daneshju-yan Khat-e Imam (Students of the Line of the Imam or SLI, Khomeinist supporters) were the weakest. 15 As Khomeinists looked to consolidate their power, universities had to be cleared of their political opponents. Second, during the revolutionary crisis universities gained an unprecedented level of autonomy from the state, and began being governed by students, the faculty, and administrative staff. Whereas under the Pahlavis the process of elite and knowledge creation had been controlled and premised on the needs of the Pahlavi state, these newly autonomous universities attempted create “independent” knowledge which drew on Western paradigms but was also free to look in new
15
Mashayekhi, Mehrdad. "The Revival of the Student Movement in Post-Revolutionary Iran." International Journal of Politics 5.2 (2001): 283-313. Print.
11
directions. However, universities still had a fundamentally Western basis and if left to themselves were bound to produce Westernized elites and knowledge, or so the Khomeinists thought, going against the kind of authentically Islamic society they sought to create. As explained in part 3, the Khomeinists, a la Jalal al-e Ahmad, did not seek to return to the past but wanted to create an alternative Islamic modernity. For Islamists, this meant a merger of the modern university and traditional hawzeh, with the essence of the latter predominating. It is in this context that the Khomeinists chose to carry out the cultural revolution in order to eliminate their political enemies from an important structure in Iranian society and to lay the foundation for the Islamic society that they sought to create. The Cultural Revolution, 1980-1983 In July 1980 the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, by now the supreme leader of the newly established Islamic Republic of Iran, issued an order appointing seven Khomeinists revolutionary figures to the Council of the Cultural Revolution (CCR) which was tasked with Islamizing the university space and curriculum, though this was not explicitly stated in the official proclamation.16 The cultural revolution implemented the two goals outlined above using two main mechanisms. First, on campuses a regime-backed student pressure group, the Daftar-e Tahkim-e Vahdat-e Howzeh va Daneshgah (Office for Consolidating Unity in Seminaries and Universities, or OCU), which was in fact the SLI, enforced a strict Islamic code of behaviour and dress, expelled ‘un-Islamic’ students and faculty, and quashed dissent. Second, the CCR attempted to Islamicize university curricula by, particularly in the human sciences, by introducing foghaha (the plural for faghih, or Islamic Jurists) and content from the hawzeh. During 1979-1980 academic year, the regime gradually closed universities in order Islamicize them. With the closure of universities a purge commenced the scale of which had never been witnessed in Iran. From the 1979-1980 school year when universities closed and purges began to 1983-1984 when they reopened, of the original 217,174 students enrolled only 148,117 were allowed to return. Thus nearly 70,000 students were expelled and an unknown number were never allowed to enter university from high school.17 Purges also expelled numerous faculty. The process of purging universities completely destroyed academic standards at Iranian universities and significantly decreased the quality of the student body.18 16
The members of the Council included Jalaledin Farsi, Shams al-Ahmed (brother of the famous Jalal Al-ahmad), Rabani Amlashi, Mohammad Javad Bahnoar, Hassan Habibi, Ali Shariatmadari and Abdul-Karim Soroush (today a Islamic thinker living outside Iran) 17
Kamali, Mehrak. "Interview with Mohammad Maleki: No One Asked for Our Opinion (Goftogu Ba Mohammad Maleki: Kasi Az Ma Nazar Nakhaast )." M.ghaed. Web. . 18
Keddie, Nikki R., and Yann Richard. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution. New Haven Conn.: Yale UP, 2006. Print.
12
After three years universities were gradually re-opened. This had as much to do with the success of the cultural revolution in certain areas as it did with the critical need for the elites and knowledge produced by universities for the Iranian economy. The Islamic Revolution of 1979 had resulted in the purging and/or flight of essential human capital in a wide range of areas, especially in technical fields but also in human science areas such as economics. Furthermore, the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) caused the destruction of further human capital and also created a need for skilled workers in a number of field to aid with the war effort and keep the economy afloat. It was in this context that the universities reopened. However, the cultural revolution never ended, de facto and de jure. One of the explicit goals of the cultural revolution had been to create Islamic knowledge, and in the area of human sciences this meant the creation of an Islamic human science. Did this in fact happen? While the Islamic Republic was successful in its goal of eliminating leftist activity from university campuses and bringing the production of elites and knowledge under firm state control , mainly through the coercive mechanisms described above, it does not appear to have been successful in creating an Islamic human science. This cannot be said with absolute certainty. For reasons that will be explored in part five, little documentary evidence of curricula being researched and taught during this period remains. While interviews with students and faculty in the human sciences during this period could help fill this gap, this was beyond the scope of the current study. However the fact that Western paradigms in the human sciences quickly re-emerged by the end of the first decade of the revolution and that few purely or hybrid Islamic works remain after 1989 gives us some idea of what the answer may be. Universities in the Reformist era In the post-war era, the social, political, and economic climate in Iran began to open up compared to the rather closed space of the 1980s. Several factors contributed to this. First, the defeat of the revolutionary opposition and remnants of the ancien regime and the end of the bloody war with Iraq brought to a close nearly a decade of emergencies for the Islamic Republic. Second, less than a year after the war ended Khomeini, the charismatic leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic, passed away leaving a vacuum that virtually no political leader in the regime was prepared to fill. Third, the second information revolution, which introduced the Internet to Iranian universities and later homes, expanded access to information. Fourth, the baby-boom of post-revolution period resulted in a youth bulge which began to flood universities in the 1990s. The sheer numbers of the children of the revolution entering universities, and their hunger for new directions after the bleak 1980s meant that the regime had a more difficult time controlling this generation than their predecessors. Finally, the international zeit geist was quickly changing. The fall of the Soviet Union and emergence of the United States 13
as the world's sole superpower in the 1990s transformed the regional and international context within which the regime had to live. These changes created the conditions for a break with the past. This process after 1989 culminated in the birth of the Reform movement and election of Mohammad Khatami to the presidency of Iran in a landslide electoral victory in 1997. Khatami was supported by a wide coalition of social forces, including students, who sought both freer conditions in society at large and a reformed atmosphere on-campuses. Academics who had remained dormant during this period, continuing to work in universities and engaging in limited or no research and teaching, re-emerged and for the most part began to work within Western paradigms again. Likewise a new generation of university students went beyond the limited curriculum of the 1980s in the human sciences and began to engage both old and newer Western paradigms, from Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud to the Frankfurt School and post-modernism. This process was rapidly accelerated by a translation movement, which made a wide variety of human science literature available to Farsi-speakers, the rapid expansion of print media, which created a public space for new discourses, and the formation of new intellectual circles, which enabled the exploration indepth of Western paradigms in human sciences. Although the study of IR had existed in Iran before the revolution, the cultural revolution set research and teaching in many fields like IR back to a 'zero' point. The human science wave of the 1990s resurrected research and teaching in the human sciences, including in IR. As such, some IR paradigms such as constructivism have only emerged in Iran relatively recently. The Ahmadinejad administration and the revival of the cultural revolution The reformist electoral victories in successive presidential, parliamentary, and municipal councils from 1997 to 2005 and social and political wave that followed initially caught the rightwing of the Islamic Republic's political establishment, the conservatives, by surprise. However, as Khatami hesitantly attempted to carry out his program of reform conservative forces awoke and formed a counter-strategy. By the time of the 1999 18 Tir student protests, Khatami's reforms were slowing down, some students were becoming disenchanted with reform, and conservatives were beginning to roll back some of the reforms. However, this conservative reaction did not begin to manifest itself politically until the 2003 city and village council elections. 19 In 2003 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, a provincial governor and a former officer of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) was elected mayor of Tehran as part of a cohort of new conservative politicians. Working under the factional title of Principalists, referring to these new 19 Abrahamian,
Ervand. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print.
14
conservatives' adherence to the principles of the Islamic Revolution, this new cohort soon came to play a prominent role in parliament after the electoral victories in 2004, and Ahmadinejad himself was soon elected to the presidency in 2005. This was the beginning of a conservative backlash which reversed reforms and began to close the more open social and political space that had been created by the post-1989 context. Universities, centres of student radicalism and the production and dissemination of knowledge which went against the Principalist faction's discourse, became one of the primary targets of the repression which began after 2005. The regime views the threat emanating from universities as being part of the “Soft War”, in part defined as the infiltration of Iranian society by Western thought which draws Iranian citizens away from the regime and toward the West. In the context of revived cultural revolution and universities this has meant that the human sciences have gained particular attention. Iran's current supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, has best exemplified the paranoia about the human sciences. For example, in a speech to students he stated that: “The basis of social science in the West, takes root from materialist thought. Anyone who reads the history of the Renaissance, understands it, and has become familiar with its figures knows this. Admittedly, the Renaissance has been the source of different developments in the West, but the foundation of our thought is different from theirs.”20 Having established Western human science as essentially alien from the Islamic, Khamenei has also highlighted ways in which its application in Iranian society is dangerous: “This human science which is current today has content which is essentially in opposition to the Islamic movement and Islamic regime; It relies on another ideologically...When these become current, officials become trained according to them; the very same officials come to lead the universities, lead the national economy, and to lead domestic, foreign, and security policies, etc.”21 Fear of the threat of soft war and the domination of Western human science in Iranian universities has pushed the regime to take a number of concrete steps to address them. The
20
“Speech among a crowd of students (Bayant dar Jami Daneshjuyan)” The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works ỗof Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 09 Aug.. 2012. Web. . 21
“Speech in a meeting with the students and scholars of the hawzeh of Qom (Bayanat dar Didar-e Tolab, Fozala va Asatid Hawzeh-ye Elmieh Qom) ” The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 21 Oct. 2010. Web.
15
mechanisms of this renewed cultural revolution, both coercive but also creative, have been outlined below. Mechanisms of the revived cultural revolution The policies of Principalists in general and the Ahmadinejad administration in particular in order to return universities to the principles of the revolution mirrored what happened during the cultural revolution, and were in many regards a continuation of them, albeit in a less extreme form. First, since 2005 many faculty members in the human sciences have been retired or purged, with the largest waves of this coming after the 2009-2010 Green Movement.22 Second, the regime has created a 'star' system to identify students who make trouble for the regime and systematically exclude them from higher education. The star system, administered by the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology, places one star on a student's record for a first offence, which can range widely from ‘moral’ (such as not adhering to the hijab) to ‘political’ (participating in political demonstrations), resulting in a warning. A student receives two stars on their record after the second offence, meaning that they are only re-admitted to university with conditions. Finally, if a student receives a third start for a third offence they are automatically excluded from higher education in Iran. In Iran's hyper-competitive education system, where admission to a highly ranked university can mean the difference between wealth and poverty, the star system has had a chilling effect not only on student social and political activism in universities but also the desire of people to pursue sensitive human science degrees. Third, the regime has historically had a system of quotas which ensures that there is a higher proportion of students from its core constituencies, including villages, small towns, Basij Mobilization Force (BMF) volunteers, etc., than would otherwise be represented in universities. Fourth, the regime has once again started imposing the Islamic code in universities, limiting male-female interaction and determining appropriate dress for them. Finally, sensing a demographic threat from the higher proportion of females entering higher education and decreasing marriage and birth rates, the regime has created a quota system in 2012 to limit the number of women in universities. 23 Such policies have contributed to the creation of what the regime considers an “Islamic” atmosphere in universities. Its approach to Islamicizing the human sciences has been more nuanced, and including both coercive methods but also incentives. The regime sees itself as
22
Worth, Robert F. "Iran's Universities Punish Students Who Disputed Vote." The New York Times. 06 Sept. 2009. Web. . 23
"Tensions in the Iranian Leadership over excluding Women from Universities."IranPolitik. N.p., 24 Aug. 2012. Web. .
16
having a deficit in authentic Islamic knowledge to take the place of or at least compete with Western knowledge. Khamenei himself noted this when he said that: “I have often said that we do not feel ashamed to learn, it is necessary to learn, to learn from the Western...We feel ashamed that learning will not lead to our own awareness, wisdom, and power.”24 In another speech, Khamenei expressed fears about how of three and a half million students in higher education in Iran in 2008 two million were in the human sciences, and that there was a fundamental lack of Islamic research to teach them: “This worries a person. How much indigenous works and Islamic research do we have in human sciences? How many ready texts do we have in the field of human science? How many skilled professors do we have who want to teach sociology, psychology, management, etc. that we accept so many students? This is worrying. Much of the human science discourse is based on philosophies which is premised on materialism, Its basis considers human beings animals. [It views] Humans as being irresponsible before god, it is not having a spiritual view of human beings and the world. Well, if we translate this human science, teaching what Westerners have said and written directly to our youth, we create suspicion and faithlessness in the foundations of God and Islam and our own values, and is transferred to youth in the shape of education.” 25 PART FIVE: TESTING THE ICRBTHS’ IR LIST Overview One of the regime’s main non-coercive mechanisms for expanding Islamic human science has been to direct public funding to academics in universities and the hawzeh who have a special focus on Islamic research. This is not a recent effort but something that has been going on since 1980 when the initial decision to create an Islamic curriculum was made. Yet it is difficult to know what the results of these efforts have been unless one actually experiences human science in Iranian universities as a student or faculty member. There are a number of methodological difficulties in testing the development of an Islamic human science. For example, unlike many human science courses in Western universities where a description or syllabus is available online, in Iran this is not generally the case. In fact many courses have no syllabus at all, but student are rather told the books to purchase and readings orally in class.
24
“Speech among a crowd of students (Bayant dar Jami Daneshjuyan)” The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 09 Aug.. 2012. Web. . 25
“Speech in a meeting with university professors (Bayanat dar Didar-e Asatid-e Daneshgah) ” The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 30 Aug. 2008. Web.
17
However, there may be one way to at least begin gauging the Islamic Republic’s effort to create an Islamic paradigm in human science, thus creating an Islamic human science. the Iranian Council for Reviewing Books and Texts of Human Science (ICRBTHS) recommendations to the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Research, explained in part two, could be one of the best indicators we have of the progress of the Islamic Republic’s efforts in this area. Given the regime’s explicit goal of eliminating or at least marginalizing Western human science in its education system, the expectation would be that the percentage of Islamic and/or hybrid texts in the ICRBTHS list would be a plurality, if not an outright majority. We have put this idea to the test using international relations (IR) as a subset of political science. This has meant analysing 32 IR-related works out of a total of 193 works in the political science section of the ICRBTHS and designating them according to the paradigms (Western, Westernapplied, Islamic, and Hybrid).26 We have included key words to help readers identify the content of each text. Unfortunately, older public versions of the ICRBTHS list since 1996 do not exists as the list is simply updated, making it difficult for us to track trends. However, an analysis of the existing list should give us a good indication of where things are. ICRBTHS IR-List Analysis Our analysis of the ICRBTHS IR-list indicates that more than half (19, or 59.4%) of the foundational texts used for the study of international relations in the Islamic Republic use Western paradigms, meaning that they are direct translations of original Western works or replications of said works or the theories contained therein by Iranian authors in their own words. Another quarter of the texts (eight, or 25%) use Western paradigms, but apply them to an Iranian or Islamic context, meaning that they constitute a form of production of knowledge in Iran. Of all of the works on the ICRBTHS IR-List, only a small proportion (four, or 12.5%) use an exclusively Islamic paradigm, with an even smaller number (one, or 3.1%) using a WesternIslamic hybrid paradigm. Depending on how one decides to interpret the data, anywhere between 59.4% to 87.5% of these key texts for research and teaching IR in Iran use at least some element of Western paradigms. Only between 12.5% - 15.6% use some element of an Islamic paradigm. What does this data mean in light of the question of whether the Islamic Republic has been able to create an Islamic paradigm as the basis for an Islamic human science to displace Western paradigms and human science? Clearly, original purely Islamic and hybrid works do exist and apparently the ICRBTHS
26
See Appendix A.
18
felt that they were of sufficient quality to include them in their most recent version of their political science section’s list. However, if we are to assume that the list is actually taken seriously by Iranian universities, or that it is indicative of what Iranian academics and students are using for learning IR and conducting research, it would appear that the basis of IR education in the Islamic Republic is still overwhelmingly Western. This shows that despite 32 years of the cultural revolution, including the use of such coercive measures as purges of people and works in universities, the regime has been successful in merely constraining the dominance of Western paradigms and human science in its universities and not in displacing it (it should be remembered that its goal, as expressed by Khamenei, is not to eliminate Western human science completely). The fact that the ICRBTHS list is an official one, overseen by entities under the control of the presidency and office of the supreme leader, gives this idea even more credibility. To put it simply, if the regime had high quality Islamic works suitable for research and teaching they would be on this list given that they have prioritized the creation of authentic Islamic knowledge in Iranian universities.
Western paradigm
Western-applied
Hybrid
Islamic paradigm
ICRBTHS IR-List: Western versus Islamic paradigms
3.1%
12.5%
25.0%
59.4%
19
CONCLUSION What can this teach us about the project of creating an Islamic paradigm and human science? While the data in this study does not allow us to look at this question in any depth, it does indicate that there are difficulties in this project, the root cause of which could be a whole host of issues, from the difficulties of attracting and retaining creative and high-quality academics to the challenges of reconciling Islamic sources of knowledge with modern academic practice. As noted in part two however, IR may not be indicative of the state of things as a whole, and thus may be misleading, either by over- or under-representing Western texts. As such, further research needs to be conducted in order to assess this further. For example, all 193 texts in the ICRBTHS’ political science section could be analysed in order to determine its Western versus Islamic content. Another fruitful exercise could be to do a large-N study of the doctoral dissertations, books, and academic articles in IR being produced in Iranian academia since 2005 (available on the Iranian Human Society Portal) using key word searches and analysis of abstracts. Given that the cultural revolution has been revitalized since 2005, there may be a lag between the ICRBTHS political science section list and what is currently being produced, meaning that Islamic paradigms will play an increasing role in the human sciences in the years to come.
20
APPENDIX A
Title:
An Analytical Framework for Examining the Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran
Year:
Western-Applied
Category:
2009 (6th ed.)
Description:
Iranian Foreign Policy, post-Second World War, Independence, territorial integrity, homeland security
Citation:
Ramezani, Rouhollah. An Analytic Framework for Examining the Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Charchub-i Tahlil-i baray-e Barresi-e Siasat-e Khareji-e Jomhuri-e Islami-e Iran). Trans. Ali-Reza Tayyib. 6th ed. Tehran: Ney Publication, 2009. Print.
Title:
Contemporary Islamic Movements
Year:
2011 (12th ed.)
Category:
Islamic paradigm
Description:
Wahhabism, Indian Shah Wali Ullah's Reform, movement, Libyan Senussi movement, Sudanese Mahdi movement, Indian Khilafat movement
Citation:
Movassaghi, Seyyed Ahmad. Contemporary Islamic Movements. (Jonbeshhaye Islami-e Moaser). 12th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
Title:
Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey
Year:
2011 (6th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
IR theory, balance of power, realist theory, neo-realist theory, neo-classic realist theory, international system, system theory, constructivism, environmental theories in IR, conflict theories, IPE
Citation:
Dougherty, James E., and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr. Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey (Nazarieh-haye Mote’arez dar Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). Trans. Ali-Reza Tayyib. 6th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2011. Print.
21
Title:
Development of International Relations Theories
Year:
2012 (7th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Liberalism, Realism, The English School, The World System, Critical Theory, Postmodernism, Feminism, Constructivism
Citation:
Moshirzadeh, Homeira. Development of International Relations Theory (Tahavvol dar Nazarieh-haye Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print.
Title:
Diplomacy and Political Behaviour in Islam
Year:
2005 (2nd ed.)
Category:
Islamic paradigm
Description:
Diplomacy in Islam, consular relations in Islam, diplomacy of the Prophet Mohammed, foreign policy strategies of the Prophet Mohammed, Umayyad dynasty, Abbasid dynasty, Islamic inter-state relations,
Citation:
Musavi, Seyyed Mohammad. Diplomacy and Political Behaviour in Islam (Diplomacy va Raftar-e Siasi dar Islam). 2nd. ed. Tehran: Baz Publication, 2005. Print.
Title:
Foreign Policy of Iran: Essays in theoretical and applied domains
Year:
2008 (3rd ed.)
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
Iranian foreign policy, international relations theory, Globalization, national security, September 11 2001, Deterrence, Central Asia and the Caucasus
Citation:
Sadjadpour, Mohammad-Kazem. Foreign Policy of Iran: Essays in theoretical and applied domains (Siasat-e Khareji-e Iran: Chand Goftar dar Arseh-haye Nazari va Amali). 3rd ed. Tehran: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Publication, 2002. Print.
22
Title:
History of Diplomacy and International Relations from the Treaty of Westphalia until Today
Year:
2011 (11th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
History of IR, foreign policy of major powers, international system, postWestphalia, European political order, international institutions, Treaty of Westphalia (1648) to Congress of Vienna (1715) (development), Congress of Vienna to the First World War (internationalization), First World War to present (globalization versus Westphalian order)
Citation:
Naghibzadeh, Ahmad. History of Diplomacy and International Relations from the Treaty of Westphalia until Today (Tarikh-e Diplomacy va Ravabet-e Beinolmelal az Peiman-e Westphalia ta Emrooz). 11th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2011. Print.
Title:
International Organizations
Year:
2012 (4th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
International relations theory, international organizations, regional organizations, international trade, global stability, national security
Citation:
Ghafuri, Mohammad. International Organizations (Sazman-haye Beinolmelali). 4th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print.
Title:
International Relations: Theories and Approaches
Year:
2011 (6th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Reflexivism, critical approach, national security, international security, foreign policy analysis
Citation:
Ghavam, Abdol-Ali. International Relations: Theories and Approaches. (Ravabet-e Beinolmela: Naraieh-ha va Ruykard-ha). 6th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
23
Title:
International Relations in Theory and Practice
Year:
2009 (5th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Post-Second World War IR, fall of the Soviet Union, introduction to IR paradigms, concepts in IR, anti-colonial movements, international law, new world order, IR in the 21st century
Citation:
Kazemi, Ali-Asghar. International Relations in Theory and Practice (Ravabet-e Beinolmelal dar Theory va Amal). 5th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2009. Print.
Title:
Introduction to Iranian Political Geography
Year:
2009 (3rd ed.)
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
Concepts of political geography, Iranian geographical history, borders, geopolitics, Iranian maritime borders, heartland theory, 1953 coup d’etat, Dialogue of Civilizations
Citation:
Minayi, Mehdi. Introduction to Iranian Political Geography (Moghaddameh-i bar Goghrafia-ya Siasi-e Iran.) 3rd ed. Tehran: Iranian Foreign Ministry Publication, 2009. Print.
Title:
Methodology in Political Science and International Relations (Using SPSS Software)
Year:
2005
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
International relations theory, methodology, data analysis, quantitative methods
Citation:
Sanjabi, Ali-Reza. Methodology in Political Science and International Relations (Using SPSS Software) (Raveshshenasi dar Elm-e Siasat va Ravabet- Beinolmelal (Ba Bahrehgiri az Barnameh-ye SPSS)). Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2005. Print.
24
Title:
Methodology in Political Studies of Islam
Year:
2007
Category:
Islamic paradigm
Description:
Methodology, epistemology, critical approach, political jurisprudence, hermeneutics, discourse analysis, intellectuals and Islamic jurists, political Islamic philosophy
Citation:
Methodology in Political Studies of Islam Alikhani, Ali-Akbar (Ed.) Methodology in Political Studies of Islam. (Raveshshenasi dar Motale’at-e Siasi-e Islam). Tehran: Imam Sadegh University Publication, 2007. Print.
Title:
Methodology of New Theories in Politics (Positivism and Post-positivism)
Year:
2011 (3rd ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Philosophy of science, epistemology, methodology, meta-theory, positivism, post-positivism, scientific paradigms, critical theory, structuralism, postmodernism, hermeneutics
Citation:
Moini-Alamdari, Jahangir. Methodology of New Theories in Politics (Positivism and Post-positivism) (Raveshshenasi-e Nazarieh-haye Jadid dar Siasat (Esbatgarayi va Faraesbatgarayi)). 3rd ed. Tehran: University of Tehran Publication, 2011. Print.
Title:
National Security and the International System
Year:
2011 (7th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
National security, national interests, threats to national security, national unity
Citation:
Roshandil, Jalil. National Security and the International System (Aminat-e Melli va Nezam-e Beinolmelali). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
25
Title:
Political Jurisprudence, International Treaty Law and Diplomacy in Islam
Year:
2011 (7th ed.)
Category:
Islamic paradigm
Description:
Islamic law, Islamic diplomacy, political jurisprudence, political Islam, International treaty law
Citation:
Amid-Zanjani, Abbas-Ali. Political Jurisprudence: International Treaty Law and Diplomacy in Islam (Fiqh-e Siasi: Hoghough-e Ta’ahodat-e Beinolmelali va Diplomacy dar Islam). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication. 2011. Print.
Title:
Politics and Government in Eurasia
Year:
2010
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
Russian Federation, White Russia, Ukraine, Central Asia, South Caucasus, treaties, regional organizations, international relations, foreign policy, energy policy, trans-regional powers, Iran-Eurasian relations
Citation:
Kulayi, Elaheh. Politics and Government in Eurasia. (Siasat va Hokumat dar Eurasi-ye Markazi). Tehran: Samt Publication, 2010. Print.
Title:
Politics and Government in the United States
Year:
2011 (7th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Federalism, US Constitution, three branches of government, political parties, independence, civil society
Citation:
Amjad, Mohammad. Politics and Government in the United States (Siasat va Hokumat dar Iyalat-e Mottahedeh). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
26
Title:
Power, Knowledge, and Legitimacy in Islam
Year:
2011 (11th ed.)
Category:
Western-Islamic Hybrid
Description:
Michel Foucault, epistemology, Ibn Khaldun, al-Jahez, Foucauldian geneology, Foucauldian archaeology, concept of power, orientalism, political jurisprudence
Citation:
Feirahi, Davood. Power, Knowledge, and Legitimacy in Islam (Ghodrat, Danesh va Mashruiat dar Islam). 11 ed. Tehran: Ney Publication, 2011. Print.
Title:
Principles of Foreign Policy and International Politics
Year:
2011 (17th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Introduction to IR paradigms, history of IR studies, decision-making in FP, conflict in IR, international system
Citation:
Ghavam, Abdol-Ali. Principles of Foreign Policy and International Politics (Osul-e Siasat-e Khareji va Siasat-e Beinolmelal). 17th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
Title:
Research Methods in Political Science and International Relations
Year:
2010 (7th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Methodology, stages of research, research design, data collection, methodological schools in international relations, Traditionalism, Behavioralism, Post-Behavioralism
Citation:
Sariolghalam, Mahmood. Research Methods in Political Science and International Relations (Ravesh Tahghigh dar Olum-e Siasi va Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). 7th ed. Tehran: Farzan Rooz Publication, 2011. Print.
27
Title:
Review of Iran’s Foreign Policy during the Pahlavi Era
Year:
2005 (2nd ed.)
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
Foreign policy decision-making, global powers (US, Great Britain, France, and Russia)
Citation:
Mohammadi, Manouchehr. Review of Iran’s Foreign Policy during the Pahlavi Era. (Moruri bar Siasat-e Khareji-e Iran dar Doran-e Pahlavi). 2nd ed. Tehran: Dadgostar Publication, 2005. Print.
Title:
The European Union
Year:
2011 (4th ed.)
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
European Union, history of the EU, EU reforms, EU institutions, EU foreign policy, EU economic policies, EU defense and security policies, EU-Iran relations
Citation:
Khaluzadeh, Saeed. The European Union (Ettehadieh-ye Europa-yi). 4th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2006. Print.
Title:
The History of International Relations, 1870-1945
Year:
2011 (6th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
History of IR, Western IR from the Franco-Prussian War until the end of the Second World War
Citation:
Bozorgmehri, Majid. The History of International Relations (1870-1945) (Tarikh-e Ravabet-e Beinolmelal (1870-1945)). 6th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
28
Title:
The Persian Gulf and its Issues
Year:
2011 (4th ed.)
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
Persian Gulf, geo-politics, hydro-politics, colonialism in the Persian Gulf, The World Wars, Balance of power in the Persian Gulf, states of the Persian Gulf, United States, Soviet Union, super powers, Iran-Iraq War, Persian Gulf War
Citation:
Asadi, Bijan. Persian Gulf and its Issues. (Kahlij-e Fars va Masa’el-e An). 4th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
Title:
The Persian Gulf and Strategic Role of the Strait of Hormuz
Year:
2012 (6th ed.)
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, geopolitics, political geography, global powers, global economy, petroleum, law of the sea, Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
Citation:
Hafezinia, Mohammad-Reza. The Persian Gulf and Strategic Role of the Strait of Hormuz (Khalij-e Fars va Naghsh-e Strategic-e Tangeh-ye Hormoz). 6th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print.
Title:
The Political and Economic Issues of the Third World
Year:
2012 (13th edition)
Category:
Western-Applied
Description:
Colonialism, Third World, population issues, economy, foreign capital, international trade, government, regimes, political institutions
Citation:
Saei, Ahmad. The Political and Economic Issues of the Third World (Masa’ele Siasi-Eghtesadi-e Jahan-e Sevvom). 13th edition. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print.
29
Title:
Theories in International Relations Theory
Year:
1989
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Classical realism, structural realism, classical liberalism, institutional liberalism, international organization, international anarchy
Citation:
Saifzaedeh, S. Hossein. Theories in International Relations (Nazarieh-haye Mokhtalef dar Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). Tehran: Safir Publication, 1989. Print.
Title:
Theories of Imperialism
Year:
2011 (8th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Theories of Imperialism, IR subfields, Wolfgang J. Mommsen, David Kenneth Fieldhouse, Albert Szymanski
Citation:
Mommsen, Wolfgang et al. Theories of Imperialism (Nazarieh-haye Imperialism). Trans. Ahmad Saei. 8th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2011. Print.
Title:
Theorizing in International Relations: Fundamentals and Theoretical Frameworks
Year:
2012 (9th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Imperialism, dependence theory, balance of power theory, neo-realist theory, behaviouralism, game theory, interdependence, international regimes theory
Citation:
Seifzadeh, S. Hossein. Theorizing in International Relations: Fundamentals and Theoretical Frameworks (Nazarieh Pardazi dar Ravabet-e Beinolmelal: Mabani va Ghaleb-haye Fekri ). 9th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print.
30
Title:
Understanding the Essence and Functioning of Imperialism
Year:
2010 (5th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Imperialism, colonialism, socialism, neo-imperialism, nationalism, decolonization, dependence theory, liberalism, mercantilism, exploitation
Citation:
Elahi, Homayoon. Understanding the Essence and Functioning of Imperialism (Shenakht-e Mahiat va Amalkard-e Imperialism). 5th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2010. Print.
Title:
War and Peace: Analyzing Contemporary Military and Strategic Issues
Year:
2011 (5th ed.)
Category:
Western paradigm
Description:
Definitions of war, strategic concepts, military weaponry, intelligence tools, militarism, military-industrial complex, NATO, disarmament, arms control, international security, United Nations
Citation:
Azghandi, Seyyed Ali-Reza. War and Peace: Analysing Contemporary Military and Strategic Issues (Jang va Solh: Barrasi-e Masa’el-e Nezami va Strategic-e Moaser). 5th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
31
BIBLIGRAPHY: 1. "Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919." Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. . 2. "Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907" Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. . 3. "Golestān Treaty." Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. . 4. Iranian Council for Reviewing Books and Texts of Human Science (Shora-ye Barresi-e Motun Va Kotob-e Olum-e Ensani). . 5.
"Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr Kabīr." Encyclopædia Iranica. Web. .
6.
“Speech among a crowd of students (Bayant dar Jami Daneshjuyan)” The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 09 Aug.. 2012. Web. .
7.
"Speech in a meeting with the Assembly of Experts (Bayanat Dar Didar-e Azay-e Majlis Khobregaan Rahbari.)" The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 24 Sept. 2009. Web. .
8.
“Speech in a meeting with the students and scholars of the hawzeh of Qom (Bayanat dar Didar-e Tolab, Fozala va Asatid Hawzeh-ye Elmieh Qom) ” The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 21 Oct. 2010. Web.
9. “Speech in a meeting with university professors (Bayanat dar Didar-e Asatid-e Daneshgah) ” The Center for Preserving and Publishing the Works of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali Khamenei. 30 Aug. 2008. Web.
32
10. "Tensions in the Iranian Leadership over excluding Women from Universities."IranPolitik. 24 Aug. 2012. Web. . 11. Abrahamian, Ervand. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print. 12. Abrahamian, Ervand. Iran between Two Revolutions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1982. Print. 13. Alikhani, Ali-Akbar (Ed.) Methodology in Political Studies of Islam. (Raveshshenasi dar Motale’at-e Siasi-e Islam). Tehran: Imam Sadegh University Publication, 2007. Print. 14. Amanat, Abbas. Apocalyptic Islam and Iranian Shi'ism. London: I.B. Tauris, 2009. Print. 15. Amid-Zanjani, Abbas-Ali. Political Jurisprudence: International Treaty Law and Diplomacy in Islam (Fiqh-e Siasi: Hoghough-e Ta’ahodat-e Beinolmelali va Diplomacy dar Islam). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication. 2011. Print. 16. Amjad, Mohammad. Politics and Government in the United States (Siasat va Hokumat dar Iyalat-e Mottahedeh). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print. 17. Asadi, Bijan. Persian Gulf and its Issues. (Kahlij-e Fars va Masa’el-e An). 4th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print. 18. Azghandi, Seyyed Ali-Reza. War and Peace: Analysing Contemporary Military and Strategic Issues (Jang va Solh: Barrasi-e Masa’el-e Nezami va Strategic-e Moaser). 5th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print. 19. Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. Iranian Intellectuals and the West: The Tormented Triumph of Nativism. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 1996. Print. 20. Bozorgmehri, Majid. The History of International Relations (1870-1945) (Tarikh-e Ravabet-e Beinolmelal (1870-1945)). 6th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
33
21. Dougherty, James E., and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr. Contending Theories of International Relations: A Comprehensive Survey (Nazarieh-haye Mote’arez dar Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). Trans. Ali-Reza Tayyib. 6th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2011. Print. 22. Elahi, Homayoon. Understanding the Essence and Functioning of Imperialism (Shenakhte Mahiat va Amalkard-e Imperialism). 5th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2010. Print. 23. Feirahi, Davood. "Introduction to Political Jurisprudence.(Daramadi bar Fiqh-e Siasi)" Davood Feirahi. http://www.feirahi.ir/?article=140. 24. Feirahi, Davood. Political System and State in Islam (Nezam-e Siasi Va Dolat Dar Islam). 8th ed. Tehran: Samt, 2010. Print. 25. Feirahi, Davood. Power, Knowledge, and Legitimacy in Islam (Ghodrat, Danesh va Mashruiat dar Islam). 11 ed. Tehran: Ney Publication, 2011. Print. 26. Ghafuri, Mohammad. International Organizations (Sazman-haye Beinolmelali). 4th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print. 27. Ghavam, Abdol-Ali. International Relations: Theories and Approaches. (Ravabet-e Beinolmela: Naraieh-ha va Ruykard-ha). 6th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print. 28. Ghavam, Abdol-Ali. Principles of Foreign Policy and International Politics (Osul-e Siasat-e Khareji va Siasat-e Beinolmelal). 17th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print. 29. Hafezinia, Mohammad-Reza. The Persian Gulf and Strategic Role of the Strait of Hormuz (Khalij-e Fars va Naghsh-e Strategic-e Tangeh-ye Hormoz). 6th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print. 30. Hanson, Brad. "The 'Westoxication' of Iran: Depictions and Reactions of Behrangi, Al-e Ahmad, and Shariati." International Journal of Middle East Studies 15 (1983): 1-23. Print. 31. Kamali, Mehrak. "Interview with Mohammad Maleki: No One Asked for Our Opinion (Goftogu Ba Mohammad Maleki: Kasi Az Ma Nazar Nakhaast )." M.ghaed. Web. .
34
32. Kazemi, Ali-Asghar. International Relations in Theory and Practice (Ravabet-e Beinolmelal dar Theory va Amal). 5th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2009. Print. 33. Keddie, Nikki R., and Yann Richard. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution. New Haven Conn.: Yale UP, 2006. Print. 34. Khaluzadeh, Saeed. The European Union (Ettehadieh-ye Europa-yi). 4th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2006. Print. 35. Kulayi, Elaheh. Politics and Government in Eurasia. (Siasat va Hokumat dar Eurasi-ye Markazi). Tehran: Samt Publication, 2010. Print. 36. Mashayekhi, Mehrdad. "The Revival of the Student Movement in Post-Revolutionary Iran." International Journal of Politics 5.2 (2001): 283-313. Print. 37. Minayi, Mehdi. Introduction to Iranian Political Geography (Moghaddameh-i bar Goghrafiaya Siasi-e Iran.) 3rd ed. Tehran: Iranian Foreign Ministry Publication, 2009. Print. 38. Mohammadi, Manouchehr. Review of Iran’s Foreign Policy during the Pahlavi Era. (Moruri bar Siasat-e Khareji-e Iran dar Doran-e Pahlavi). 2nd ed. Tehran: Dadgostar Publication, 2005. Print. 39. Mojab, Shahrzad. “State-university power struggle at times of revolution and war in Iran.” International Higher Education, 36 (2004), 11-13. 40. Moini-Alamdari, Jahangir. Methodology of New Theories in Politics (Positivism and Postpositivism) (Raveshshenasi-e Nazarieh-haye Jadid dar Siasat (Esbatgarayi va Faraesbatgarayi)). 3rd ed. Tehran: University of Tehran Publication, 2011. Print. 41. Mommsen, Wolfgang et al. Theories of Imperialism (Nazarieh-haye Imperialism). Trans. Ahmad Saei. 8th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2011. Print. 42. Moshirzadeh, Homeira. Development of International Relations Theory (Tahavvol dar Nazarieh-haye Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print. 43. Movassaghi, Seyyed Ahmad. Contemporary Islamic Movements. (Jonbesh-haye Islami-e Moaser). 12th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print.
35
44. Musavi, Seyyed Mohammad. Diplomacy and Political Behaviour in Islam (Diplomacy va Raftar-e Siasi dar Islam). 2nd. ed. Tehran: Baz Publication, 2005. Print. 45. Naghibzadeh, Ahmad. History of Diplomacy and International Relations from the Treaty of Westphalia until Today (Tarikh-e Diplomacy va Ravabet-e Beinolmelal az Peiman-e Westphalia ta Emrooz). 11th ed. Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2011. Print. 46. Ramezani, Rouhollah. An Analytic Framework for Examining the Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Charchub-i Tahlil-i baray-e Barresi-e Siasat-e Khareji-e Jomhurie Islami-e Iran). Trans. Ali-Reza Tayyib. 6th ed. Tehran: Ney Publication, 2009. Print. 47. Roshandil, Jalil. National Security and the International System (Aminat-e Melli va Nezam-e Beinolmelali). 7th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2011. Print. 48. Sadjadpour, Mohammad-Kazem. Foreign Policy of Iran: Essays in theoretical and applied domains (Siasat-e Khareji-e Iran: Chand Goftar dar Arseh-haye Nazari va Amali). 3rd ed. Tehran: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Publication, 2002. Print. 49. Saei, Ahmad. The Political and Economic Issues of the Third World (Masa’el-e SiasiEghtesadi-e Jahan-e Sevvom). 13th edition. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print. 50. Sanjabi, Ali-Reza. Methodology in Political Science and International Relations (Using SPSS Software) (Raveshshenasi dar Elm-e Siasat va Ravabet- Beinolmelal (Ba Bahrehgiri az Barnameh-ye SPSS)). Tehran: Ghoomes Publication, 2005. Print. 51. Sariolghalam, Mahmood. Research Methods in Political Science and International Relations (Ravesh Tahghigh dar Olum-e Siasi va Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). 7th ed. Tehran: Farzan Rooz Publication, 2011. Print. 52. Seifzaedeh, S. Hossein. Theories in International Relations (Nazarieh-haye Mokhtalef dar Ravabet-e Beinolmelal). Tehran: Safir Publication, 1989. Print. 53. Seifzadeh, S. Hossein. Theorizing in International Relations: Fundamentals and Theoretical Frameworks (Nazarieh Pardazi dar Ravabet-e Beinolmelal: Mabani va Ghaleb-haye Fekri ). 9th ed. Tehran: Samt Publication, 2012. Print.
36
