Iron and Fe-Mn mineralisation in Iran: implications for ...

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Iron and Fe–Mn mineralisation in Iran: implications for Tethyan metallogeny a

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Gh. Nabatian , E. Rastad , F. Neubauer , M. Honarmand & M. Ghaderi a

Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45195-313, Iran b

Department of Geology, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-175, Iran

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Department Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria d

Department of Earth Sciences, Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences (IASBS), PO Box 45195-1159, Zanjan, Iran Published online: 24 Mar 2015.

To cite this article: Gh. Nabatian, E. Rastad, F. Neubauer, M. Honarmand & M. Ghaderi (2015) Iron and Fe–Mn mineralisation in Iran: implications for Tethyan metallogeny, Australian Journal of Earth Sciences: An International Geoscience Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, 62:2, 211-241, DOI: 10.1080/08120099.2015.1002001 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2015.1002001

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Australian Journal of Earth Sciences (2015) 62, 211241, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2015.1002001

Iron and FeMn mineralisation in Iran: implications for Tethyan metallogeny Gh. NABATIAN1*, E. RASTAD2, F. NEUBAUER3, M. HONARMAND4 AND M. GHADERI2 1

Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zanjan, Zanjan 45195-313, Iran. Department of Geology, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115-175, Iran. 3 Department Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstr 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria. 4 Department of Earth Sciences, Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences (IASBS), PO Box 45195-1159, Zanjan, Iran.

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More than 200 iron deposits with about 4 billion tons of iron ore have been discovered in Iran. Major iron oxide districts comprise the Bafq-Posht-e-Badam back arc district in Central Iranian microcontinent, the Ac Kahoor and Hormoz districts in the Zagros mountain range, the Gol-e-Gohar and Hamekasi deposits in the SanandajSirjan magmaticmetamorphic zone and also the Sangan deposit east of Central Iran. Several smaller iron ore deposits are distributed in the AlborzAzarbaijan magmatic belt. There is a significant correspondence between the distribution of these deposits and main suture zones in the Iran plate composite. Stratiform iron deposits with a volcano-sedimentary origin are common features of the rifting phases of the future Prototethys and Neotethys oceans. Kiruna-type iron oxide deposits of the Zanjan area, and Fe skarn and iron oxidecoppergold deposits in the KhafBardaskanKashmar district are associated with subduction of Neotethys Ocean. Kiruna-type deposits within the KashmarKerman magmatic arc are related to the Prototethys. Different geotectonic scenarios and their evolution explain the distribution patterns of most of the Fe and FeMn deposits in Iran. Stratiform volcano-sedimentary Fe- and FeMn deposits are related to the rift basin, and other types of Fe and FeMn deposits such as the Kiruna-type deposits, skarn and iron oxidecoppergold deposits in Iran are related to basin closure and plate collision. Magmatism in the subduction zone produced the magmatic and hydrothermal fluids, which caused Fe and FeMn mineralisation in Central Iran microcontinent, SanandajSirjan magmaticmetamorphic zone, AlborzAzarbaijan magmatic belt, east of Central Iran and the Lut blocks. The Central Iran microcontinent (KhafBardaskanKashmar district), east of Central Iran, the SanandajSirjan zone and the AlborzAzarbaijan belts are the most prospective districts for Fe and FeMn exploration. Based on the age data on the studied deposits, favourable time periods for the largest Fe and FeMn mineralising events in Iran were the Neoproterozoiclower Cambrian (volcanosedimentary and Kiruna-type deposits), upper Paleozoiclower Mesozoic (volcano-sedimentary iron deposits) and Cenozoic (Kiruna type, iron oxidecoppergold deposits and especially skarn deposits). KEY WORDS: Tethyan metallogeny, Bafq-Posht-e-Badam back arc district, SanandajSirjan magmatic metamorphic zone, AlborzAzarbaijan magmatic belt, Zagros belt, KhafBardaskanKashmar district.

INTRODUCTION Iran and the surrounding areas consist of a mosaic of continental blocks separated from each other by complex foldand-thrust belts within the AlpineHimalayan orogenic system (Gansser 1981). The oldest basement is located in the Central Iran terrane and is composed of a Precambrian €ster & basement with a Paleozoic to Mesozoic cover (Fo Jafarzadeh 1994). Most Neoproterozoic paleogeographic reconstructions (e.g. Stampfli & Borel 2004) and paleo€ ster 1981) magnetic studies (Becker et al. 1973; Soffel & Fo place the Central Iranian Terrane alongside the Arabian

*Corresponding author: [email protected] Ó 2015 Geological Society of Australia

and Indian plates, along the Prototethyan margin of the Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian Gondwanaland. Iran is located along the Tethyan suture between Eurasia and AfricaArabia. Two successive and partly contemporaneous Tethyan oceans existed; the older northern Paleo-Tethys and the younger southern Neotethys (for reviews see: Stampfli 2000; Stampfli & Kozur 2006). Since the formation and evolution of the Prototethys, the tectonic evolution of Iran has been controlled by the opening and closure of the Paleotethys in the Paleozoic, and the closure of the Neotethys in the Cenozoic.

212

Gh. Nabatian et al. Radiolarites subzone (KRSZ), (3) SanandajSirjan magmaticmetamorphic zone (SSZ), (4) UrumiehDokhtar magmatic arc (UD), (5) Central Iranian microcontinent (CIM) (includes the Yazd, Posht-e-Badam block (PB), Tabas and Lut blocks), (6) Alborz ranges, western AlborzAzarbayjan (Alborz), (7) KhazarTaleshZiveh structural zone (KTZ), (8) Central Iranian zone (CIZ), (9) East Iran ranges (Sistan), (10) Makran zone (Makran), (11) KopehDagh ranges (KD), (12) Zabol area (Zabol), and (13) Cenozoic magmatic rocks (CMR) (Figures 1, 2).


The temporalspatial distribution of mineral resources results from the Earth’s crust orogenic movements and occurs in tectono-magmatic periods of the Earth’s history within definite tectono-magmatic zones of the Earth crust. The evolution of Tethyan realm, which governed the geological evolution of the entire region, caused the fragmentation of Iran into different continental blocks. These blocks are separated from each other by complex suture zones (Alavi 1991; Aghanabati 2005); from west to east, the 13 major crustal domains are as follows: (1) Zagros ranges (Zagros), (2) Kermanshah

Figure 1 Distribution of iron deposits according to the type of deposit in the PB, SSZ, Zagros, CIZ, Alborz, Yazd and UD zones. Those in the Alborz and PB include iron oxideapatite deposits, both volcano-sedimentary and skarn iron deposits are within the SSZ and Zagros zones/belts, and skarn deposits and also IOCG deposits are present within the Alborz, CIZ and UD zones. The Hamekasi and Gol-e-Gohar iron deposits in the SSZ are polygenic in origin. Zagros, Zagros ranges; KRSZ, Kermanshah Radiolarites subzone; SSZ, SanandajSirjan magmaticmetamorphic zone; UD: UrumiehDokhtar magmatic arc; CIM, Central Iranian microcontinent (includes the Yazd, Posht-e-Badam block (PB), Tabas, and Lut blocks); Alborz, Alborz ranges, western AlborzAzarbayjan, KTZ KhazarTaleshZiveh structural zone; CIZ, Central Iranian zone; Sistan, East Iran ranges; Makran, Makran zone; KD, Kopeh-Dagh ranges; Zabol, Zabol area; and CMR, Cenozoic magmatic rocks (tectonic and structural map of Iran modified after Alavi 1991; Aghanabati 1998, 2005).

213


Iron and FeMn mineralisation in Iran

Figure 2 Structural map of CIM (includes the Yazd, Posht-e-Badam block (PB), Tabas, and Lut blocks) and CIZ (modified from Ramezani & Tucker 2003) and location of major iron oxideapatite deposits in the KKTZ (KashmarKerman tectonic zone). In addition, the Gol-e-Gohar, Ak Kahoor, Hormoz and Gheshm iron deposits are represented on the map.

Iron deposits in Iran were formed during several metallogenic phases in Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian, late CambrianEarly Ordovician, late Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic times. The largest iron deposits were formed during the Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian (mainly Kiruna-type deposits) and Cenozoic (especially

€ster & Jafarzadeh skarn deposits) (Karimpour 1989; Fo 1994; Mazaheri et al. 1994; Daliran 2002; Maanijou 2002; Daliran et al. 2007, 2010; Jami et al. 2007). There are more than 200 iron deposits with about 4 billion tons of iron ore known in Iran (Karimpour 1989) (Tables 1, 2), in which Fe concentrations range from 50 to 60 wt%.

28 03 52N Pan-African 55 58 37E

26 52 22N Pan-African 56 22 18E

34 13 40N Pyrenean 51 08 55E

34 11 03N Post-Pyrenean 50 45 58E

29 05 00N Pan-African 55 20 00E

31 51 00N Hercynian 53 17 00E

Zagros

Zagros

UD

UD

SSZ

SSZ

Heneshk

Gol-e-Gohar

Ravanj

Niyasar

Lark

Tange Zagh

Hengam

30 24 00N 56 32 00E

30 22 04N 60 06 01E

34 28 00N Pyrenean 60 25 00E

35 01 21N Early 47 46 32E Cimmerian

34 18 24N Pyrenean 59 37 00E

35 35 00N Pyrenean 53 25 00E

35 47 22N Pyrenean 54 20 00E

35 23 51N Pyrenean 58 37 38E

31 52 30N Pan-African 55 36 36E

SSZ

SSZ

CIGS

SSZ

SSZ

CIGS

CIGS

CIGS

PB

Cheshme firuz

Tanurcheh

Panj Kuh

Semnan

South of Mahabad

Charmaleh Bala-va-Paein

Sangan

Mohammad Abad

26 39 49N Pan-African 55 53 07E

Zagros

Gheshm

26 56 44N Pan-African 56 03 09E

Zagros

Hormoz

Charvak

27 04 22N Pan-African 56 28 23E

Zagros

Ak Kahour

Major ore deposit

27 40 55N Pan-African 27 40 55E

Orogenic phases

Zagros

Zone/metallo- Lat/long 00 genic belt D MS

Table 1 List of major iron mineralisation/occurrences in Iran.

I

S

S

S

I

S

S

I

I

S

L

I

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

Size Upper Precambrianlower Cambrian

Host rocks age

Upper Precambrianlower Cambrian

Oligo-Miocene; tuff/Eocene

Lower Cretaceous

Upper EoceneLower Oligocene

EoceneOligocene

Tertiary

Volcano-sedimentary Upper Precambrianlower Cambrian

IOCG

Magmatic

Skarn

Hydrothermal

Volcano-sedimentary Triassic

Volcano-sedimentary, Paleozoic; Eocene skarn

Volcano-sedimentary Upper PaleozoicLower Triassic

Metasomatic

Hydrothermal

Volcanogenicskarn Eocene to post-Eocene



References

Volcanic rocks and limestone


Acidic to intermediate volcanics and dolomite

Diorite and granodiorite

Syenite and volcanics

Andesite and dacite

Metarhyolite, meta-andesite, limestone and marble

Granite, garnet skarn, amphibolite skarn, shale and siltstone

Sandstone and shale

Schist and gneiss

Granitoid, tuff

Diabase, limestone


Volcanic rocks, dolomite, and limestone

(continued)

Ghorbani 2013

Mazloumi et al. 2008

Pirouzfar 2006

Ghiasvand 2005

Ghorbani 2013

Tavakoli 2003; Motavalli 2004; Heydari 2008

Karimpour 1992; Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Kazemirad 2010

€ cke & Golestaneh Mu 1991; Heydari 2008

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Marl, dolomite, gypsum, sandstone, Ghorbani 2013 conglomerate, shale, and carbonate and silicate layers bearing iron

Host rocks

Volcano-sedimentary Upper Volcanic rocks and limestone Precambrianlower Cambrian



Sedimentary

Deposit type


214 Gh. Nabatian et al.

31 47 19N Pan-African 55 38 19E

31 52 30N Pan-African 55 36 36E

35 47 22N Pyrenean 54 20 00E

35 23 51N Pyrenean 58 37 38E

31 53 00N Pan-African 55 42 00E

31 00 57N Pan-African 56 25 08E

32 17 00N Pan-African 55 32 00E

PB

PB

CIGS

CIGS

PB

PB

PB

36 34 00N Pyrenean 48 33 00E

36 38 41N Pan-African 48 05 30E

Alborz

CIGS

Morvarid

36 38 41N Pan-African 48 05 30E



36 35 00N Pyrenean 48 50 00E

CIGS

SSZ

CIGS

Alborz

Sorkhe Dizaj

Soltaniyeh

Shahrak

Shah Bolagh

Alam Kandi

Mirjan

36 34 00N Pyrenean 48 33 00E

36 43 30N Pan-African 47 57 30E

SSZ

Kavand

Alborz

36 42 16N Pan-African 48 08 42E

SSZ

Incheh

Shah Bolagh

Morvarid

Bashkand

Chador malu

Zarand (Jalal Abad)

Sechahun

Tanurcheh

Panj Kuh

Cheshmeh firuz

Esfordi

Choghart

Major ore deposit

SSZ

36 37 00N 48 24 00E

CIGS

36 00 32N 48 32 05E

CIGS

31 45 00N Pan-African 55 30 00E

Orogenic phases

PB

Zone/metallo- Lat/long 00 genic belt D MS

Table 1 (Continued )

S

I

M

S

S

S

S

S

I

S

S

S

L

I

M

S

S

I

M

L

Size



Host rocks age


Upper EoceneLower Oligocene

EoceneOligocene

Kiruna type

Hydrothermal

Volcanic; skarn

Sedimentary; skarn

Kiruna type

Skarn

Sedimentary

Sedimentary and skarn

Skarn

Sedimentary; skarn

Kiruna type

Skarn

Kiruna type

Late Eocene

Oligo-Miocene

Miocene


Late Eocene

Upper Precambrian

Upper Precambrian

Upper Precambrian

Upper Precambrian


Late Eocene

Upper Precambrian



Kiruna type

IOCG

Magmatic


Kiruna type

Kiruna type

Deposit type

Quartz monzonite and volcanics

Granitoid

Andesite, rhyolite, diorite, and limestone

Dolomite, tuff and shale

Quartz monzonite, and volcanics

Dolomite

Dolomite

Dolomite

Carbonate; tuff

Dolomite, tuff and shale

Quartz monzonite, and volcanics

Dolomite; tuff

Alkali granite, acidic to intermediate volcanics, and metamorphics (greenstone, mica-schist, marble)

Volcano-sedimentary

Diorite, volcano-sedimentary


Syenite and volcanics

Acidic to intermediate volcanics and dolomite

Alkali granite, acidic volcanics, dolomite, and limestone

Alkali granite, volcanics, sandstone, and schist

Host rocks


(continued)

Nabatian et al. 2013, 2014a

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Shahbazi 2010

Nabatian et al. 2014a

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Shahbazi 2010


Shahbazi 2010

Ghorbani 2002; Daliran et al. 2010

Ghorbani 2013

Bonyadi et al. 2011


Pirouzfar 2006

Ghorbani 2013

Jami et al. 2007; Torab 2008

€ ster & Jafarzadeh Fo 1994

References

Iron and FeMn mineralisation in Iran 215

Alborz, Alborz ranges; CIGS, Central Iranian geological and structural gradual zone; PB, Posht-e-Badam block; SSZ, Sanandaj-Sirjan magmatic-metamorphic zone; UD, Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic arc; Zagros, Zagros belt; S, small; M, medium; L, large; I, index (anomoly).

Ghorbani 2013 Hercynia CIGS

Neizar

Upper Sedimentary I

Schist and limestone

Ghorbani 2013 Volcano-sedimentary Upper Paleozoic Hercynia CIGS

Kalat Naser Qaen

I

Schist and gabbro

Ghorbani 2013 Skarn 38 38 47N Pyrenean 47 04 11E CIGS

Mazraeh

I

Eocene; limestone/Cretaceous Volcanics and volcanoclastics; limestone

Ghorbani 2013 Volcano-sedimentary Upper PaleozoicLower Triassic 37 09 00N Hercynian 48 59 00E Alborz

Masuleh

I

Volcano-sedimentary rocks

Ghorbani 2013 37 09 05N Pan-African 45 07 00E SSZ

Aghbolagh

Precambrian Skarn I

Granite and dolomite

Nabatian et al. 2014a Quartz monzonite and volcanics Late Eocene Kiruna type 36 40 50N Pyrenean 48 41 12E Alborz

Golestan Abad

S

Quartz monzonite and volcanics Late Eocene Kiruna type 36 39 11N Pyrenean 48 44 46E Alborz

Zaker

S

Host rocks Host rocks age Deposit type Size Zone/metallo- Lat/long 00 genic belt D MS

Table 1 (Continued )

Orogenic phases

Major ore deposit



Gh. Nabatian et al.

References

216

Table 2 Grade and tonnage of main iron deposits in Iran (Ghorbani 2013).

Mine

Tonnage (Mt)

600

Sangan deposits

Khaf

2000

Choghart, Chador Malu, SeChahun, Narigan, Esfordi deposits

Bafq district

1200

Gol-e-Gohar deposits

Sirjan

100

Soltaniyeh-Takab, Western Azarbayjan, Tarom mines, Hamekasi, Zafar Abad, Khosro Abad

Azarbayjan, Zanjan, Kordestan, Hamedan and Kermanshah

30

Deh Zaman, Kashmar, Tanourche, Gazik, Ghaen, Semnan

South of Khorasan to Semnan

100

Shamsabad, Niyasra, Naeen

Esfahan and Arak area

350

Tangeh Zagh, Hormoz, Lark, Heneshk

Bandar Abbas and Fars

Area

4380

Sum

Mt, million tonnes.

Magnetite and hematite are the main ore minerals and accessory phases include ilmenite, apatite, Mn-oxides (locally) and Cu sulfides and carbonates (Karimzadeh Somarin 2004). In the following section, a brief history of the Prototethys, Paleotethys and Neotethys oceans and related Fe and FeMn mineralisation in Iran will be presented. The aim of this paper is to present a basis for studying Fe and FeMn mineralisation in Iran, which formed as an integral part of the tectonic evolution of the mentioned extinct oceans, and to show implications for the future exploration in Iran.

TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF TETHYS IN IRAN Tectonic evolution of the Prototethys and Paleotethys Most Neoproterozoic paleogeographic reconstructions (e.g. Stampfli & Borel 2004) and paleomagnetic studies €ster 1981) place the CIM (Becker et al. 1973; Soffel & Fo alongside the Arabian and Indian plates, along the Prototethyan margin of the Neoproterozoic Gondwanaland (Figures 3, 4) (Ramezani & Tucker 2003; Hassanzadeh et al. 2008). After its formation and metamorphism, this basement complex (Nadimi 2007) broke up during a latest Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian extensional event (Ramezani & Tucker 2003). The rocks of the Bafq district comprise a bimodal lower Cambrian magmatic suite reflecting this short-lived episode of extensional backarc rifting. These processes led to the formation of a great variety of metallic mineral deposits, which are discussed in the next section. The Paleotethys was the ocean that separated the Variscan domain from the Gondwana-derived Cimme€ r 1984). This ocean opened after a long rian blocks (Sengo Paleozoic rifting period and closed in the Late Triassic by northward subduction under the southern Laurasian (Turan) margin (e.g. Alavi 1996; Bagheri & Stampfli



217

Figure 3 Simplified structural map of Iran and adjacent regions and location of Tethyan sutures (modified after Ramezani & Tucker 2003; actual motion of the Arabian plate relative to the Eurasia from Vernant et al. 2004).

Figure 4 Gondwanaland reconstruction in the early Cambrian from Ramezani & Tucker (2003). The CIM was located along the active continental margin of Gondwana.

2008). Most of the recent tectonic and geodynamic syntheses devoted to southwest Asia interpret the major structures of the region in terms of accretionary tecton€ r 2005). The region is a collage ics (e.g. Natal’in & Sengo resulting from successive accretions of continental blocks detached from Gondwana; these blocks crossed the Tethyan oceanic space and were accreted to south Eurasia forming major orogenic belts as accretio€r nalcollisional composite belts (e.g. Natal’in & Sengo 2005). Evidence on the evolution of the Paleotethys Ocean in Iran is scarce. Many Ordovician formations in the CIM and Alborz regions contain volcanic successions, dykes and sills that have been assigned to the opening phase of the Paleotethys. There are, however, no detailed investigations on the mentioned volcanic rocks, and their geochemical characteristics remain unknown. In early Paleozoic times, the CIM was part of the southern passive continental margin of the new ocean as recorded in rock formations at many locations including in the Tabas and Yazd regions (e.g. Aghanabati 2005). Evidence of magmatic activity during subduction, and subsequent accretion and collision related to the closure of the Paleotethys, is limited to small rock exposures in northern Alborz and CIZ. Thick, fine-grained siliciclastic sequences, accompanied by remnants of marginal-sea ophiolites, were deposited in the Upper Triassic. The ophiolites include gabbro and basalts with a supra-subduction geochemical signature (Davoudzadeh et al. 1981). The Paleotethys magmatic arc products have

218

Gh. Nabatian et al.

been well preserved in the Upper DevonianCarboniferous Godar Siah intra-arc deposits and the Triassic Nakhlak fore-arc succession in the CIM (Bagheri & Stampfli 2008). A major unconformity following the continentcontinent collision in the Late Trassic (Alavi 1996; Bagheri & Stampfli 2008) is evident in many locations in Iran, and the Jurassic Shemshak molasse formation deposited in the foreland basin is widespread across the country (Alavi 1994, 1996; Kargaranbafghi et al. 2012). Geological studies have yielded some evidence of iron mineralisation related to the evolution of the Paleotethys.


Evolution of the Neotethys Ocean According to different palinspastic reconstructions (Scotese & Golonka 1993; Stampfli et al. 2001; Matte 2002; Nikishin et al. 2002), the Neotethys began to open during the middle to late Permian by separating the Cimmerian continental fragments, which include Iran in the north, from the IndianArabian margin in the south. Igneous remnants of the opening process are exposed in the Himalayas, Iran and Oman (Lapierre et al. 2004). Jurassic plate reorganisation and opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean in the Early Jurassic caused the subduction of the Neotethys Ocean beneath the southern margin of Eurasia (e.g. Stampfli & Borel 2002). Subduction of oceanic crust built a Triassic to Cretaceous magmatic arc (Arvin et al. 2007; Khalaji et al. 2007; Ghalamghash et al. 2009), eventually leading to collision of the Arabian plate with Iranian microplate and ophiolite obduction in the Cretaceous (Alavi 1994). The remnant ophiolites have been identified at Khoy, Kermanshah, Neyriz and Makran Range (e.g. Ghazi et al. 2003, 2004; Zhang et al. 2005). The Zagros Orogen resulted from the closure of the Neotethyan ocean between the Arabian and Iranian microplates, and is located along the AlpineHimalayan orogenic belt (e.g. Ricou et al. 1977; Berberian & King € r et al. 1988; Alavi 1981; Dercourt et al. 1986, 1993; Sengo 1994, 2007; Agard et al. 2005). The Zagros Orogen extends from the TurkishIranian border in the NW to the Makran area in the SE, where oceanic subduction is still active (Ellouz-Zimmermann et al. 2007; Smit et al. 2010), and consists of three parallel tectonic zones including UD, SSZ and the Zagros ranges (Figure 1; Alavi 2004). The timing of collision of the Arabian and Iranian microplates, however, has been highly controversial, with suggestions ranging from Late Cretaceous (Berberian & King 1981; Alavi 1994; Mohajjel & Fergussen 2000) to Miocene (Berberian & Berberian 1981; Verdel et al. €cklin 1971). However, 2011) or even latest Pliocene (Sto most indications are in support of a Middle Eocene to Oligocene initial collision (e.g. Jolivet & Faccenna 2000; Agard et al. 2005, 2011; Vincent et al. 2005; Horton et al. 2008; Ballato et al. 2011; Nabatian et al. 2014b). Moreover, there is an almost general agreement that the Main Zagros Thrust (Figure 3), located between SSZ and the Zagros Orogen, constitutes the suture between the Arabian and Iranian microplates (e.g. Agard et al. 2005, 2007, 2009). However, Alavi (1994) and Alavi & Mahdavi (1994) proposed that the suture runs along the SSZ and CIM. It has only recently become evident that the suture between SSZ and CIZ is in fact a major structure originating from the development of a series of back-arc

basins, their remnants being the NainBaft ophiolites (Bagheri & Stampfli 2008; Moghadam et al. 2009, 2013). The SSZ, the main arc during the Mesozoic subduction, hosts numerous large I-type plutonic suites ranging in composition from granite to gabbro and in age from Triassic to Paleocene and contains a magmatic arc signature (Mahmoudi et al. 2001; Arvin et al. 2007; Khalaji et al. 2007; Ghalamghash et al. 2009). In the SSZ, rock units recording the opening phase include a continuous Triassic sequence of predominantly shallow-water, continental shelf siliciclastics and overlying fusulinid-bearing carbonates, which locally contain lenses or thin layers of lava flows in the lower part (Alavi 1994). By the late Permian and Triassic, the SSZ had developed into a passive continental margin with extensive carbonate platforms (Alavi 1994; Heydari et al. 2000). Paleozoic mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks have been identified in the zone, but their relationship to the opening phase of the Neotethys Ocean is obscure. Subduction of the Neotethys Ocean below the SSZ started in Triassic times. The UD was interpreted by Dewey et al. (1973) to be an Andean-type Cordilleran magmatic arc system. The SEtrending UD contains volcanic and plutonic rocks ranging from Eocene to Quaternary, and associated volcaniclastic successions along the active margin of the Iranian plate; maximum magmatic activity is thought to be of Eocene age (e.g. Stocklin 1974; Farhoudi 1978). There are different models for interpreting UD magmatism. Amidi et al. (1984) proposed a rift model for the interpretation of the origin of Eocene volcanic rocks, and Ghasemi & Talbot (2006) proposed a post-collision model for the post-Middle Eocene igneous rocks of the UD. Verdel et al. (2011) suggest that Paleogene magmatism and extension were driven by an episode of slab retreat or slab rollback following a Cretaceous period of flat-slab subduction.

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND METALLOGENIC PHASES OF IRON IN IRAN Distribution maps show that iron deposits are concentrated in the Alborz, PB, SSZ, and CIM with some deposits in the UD, such as the Niyasar Fe-skarn deposits (Figures 1, 2). The ages of many of these deposits are unknown, but the host rock ages range from Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian to Cenozoic (Table 1). Based on ages of mineralisation and host rocks, five major groups of iron deposits can be distinguished and linked to different tectonic events (Tables 1, 3). These five groups of iron deposits formed during late Proterozoicearly Cambrian, late CambrianEarly Ordovician, late Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic times. Many large iron deposits (e.g. Choghart, Esfordi, Mishdovan and Se-chahun) were formed during magmatic phases within the late Proterozoicearly Cambrian (Ghorbani 1993; Samani 1993; € ster & Jafarzadeh 1994; Maanijou 2002; Daliran 2002; Fo Jami 2005; Daliran et al. 2007; Bonyadi et al. 2011) and show a direct genetic relationship with igneous and volcano-sedimentary rocks of this period. In the late CambrianEarly Ordovician, significant magmatic activity (Ghorbani 2013) metasomatised earlier iron deposits and formed new iron deposits. There are a few small iron

Placer

IOCG and iron oxideapatite deposits

Orthomagmatic and skarn

Polygenetic

Sedimentary and volcanosedimentary

Types of Fe and FeMn deposits

Sangan deposit

Bafq district

Paleozoic

Precambrian Cambrian

Recent deposits

Sangan and Riush area

KhafBardaskanKashmar district

Semnan deposits

Post-Eocene

EoceneRecent

Niyasar Fe deposits of the Kashan area

OligoceneMiocene

Zanjan district

Panj Kuh in the Damghan area

EoceneOligocene

Late Eocene

Northeast of Songhor and west of Hamadan (Baba Ali, Golali, Chenar Bala, Tekyebala, Hezarkhani, Charmaleh, Khosrowabad)

Jurassic

Gol-e-Gohar

Upper Paleozoiclower Mesozoic

Resent sediments (alluvium)


Quartz monzonite and volcanic rocks

Rhyolite and sedimentary rocks

Carbonate, shale and volcanic rocks

Marl, rhyolite, dacite and andesite lavas and pyroclastics

Carbonate and shale

Boumeri 1992


Nabatian & Ghaderi 2013; Nabatian et al. 2013, 2014a

€ ster & Jafarzadeh 1994; Fo Daliran 2002; Jami et al. 2007; Daliran et al. 2010; Bonyadi et al. 2011

Boumeri 1992; Jafarzadeh et al. 1995

Ghiasvand 2005

Ghorbani 2013

Pirouzfar 2006

Hallaji 1991; Tavakoli 2003; Motavalli 2004

Metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, carbonates, acidic to intermediate plutonic and volcanic rocks, basalt

Gabbro and gabbrodiorite

€ cke & Hallaji 1991; Mu Golestaneh 1991; Babaki & Aftabi 2006

Farhadi 1995

Kazemirad 2010

Ghorbani 2013

Ghorbani 2013

Daliran 1990; Ghorbani 2013; Bonyadi & Moore 2005

References

Gneiss, amphibolites and schist

Carbonate, dolomite and shale

Shams-Abad and southeastern of Torbat-e-Heydarieh

Lower Cretaceous

Rhyolite and rhyolitic tuff, carbonate, schist and slate (Kahar Fm.), dolomites of Soltaniyeh Fm., shale (Barut and Bayandor fm.), meta-rhyolite, carbonate rocks, metamorphosed maficintermediate volcanic rocks, dolomite

Host rock

Goli, Heneshk and Cheshmeh Esi of the Dolomite, schist and rhyolitic metamorphosed tuffs Dehbid area

Fe deposits in the Bandar Abbas district and east Iran

SoltaniyeMahabad axis, Shahindej district

Narigan FeMn deposit, lower part of Mishdovan deposit

Distribution of iron deposits in Iran

Middle Triassic


Age of host rock

Table?3 Spatial and temporal distribution of iron deposits in Iran.


Iron and FeMn mineralisation in Iran 219


220

Gh. Nabatian et al.

deposits in upper Paleozoic sedimentary formations and some of them show sedimentary features such as layering (Ghorbani 1993). The middle to late Devonian Pivejan iron deposit is one of the iron mineralisations within the carbonate rocks of Bahram Formation which show synsedimentary origin. Polygenetic iron deposits, especially skarns, formed during late Paleozoic to Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, mainly in the Alborz, CIM, UD, NE Iran and northern and southern parts of the SSZ (Figure 1). Cenozoic magmatism (plutonism and volcanism) is widespread in Iran (e.g. Verdel et al. 2011) with iron deposits formed during this period in the Alborz, UD, CIZ and SSZ (Figure 1). Many Cenozoic Fe and Cu skarn deposits are found in the Alborz district (Karimzadeh Somarin & Moayyed 2002), and Fe skarns in the CIZ (Sangan district) (Mazaheri et al. 1994), Niyasar (within the UD) and Semnan (Alborz) districts. Therefore, the Alborz magmatic belt, PB back arc district, SSZ, Zagros, CIM, east of CIZ and UD are the main districts that contain the other types of iron ore (such as kiruna, volcanosedimentary, magmatic and placer types) (Figure 1).

BASEMENT OF IRAN Iran, regarded as a fragment of Gondwana, shares a Neoproterozoic granitic basement equivalent to the Arabian basement that formed during and shortly after the € cklin 1971; Berber900600 Ma Panafrican orogeny (Sto € r 1987; Horton et al. 2008). The oriian & King 1981; Sengo gin and age of the oldest crystalline basement in Iran

has been much debated. Recent geochronological dating and geological mapping (e.g. Ramezani & Tucker 2003; Hassanzadeh et al. 2008) estimated the age of the oldest rocks to be around 600 to 550 Ma. Granites and orthogneisses from basement units range in age from the Ediacaran to the early Cambrian, matching the mostly juvenile ArabianNubian shield and Peri-Gondwanan terranes constructed after the main phase of the Panafrican orogeny. However, Hassanzadeh et al. (2008) suggested that the Neoproterozoic crust of Iran might not be entirely juvenile, and pointed out the potential presence of inherited older Proterozoic components commonly observed in the eastern Arabian shield. Zircon UPb ages reported by Hassanzadeh et al. (2008) demonstrate that the crystalline basement underlying the SSZ, CIZ, CIM and the Alborz is composed of continental fragments with Gondwanan affiliation, characterised by widespread late Neoproterozoic subduction-related magmatism.

IRON DEPOSITS RELATED TO THE EVOLUTION OF THE PROTOTETHYS Volcano-sedimentary iron deposits The main volcano-sedimentary Fe and FeMn deposits are located in the SSZ and the Bafq district. The iron formations occur in Ediacaran to lower Paleozoic sedimentary formations and show sedimentary structures such as banding and layering. These deposits are the most valuable since they have the least impurities (Ghorbani 1993). They can be classified into three categories:

Figure 5 Simplified geological map of Zanjan in the SoltaniyeMahneshan area (modified from the Zanjan 1:250 000 geologic map; Stocklin & Eftekhar-Nejad 1969). The numbers are iron deposits in the ZanjanSoltaniye area: 1, Kordareh; 2, Gezeldareh; 3, Kousalar; 4, Shahbegandy; 5, Changoory; 6, Dabanlou; 7, Khomdareh; 8, Kavand; 9, Mirjan; 10, Ghalicheh Bolagh; 11, Arjin; 12, Inche rahbari; and 13, Khakriz.



Figure 6 Precambrianearly Cambrian rocks and iron mineralisation in the west of the Mahneshan and Chartagh districts. Interpretations are largely based on Ghorbani (2013).

(1) Iron and FeMn deposits in the KashmarKerman volcano-plutonic arc in the Bafq district, developed during two successive phases. The first phase is related to the Rizu and Dezu formations (Narigan FeMn deposit and layered part of Mishdovan deposit, which also have a minor Mn, REE and U mineralisation) and the second phase is related to basic and ultrabasic intrusions, include the Chador-Malu, Choghart, Se-Chahun, Chah Gaz, Mishdovan, Gasestan, North Anomaly and Lakkeh Siah deposits (Kiruna-type iron deposits) (Figures 1, 2; Daliran 2002; Jami et al. 2007; Bonyadi et al. 2011; Ghorbani 2013). (2) Iron-bearing barite deposits in the SoltaniyeMahabad axis, related to the Soltaniye Formation and Ghare Dash volcanic rocks east of the Mahneshan and Shahin Dej districts. The Mirjan Ghaliche Bolagh, Chahartagh, Bastan, Agh Bolagh and Halab-Dandi deposits are the main occurrences in this region (Figures 5, 6; Ghorbani 2013). (3) Iron deposits in the Bandar Abbas district, related to volcanic rocks in the Hormoz Formation. Important deposits include Ak Kahoor, Tange Zagh, Hormoz, Lark, and Gheshm (Figures 1, 2; Ghorbani 2013). BAFQ-POSHT-E-BADAM BACK ARC DISTRICT

The Bafq province of CIM is part of a Gondwana fragment that is situated between the Alpine Zagros and Alborz belts € cklin 1971; Borumandi 1973). This district is divided (Sto

221

into three major crustal domains: from east to west, the Lut, Tabas and Yazd blocks (Figure 2; Alavi 1991). The Tabas and Yazd blocks are composed of variably deformed and fault-bounded supracrustal rocks (Ramezani & Tucker 2003) and are separated by the nearly 600 km-long, 80 kmwide, arcuate and structurally complex Kashmar–Kerman Tectonic Zone (KKTZ) (Figure 2). The KKTZ provides remarkable exposures of the Ediacaran and mainly lower Paleozoic CIM successions. The Bafq province in the central section of the KKTZ is host to major iron oxide ores (1.8 Gt; NISCO 1980) that are distributed within 34 iron ore anomalies from Robat-Posht-Badam in the north to Bafq in the south (Figures 1, 2). In the following, we discuss iron oxide ores in the Bafq district that are related to the Prototethyan Ocean. Mishdovan iron deposit in the Bafq area: There are diverse iron mineralisation styles within the Bafq district that have resulted from multistage metasomatic processes (Daliran et al. 2010). According to Daliran (1990) and Jami (2005) these deposits formed by direct precipitation from a metal-bearing fluid on the sea floor. Synvolcanicsedimentary ores of the Bafq district are commonly associated with brownish carbonate lenses or are intercalated within jaspilites (Daliran et al. 2010). The Mishdovan iron oxideapatite deposit, located some 30 km to the north of Bafq, contains a high-grade, low-tonnage ore of 20 Mt with around 65 wt% Fe (Daliran 2002). Ore bodies of this deposit are made up of more than 20 individual lenses hosted within a succession of rhyolitic tuffs with intercalated carbonate lenses (Daliran 2002). These ore bodies commonly display stratiform or stratabound geometries; stratiform ore bodies are intercalated as finely laminated beds and lenses within the Cambrian volcanosedimentary units. Narigan FeMn deposit in the Bafq area: The Narigan FeMn deposit in the Bafq district is hosted within Neoroterozoiclower Cambrian dolomitic limestone and rhyolitic tuffs of the Rizu and Dezu formations (Bonyadi & Moore 2005). It has a low Mn grade (5.75 wt%) and an intermediate Fe-grade (37 wt%) with 4.8 million tones in reserves. The deposit occurs in the form of disseminated, laminated, layered, lensoid and massive agglomeratic structures. The mineralisation comprises pyrite, pyrolusite, psilomelane, magnetite, hematite, limonite, siderite, mangenosiderite and calcite. Kiruna-type iron oxideapatite deposits of the Bafq District: The Bafq metallogenic province hosts worldclass and high-grade Kiruna-type iron oxide apatiteREE ore deposits (>2000 Mt, Fe 4565 wt%; NISCO 1980) within the Ediacaran to lower Cambrian €ster & Jafarzadeh 1994; Daliran 2002; formations (Fo Daliran et al. 2010; Bonyadi et al. 2011; Ghorbani 2013). In addition to the iron oxideapatite mineralisation, there are several non-Fe ore bodies containing PbZn, P, REE, Mn and U (Figure 7). In the Bafq district, the tectonomagmatic evolution and related mineralisation (e.g. iron oxideapatiteREE) are still not understood in detail (Daliran et al. 2010). According to Berberian & King (1981) and Ghorbani (2013), this mineralisation is related to intra-continental rifting and is associated with magmatic events that occurred within Gondwanaland. In contrast, Ramezani & Tucker (2003) proposed that the

Gh. Nabatian et al.


222

Figure 7 Simplified regional geological map of the Bafq district, which contains Kiruna-type magnetiteapatite deposits (modified after Haghipour 1977; Soheili & Mahdavi 1991; Majidi & Babakhani 1995; Ramezani & Tucker 2003; Amini 2004; Ghaemi & Saidi 2006; Jami et al. 2007).


Iron and FeMn mineralisation in Iran evolution of the Bafq district was related to arc magmatism along the Prototethyan margin of Gondwana. This interpretation is based on the trace-element characteristics of the intrusive and volcanic rocks and on the juxtaposition of the fragmented remains of the continental margin and cover sequences. The iron oxideapatite deposits are hosted by lower Cambrian hydrothermally altered and alkali-metasomatised volcano-sedimentary rocks known as the Saghand Formation, which formed during a major late Precambrian rifting event (Figures 7, 8; Daliran 1990, 2002; Samani 1993; Jami et al. 2007; Daliran et al. 2010; Bonyadi et al. 2011). The Cambrian volcanosedimentary units are composed of dolomite, limestone, sandstone, shale and bimodal volcanic rocks (Figures 7, 8). The 1200 to 1500 mthick Sagand Formation begins with a basal conglomerate overlain by bimodal volcanic, volcanic-exhalites and submarine volcanic rocks with intercalated carbonate beds at the top. The upper volcanic member progresses up-section from mainly basic rocks into more acidic varieties (Daliran 2002). This unit is strongly metasomatised and is the major host to the iron oxideapatite, ‘apatitites’ and UTh mineralisation in the Bafq region (Figures 7, 8). In some cases, the iron oxideapatite mineralisation occur within spilitic basalts (e.g. Mishdovan; Daliran 1990). The Saghand Formation is located below the Rizu and Dezu formations and is related to a late subsidence stage (Samani 1998). The Rizu and Dezu formations host sulfide mineralisation (Sedex-type deposits, for examples at Kushk and Chahmir; Rajabi et al. 2012a) and FeMn ores (e.g. the Narigan deposit). The major and important deposits in this area currently being mined are Chador-Malu (400 Mt), Se-Chahun (140 Mt) and Esfordi (17 Mt); Choghart has a premining reserve of 216 Mt (Torab & Lehmann 2006). Most deposits are massive to semi-massive, show replacement features on their margins, and are variably brecciated or micro-brecciated (Bonyadi et al. 2011; Figures 9, 10). The iron ore is dominated by TiV-poor massive magnetite, with subordinate hematite, and is commonly accompanied by apatite. Apatite also occurs within the magmatic ‘apatitites,’ which are spatially and temporally closely associated with the iron ores (Figures 9, 10). Figure 10 shows a schematic cross-section of the Choghart deposit. The main host to the ore body is a highly metasomatised magmatic rock with altered dolomite fragments of the Esfordi Formation of varying size and shape. The ore body and country rocks are cut by several apatite-rich (apatitite) and mafic dykes (Moore & Modabberi 2003). The mineralisation was associated with extensive, complicated, multistage regional and distal alteration of the host rock (Daliran et al. 2007; Jami et al. 2007; Stosch et al. 2010; Bonyadi et al. 2011), including K-feldspatisation, albitisation, sericitisation, late talc and calcite metasomatism. The association of metasomatic alteration and iron oxideapatite mineralisation along the structural zone of Bafq and their intimate association with lower Cambrian rhyolites indicate a short-lived tectonomagmatic control (Daliran et al. 2007). According to Bonyadi et al. (2011), extensive Na-rich fluid circulation produced large-scale sodic alteration (albitisation) in a mixed volcano-sedimentary sequence intruded by sodic granitoids. This regional

223

alteration was overprinted by deposit-related NaCa alteration and magnetiteapatite mineralisation at Se-Chahun. Most recent studies show that the mineralisation was concurrent with, or followed the main intrusion of the Zarigan (and Narigan) granite(s) and the eruption of volcanic rocks of the Saghand Formation. According to Ramezani & Tucker (2003), the Saghand Formation rhyodacite and dacite porphyry have ages of 528.2 § 0.8 and 527 § 1 Ma, respectively. Stosch et al. (2010) report 206 Pb/238U ages of monazite-free apatite from the Bafq district iron oxideapatite deposits (Lakkeh Siah, Esfordi, Mishdovan and Zarigan) to be between 539 and 527 Ma. The ThUPb monazite electron microprobe dating of the Choghart deposit (Torab & Lehmann 2007) resulted in an average age of 515529 § 21 Ma. The Anomaly X orebody at the Se-Chahun magnetiteapatite deposit formed at 510 § 8 Ma (UPb LA-ICPMS age), at the end of the main regional sodic magmatic event (525 § 7 Ma) (Bonyadi et al. 2011). The UPb ages of the Zarigan sodic granite (regional sodic magmatic event) are between 529 § 16 Ma and 525 § 7 Ma (Ramezani & Tucker 2003), similar to the monazite and apatite ages. The close spatial and temporal association of the iron oxideapatite deposits and the apatite-rich rocks with lower Cambrian felsic volcanic rocks suggest that mineralisation and early Cambrian magmatism were contempora€ ster & Jafarzadeh 1994; Jami neous (Daliran 1990; Fo 2005; Daliran et al. 2009, 2010). Volcano-sedimentary iron deposits in the Central Iranian zone (CIZ) and Zagros belt: Iron oxide mineralisation of the Soltaniye-Mahabad axis in the CIZ is related to the PrecambrianCambrian Soltaniye and Precombrian Ghare Dash volcanic rocks and hosted within the upper part of Precambrian Kahar Formation and lower part of Soltaniye Formation. The Kahar Formation is an alternation of recrystallised dolomite and phyllite with intercalations of meta-siltstone and meta-tuff belonging to the upper parts of the Kahar Formation. The HalabDandi Fe and FeMn deposit, and Kordareh, Gezeldareh, Kavand, Shahbegandy, Changoory, Dabanlou, Khomdareh, Kousalar, Mirjan-Ghaliche Bolagh, Chahar Tagh, Balestan and Agh Bolagh are the main iron mineralisation in this district (Figures 5, 6). Hematite, goethite § barite are the main minerals in some of these deposits in the northern part of the mineralisation (Figure 5), while in the southern part (Figure 5) hematite and magnetite are the main oxide minerals. Figure 11(a, b) shows the iron mineralisation within the Kahar Formation in the Halab-Dandi area. The Ak Kahour iron deposit in the Bandar Abbas district is located in the Zagros belt and shows sedimentary structures such as layering within the Hormoz Formation. The Hormoz Formation consists of thick evaporites, shale, siltstone and limestone, as well as intermediate to mafic magmatic rocks such as basalt, microgabbro, microdiorite, andesite and trachyte. Studies show that the magmatic rocks have transitional to alkaline chemical characteristics and formed in an extensional environment. Based on geological studies, there is some evidence, such as the Pivejan deposit in the Northeast of Alborz (Binaloud mountains, for iron mineralisation regarding to the evolution of the Paleotethys.

Gh. Nabatian et al.


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Figure 8 Stratigraphic column of Saghand and Rizu formations (modified from Samani 1993).



225

Figure 9 Schematic stratigraphic section of the mineralised part of the Saghand Formation in the vicinity of the Esfordi (modified from Jami 2005).

IRON DEPOSITS RELATED TO THE EVOLUTION OF THE NEOTETHYS OCEAN Iron ore deposits related to opening phase In Iran, only a few iron ore deposits are related to the Permian to Triassic period of the Neotethys rifting. Some of these deposits include the Gol-e-Gohar, Kalat-eNaser of Ahangaran, Heneshk, Goli and Cheshme Esi FeMn deposit in the Dehbid area, and the Zafar Abad of Kordestan, Saheb, Piveh Jan, Deh Zaman, Neyzar and Masuleh, all of which are located in the SSZ.

GOL-E-GOHAR IRON DEPOSIT

The Gol-e-Gohar (Figure 1) magnetite deposit contains six separate ore bodies with a total area of 40 km2 and is overlain by up to 40 m-thick Neogene conglomerates and Quaternary sediments. This deposit, located in the Sirjan area, has a tonnage of 1,135 million tons and is one of the most important iron sources in Iran. The ore bodies are hosted by a PaleozoicMesozoic sequence of gneisses, quartzbiotite schists, calc-schists, quartzites and amphibolites. In this deposit, magnetite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pentlandite, sphalerite and minor apatite are the main ore minerals. Massive and brecciated magnetite is accompanied by apatite and is locally martitised. Alteration minerals such as olivine, actinolite, hornblende, phlogopite, chlorite and carbonates are associated with the Fe-oxide minerals.

A range of sedimentary, volcanosedimentry and metasomatic processes, as well as magmatism during intracontinental rifting activity, have been proposed for its origin € cke & Golestaneh 1982; Heydari 2008). A d18O study (Mu indicates that magnetite originated from magmatic fluids consistent with the brecciated environment and the presence of metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous rocks with high d18O values (Bayati Rad et al. 2010). According to Babaki & Aftabi (2006), the presence of diamictites and dropstones represents glacio-marine deposition associated with the volcanic-exhalative activity. Seawater recharged into the rift basin reacted with mafic intrusives, old metamorphic iron-bearing rocks and old banded iron ores, causing leaching and discharge of iron and silica and producing exhalative hydrothermal fluids. The upflow discharge of hydrothermal solutions into the seawater and sedimentary basin, followed by reaction with cold glacial water, likely caused hydro-magnetite deposition within sediments and diamictites. The presence of massive magnetite textures, abundant tourmaline and a low content of manganese indicates proximal ore mineralisation at about 100250 C (Babaki & Aftabi 2006).

FeMn DEPOSIT

The Heneshk, Goli and Cheshme Esi FeMn deposits (Figure 1) occur in the southeastern part of SSZ, 19 km northeast of Safashahr in the Fars Province. The ore bodies are hosted by Triassic metavolcano-sedimentary


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Gh. Nabatian et al.

€ ster & Jafarzadeh Figure 10 Simplified geological cross-section of the Choghart iron oxideapatite deposit (modified from Fo 1994).

sequences, including meta-subvolcanics of both felsic to intermediate composition and rhyolite to rhyodacite affinity, mylonitic meta-rhyolite, tuff and meta-chert (quartzite) (Kazemirad 2010). The stratabound and lenticular, NWSE-trending mineralisation is discontinuous from Heneshk in the southeast to the Goli and Cheshme Esi districts in the northwest. The fabrics of the mineralisation include laminated, banded, disseminated, diffusion-controlled, open space filling, and concordant ones with foliation and ductile shear zones (Kazemirad 2010). Major minerals in these deposits include magnetite, hematite, pyrolusite, psilomelane and pyrite. These deposits are considered to be of volcanosedimentary origin and are related to Triassic magmatism due to extension. The deposits can be compared with carbonate-hosted deposits such as the Shamsabad FeMn deposit in south of Arak, Iran (Farhadi 1998) and Val Ferrera in Switzerland (Brugger & Berlepsch 1997; 2000). Brugger & Giere

Iron ore deposits related to subduction and closure of the Neotethys VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY, SKARN AND OPHIOLITE RELATED IRON DEPOSITS

Important iron mineralisation was formed in the northern part of SSZ and CIM during subduction of the Neotethys Ocean. The deposits can be subdivided into four classes based on processes of ore mineralization and host ages. (1) TriassicLower Jurassic deposits. The main ores include Hezarkhani, Khosro Abad of Sonqor and also the sedimentary iron deposits of CIM, such as Kharanaq and Robat-e-Posht-e-Badam (Figure 2). The iron mineralisation in CIM is located within the Bafq district and hosted by shale and sandstone. Hematite is the main mineral in these deposits. (2) Cretaceous skarn and hydrothermal type deposits that include deposits in the Hamedan area such as



227

Figure 11 (a, b) Layered texture in the iron deposit of the Halab-Dandi area, which is hosted by the Kahar Formation.

Baba Ali, Chenar Bala, Golali (Qorveh), the Skandarian deposit in the Khoy district (Figures 1, 2), which is related to a Cretaceous gabbrodiorite intrusion. The Baba Ali, Gelali, Chenar Olia and Tekyebala magnetite deposits are located in Kermanshah, between Qorveh, Songhor and the Hamedan Province, and are referred to as the Hamekasi deposits (Figure 12a). According to Tavakoli (2003) and Motavalli (2004), these are related to TriassicJurassic volcano-sedimentary rocks within a rift basin. Volcano-sedimentary and intrusive rocks make up the edifice of the metamorphosed host rocks. The Baba Ali deposit is the largest with an estimated ore reserve of about 66 Mt with an average grade of 61 wt% Fe. The main load of the magnetite ore body lies between dioritic and quartz-syenitic parts of the batholith but is hosted mainly by the metadiorite intrusive in the TriassicJurassic greenschist to lower amphibolites facies metamorphic rocks (Songhor Formation) (Zamanian et al. 2006). The mineralisation within the metamorphic rocks is represented by oxide ore minerals of magnetite and hematite, which occur along the folded lamina of these rocks in the lower carbonate horizons. Magnetite is associated with pyrite, chalcopyrite, epidote, calcite, actinolite, tourmaline, apatite and quartz.

The iron mineralisation in this area mainly shows volcano-sedimentary features. Based on Motavalli (2004), the following model has been presented: (1) formation of iron ore minerals within volcanosedimentary sequences in the Jurassic rift basin; (2) folding, deformation and metamorphism up to greenschist facies; (3) intrusion of Upper Eocene intermediate rocks and entrapment as enclaves of parts of the volcano-sedimentary rocks with later, more differentiated acidic magmatic phases causing contact metamorphism and skarn-type mineralisation in carbonates adjacent to metabasaltic andesites; and (4) development of shear zones and concentration of iron within the enclaves in the above-mentioned shear zones. In these skarn deposits hosting mineable ores, the mineralisation was a consequence of regional and thermal metamorphism and metasomatic/hydrothermal alteration. Worldwide skarn deposits of economic importance are formed in the contact metamorphic aureoles of intrusions of dioritic to granitic plutons (Einaudi & Burt 1982). In light of the above arguments, one may conclude that the iron mineralisation at the Baba Ali deposit occurred in the range of 350400 C, since the lower temperature limit of calcic skarn is considered to be at 350 C (Zamaniam et al. 2006). The Hamekasi, Khosro- Abad and Golali iron deposits (Hamedan area) (Figure 12a) are skarn-type

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Figure 12 (a) Distribution of skarn-type iron and FeMn deposits in Iran. (b) Generalised lithostratigraphic columnar section of the Torbat-e-Heydarieh deposit in the CIZ. Horizons A, B, C, D and E show the main ore-bearing horizons in the Lower Cretaceous sequence at the Torbat-e-Heydarieh deposit (Ahmadi 2006).

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Figure 13 Iron mineralisation in the Lamadan area. These deposits show vein and veinlet structures with iron ore semi-layers extending for several kilometres. Iron mineralisation occurs within the carbonate rocks.

deposits of Early to Late Jurassic age (Motavalli 2004; Heydari 2008). In the Lamadan area, CIM, the Lower Cretaceous granitoids intruded within the Lower Jurassic shale, carbonate and sandstone strata and caused

extensive hydrothermal iron deposits. These deposits contain vein and veinlet structures with iron ore in apparent layers extending for several kilometres (Figure 13). Hematite is the main iron mineral in the Lamadan deposits.

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(3) CRETACEOUS FE-MN VOLCANO-SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS. Many of these FeMn deposits have a low Mn grade (38 wt%) and intermediary Fe grade (2050 wt%). Important deposits include the Shamsabad deposit in the south of Arak, the Chah Basheh deposit in the southeast of Naeen, the Narigan deposit in the Bafq area (Figure 12a), the Khaloo Heydar and Torkamani deposits in the north of Naeen, the Soormagh deposit in the southwest of Abadeh and the Ahangaran deposit in the southeast of Malayer. The Shamsabad FeMn deposit is located in the south of the Arak region in the Malayer-Esfahan metallogenic belt of SSZ, and is hosted by dolomitic and marly limestone of Aptian age (Farhadi 1995). The ore body is conformable with sedimentary country rocks and is located in the upper part of the dysaerobic facies. A gel of carbonates and ironmanganese hydroxides precipitated under dysaerobic conditions in the first stage of formation. Diagenesis and tectonic deformation concentrated the ore in the hinge line of the S- and Z-shaped folds (Farhadi 1995). The Lower Cretaceous transgressive sequence in the southeast of Torbat-e-Heydarieh of the CIZ (like the Shamsabad deposit, south of Arak in the SSZ) hosts some FeMn deposits such as Kaafar Doogh, Bagh Ghereh, Badamak, Nooq and Band-e-Bisheh (Ahmadi 2006; Figure 12a). The Lower Cretaceous transgressive sequence includes detrital and carbonate rocks with intercalated andesitic to basaltic tuffs and overlies the Jurassic units separated by an unconformity (Figure 12b). From bottom to top, the Lower Cretaceous transgressive sequence comprises five ore horizons, from which two are mineable, and three are subordinate (Figure 12b). The ore horizons (C) and (D) are hosted within dolomite and massive grey limestone, which has a congruent lenticular geometry. Textures of the ore are disseminated, laminated and open space fillings (Ahmadi 2006). According to Ahmadi (2006), the formation of the five ore-bearing horizons was caused by hydrothermal activity from a submarine volcanic source. (4) Fe-Mn ORES RELATED TO CRETACEOUS OPHIOLITIC MELANGE. There are some Fe-Mn deposits in the Baft area that are related to the Cretaceous ophiolitic melange at the southern edge of the CIM (Heshmatbehzadi and Shahabpour 2010). These deposits formed by hydrothermal exhalite processes in the Cretaceous Naeen-Baft Oceanic crust (Heshmatbehzadi & Shahabpour 2010).

Iron ore deposits related to Cenozoic magmatism IRON-ORE DEPOSITS IN THE ALBORZ AND WESTERN ALBORZ MAGMATIC BELT

Kiruna-type deposits: Recent exploration has led to the discovery of a number of iron oxideapatite deposits (e.g. Sorkhe Dizaj, Morvarid, Aliabad, Oskand, Zaker and Golestanabad) in the Tarom region (Figure 14; Nabatian 2008; Nabatian & Ghaderi 2013; Nabatian et al. 2014a, b). These deposits are located within the NWSE-trending Tarom subzone, which is part of the Alborz belt and is composed mostly of Eocene volcanic rocks (lava and pyroclastics) interbedded with limestone and sandstone.

The UPb zircon ages from the Karaj Formation in the Alborz Mountains yielded 49.3 § 2.9 Ma for the middle tuff, 45.3 § 2.3 Ma for a tuff within the Asara Shale and 41.1 § 1.6 Ma for the upper tuff (Verdel et al. 2011). The lower part of the Eocene volcanic section has an average age of 52.2 § 3.4 Ma (Verdel et al. 2011). In the Tarom subzone, Upper Eocene gabbros to granites intrude into the Eocene volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Nabatian 2012). Petrographic and geochemical studies have shown that plutonic bodies vary in composition from quartz monzodiorite, quartz monzonite, syenogranite to granite (Amini et al. 2001; Nabatian 2008, 2012; Nabatian et al. 2008). The volcanic and plutonic rocks have high-K calcalkaline affinities (Moayyed 2001; Nabatian 2008). The plutonic rocks in the Tarom area are post-collisional granitoids related to the subduction of Neotethyan oceanic crust (Nabatian 2012; Nabatian et al. 2014b). The Tarom iron oxideapatite deposits are hosted mainly by Upper Eocene plutonic rocks and locally by Eocene volcanicvolcaniclastic rocks. The geometry of the ore bodies includes disseminated, veinveinlet and stockwork ores, and their textures are massive, brecciated and banded iron oxideapatite. There are many iron oxideapatite veins in this region, and some of them, such as Sorkhe Dizaj, Morvarid, Aliabad, and Zaker, are economically and actively mined. The magnetiteapatite mineralisation occurs in the form of veins, each vein usually having less than 1000 tons of ore, which increases to 400 000 tons in the Morvarid and Sorkhe Dizaj deposits (Azizi et al. 2009). The veins are 0.520 m in width, 10300 m in length and 560 m in depth. These deposits comprise low-Ti magnetite with apatite, monazite, and minor sulfide minerals such as chalcopyrite, bornite and pyrite. Alteration processes acted at various scales, so that Ca alteration (large pyroxene (up to 5 cm) and actinolite), potassic (phlogopite, secondary biotite and K-feldspar) alteration, as well as epidotic and chloritic alteration, silicification and carbonatisation, are observed in and around the ore bodies (Nabatian et al. 2014a, b). Field observations, mineral parageneses, fluid inclusion and oxygen isotope studies suggest that the magnetiteapatite mineralisation formed from a predominantly magmatic-derived fluid derived from the quartz monzonites (Azizi et al. 2009; Nabatian & Ghaderi 2013; Nabatian et al. 2014a, b). Introduction of cooler meteoric water in the final stage of mineralisation reduced d18O values facilitating precipitation of sulfides, quartz, and carbonate veins (Nabatian & Ghaderi 2013). In the Alborz belt, the North Azarbaijan intrusive bodies have the same strike and ages as at Tarom. Thus, the Tarom plutonic rocks can be used as an exploration vector for iron oxideapatite deposits in the Alborz magmatic belt. Skarn deposits: Although numerous skarn deposits are distributed throughout Iran following the general trend of the tectono-magmatic history, most of them do not contain a sufficient tonnage to have been exploited economically. Many of the skarn deposits, such as those containing FeCu, are located in the AlborzAzarbaijan zone in northwestern Iran (Karimzadeh Somarin & Moayyed 2002). Some Fe skarn deposits are located in the UD (Niyasar iron deposits in the Kashan, Daran deposit in the Esfahan district and Shahrak deposit in the Zanjan area) and in the CIZ (Sangan area) (Mazaheri

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Figure 14 Principal geological units of the Zanjan iron oxideapatite deposits showing the close association of the iron mineralisation with the quartz monzonite (from Nabatian 2012; Nabatian et al. 2013).

et al. 1994) (Figure 12a). These deposits are spatially and temporally related to Cenozoic magmatism, which was extensive in the UD, the Alborz, and east of CIZ (Karimzadeh Somarin & Moayyed 2002; Karimzadeh Somarin 2004). In the Azarbaijan area, skarn deposits can be subdivided into two types (Karimzadeh Somarin & Moayyed 2002): (1) Cu skarn deposits associated with granitic rocks (type I)—these include Anjerd (Cu), Mazraeh (CuFe), Sungun (Cu), Zand Abad (CuMo), Javan Shakhe (Cu), Gudul (Cu), all in the Ahar region, and Kharvana (Cu, Au) in the Kharvana area, Pahnavar (Cu) in the Jolfa area, and Pasveh (Cu) in the Piranshahr area; and (2) Mn skarn deposits associated with gabbrodiorite rocks (type

II)—these include Tikmeh Dash (FeMn) and further small deposits in the Bostan Abad area. Other skarn-type deposits are located in the Semnan Province within the Alborz belt (Figure 12a). Stratigraphically, this area consists of Paleozoic to Quarternary successions (Ghiasvand 2005). The volcanic rocks are part of the Eocene Alborz volcanic belt, and are exposed in the form of lava and pyroclastic rocks including andesite, trachyandesite, trachyte, dacite and rhyodacite. The bodies of quartz-monzonite, granodiorite, granite and alkali feldspar granite intruded into the Eocene volcano-pyroclastic rocks of the Alborz zone and developed skarn rocks and mineralisation at the contacts.

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Figure 15 (a) Geographical location of KhafBardaskanKashmar volcano-plutonic belt (KBK) within the CIZ. (b) Geological map of Sangan iron skarn-type deposit (from Golmohammadi et al. 2014).

IRON-ORE DEPOSITS IN THE KHAFBARDASKANKASHMAR VOLCANICPLUTONIC BELT

IOCG deposits: The KhafBardaskanKashmar volcanicplutonic belt (KBK) is an EW-trending structural sub-zone located within the CIZ, NE Iran (Figure 15a). This belt contains several Fe oxideCuAu deposits

such as Kuh-e-Zar, Tanurcheh, Ghaleh Zari, Ghaleh Jough, and Sarsefidal hosted within the Cenozoic KBK (Figure 15a). The Kuh-e-Zar deposit is an unusually gold- and LREE-rich and copper-poor (Mazloumi et al. 2008) specularite-rich (up to 30 vol%) type (Karimpour & Mazloumi 1998). The mineralisation is in veins, stockworks, and


Iron and FeMn mineralisation in Iran brecciated zones within Oligo-Miocene quartzmonzonite to syenogranite plutons with high potassium to shoshonitic affinities (Mazloumi et al. 2008). The average gold grade is 3.02 ppm, and the ore reserves are estimated at more than 3 million tons (cut off grade D 0.7 ppm). The Cu grade in mineralised zones located in intrusive bodies lies between 0.3 to 1.1 wt% (Mazloumi et al. 2008). The main mineralised zones contain quartz and specularite (more than 30 vol%). However, the various types of sulfides are very rare at the surface. Pure gold can be observed together with quartz and specularite. Propylitisation, argillisation and silicification are the main alteration types in this deposit (Karimpour & Mazloumi 1998). Based on considerations of oxygen isotopes (d18O) in quartz and siderite as well as sulfur (d34S) in chalcopyrite, along with geochemical investigation and micro-thermometric studies, the gold mineralisation was caused by magmatic fluids with low sulfide contents and a high oxidation state (Mazloumi et al. 2008). Based on Mazloumi et al. (2008), the paragenesis, alteration and dimension of the Kuh-e-Zar mineralisation is a specific unique case worldwide and has been named Iron OxideGold deposit (IOG) or Specularite-rich gold deposit. The Qale Zari copper deposit is among the largest vein-type copper deposits of Iran and is located at the eastern margin of the Lut Block. This deposit has been exploited for thousands of years. The mineralisation is of vein-hydrothermal type and has formed along fractures varying in length up to 1500 m. Paleogene volcanics such as andesitic and pyroclastic rocks with calcalkaline and shoshonitic compositions (with a continental arc tectonic history) are the main rocks (Mazloumi et al. 2008). There is a close relationship between Cu, Fe, Zn and also Pb, Bi and Ag at this deposit. The main minerals are hematite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, ichnite, matildite and bismutite, the latter occurring in the hypogene zone. The vein-hydrothermal mineralisation at this deposit is the result of fluids derived from a deep-seated acidic intermediate pluton (Hassan-Nezhad and Moor, 2006). IRON SKARN AND PLACER DEPOSITS IN THE CIZ

The Cenozoic Sangan iron deposit is one of the largest worldwide skarn deposits that is located in the east of CIZ (Khorasan Province) and divided into eastern, western and central ore bodies (Golmohammadi et al. 2014). The ore is hosted by Cretaceous calcareous sediments and associated with felsic volcanic (rhyolite, trachyte, dacite, andesite) and Upper Eocene intrusive rocks (syenite to syenogranite porphyry) (Figure 15b). Skarn mineralisation occurs at the contact of the 39.1 § 0.6 Ma to 38.3 § 0.5 Ma Upper Eocene syenite to syenogranite porphyry pluton with Cretaceous carbonate rocks (Mazaheri et al. 1994; Karimpour 2004; Golmohammadi et al. 2014). Although the Sangan syenite to syenogranite porphyry pluton show potassium to shoshonitic affinity, it has been proposed as subduction related pluton (Golmohammadi et al. 2014) in the CIZ. The main ore mineral is magnetite with minor hematite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite. Ca-skarn and Mg-skarn are also recognised. The main mineralisation stage was associated with hydrothermal activity following the primary stage of €ster (1991) proposed skarn development. Kermani & Fo

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that the ore at Sangan crystallised from a Fe-rich magma. A first reserve estimate of 600 million tons was subsequently reassessed to 540 million tons. Detailed exploration illustrates that geological reserves are 541 tons of ore with a mean grade of 42.3 wt% Fe and 0.75 wt% S. The absolute reserve is 322 million tons with 44.4 wt% Fe and 0.59 wt% S. There are some placer iron deposits in the Sangan area, in which magnetite is the main ore mineral. These deposits contain more than 6.5 Mt iron ore.

ORTHOMAGMATIC AND SKARN IRON DEPOSITS IN THE CIZ

The Panj-Kuh iron deposit is located 50 km southeast of Damghan within the CIZ (Figure 1). The Panj-Kuh deposit is hosted mainly in the Eocene andesite and basalt volcano-pyroclastic rocks as well as Oligocene syenite, monzonite and gabbro plutonic rocks. The mineralisation of the Panj-Kuh iron deposit occurred in both orthomagmatic and hydrothermal stages (Pirouzfar 2006). In the orthomagmatic stage, associated with crystallisation of a gabbroic magma, iron mineralisation occurred in the form of disseminated and massive ores. In the second stage, the monzonitic intrusion was injected into the gabbroic, volcano-sedimentary and volcanic rocks and caused hydrothermal iron mineralisation such as skarnisation (Pirouzfar 2006). Pyroxene, epidote and amphibole are the main silicate minerals, and magnetite, pyrite, chalchopyrite, malachite and azurite are the ore minerals of this deposit (Pirouzfar 2006). The hydrothermal stage is predominantly associated with NaCa, MgCa and potasic alteration. There is also some iron skarn-type mineralisation such as at Arjin, Bashkand, Alamkandi, Inche Rahbari and Shah Bolagh in the southern part of the Zanjan district (Figure 12a), hosted within carbonates, marbles and rhyolitic tuffs. During Cenozoic times, the plutonic rock with monzodioritic composition intruded Precambrian to Cambrian carbonate rocks of the Soltaniyeh Formation and caused skarnisation in contact with dolostones. Iron mineralisation occurred parallel to early lamination and foliation of host rocks and, to a lesser extent, in a network of veinveinlets, in form of magnesian skarn at the contact to the igneous body. The magnetite, hematite (specularite), pyrite, chalcopyrite, garnet, pyroxene, phlogopite, epidote, tremolite, actinolite, serpentine and talc are the main ore- and rockforming minerals (Figure 16). Ore fabrics include massive ores, vein, banded, replacement, open space filling, dendritic, orbicular, spotted, vein and breccia textures (Figure 16).

DISCUSSION Iran is composed of a mosaic of continental blocks, which are separated by complex oceanic suture zones (Figure 1) representing the remnants of the Tethyan oceans, namely the Proto-, Paleo- and Neotethys. The complicated interplay of sequential opening and subduction of various Tethyan oceans provides a suitable geological framework for the formation of a great variety of ore deposits. In fact, to improve our understanding of


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Figure 16 Iron skarn mineralisation in the Arjin area. (a) Formation of serpentine (ser), idocrase (id), grossular (grs) and magnetite (mt) in the marble (mrb) host rock in the contact metamorphic stage. (b) Banded skarn-type iron mineralisation within the metamorphosed carbonate (marble) (mrb) rock. The serpentine (ser) formed during the iron mineralisation. (c) Serpentine (ser), asbestos (abs) and talc (tlc) formed during the hydrothermal iron mineralisation.

Iranian metallogenic belts, we reconstructed the movements of the terranes and adjacent continental blocks. In the following paragraphs, the exploration potential will be discussed for the different geological units of Iran with the aim to explore the potential for major new iron ore discoveries.

Neoproterozoic to early Paleozoic tectonic regime and related Fe and FeMn deposits Mineral deposits and prospects of most ores including iron oxide ores in Iran are mainly associated with the evolution of Tethyan oceans. The largest iron oxide district of Iran is located in lower Paleozoic rocks of the KKTZ arc district within the CIM. These deposits are related to the subduction of the Prototethys Ocean (Figure 17). In the Neoproterozoic, during an extensional regime, the CIM at the Prototethys margin broke up. During a later compressional tectonic regime, subduction zones evolved and the closure of the Prototethys and final collision of an active continental margin and a passive margin occurred in Neoproterozoic times (Nadimi 2007). The CIM in the KKTZ broke up and caused continental margin back-arc rifting throughout the Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian (Ramezani & Tucker 2003; Nadimi 2007). This back-arc basin was parallel to the convergence (Prototethyan) along the continental margin. Iron and FeMn mineralisation in the KKTZ occurred in two stages. In the first stage, Fe (such as the lower part of the Mishdovan deposit) and FeMn

mineralisation (such as the Narigan FeMn deposit) are related to the Rizu and Dezu rock formations. According to Daliran (1990, 2002), synsedimentary deformation features such as interbedding and slump beds, as well as local admixture of the rhyolitic agglomerates to the ore layers, suggest a synsedimentary precipitation of the iron ore minerals in the lower part of the Mishdovan deposit. Based on field and petrographic studies, the Narigan FeMn deposit was involved in two phases of hydrothermal activity (Bonyadi & Moore 2005) including: (1) exhalation of hydrothermal fluids from the seafloor, then primitive ore forming process in the form of precipitation of Fe and Mn oxide and hydroxide gels followed by final crystallisation; and (2) migration of secondary hydrothermal fluids from reducing to oxidising areas, and precipitation of Fe and Mn into the latter. Therefore, there was an increase in ore grade in the oxidising area. Bonyadi & Moore (2005) concluded that this deposit was formed during rifting and magmatism. In the second stage of Fe and FeMn mineralisation in the KKTZ, iron mineralisation occurred in form of massive ores, breccias, veins and veinlets composed of magnetite and apatite, which are related to the arc magmatism along the Prototethyan margin of Gondwana (Ramezani & Tucker 2003). €ster & JafarzaFor the genesis of these deposits, Fo deh (1994) proposed an immiscible liquid magmatic model. Recent work (Daliran 2002; Daliran et al. 2007; Jami et al. 2007; Torab & Lehmann 2007), however,



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Figure 17 Schematic diagram displays formation of the IOA deposits and volcano-sedimentary Fe and FeMn mineralisation during the Neoproterozoic-to-early Cambrian time (the geodynamic evolution of Neoproterozoic-to-early Cambrian discussed based on Ramezani & Tacker, 2003). Late Precambrian volcano-sedimentary and subvolcanic sequence, which are mainly alkali rhyolite, rhyolitic tuff and quartz porphyry, include the Gharadash Formation in northwestern Iran, the Taknar Formation in the Kashmar region, northeastern Iran, the Rizu-Desu Formation and Esfordi Formation in southeastern CIM and the Hormoz Formation in Zagros.

assumed hydrothermal fluids as a prominent factor in the evolution of at least some deposits. The source of invoked alkali elements is considered to vary from evaporite-derived fluids to evolved felsic magmatic brines. Torab (2008) assumed a probable genetic relationship of large-scale circulation of basinal brines derived from an evaporitic source; circulation is induced by magmatic heat. However, Aftabi et al. (2009) considered Esfordi and the other Bafq magnetitehematiteapatite deposits to be Rapitan-type P-rich banded iron formations. The genesis of these deposits is controversial but the hydrothermal fluids model has been broadly accepted. Furthermore, in the SoltaniyeMahabad axis iron mineralisation is related to the Kahar and Soltaniye formations, and the Ghare Dash volcanic rocks. In the Zagros belt (e.g. Ak Kahour), the iron oxide mineralisation is hosted by the Hormoz Formation. These deposits have a volcano-sedimentary genesis and mineralisation occurred in the extensional tectonic regime related to the Prototethyan Ocean (Figure 17).

Paleozoic to Cenozoic tectonic regimes and related Fe and FeMn deposits The opening of the Paleotethys Ocean occurred in the early Silurian and separated the Hun superterrane (consisting of the Turan region) from Gondwana (Stampfli et al. 2001; Golonka 2004). After the closure of the Paleotethys in the Late Triassic, the Neotethyan evolution occurred mainly from the Permian

to Cenozoic (e.g. Golonka 2004; Ghasemi & Talbot 2006; Horton et al. 2008). The development of the Neotethys Ocean caused a N-dipping subduction system, which developed along the Paleotethyan margin in the north of the Iranian plate (Golonka 2004; Ghasemi & Talbot 2006). As a consequence, the Paleotethys Ocean closed in the Late Triassic by subduction beneath the Eurasian plate margin (Alavi 1996; Bagheri & Stampfli 2008). The Gol-e-Gohar and Baba Ali, Gelali, Chenar, Tekyebala, Khosrowabad, Charmalehbala and Hezarkhanibala deposits in the Hamedan area and Kalat-e-Naser of Ahangaran, Heneshk, Goli and Cheshme Esi FeMn deposits in the Dehbid area along the SSZ are related to the opening phase of the Neotethys Ocean (Figure 18a). These deposits are considered to be of volcanosedimentary origin and are related to an extensional tectonic regime. The opening of the South Atlantic Ocean caused a northeastward movement of the ArabianAfrican plate (Golonka 2004) during Cretaceous times. The Neotethys subduction from the Late Triassic to the Cretaceous led to the development of arc magmatism in the SSZ (e.g. Azizi & Jahangiri 2008). Some authors assume that the ArabiaEurasia collision in Iran occurred between the middle Eocene and late Oligocene (e.g. Jolivet & Faccenna 2000; Agard et al. 2005, 2011; Vincent et al. 2005; Horton et al. 2008; Ballato et al. 2011; Nabatian et al. 2014b). Many monzonitic plutonic bodies in the Alborz Mountains (Aghazadeh et al. 2010; Nabatian et al. 2014b) were emplaced after collision and show a post-collisional magmatic signature. There

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Figure 18 Tectonic evolution of the South SSZ and CIM (after Ghasemi & Talbot 2006; Agard et al. 2011). (a) Permian rifting and volcano-sedimentary Fe and FeMn mineralisation in the extensional basin of the SSZ. (b) Middle Cretaceous to Eocene subduction and skarn-type iron deposits in the UD. (c) Skarn iron deposits related to collision and post collisional magmatism in the UD during the middle to late Eocene. (d) Tectonic model for the development of the western AlborzAzarbaijan and iron oxideapatite mineralisation in the Tarom post-collisinal setting (from Nabatian 2012; Nabatian et al. 2013). After the collision of the ArabianIranian platforms, the thickened lithosphere underwent convective thinning leading to asthenospheric upwelling and decompression melting of previously metasomatised mantle peridotite giving rise to the generation of highpotassic magmas.


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Figure 19 Timing of emplacement of major Fe and FeMn deposits in Iran with respect to the tectonic regime of Tethyan oceans. Time-scale modified from Gradstein et al. (2012).

are many iron oxideapatite, skarn, IOCG and volcanosedimentary Fe and FeMn deposits in the Alborz, KBK and SSZ, which are related to the subduction and closure of the Neotethyan Ocean (Figure 18bd). The appearance of metallic and non-metallic deposits is related to geological phenomena such as the magmatic activity, metamorphic processes and orogenic movements. Most of the world’s iron deposits such as BIF and Kiruna type were formed during the early Precambrian. In addition, most magmatic and skarn-type iron deposits in the world formed in the Paleozoic and MesozoicCenozoic and are related to Caledonian, Variscan and Alpine orogenies. The Neotethyan convergence system between the Eurasian plate and Tauride-Anatolide platform in NE and Central Turkey possesses well-preserved igneous rocks characterising different stages of et al. 2003). The pre-, syn- and postconvergence (Boztug collisonal granitoids are related in terms of magma genesis and wall rock alteration in different geodynamic environments. The syn-collisional event was accompanied by et al. 2003) but granitoid-related mineral deposits (Boztug also metasedimentary magnetite deposits that formed by metamorphism of sedimentary iron in Central Anatolia (Ku¸s cu & Erler 1998). Temporal association of Fe and FeW skarns with post-collisional granitoids in Turkey, suggest a metallogenic epoch between the late Cretaceous and Paleocene. In this epoch, Fe and FeW deposits were formed in the province of monzonitic to monzodioritic intrusions in northeastern Turkey. The uppermost Cretaceous and Paleocene Fe-oxide deposits may be regarded as another petro- and metallogenic epoch related to the A-type magmatic activity (Ku¸s cu & Erler 1998). The current understanding of the tectonic evolution of Iran is consistent with what is known about the metallogenic evolution of this area. The iron deposits of Iran are associated with rocks spanning the entire history of the region (Figure 19; Table 3). The most important mineralisation of iron deposits occurred in the the Bafq area of the KKSZ back arc district of CIM, and in the Shamsabad and Hamekasi

districts of the SSZ magmatic assemblage of East Iran and, to a lesser extent, in the Alborz and UD belts (Figure 1). Different continental and oceanic basins developed in the CIM from the Proterozoic onwards. Iron oxideapatite and FeMn deposits formed in extensional basins of the Tethys and can be a major exploration target. More than 90% of the Neoproterozoic to lower Cambrian Fe and FeMn deposits in the KKSZ back arc district and Cenozoic iron deposits are of magmatic segregation or skarn type, and con€ster tain 1.8 billion tons of Fe2O3 (Karimpour 1989; Fo & Jafarzadeh 1994; Mazaheri et al. 1994; Daliran 2002; Maanijou 2002). Spatial and temporal association of iron deposits with convergence-related magmatic activity in the Alborz, SSZ, UD and northeast Iran (Figures 1, 12, 19) allows us to define metallogenic epochs and petrographic to geochemical provinces that could be used in mineral exploration. The SSZ has a significant exploration potential for various metals including FeMn deposits. This zone hosts a Mesozoic magmatic arc, and extensive uplift and exhumation eliminated the probable potential for iron oxide mineralisation. In the SSZ, iron deposits and resources are mostly associated with submarine volcano-sedimentary rocks as well as with intrusive rocks. Volcano-sedimentary Fe and FeMn deposits are related to Permian to Cretaceous submarine volcano-sedimentary rocks, but the intrusive Fe and FeMn deposits are related to the magmatic rocks formed during Cenozoic times. Most of the intrusive related deposits in the SSZ are skarn-type deposits. The Iranian plateau, excluding the folded Zagros belt in the southwest and Koppeh Dagh Range in northeast (Figures 1, 19), makes up the central part of the AlpineHimalyan orogenic-metallogenic belt. However, there are many areas without any indication of Fe and FeMn mineralisation in the Iranian subzones because of unfavourable geological settings or a lack of appropriate geological data that may be due to insufficient exploration in these areas.


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CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

Iran hosts iron deposits of various types, including Kiruna-type magnetiteapatite, volcano-sedimentary, skarn, IOCG, magmatic and placer deposits. These deposits occur in different tectonic assemblages. The major structural zones of Iran that host various types of iron deposits are: Bafq-PB back arc district in CIM, SSZ and Zagros. Several smaller iron ore deposits are distributed in the Alborz, CIZ and UD belts. There are three favourable periods for iron mineralisation in Iran, namely: (1) the Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian (volcano-sedimentary and Kiruna-type deposits), (2) late Paleozoicearly Mesozoic (volcano-sedimentary iron deposits), and (3) Cenozoic (Kiruna-type, IOCG deposits, magmatic, placer and especially skarn deposits). The formation and distribution of iron deposits in the different structural zones can be explained by divergent and convergent events related to the Proto-, Paleoand Neotethyan oceans. The development of volcano-sedimentary Fe and FeMn deposits in the SSZ, Zagros and CIZ zones is consistent with an extensional environment. The formation of these deposits shows that continental rifting and back-arc settings are suitable environments for the development of stratiform Fe and FeMn mineralisation in Iran. On the other hand, the formation of IOCG, skarn and magmatic type deposits is associated with a compressional environment such as a magmatic arc setting. The kiruna type magnetiteapatite deposits in the CIM and Alborz formed in the extensional regime related to the back arc and post collisional setting respectively. The distribution pattern of these type of deposits in the Alborz, UD, CIM, CIZ and SSZ indicates that the magmatic fluids and hydrothermal sources were related to the evolution of Proto-, Paleoand Neotethyan oceanic crust. The absence of a similar ore province in the Koppeh Dagh Range and Zagros indicates unfavourable geological settings or a lack of appropriate geological data that may be due to insufficient exploration in these areas. Economic iron ore deposits are generally large in tonnage (20500 Mt) and located near the surface. These deposits generate significant geochemical and geophysical expressions. Geological mapping and remote sensing methods such as airborne geophysics (especially magnetics), satellite imagery and hyperspectral mapping are used at a regional level to identify prospects. Future exploration efforts need to consider the geological framework of ore-forming systems from the regional to prospect scale, combining available descriptive data with genetic models in order to gain a better understanding of the mineralising system.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors greatly appreciate Prof. F. Corfu for providing helpful critical comments, suggestions and reviews that considerably improved the paper. We greatly appreciate reviewers for providing helpful, critical and beneficial comments and suggestions that considerably improved this article. We thank Isabella Merschdorf for polishing the English.


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Received 5 February 2014; accepted 19 December 2014