is my home my castle?

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to the land, profound religious faith, strong place and home attachmen4 and ..... because it is based on the covenant between God and the people of lsrael" as.
ISMY HOME MY CASTLE? PlaceAttachments Risk Perception) and ReligiousFaith

MIRIAM BILLIGisalecfurerattheDepartmentsofAra*itectureundofBehuviorul SciencesattheCollegeofJu(kaundSanutriaGAriel,IsraeLShereceivedherbal. and f

inurbanand M.A.insvxiologyundanth")poloryatBarllnnUniversityandherf srael Institute of regionalplanning d thefaculty o afchitecwte d the Tec~inion, I~D. Tec*to)logy.Nerfieldofspeciulizdionissocialaspectsofplanningundurbansociology und unth")pology.

MSTRACY: Ellisstudydealtwithplaceandhome attachmentofJewishsetdersin thePlazaregionaffectedbyhostilitiesincurringrisktothesettlers'lives.Itevaluated thevariablesrelatedtothesettlers'risk-ptionandtheirtendencytostaytoleave theirhomes ina sample consisting of 156 of947 households interviewed by telephone.Theresearchersevaluatedhow riskperoeptionandthetendencytostaywere relatedtodemographiccharacteristicssuchasgenderandlengthoftimelivinginthe regionand toculturalcharacteristics suchasplaceand home attachment, ideology, andreligiousfaith.Inspiteofthedangerousenvironmen4thesettlerswere foundto haveastrongtendencytostayinthearea,relatedtotheirfirmideologyofholdingon totheland,profoundreligiousfaith,strongplaceandhome attachmen4 andlowrisk perceptionoftheirsituation.

keywords: placeattuc*ment; ris'kpe"tption; ideologyofholdingon totheLund

'tMy home ismy castle"indicatesaperson'sfeelingofsecwityandattachmenttoone'shome andlivingenvironment. happenswhenone'shome

"that

AIYIHOR'S NOTE: Miriun Billig,Depurtnant ofArchitectureund Depurtment r)f Behuvir)rul Sc'iences, College r)fJudeu und Sunwuriu. Wte uuthur wishes tr) thunk ShellyZr)rkrautfr)rdesigning theques'tionnuire, undItuiHutch res.eu"hto's'is'tunh forpeformingullinterviewsundforhisuvs'islwceth")ughr)atthestudy.Cr)rntspr)nrknce to)ncerning thisarticle should be uddnrs'sed tr)the author at Def."artmentof

a4wtomarrAND BEnEOSh vol.3"No.2.Man.h2a1624V2M rol: 10.l177sW1391650527%(" 0 2a16sagePublications

248

Billig/ATTACHMENT, RISK,AND FAITH 249

cannolongerprovideasafehavenbecauseofthedevelopmentofarisksituation?How mightthisberelatedtoaperson'sdecisiontocontinuelivingthere inspiteoftheriskperceived?These questionswereexaminedinthepresent study. Foralmostacentury,astrugglehascontinuedbetweenIsraelisandPalestinianArabs, which isrooted inthe Arabs' resistance to theexistenceofa Jewishstateintheirmidst.Inthe 1970s,theIsraeliGovernmentestablished both agricultural and community settlements inthe Gaza region, some of themborderingthecitiesofGaza,KhanYunis,orRafa,wherethePalestinian Authorityclaimedruleabout 10yearsagoasaresultoftheCelloagreement. For quite a long period of time, relations between the two populations includedcommerce,employment,andfreemovement.Asaresultoftheintifada,theviolentuprisingofthePalestiniansthateruptedin2000, wallsand barbed wirefenceshavebecome commonplace. Inspiteofthepresence of Israelirootedforces,terroristattacksbyPalestinianIslamicfundamentalists occunedinthesettlements,includingfrequentattacksonIsraeliciviliancars aswellasexplosives,mckets,andmortarshellsaimedatJewishsettlements, causingdeathandwounding settlers.To anoutsider,itshouldbe difficultto understandwhatkeepstheIsraelisettlersriskingtheirlivesandthoseoftheir childrenby livinginsuchadangerousarea.In2004, theIsraeligovemment soledthattopmmote thepeace process, allJewish settlements intheGaza regionbeevacuatedbytheirsettlersinthenearfutureand transferredtothe Palestiniau Authority, to the dismay and horror ofthe settlers and many Israelicitizens.Thepossibilitythismighthappenhadalreadybeenvoicedat thetimethisstudywas livingconducted. The purpose ofthestudywas toinvestigatethe variablesrelated torisk perceptionbythesettersandtheirtendencytostaylivingintheregion.Place attachmentwas studiedwithemphasison twoaspects:First,we lookedspecificallyatplaceattachmentunderconditionsofriskofterroristattacks, a topic not dealtwith intheliterature.Second, we investigatedthe extentto which place attachmenh motivated by religion or ideology, was different Eom place attachment motivatedby otbet factors. Itshouldbe noted this studywas limitedtoonespecificruralregioninacontestedareaaffectedby terrorismwithoutanycomparisontootherregions,bestayUrban,noncontested, ot inothercountries.

Architecture, College ofJudea and Samaria, Ariel 44837, Israeh telephone: 972-3-9160220; fox: 972-3-9160222; mobile: 972-54-2077234; e-maih [email protected].

250 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR /March 2a16

HOME AND PLACE ATTACHMENT Several researchers have studied the phenomenon ofplace attachment, andopinionsintheliteraturedifferastoitsexactmeaning.Many adoptaculturalpointofview,emphasizingthesymbolicattachmentoftheindividualor group to a certainplace (Billig& Zonaaut, inpress;Giuliani & Feldman, 1993; Low, 1992;Mesch & Manor, 1998).Low presentsatopologyofculturalplace attachment consisting of(a)socialaspects ofplace attachment through family or kinship ties, material aspects of place attachment throughlossordestructionofland orownershipofload,and (c)ideological ~) aspects ofplace attachment through cosmological or religious correspondence, pilgrimage,or aanative. Churchman and Mitraai(1997) found that among students who had recently immigrated from the former Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics, place attachment to Israelwas more prevalent among those who had aZionistmotivation(i.e.,wantedto liveasaJew in Israel)thanamong thosewho hadcome toIsraeltoevadeanti-Semitismor foreconomical reasons. Most researchers attribute place attachment to psychological factors includingemotions,cognitions,andexperiencesthatcauseapersonorgroup of persons to feel attached to a certain place: Bowiby (1973) states that attachment toplace, likeattachment toperson, can be conceptualized as a series ofemotions and behaviors that modulate distance from and hence maintaincontactwiththeobjectofattachment,whichisasourceofprotectionand satisfaction.1hdlilove(1996)addresseseapsychologyofplacein thatindividualsrequireagood enough environmentinwhich tolive.They requireasenseofbelonging,whichisnecessaryfortheirpsychologicalwellbeingand depends on strong, well-developedrelationshipswiththeirenvimnment Peoplearelinkedtoalsoenvironmentthroughdeeekeypsychologicalprocesses:attachmen4 familiarit~andidentity. Someresearchersemphasizethatbehavioralaspectssuchassocialinvolvement and activitysignificantlyaffectthedevelopment ofplaceattachment (Harris,Brown,& Werner,1996).Gustafson(2001)claimsStatinthisageof postmodernismandde globalvillage,adifferentrelationshiphasdeveloped between placeattachmentand mobility.Today, mobilityofpeople isoften regarded as an ideal, whereas certain aspects of place attachment are regardedasoutdated.Mobilitymay signify&eedom, opportunity,and new experiencesbutalsouprootednessandloss.Similarly,placeattachmentmay implymote,security,andsenseofplacebutalsoimprisonmentandnatrowmindedness.Inhisview,peoplewho aresocioeconomicallywelloffareparticularlyabletocombinetheadvantagesofbothmobilityandplaceattachment, therebymaximizingtheirwell-beingandlibsatisfaction.

Billing/ATTACHMENT, RISK,AND FAVH 251

RISK PERCEPTION

Topeoplelivinginareasknown tobe dangerousforreasonslikeecologicalhazards,crime,orhostilities,placeattachmentandthedecisiontostayor leavearestronglyrelatedtothesubjectiveperceptionandassessmentofrisk byresidents.A subjectiveriskperceptionisnotnecessarilycongruentwitha realisticprobabilityofoccurrenceofwhat isfearedand itsmagnitude. HerbertSimon (1957)studiedtheprocessofrationaldecisionmaking in economicandotherenvironments.Hefoundthathumaacapacitytoactrationallywas limited,asexpressedinhistheoryofboundedrationality,andthat inrealworld situations,even aWarendy rationaldecisions areofteninfluencedbypsychologicalfactors.Kates(1962)andCvetovichandEarl(1992) suggesthazardmanagers andothersviewriskonlyinanobjectiveperspectiveofitsphysical characteristics. However, the constructivistperspective adopted by the social sciencesholds that Ask assessment reflects human judgments,whichareinfluencedbyvariouspsychologicalandsocialfactors. SuchsubjectivejudgmentsresultEom thefactthatknowledgeaboutthehazard isgenerallylessthan perfectand the assessment ofriskalsoinvolves judgmentsaboutwhatpeoplevalue.Thus,peol)le'sfearisalsobasedontheir way oflifeanditsassociatedvaluesasaninteractionbetween physicaland psychosocialcharacteristics. Verplanken (1N7) found that identical numerical probabilities of the occurrenceofhazardsarejudgedashigherwhen theseinvolvecatastrophes with many victims atthe same time compared h nnnoatastrophic hazards withone ora few victimseach time,evenifthetoednumber ofvictimsof noncatastrophichazardsisexpected tobe thesame asofcatastrophichazards.As aresu14perceptionsbynonexpertsoftheriskofcatastrophichazards may be judged more serious and thus less acceptable than noncatastrophichazards. Perceptionandassessmentofriskinhazardoussituationsbynonspecialistsis,toacertainexten4determinedby theway risksarepresentedby the electronicorprintedmedia.Perceptionofriskisalsoinfluencedhy theculturalbackgroundofthoseinvolvedandbythewayitiscommunicatedtoHe public(Slovic, 1987). Riskperceptionisasocialprocess.Acceptabilityof riskdependsonthealternatives,values,andbeliefsconsidered(Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982; Fischhoff, lichtenstein, & Slovic, 1980; Renn, Bums, Kasperson, Kasperson, & Slovic, 1992). Risktaking,riskaversion, shared confidence,andsharedfearsarepad ofthedialogueofhow besttoorganize socialrelations.Peoplewho adheretodifferentfarmsofsocialorganization aredisposedtotakeandavoiddifferentkindsofrisk(Douglas& Wildavsky,

1982).

252 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR /March 2006

How do people cope with the risks they perceive? Lemer, Gonzalez, Small,andFischoff(2003)studiedtheeffectsoftheaftermathofSeptember 11, 2001 inthe United States.They found thatfearincreasedriskestimates and plans forprecautionary measures, whereas anger triggered more optimistic beliefs. Men generally reported lower risk estimates than women, emotional differences explaining 60eb to 80% of the gender difference. Hallman and Wandersman (1992) found affected residents in an area exposed to environmental hazards to turn to each other forhelp incoping with theirhazardous situation and form a citizens action group. Bar-Tal, Jacobson, and Freund (1995)found thatlivinginJewishsettlementsinthe occupiedterritoriesbyitselfhadlitheimpactoninsecurityfeelingsandmost otherdependentvariables.Theyfoundfeelingsofinsecuritynottoberelated to objectively perceived external forces. Residents' feelings of insecurity wereexplainedbytheirdemographicandsocioeconomiccharacteristicsand personalexperiences.

RELIGIOUS FAITHAND IDEOLOGY INSTRESSFUL SITUATIONS

Religiousfaithandideologicalconvictionwerefoundtobeverysignificant factors in strengthening the determination and courage of people in overcoming stressfdl situations. McIntosh, Cohen Silver, and Wortman (1993) found greaterparticipation by parents inreligious activitiesofthe communitytoberelatedtoagreaterperceptionofsocialsupportonthesuddendeathoftheirinfantTheimportanceattachedtoreligionwas alsopositivelycorrelatedwithcognitiveprocessingandfindingmeaninginthedeath. Furthermore, religious participation and the importance ofriligion were indirectlyrelatedtogreaterwell-beingandlessdistressamong parentsafter theirinfant'sdeath. Studentswho belongtoChristianfaithgroupswerefoundtobehealthier andhappierandhandlestressbetterthanacomparisongroup withno such affiliation.FrankelandHewittconcludedinwardreligiosity,asexpressedby theirinvolvementincampusfaithgroups,tobebeneficialtotheirmentaland physical well-being(Frankel& Hewit4 19%). Ross (1990) found thatthe strongeraperson'sreligiousbelief,thelowerthelevelofpsychologicaldistresssuffered.11)is supports the idea thatreligionreduces demoralization andprovideshopeandmeaning.The strengthofreligiousbeliefappearstobe more importantthancontentinexplainingtheeffectofreligiononpsychologicaldistress.7%efactthatpersonswho categoricallyrejectreligionwere

Billig/ATTACI9~dEI4T, RISK, AND FAVH 253

alsofound tohave alow levelofdistresswas explainedtoresultfrDm their strongcommitmenttoanother,nonreligiousideologythatservesanemotional functionsimilartothatofreligion. Ch~odox Jewsfeltlessburnedoutthanothersbecausetheysawresisting theintifadaof1987to1990asajuststruggleforahighercausesanctionedby God. The findingsexplainedthatpeopledo notburnoutiftheyfindexistentialsignificance in what they do, even ifthe situation isstressful (Pines, 1994). KostelnyandGarbarino (1994)exploredtheexperiencesofviolence by Palestinianchildrenandyouthduringtheintifadaof1987 to 1990. They found adolescent youth to be susceptible to ideologies influencing their development and identityby giving meaning to theirdailystruggle while servingas apersonalresourceand asourceofresilience.

METHOD THE SAhtp1E

The sample consisted ofinhabitants ofall16 Jewish settlements inthe Gazaregion,8ofthem agriculturalandtheother8community settlements. Also, 11 settlement were religious, as definedby theirinhabitants, and 5 secular.A listwascompiledofallhouseholds,theheadsofwhichwereaged 22 to 45. A sample of200 was systematicallyrandomly selectedfrom all thesehouseholds,proportionallyrepresentingthepopulationofeachsettlement. A totalof 190householders were found athome, and 156 (829b) of theseagreedtorespond tothequestionnaire.Ofthese,66 (429b)weremen and90(589b)werewomen. TheiragesvariedYam 22to45,withmean age 35.5(SD=5.7).Themean timetheyhavebeenlivinginthesetdementswas 10.5years(SD =6.3).The mean numberofchildrenperhouseholdwas 3.8 (SD = 1.9). Their mean education was 14.5 years (SD =2.6). Of those responding, 121(789b)regardedd"mselvesreligiousand35(229b)secular. RESStRCU TOOLS

Questionnaireswerespeciallydesignedfordfisstudy.Thequestionnaire probedpersonalcharacteristics,ideology ofplaceattachment,riskperceptionintheareaandone'stendencytostaylivingintheregion'.Severalquestionswere based on aprevious study conducted intheregionofSamaria (Billig& Zorkraut,inpress).Thoseinunviewedwerealsogivend"opportunity to comment or further elaborate on the topics addressed in the

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254 ENWIONMENT AND BEHAVIOR /March 2006

questionnaire.The questionnairewasevaluatedby fourgraduatestudentsof psychology,who servedasanalysts-judges.Theyreviewedthequestionsas totheirspecificrelevancetoideology,placeand home attachment, andrisk perception. Questions on which therewas no consensus among thejudges were deleted. Place attachment to the settlement was evaluated with 12 questions aWrovedbyconsensusoftheanalysts-judges.Some typicalquestionswere: Does theuniquecharacteroftheGazaregionmake you feelattachedtothe regionsDo youfeellivingintheGazaregiontobepartofyourpersonalidentity?Do you feelemotionally attached to the Gaza region? Answers were scaled between 1 =not at allto 7 =veo much so. Internal consistency between the 12questionsshowed analphaof.94.Thedetermineddegreeof place attachment was the calculated mean of the answers to these 12 questions. Home attachmentwas assessedwithsevenquestions.Some typicalquestions were: Do you experience a pleasant feeling when athomed Isyour home aplacewhere you feelrelaxed? Do you feelsafeathomed Answers were scaledbetween 1=notatallto =veomuch so.Internalconsistency betweenthesevenquestionsshowedanalphaof.89.Thedetermineddegree ofhome attachmentwas thecalculatedmean oftheanswers tothese seven questions. Ideologyofholdingontotheland:Ellisparameterwas evaluatedwith 14 questions,someofwhichwerebasedonthedecisiontocontinuelivinginthe GazaregiontoensuretheregionwillbeincludedwithinthebordersofIsrael ortostrengthenthesettlements.Thoseinterviewedwerealsoaskedtoreferto phrases emphasizing one's duty to hold on to the landunder any circumstancesasopposedtobeingreadytoleavetheareaincertainsituations.There weresixphrasessuchas"GurrighttoallofthelandofIsraelisnotnegotiable becauseitisbasedonthecovenantbetweenGod andthepeopleoflsrael"as opposedtophraseslike"Areliablecompromiseonterritoriesispreferableto acontinuationofthesehostilities?'Answerswerescaledbetween 1=notat allto7=inallcases.Calculatingthedegreeofinternalconsistencybetween the 14questionsyieldedaCronbach'salphaof.93. Riskperceptionwasassessedwifeninequestions.Some typicalquestions were: Do youtrytoavoidgoing outofyourhouse asmuch aspossible?1)o you feelany Moiety becauseofeeriskysecuritysituation?Do youregard livinginyourareaasbeingdangerous?Answerswerescaledbetween 1=not atallto7 =veo much .vo.Internalconsistencybetween theninequestions showed an alphaof.85.1te determineddegreeofriskperceptionwas the calculatedmean oftheanswerstotheseninequestions.

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Billing/ATTACHMENT, RISK,AND FATTH 255

Tendencytostaywasassessedwiththreequestions:Do youconsidercontinuingtoliveintheregionforthenext10years?Do youconsiderleavingthe regionnow,tocome backwhenthesecuritysituationimproves?Do youconsider continuing to liveinthe region forthe next 3 years? Answers were scaledbetween 1=notatallto7=verymuch sa.Calculationoftheinternal consistencybetween thethreequestionsshowed an alphaof.76.Thedetermined tendency to stay was the calculated mean of the answers to these questions. PaOCkDUaE

Allinterviews were conducted by telephone by one person, each interviewlastingabout20minutes.Datawerecollectedduringtheafternoonand eveningon weekdaysbetweenDecember 2002 andFebruary2003. Itwas a time ofintense terroristactivities in the region, causing several dead and woundedamongthesettlers.Intireyear2002, 11settlerswerekilled,includingone ofthe200 intheinitialsample. DuringJanuaryandFebruary2003, the following incidents occurred: 83 mortar and rocket attacks, 68 sniper attacksonroadsandgreenhouses, 25 detonationsofexplosivedevices,and 16 infiltrationattemptsby terrorists.Many times, shooting couldbe heard during the telephone interviews or sirenswere blowing, and people were urgedtostayinsidetheirhomesbecauseofasuspectedinfiltrationoftenoristsintothesettlement.Inspiteofalltha4thoseinterviewedinsistedoncontinuingtheinterviewasifnothinghappened,andsomeproudlyproclaimed, "You see, we aren'tahaid" or'We areused tothisshooting, we don't get exitedaboutit?'As mentioned,inspiteofthesituation,people'swillingness toanswerquestionswas veryhigh(829b).The interviewertriedasmuch as possibletoremainimpartialwithregardtothejustificationforJewishsettlers toliveinthisregion.

RESULTS GENDER AND RELIGIOUS FAITH

ToexaminedifferencesingenderandbetweenreHgjousandsecularpeoplewithrespecttothemainvariables,a2x2multivariateanalysisofvariance (MANOVA) (VenderxReligiousConviction)wasperformed,inwhichthe dependentvariableswere ideology,riskperception, tendencytastay,place

256 EW/BRaKa4T AND) BEHAVIOR /March 2006

attachment, andhome attachment. The MANOVA showed asignificantdifferencebetween men and women eViiks'sLambda =.92,F15,148] x 2.26, p .05) and a significantdifferencebetween religiousand secularpeople (W~ ilks'sLambda =.57,F151148]=22.78,p 4 .001).However,no significant linkage was found between gender and religious conviction (F[5,148] = 1.27,p > .05).Univariateanalysisofvariances(ANOVA) weresubsequently performed forevery variable, which showed a smallbut significantdifferencebetweenmen andwomen forideologyonly(FI1,152]=10.08,p 4 .01), wherebythemeanformen (M =5.84,SD =1.67)was somewhathigherthan forwomen (M =5.15,SD =1.67).Inotherwords,men werefoundtohavea somewhathigherlevelofideologicalmotivation. Table1presentsmeansandstandarddeviationsofthedependentvariables forreligiousand forsecularpeople foreach variableseparately,indicating significantdifferencesbetweenreligiousandsecularpeople foralldependentvariables.Theresultsindicatethatreligiouspeoplehadahigherideological motivation, a stronger place and home attachment, a lower risk perception,andastrangertendencytostayintheregionthansecularpeople. LENGTH OF TIRE LIVmG W TaE REGION

Pearsoncorrelationfactorswerecalculatedtoevaluatethelinkagebetween variablesforideology,placeandhome attachment,riskperceptionand tendencytostay,andbetweenthelengthoftimepeoplehavebeenlivinginthe region.Significantcorrelationswerefoundbetween thelengthoftimepeoplehavebeenlivingintheregionandtheirplaceattachment(r=.23,p 4 .01). The longer the time, the stronger was the place attachment. Contrary to expectations,however,asignificantpositivecorrelationwasfoundbetween thelengthoftimepeoplehavebeenlivingintheregionand riskperception (rx .17,p 4 .01). Specifically, the longer the time, the higher their risk perception. Dare ArrAC~WSNT,BOMS ArricBMEwr,AND IDEOLOGY

Pearson correlationfactors were alsocalculated forsociocultural variables,includingplaceattachmentandhomeattachment,ideologyofholding ontotheland,andthedependentvariablesofriskperceptionandtendencyto stay. ThecorrelationsfoundareshowninTable2,andindicatesignificantcorrelationsbetweenideology,placeattachmen4homeattachmentandbetween risk perception and tendency to stay. Negative correlations between

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Bilng/ATYACFB~ENTRISK, Ann)FAVH 257

TABLE 1 Mans and Standard DevlationsfurDependsnt Vsrisblss,Among Religiousand SecularPeople Oepsndsnt VariaWss Ideology Plansabashment Home attachment Riskparcsption Tendencytostay

RelWh9us SD M 5.97

6.13 6.33 2.60 6.67

1.10 0.86 0.70 1.11 0.76

Secular M SD 3.65

4.51 5.13 3.37 5.75

F(1,152) EtaSq.

1.31 1.90 1.74

33.3Y**

1.54 1.56

11.66*** 23.28***

99.89*** 48.15***

.40

.24 .18 .07 .13

***p4 .001.

TABLE 2 PsarsonCorrelationFactorsBetween Varlables Variable 1

2 3 4 5

Ideology Placsattachment Home auachmsnt Riskperception Tendencytostay

1

2

.54*** .37***

.70***

-.32*** .33***

-.29*** .62***

3

4

-.5Y** .55*"

-.35***

*.'p4 .001.

ideology,placeattachsaent,andhome attachment,andbetweenriskperceptionindicatethestrongerthe ideology,placeattachmen~ andhome attachment,thelowerwastheriskperceptionofthesepeople.Positivecorrelations were found between ideology, place attachrnenh and home attachment, whereas tie correlationbetween riskperception and tendency to staywas negative. One stay, therefore, conclude tie stronger the ideology, place attachment,andhome attachment,thestrongerwasthetendencytostay;and thelowertheriskperception,thestrongerwas thetendencytostay.We also found astrongcorrelationbetweenplace attachmentand home attachment (r=.70,p 4 .001).Therefore,ofthesetwo,onlyhome attachmentwng taken 11t0 account10 subsequentregressionanalyses. alsKPSRCEFYION

A three-stephierarchicalregressionanalysiswaspedonned todetermine theextenttowhichideologyofholdingon tode landandhome attachment would predictriskperception. Personalcharacteristicswere enteredinthe firststep.Thevariableforideologyofholdingontothelandwas enteredin

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TENDENCY o SulkY

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the second step, and thehome attachment variablewas enteredinthe third step. Regressionanalysiscoefficientsexplainingthevarianceinriskperception areshowninTable3.They indicatethat13% ofthevariancewas accounted forinthe firststep. Beta coefficientsofthe variablesgender, religion, and lengthoftime intheregionenteredinthisstepwerepositive,indicatingthat menperceivedtheregionaslessriskythandidwomen. Also,religiouspeople theregionaslessriskythandidsecularpeople.However, thelong erpeoplehad been livingintheregion,the more riskytheyperceivedthe ~rceived region.Thislatterfindingwas lesspronouncedandrequiresfartheranalysis tounderstanditscause. Ideologyofholding on totheland was enteredinthesecond stepofthe regressionanalysisand contributedan additional29b inaccounting forthe varianceofriskperception.Thebetacoefficientforideologyofholdingonto the land was significantand negative, indicating thestrongerthe ideology, thelowertheriskperception.Home attachmentwasenteredinthethirdstep andaccountedfor249bofthevarianceinriskperception,increasingthetotal f tof409b. eTheobetac ofhome attachmentwas significantand negative, indicating the stronger the home attachment, the lower the risk perception.

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A four-stepregressionanalysiswasperformedtodeterminetheeffectsof thevariablesforideology,home attachmen4andriskperceptiononthetendencytostayintheregion.Gender,religion,andlengthoftimelivinginthe regionwere enteredinthefirststep.Ideologyofholdingontothelandwas enteredinthesecondstep.Riskperceptionwasenteredinthethirdstep,and home attachmentinthefourth. Thecoefficientsofhierarchicalregressionanalysisobtainedareshownin Table4.Theyindicatethat109bofthevariancewasaccountedforinthefirst step.The beta coefficientforthevariablereligionentered inthisstep was negative,indicatingreligiouspeoplehadalowertendencytoleavethansecularpeople.Ideologyofholdingontothelandwasenteredinthesecondstep. Thisvariableaccountedforanadditional39bofthevarianceinthetendency tostay;thestrongertheideologytoholdontotheland,thestrongerwas the ostay.R alysisc c tendiencytf fegress eionano forfillsstepshowthatafter ingthevfariablefforideoflogyinS c enteri etep2,t ohebetac forreligion became lowerthaninthefirststepbecauseofthelinkagebetween religion andideology,asshown inTable 1.

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Billig/ATTACHMEIff, RISK, AND FAITH 259

TABLE 3 Hierarchical Regreeelon AnelyalsCoefficients Accounting forVariance InRlgk Perception Nonsdandaafized Coefacients Step 1

2

3

Gender Religion Tim inregion Gender Religion TlrneInregion Ideology Gender Religion inregion ~ uoelogy Ir de Home anachment

*p4 . oe...p4.01.*..p4.001.

t s

n t

e n

e

StandanSizM Coefiiciens

SE

Beta

.47

.19

.7e

.23 .01 .20 .29 .01 .08 .17 .25 .01 .07 .08

.18** .2Y**

B

.04 .37

.43 .04 -.17 .41 -.02 .04 -.01

-.63

.2Y*

R2

R2 Change

.13***

.13***

.15***

.02

.40***

.24***

.14 .14 .18*

-.21* .16

-.01

.22**

-.01 -.5Y**

The variableforrhrkperceptionwas enteredinStep3and accountedfor anadditional79bofthevarianceinthetendencytostay.Regressionanalysis coefficientsindicatethatafterenteringthevariableforriskperception, the betacoefficientforriskperceptionbecame lowerthaninthepreviousstep, probably because ofthe linkagebetween riskpetc@tion and ideology, as shown inTable2. Thehome attachnaentvariablewasenteredinStep4.AsshowninTable4, thisvariableaccounted foranother ilgbofthevariance inthe tendency to stay.Thus, afterthefourthstep,329boftilevarianceinthetendencytostay hadbeen accounted for.According tothebetavaluesinthetable,theonly i signifi ccantcontd ibutionwas f forhome f attachmeentThero egressionc forhomeattachmentwasfoundtobepositive,indicatingforhigherthehome forthis i attachc oessionc ment,deihigherfthetendf encytosetay.Regr stel)show thatoncede home attachmentvariablehadbeenentered,thebeta coefficientforriskperceptionwaslowerthaninthepreviousst@,apparently because of the linkage between home attachment and riskperception, as shown inTable2.

260 EWGROFada4T AF")BEHAVIOR /March 2(X~

TABLE 4 Hierarchical Regreselon AnalysisCoefficlente AccounUng ]brVarlance IntheTendency toStay Nonslhndkrdized Coef~cients Step 1 2

3

4

Gender Religion inregion ~roe Gender Religion TlrneInregion Ideology Gender Religion inregion ~rue Ideology Riskperception Gender Religion inregion ~ roslogy Ir de RiskperoepUon Borne aaachmnt

Standhrdizd Coefficients

B

SE

Beta

-.12 -.77 .01

.16 .19 .01

-.31***

-.02 -.43 .01 .16

.16

.01

-.30 .01 .16 -.23

-.01 -.11 -.01 .01 -.01

.42

.24 .01 .06

.16 .23 .01 .06 .06 .15 .22 .01 .06

.07 .08

R2

R2 Change

-.06 .03 -.01

.10***

.10***

.1Y**

.03*

.20***

.07***

.32***

.11***

-.17

.06 .2Y .03 -.13 .11 .17 -.28***

-.03 -.04 .03 .11 -.05

.45***

.p4 .06.*'p4 .01....p4.001.

DISCUSSION

This study isunique inhaving investigatedplace and home attachment under conditions ofriskto the lives of itsresidents caused by temxism. 9lhereasotherstudieshavedealtmangywithregionsofriskbecauseofnaturaldisasters,thisstudydealtwitharegionriskforthepast3 yearshasbeen subjecttovariouskindsofdailytemxistattacks. Inadditiontotheexistingrisksituation,residentswerealsoexposedtothe uncertaintyastowhethertheIsraeligovernment wnlll(l letthen1 ennt;nllR tn live31 theregion,intheirhomes, andonthefarmstheyhadbuiltwithmuch toilandcare.However, inspiteofthehostilitiesandthecasualtiessuffered, theparticipantsdidnotregardtheirlivingenvironmentasbeingtooriskyand wereholdingontotheirlandinspiteofitaU.wefoundde phrase"myhouse ismy castle"tobeverymuchapplicabletoabasepeopleandtotheirdeterminationto stay.These findingschallengestatemeotR by Bowiby (1973) and

Billig/AI IACHMENI: RISK, AND FAIIH 261

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Fullilove(1996)abouttheimportanceoftheenvironmentinprovidingasafe andgood enough placetoliveinandsupportthetheoriesaboutculturalfactorsaffectingriskperceptionasproposedbyDouglasandVdildavsky(1982) and others. The finding that the ideology ofholding on to the land was somewhat strongerformen thanforwomen may berelatedtothe factthataconsiderablenumber ofthemen werefarmers,andtheyweretheoneswho hadinitiatedthedecisiontosettleintheregion.Adso,mostofthemen workedinthe regionanddidnotcommute elsewhere, which mightexplaintheirstronger attachment to the land. Itshould be interesting to investigate these points further. InagreementwithfindingsbyLerneretal.(2003),women perceivedthe regionasmoredangerousthanmen.However,whereasLernerattributedthis topsychologicalreasons,riskperception among the setterswas relatedto ideologicalaspects.Because ideologicalmotivationswere somewhatlower among women, theirriskperceptionwashigherNan formen, inagreement withthecorrelationfoundbetween ideologyandriskperception. Thepositivecorrelationfoundbetweenreligionandastrongideologyof holdingontotheland,affectiveplaceandhome attachment,andatendency to stayisinagreement with the findingsby Fischhoffetal.(1980), Pines (1994),Ross(1990),andothers.Atthesametime,anegativecorrelationwas foundbetweenreligionandriskperceptioninthatreligiouspeopletendedto perceive theregion aslessdangerous than secularpeople. An ideology of holdingontothelandexistsbothamong Palestiniansandamong Jews.This ideology is considerably more pronounced among religious Jews than among secularJews, asmay be seenfromtheeffectsizeinTable 1. TheideologicalprincipleofthePromisedLand,whichincludestheGaza region,ispartofthetraditionalfaithofreligiouspeoplelivinginthisregion. Holdingontothelandis,therefore,partandparceloftheirreligiousfaithin stplace.fItis,the i thefirf irefore,d forthesepeopletoseparatebetween religiousmotivationsand ideologyofholdingon tothe land.To them, the landisnotaneconomicassetbutpartoftheirreligiousandpoliticalideology as may be understood from de following remark by one of those interviewed:2 '"The may factthatwe have been livinghere for26 yearsresults fromourfaiththatthisisthelandoflsrael.KnowingthatourpatriarchAbrahamhadbeenwalkingonthesoilwe arestandingonrightnowistheultimate legitimacy for our holding on to the land?' Similar beliefs have been expressedbymany ofthoseinterviewed. Thefindingthatthelongerpeoplehavebeenlivingintheregion,theriskiertheyperceivedtheregionseemstobeincongruouswiththefindingthat thelongerpeople had been livingthere,the strongertheirplaceandhome

262 ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR /March 2a16

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attachment.Why longtimersperceivedthesituationasriskierthanthemore recentlyarrivedcouldnotbe explainedby theirage. A possibleexplanation mightbethatalthoughthelongtimesettlershadinthepastexperiencedmany yearsofrelativelycalmbusiness-likerelationswiththeirPalestinianneighbors,themore recentlyarrivedsettlershadbeenexposedtotherisksituation almost from thestart. Intheirquest fora cognitivebalance, perceivingtheregion as not very riskymighthavemade iteasierfortirenewlyarrivedtoliveintheregion,as illustratedbyoneoftherecentlyarrivedwomen: '~His ismy home, andone shouldn'tbeBraidinone'shome.Home isaplacethatprotectsyou.Maybe I don'tknow how to explainHis toyou, but my home ismy casfle?'On the otherhand,longtimesettlerswho wereverymuchattachedtotheplace,some ofthemhavinglivedintheregionfor30years,admittedthatthesituationhad become risky,butthisdidnotaffecttheirdeterminationto stay. TheseEndingsareinagreement withtheliterature,whichregardsplace attachmenttobeprimarilyanaffectivebondUow, 1992).Thefindingsalso show that the residents' ideological motivation contradicts Gustafson's (2001) postmodernistic, relativistic approach to place attachment and the acceptanceofmobilityasaway toincreaseone's well-being. Ellisstudy suggests thatplaceattachmentmay be so strong as to make settlersstayon thelandinspiteoftireexistingrisktotheirlives.One ofthe longtimesettlersexpresseditthisway: 'Uipenon who hasbeenbeinghere forsolo ootedhere?'A personsaidsimilarly: tng--4issoul oisalreadyrn "Iam attachedtothisplace,totheenvironment,andtothepeopleIhavebeen livingwithformanyyears.Ifeellam anintegralpartofthisplace.Ilovethis place.Ibreathitsair,thesea,thejointexperienceswithfriendsand neighbors.Iknow Iam puttingmyselfatriskfarallthat"And, fromanothersettler: "This place is miraculous, unique, whether it's the people, the geography,thelandscape,being neartothesea-allthesemake me forget oursecurityproblems withthePalestinians?' Thesignificanceattributedbysettlerstotherisktheyareexposedtomay beexplainedintermsofacommon awarenessandsocialconstruction.Such anawareness,whichissimilartotheone describedby Bar-Taletal.(1995) andby BilligandZorkraut(inpress)iscreatedandreinforcedby thelocal communication media, socialandculturalencounters,andtherabbisinthe region.Theirdominantdiscourseemphasizesissuessuch asinnerstamina, resilienceincoping withtherisksituation,and theDivineprovidenceprotectingthoselivingintheregion.TheseEndingsareinagreementwithLazarusandmilkman(1984),whoconcludedthatapenon'scopingisdetermined inpartbyhisorherresources,includinghealthandenergy,existentialbeliefs about God, general beliefsabout control, and commitments that can help

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Billig/ AI IACHMEN I,RISK, AND FAIIH 263

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motivate and sustain coping. Some of those interviewed emphasized the extremely smallnumber ofcasualtiesactuallyincurredinspiteofthelarge numberofterroristattacks. meanttothemtheregionwasjustassafeas ds ofthe younger residentsexplained: "Only any otherplace inIsrael,as~l one when you livehere do you noticehow everyminute, every second, God is protectingus.Tomy mind,dlisisthesafestplaceonearth;therefore,Iam not afraidofanydanger?'Thus,people dealtwith theircognitivedissonanceby diminishing theirperception oftherisk. Peoplealsoprovidedalotofhelptoeachother,asmentionedbymany of thoseinterviewed:"Sometimeswe arejustafraid,butwhatIdothenistalkto my husband ormy neighbors ortoallkindsoffriendsIhave intheregion, particularly those having the same problems Ihave?' Thus, possessing a strongideologyandplaceattachmentwas relatedtoperceivingtheplaceas lessriskyoralternativelyadmitting theplace isdangerous and developing waysandmeanstocopewiththesituationascanbeseenfromtheregression analysisintheirstrongtendencytostay. Our discussionofthetendency to stayorleaveunderconditions ofrisk u j reexamination of the concept of place attachment. Specifically, becauseoftheextremeconditionsprevailingintheheldofstudy,questions ariseaboutvariousaspectsand meanings ofplaceattachment Because we aredealingwithapopulationattachedtoitsplacebyreligiousandideological motivations, questions areraised that have not been addressed in the researchliteraturetodate.We sawhow averystrongplaceattachmentmay berelatedtopeoplestayingandholdingontothelandunderalmostanycircumstance, which may be difficultforanoutsidertounderstand. Also, this studyonlybrieflytouchedonhow thesettlersintheGazaregionarecoping with fearorhow they manage to avoid inThisissue, and many questions raisedon otheraspects,could serveas abackground forfurtherstudies. It mightforinstance,bedesirabletocomparepopulationswithideology-based place attachment with others without an ideological basis or to compare people living under conditions of risk with others living under normal conditions. In conclusion, this study has shown that in spite of the risksituation causedby terroristattacksprevailingintheJewishsettlementsintheGaze region,astrong tendencyto stayand liveinthearearemains.Theirtendency to stay and theirperception of the prevailingrisks were significantlyrelatedtothesettlers'strongideologicalandreligiousconvictions. Theseresultsleadtotwoimportantimplications:(a)Tounderstandplace attachment,onemusttakeintoaccountallitsculturalconstituents;and(b) when placeattachmentisverystrong,anyenvironment,evenifknowntobe

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264 ENSHRONbKENT AmendBEHAVIOR /March 2006

verydangerous,may stillbeperceivedasbeinggoodenoughtolivein,makingone'shome one'scastle.

NOTES 1.copiesofthequestionnaireway beobtainedfrom [email protected]. 2.Severalquotationsfromtheinterviewshavebeenaddedinrelevantpartsofthediscussion, toillustratetheopinionsofthoseinterviewed.

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