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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES, STRATEGIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS, IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ICT IN A SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATE: THE CASE OF SAMOA Ioana Tuugalei Chan Mow National University of Samoa [email protected] ABSTRACT This paper is based on a study whose goals were to i) trace and analyse the developments of ICT in Samoa over the last 20 years, ii) identify issues and challenges in implementing these ICT developments iii) identify past and present strategies employed to resolve them and iv) from these findings make recommendations for the future in terms of policy implications, best practices and research. The conceptualisation of ICT developments, issues, challenges and strategies are based on Heeks' Inclusive Innovation theory (Heeks, 2013), Schumpeter’s development theory (2002) and Sen’s capability approach (1999). Analysis of ICT developments makes use of the World Bank Infodev framework for assessing ICT projects (World Bank, 2005). Analysis, reporting and discussion of the findings are made within the Framework of Action in ICT development in the Pacific (FAIDP, 2010). From this investigation of issues and strategies, recommendations have emerged for best practice and areas for potential research. Keywords: ICT development; Inclusive innovation; FAIDP; deregulation, ICT policy 1. INTRODUCTION This paper is based on a study whose goals were to evaluate the progress Samoa has made in ICT developments over the last 20 years but with an emphasis on the last decade in the area of policy and regulatory environment. Specifically the study aimed to i) trace the developments of ICT in Samoa over the last 20 years; ii) outline the issues and challenges in the development of ICT in Samoa; iii) identify past and present strategies to resolve these challenges and iv) from these findings, a set of recommendations for future direction in terms of policy, best practice and research. In the area of research, most of the literature in ICT development in Samoa have been reports on ICT projects such as SchoolNet (SchoolNet Report, 2006), World Bank report on the Samoa Telecommunications and Postal Sector Reform Project (World Bank, 2011), and the UNDP e-government project (Boase, 2009). Other sources of data have been ITU reports on the status of telecommunications (ITU report, 2011), or AUSaid briefing reports such as the Cave report (2012), but these have mainly been reports at the regional level. Apart from the Luis Chanco study (2001) whose recommendations upon which the first national ICT initiatives in developing national ICT policies and plans are based, there have been very few studies on ICT development in Samoa at the macro level. The study documented in this paper is one of very few which focuses solely on ICT developments in Samoa. It is the intention of this study that this would provide recommendations that can inform future research, policy, practices and direction. Within the Pacific region, research and literature on ICT development is relatively sparse. Most of the literature has been evaluation reports by the World Bank, UNDP, AusAid, and ITU focusing mostly on developments within the telecommunications sector. Publications from regional forums such as SPC, Pacific Island Forum Secretariat (PIFS), Pacinet, PICISOC and the Pacific Island Telecommunications Association (PITA) have focused on telecommunications and have mostly been of a technical nature. In Fiji, most of The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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the literature in ICT development has focused on its impact on education (Bakalevu, 2005; Evans & Hazelman, 2006; Sharma, 2009; Raturi, 2010) and tourism (Doorne, 2004; Kumar & Kumar, 2012). ICT development studies similar to the study discussed in this paper are as follows. Stork et al. (2003) report on the findings of an ICT strategy workshop in the Solomons which identified issues in national ICT development, in the buildup process towards the formulation of a national ICT policy. Chand et al. (2005) report on an evaluation of the impact of the ICT on rural development in the Solomon islands with a specific focus on the PeopleFirst Network (PFNet) a rural email network aimed at promoting connectivity and better information sharing. The research examined the main issues affecting community uptake and appropriation of Internet services and reasons for the low uptake in certain groups. Secondly, the study also examined the impact of Internet on people’s lives particularly improvements in wellbeing, sustainable resource management, environmental awareness and conflict resolution. Research by Harris (2007) was based on case studies of internet use by online communities during various political crises in Fiji and emerging community media. Harris makes the argument that despite being on the periphery of the ICT boom, “...it is still possible for island communities to engage with media technology using participatory approaches to develop local content which is closer to their own realities and which reflects local cultures, values and individual aspirations”. Narayan (2009) in a paper titled “Clicking away: Fiji’s ICT industry“, reports on an assessment of the implementation of Fiji’s National ICT policy by relevant agencies with findings indicating the infancy stage of ICT development in Fiji. In a more recent study, Goundar (2012) evaluates the status of e-government in Fiji as benchmarked against United Nations e-government benchmarks. 2. RELEVANT THEORIES Innovation is necessary for development. As Heeks (2013) explains, traditionally, innovation and innovation systems in developing countries have conventionally been associated with large formal organisations, involving export markets and producing goods (rarely services) for higher income consumers with little relevance to the low income majority of the population.” The conceptualisation of ICT development in this paper is based on the principle of “inclusive innovation” as defined by Heeks (2013). According to Heeks et al. (2013) “... inclusive innovation explicitly conceives development in terms of active inclusion of those who are excluded from the mainstream of development. Inclusive innovation refers to the inclusion within some aspect of innovation of groups who are currently marginalised” (Foster and Heeks 2013b:335). Innovation is a means to develop and deliver innovative technologies (goods and services) to serve the needs and interests of those marginalized/excluded through poverty; and which seek to stimulate growth for those on lowest incomes (Kaplinsky, 2011). According to Heeks et al. (2013), these new goods and services are developed for and/or by those who have been excluded from the development mainstream; particularly the billions living on lowest incomes. Hence such new technologies for the base of the pyramid – mobile phones, mobile services, telecentres, etc. – are seen to promote “inclusive innovation”. With its third world status, Samoa as a nation falls within this “marginalized” category in terms of poverty and low socioeconomic status. With a national vision of “ICT for All”, the goals and focus of ICT development in Samoa has been, primarily, to provide innovative technologies to serve the needs of the poor, and to “ensure all sectors of the community and Government have access to high quality, affordable, and safe ICTs to help The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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reduce hardship and poverty and ultimately achieve and sustain a high standard of living” (National ICT Plan 2002). Hence, in this context, inclusive innovation is deemed an appropriate framework for conceptualizing ICT development in Samoa. Various theories abound on what constitutes “inclusive innovation” (Cozzens and Sutz, 2012; Johnson and Anderson, 2012). Heeks et al. (2013) proposes a “ladder of inclusive innovation” a set of steps, with each succeeding step representing a greater notion of inclusivity in relation to innovation. These levels are: i) level 1- inclusion of intention; ii) level 2- inclusion of consumption; iii) level 3 - inclusion of impact; iv) level 4 - inclusion of process; v) level 5 - inclusion of structure; and vi) level 6 -inclusion of post-structure In the area of ICT, the mass diffusion of ICTs represents the single most significant technological change within low income communities in recent years as is demonstrated in some of the cases in this study. There are numerous and increasing opportunities for inclusive innovation within ICT development and in such ICT-enabled goods and services as egovernment, e-health, mobile money. But, equally, the proliferation of ICTs can be the catalytic agent for more crosscutting changes to processes and structures of innovation that could be inclusive; for example by more readily enabling excluded groups to participate in innovation through digital communication or through e-learning. (Heeks et al., 2013). A typical case of this is the effect of mobile phones and mobile networks which has enabled the delivery of services to the underserved such as mobile money, e-charge, cashpower, internet and email. Another relevant theory for conceptualizing development is Schumpeter's (2002) theory of development where ICT is seen as technical innovations that can bring about development as they offer opportunities for new enterprises and enable factors of production to be more efficient. The study also encapsulates Sen’s Capability approach (Sen, 1999) to development where the focus is on the value of ICT opportunities and how users can actually reap benefits from these opportunities. The essence of these theories are well reflected in the goals and themes of the National ICT policies and plans (2002- 2017). For the analysis of ICT projects in this paper, the World Bank InfoDev framework (World Bank, 2005) for assessing ICT projects is used to provide a relevant benchmark from the developmental perspective. The Regional Framework for Action for ICT development in the Pacific (FAIDP, 2007), provide a framework within which the results and findings of the study are presented and discussed. 3. METHODOLOGY Qualitative methods were used in the current study as there was a need to capture in-depth information on developments, issues and challenges in ICT development in Samoa. Research for this paper was through an analysis of the literature and verified by interviews of key personnel in the ICT sector in Samoa. The eight interviewees were selected by an approach of mixed purposive and convenience sampling: selected as those most likely, to provide reflective and insightful responses. Interviewees included government policy makers, implementers and strategists (Ministry of Communications and ICT, Ministry of Finance), managers of leading ICT and telecommunications companies, and the Office of the Regulator. All the interviewees were seen as champions or key people in supporting ICT development or technology related innovations. The main literature sources used in this study were both local and international. International sources included reports from ITU, World Bank, UNDP and ADB. Main local sources were annual reports from the Samoa Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, Broadcasting reports and policies.

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The interviews consisted of the following questions: i) What have been the issues and challenges in the development of ICT in Samoa? ii) For each of these issues and challenges, what strategies have been used to resolve them? iii) Are there any other strategies that you would recommend to resolve these issues and challenges? iv) What recommendations would you like to make with respect to the following: a) potential areas for future research in ICT b) recommendations for future directions in terms of actions/activities c) recommendations in terms of ICT policy and planning frameworks Analysis was in the form of scanning the literature and interview data to identify responses to the following questions: 1. What have been the ICT developments or innovations in Samoa over the last 20 years? 2. What are the issues and challenges in ICT developments or barriers to ICT innovation in Samoa in the 7 key thematic areas stated below as in the Framework for Action (FAIDP, 2010)? I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII.

Leadership, governance, coordination and partnerships; ICT policy, legislation and regulatory frameworks; ICT human capacity building; ICT infrastructure and access; International connectivity; Cyber security and ICT applications and Financing, monitoring and evaluation.

3. What strategies or innovations (past and present) were used to resolve the identified issues and challenges? 4. What are recommendations for the future in terms of future direction, best practices and areas for further research? To evaluate progress, these ICT developments were assessed against the World Bank Infodev framework (2005) for assessing ICT projects and also the Regional framework for action on ICT for development in the Pacific (FAIDP, 2010). FAIDP emerged as a result of the review and update of the original Pacific Plan Digital Strategy put together in 2005 – 2007. FAIDP has 12 guiding principles that provide parameters for the relevance and appropriateness of regional initiatives and the modality of engagement among partners, and between partners and Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) (FAIDP, 2010). The framework also outlines 7 themes for action: i) Leadership, governance, coordination and partnerships; ii) ICT policy, legislation and regulatory frameworks; iii) ICT human capacity building; iv) ICT infrastructure and access; v) International connectivity; vi) Cyber security and ICT applications and vii) Financing, monitoring and evaluation. The choice of the regional framework for action as a framework for discussing issues, challenges and strategies was deemed appropriate as it targeted effective utilization of ICT for sustainable development, governance and improving the livelihood of communities. The framework also aligns well with Heeks' Inclusive innovation theory (2013), Schumpeter’s theory of development (2002) and Sen’s capability approach (1999). The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Issues and challenges and corresponding strategies are discussed under the 7 key themes as set out under the Pacific Framework for Action (FAIDP, 2010). From the discussion of issues and challenges and strategies, recommendations emerge for best practice and for potential areas for further research. Within the region, Samoa has been the front runner in deregulation, removing monopolies and liberalisation of telecom markets as is evident in the liberalized telecommunication environment (ITU 2011). In recent years, developments such as the establishment of a regulatory infrastructure, policy framework and mobile technology, have been notable and an indication of Samoa’s progressiveness (ITU, 2011; World Bank, 2011). Most of these developments and innovations were established as strategies to issues and challenges and the next part of this paper discusses these strategies from an “issues and challenges” perspective. Issues and challenges identified in this study are the same as those identified by Heeks et al. (2013) as those posing barriers against achieving inclusive innovation and development. 4.1 Issues, Challenges & Strategies Issues and challenges in ICT in Samoa are discussed under the two broad areas of i) broadcasting and ii) telecommunication, computer and communication technologies; the two main areas of technology in the early years which then merged in terms of control into one Information and Communications Technology (ICT) sector. 4.1.1 Leadership, Governance, Coordination and Partnerships 4.1.1.1 Leadership FAIDP (2010) states that "... strong leadership with appropriate governance mechanisms are needed to ensure that the benefits of ICT are fully realised and contribute to the livelihood of the people...” The idea of a champion is also appropriate here. As defined in Kamal (2010) a champion is “any individual who made a decisive contribution to the innovation by actively and enthusiastically promoting its progress through critical stages in order to obtain resources and/or active support from top management”. Further, research by Diaz-Andrade and Urquhart (2009) illustrated the importance of leadership and dedication of community leaders for a project to succeed. 4.1.1.1.1 Lack of Leadership Interview responses indicated that leadership in ICT projects is an issue. Although only a few champions have been identified at the national level to drive the National ICT agenda, the most prominent being the Prime Minister, there needs to be a more concerted effort from other echelons of government, particularly the relevant ministries, to provide wider leadership support for furthering national ICT developments (O. Tanuvasa Savea, personal communication 24th May 2013). The MCIT Report 2008-2011 lists as a risk the lack of support from the executive arm of government particularly in the domain of policy advice from the ministry. However as pointed out by ITU(2011) the success of ICT development in Samoa is due largely to the political will of the government, which enabled the deregulation and liberalisation of the telecommunications market. 4.1.1.2 Coordination One of the main issues in ICT development in Samoa has been the lack of effective coordination of National ICT initiatives and projects (Chan Mow et al., 2007; D. de Freitas, The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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personal communication May 24th 2013). FAIDP (2010) states that ”.. better coordination of ICT interventions is needed to ensure that efforts are not duplicated and that limited resources are wisely utilised“. Most ICT developments in Samoa are sunset projects making them unsustainable as evident in the growing number of disaggregated ICT projects in government, preventing sharing and cooperation. Illustration of typical issues in sunset projects is evident in the Pilot SchoolNet project (Chan Mow 2008). Firstly, provision of IT equipment itself will not provide the solution to improving access to ICT in education and the wider community. A holistic and integrated approach needs to be adopted and needs to take into account infrastructure development, systems and procedures, capacity building in general (Strigel et al., 2007). Secondly, there is the issue of sustainability and the need for a long term sustainable and integrated approach from the Government and the donors. Short term, ad hoc projects from donors working in isolation have little chance of success. Government, whilst showing a fair level of commitment to SchoolNet, needed to expand this commitment, in areas such as provision of human and budgetary resources, and fostering partnerships with the communities (Strigel et al., 2007). Another issue is that of a design-reality gap (Heeks, 2013) in projects or innovations with mismatch between design and the context in which it is to be implemented or applied. An example of this is the first e-government project (Boase, 2009) where one of the key aims was the establishment of portals for all government agencies enabling communication flows between government agencies and also between government and citizens. Another example of design-reality gap is the initial Government wide area network (GWAN) project. The GWAN was setup to ensure transfer and flow of data between government departments and seen as an early attempt at e-government. However infrastructure design did not match the reality of existing connectivity in Samoa resulting in a plethora of problems in the early days of the GWAN implementation (I. Aloaina, personal communication 20th May 2013). Useful strategies for improving coordination will be discussed in later sections and include monitoring and evaluation frameworks, national policies and plans (O.Tanuvasa Savea personal communication May 24th 2013).

4.1.1.3 Monitoring and Evaluation A challenge and possible cause of failed projects is the lack of monitoring and evaluation (D.deFreitas, personal communication 24th May 2013; ITU, 2011). The need for monitoring and evaluation of ICT projects is standard good practice and is recommended for all initiatives to ensure project goals are achieved as well as provide research based evidence on how the pilot could “contribute to development priorities and how it might be taken to scale from a forward looking perspective” (World Bank, 2005). Further, outputs of assessment from monitoring and evaluation need to be widely disseminated so lessons can be learnt, bridge knowledge gaps and provide areas for further donor support. To date, the only project with robust monitoring and evaluation component is the World Bank Telecommunications Sector Reform project (World Bank, 2011) which saw amongst other developments, the establishment of ICT policy framework and the liberalization of the ICT sector. 4.1.1.4 Partnerships Collaboration and partnerships are vital factors in ICT development as evidenced by its presence as a critical factor in both Heeks’ inclusive innovation theory and FAIDP. According to Boer et al. (2013) organizing and promoting productive and creative cooperation between organizations and between people is critical for inclusive innovation projects. As stated in FAIDP, pooling of resources and expertise enhance the ‘many partners, one team’ approach (FAIDP, 2010). In Samoa, although there are cases of collaboration and The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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cooperation amongst stakeholders in ICT development, there is a need for more instances of this. Partnerships in ICT investments are necessary due to limited resources. Collaboration at the national level include partnership between Digicel, CSL and government in the recently established Samoa National Broadband Highway (SNBH) (SNBH policy, 2012). Regional partnerships include shared investments in submarine cable technology, regional trials of the One Laptop Per Child project (OLPC) facilitated by the South Pacific Commission (SPC), and Pacific Regional Regulatory Resource Centre (PiRRC) providing technical support to Regulators on telecommunications reforms and regulation issues (D. deFreitas, personal communication, May 24th 2013). Solutions for regulation and infrastructure, and regional collaboration in future ICT developments are recommended as a feasible way forward (Pacific Economic Survey 2008).

4.1.2 ICT Policy, Legislation and Regulatory Frameworks To harness information for development and ensure ICT is used effectively, it is important to have supportive and enabling policies, laws and regulations in place. The need for policy framework was identified in the early years of ICT development in Samoa. A strong and effective ICT policy and regulatory framework is necessary to create an enabling environment that promotes fair competition and is also necessary for promoting inclusive innovation (Heeks et al., 2013). Secondly, an appropriate legislative framework is essential to ensure secure reliable networks and infrastructure (FAIDP, 2010). The following sections outline issues followed by past and present strategies in both broadcasting and computer and communication networks for developing ICT policy, legislation and regulatory frameworks. 4.1.2.1 The Need for a Regulatory Framework in Broadcasting In the area of broadcasting the need for a legal or policy framework to address the issue of regulation, in terms of its impact on broadcasting content quality was identified during the review for the establishment of the National Broadcasting Act (2003). The lack of advertising and content codes of practice was also identified along with the need to review outdated legislation. Closely related was the need for licensing criteria or policy that controls or limits broadcasting licenses according to categories, e.g. public, commercial, subscription and community. 4.1.2.2 The Need for Broadcasting Standards There was also a need to establish technical standards and to identify which sections or bodies were responsible for implementation and monitoring of technical standards. While the national bandwidth spectrum was monitored by the Spectrum Management Unit of MCIT under a separate Act (National Communications Policy 2005), the National Broadcasting Policy of 2005 referred all technical matters to the MCIT division/unit responsible. Most of the early issues within the broadcasting sector as identified in the MCIT Reports (MCIT, 2005-2006) were accommodated for in the National Broadcasting Policy 2003 and the revised National Broadcasting Policy 2005. These strategies appear in the next few sections. 4.1.2.3 Establishment of Regulatory framework and Codes of Practice for Broadcasting In 2005 the Broadcasting policy was revised to address the issues identified at the time. The 2005 policy led to the establishment of a regulatory framework for the effective management of broadcasting services (MCIT Report 2005-2006). This framework included such functions as the i) establishment of pricing mechanisms for broadcasting licenses and fees; ii) legislation for the management of the broadcasting content presentation; iii) development of The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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capacity for professional assessment of complaints both from the public and the broadcasting service providers; iv) support where appropriate international broadcasting guidelines such as those by Commonwealth Broadcasting Association (CBA); and v) conduct monitoring and evaluation of the policy. 4.1.2.4 Development of Broadcasting Standards Codes of practice were established for the areas of content, advertising and the spectrum for Samoa. A unit was established within MCIT to handle complaints in these areas. The 2005 policy also differentiated broadcasting between commercial and non-commercial activities (MCIT Report 2005-2006). All broadcasters were expected to adhere to the various Codes of Practice such as i) the Radio Code ii) Free-to-air TV Code and iii) Pay TV Code. While the policy stipulated that commercial broadcasters adhere to the Advertising Codes of practice, the non-commercial broadcasters were expected to respect the sponsorship functions in their broadcasting services (National Broadcasting Policy 2005). Codes of practice were also established for standards of service provision. The main rationale of having codes in place is for broadcasters to use as guidelines, with specific standards to achieve in service provision that were appropriate for Samoan context. The broadcasters were responsible for dealing with initial complaints as to any breach of codes while the National Unit would deal with any unresolved complaints. In the area of computer and communications technology, opening the telecommunications sector to competition and new technologies also presented new challenges in terms of resolving regulatory issues pertaining to interconnection, quality of service, pricing policy, broadband strategy, and litigation of disputes. To offset these issues a range of strategies have emerged over the years. 4.1.2.5 National ICT Committee and National ICT Plan In 2002 the Samoa National ICT committee was formed comprising of key ministry and industry officials (ADB 2011). The key role of this committee was to spearhead the development of National ICT policies and oversee their implementation, and in 2003 the National ICT policy was launched after extensive stakeholder consultations (T. AhSam, personal communication 20th May 2013). The National ICT plan 2004-2009 vision was to “harness ICT as an enabler of social and economic development for Samoa”. Its mission was to “provide all sectors with high quality, affordable, safe, secure and appropriate ICT services to ultimately sustain a high standard of living in Samoa, and thereby helping to reduce hardship and poverty”. Key areas addressed in this plan included i) access to ICT, ii) confidence and security in the use of ICT, iii) capacity building to use ICT as a tool for development, and iv) gender equity(ADB 2011). In 2009, the National ICT Plan 2004-2009 was reviewed (A. Saaga, personal communication 24th May 2013; O.Tanuvasa Savea, personal communication 24th May 2013). This was later revised to become the National ICT Plan 2012-2017. 4.1.2.6 Separation of Policy and Service provision In 1999, the Post and Telecom Services Act led to a separation of the policy and administrative arm- Ministry of Post and Telecommunications (MPT) from the service provider- Samoa Communications Ltd (SCL). A major development in 2002 was the launch of the Samoa- Telecommunications and Postal Sector Reform project funded by the World Bank (T. AhSam, personal communication, 20th May, 2013; World Bank 2011). The project aimed at providing assistance to Samoa for improving the performance of its telecommunications and postal sector, focused on: (a) introducing competition and private participation in telecommunications and postal sectors; (b) advancing regulatory reform, and The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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developing sector institutional capacity; and (c) extending access to basic communications, postal services and information technologies (World Bank, 2011). The project which is the cornerstone for most of the subsequent reforms and developments in telecommunications and the postal sector was extended several times until February 2011. 4.1.2.7 Merge of Control of all ICT sectors under MCIT In 2003 there were further changes to the ministry with the Ministry of Post and Telecommunication (MPT) changing its name to the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (MCIT). In 2005, the ICT Secretariat was established within the Ministry of Communications now completing the merge of the control and regulation of all ICT sectors under one ministry, with telecommunications, postal, broadcasting, and the government newspaper media coming under MCIT. 4.1.2.8 Establishment of ICT Regulatory and Legal Framework A National Communication Sector Policy was established in 2003 and revised in 2005. In July 2005 a new Telecommunications Act came into force, which became the cornerstone legislation in resolving issues in competition, universal access, licensing and monitoring the telecommunications environment (MCIT Report 2005-2006). The Act created a new regulatory and legal framework for the telecommunications sector. Under the World Bank Sector Reform Project, a new set of regulations were introduced to supplement the new Telecommunications Act 2005 and equip the proposed independent Regulator with tools to enforce the implementation of objectives in the National Communications Sector Policy (World Bank, 2011). The Communications Sector Policy is currently being reviewed by HPConsult and is to be launched shortly (R. Aiolupotea, personal communication, 25th May, 2013; H. Petana, personal communication, 24th May, 2013) 4.1.2.9 Separation of policy and regulation: Establishment of the Office of the Regulator In July 2006 the Office of the Regulator was established, effectively separating the regulatory and policy roles of the ministry (MCIT) followed shortly in August with the separation of the Licensing, Monitoring and Spectrum Management Division from the Ministry to become part of the Office of the Regulator. The Ministry (MCIT) was then left with the role of developing and advising the government on policy issues and the review of existing ICT related policies and Acts (MCIT Report 2007). 4.1.2.10 Spectrum management One emerging challenge was spectrum management, the administration of certain rights to a spectrum of radio channels and frequencies. The former Post Office Department had carried out this function until its de-establishment in July 1999 (MCIT Report, 2001). This role was continued by MPT and subsequently MCIT (Spectrum management division) but it was clear that the ministry lacked the resources for maintaining such an important role, particularly in the light of increasing demand for broadband, Internet and radio based technologies. Not only was the frequency spectrum an important source of revenue but one that needed careful distribution to ensure it served the public well (MCIT Report 2000; MCIT Report 2001).With the establishment of the Office of the Regulator the Licensing and Monitoring Division and the Spectrum Management Unit of MCIT were shifted to become one of its key functions ensuring more effective management. 4.1.2.11 Liberalisation of the Telecommunications Market One of the urgent requirements demanded of the Regulator was satisfying the Competition Policy guidelines as specified by the Telecommunications Act through the establishment of The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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an open and transparent regulatory framework that minimizes regulatory and other barriers to entry into telecommunications market. Up to this time, the State owned telecom SamoaTel had a monopoly on all international traffic for fixed line voice and Internet and had exclusivity in the International Gateway. To accommodate for competition in international communications services and to deregulate the international gateway, the Competition in the International Telecommunications Services Markets policy 2008 was established (MCIT, 2008-2011). In the broadcasting sector the provision of the Broadcasting Bill and Act of 2008 provided a new legal framework for the sector. In 2012 the Broadband Policy was established to address any issues in the deployment of broadband technology which was now becoming increasingly pervasive and important (MCIT, 2012). 4.1.2.12 Conflict Resolution Resolution of conflicts between providers emphasized the need for an effective regulatory and policy framework to facilitate settlement of disputes. SamoaTel’s market position was severely affected by the entrant of Digicel which became the dominant provider in the mobile market (D. deFreitas, personal communication 24th May 2013; World Bank 2011). A series of disputes under litigation between the two competitors presented a challenge to the Office of the Regulator and its limited resources. In summary, Samoa has made remarkable progress in developing policies, regulations and legislations. However the challenge now is to continually revise and update these policy and regulatory frameworks to keep up with the changes in the technology (D. deFreitas, personal communication 20th May 2013; Universal Access Policy, 2010; FAIDP, 2010). Further there is a need to monitor the implementation of these policies, regulations and legislations. 4.1.3 ICT Human Capacity Building The development and retention of a skilled ICT workforce is crucial for sustainable ICT development. The importance of capacity building cannot be overly emphasized and has been identified as a constant challenge in developing ICT over the years (Boase, 2009; Potoi, 2003). There are chronic shortages in ICT personnel particularly in the hardware and network domains. Further, there is a need to develop skills in niche areas such as graphic design and publishing. For Samoa to attract foreign investment such as call centres, there is a need develop a skilled and computer literate workforce. Shortage in skilled ICT personnel is exacerbated further by attrition of skilled personnel overseas. 4.1.3.1 Computer Education and Training In the area of computer education, the National University of Samoa, USP and Samoa Polytechnic started offering computer training programs in the early 1990s. In the education sector, a major development was the development of the National Computer Studies Curriculum for Year 12 and 13 in 2004 (Chan Mow, 2008). A few colleges and schools had taught Computer Studies for several years prior to this thus establishing the need for a national curriculum. The National University of Samoa (NUS) currently offer Certificate, Diploma and degree programs in Computing and also technical and networking programs as part of the NUS CISCO academy. A second CISCO academy is run by USP Alafua. Short term computer training programs are also offered by several private training providers (Chan Mow, 2008).

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4.1.3.2 Fesootai Centres and SchoolNet In 2006, the Fesootai Centres were implemented as part of the Rural Connectivity Project. The Fesootai Centres are community tele-centres which are run by women’s committees in the villages and allow communication with friends and relatives overseas through fax, email and internet (refer Figure 1). The Samoa SchoolNet and Community Access Pilot (“SchoolNet”) project aimed at piloting an appropriate model for introducing ICT in schools and also sought to extend this exposure to ICT to school communities to improve their knowledge and capacity to become productive members of the local communities. The pilot project was implemented from March 2005 until December 2006 (Strigel et al., 2007).The goals of SchoolNet were to (i) improve quality and efficiency of education; (ii) enable access to global information; (iii) enable increased sharing of information between schools and with communities; and (iv) achieve the Government’s Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for education (SchoolNet Final Report, 2007). Currently there are plans for extending and scaling up the project to include 41 school centres under the ADB funded ESP II project. The concern however is the need to perfect and adjust the pilot model taking into account lessons learnt from evaluations such as one conducted by the IRETA STEP-AP study on the SchoolNet project (Strigel, Chan Mow & Vaa, 2007). It needs to be pointed out that both SchoolNet and Fesootai centres are examples of inclusive innovation.

Figure 1 Fesootai Centre in Auala, Savaii. (Source: MCIT Report, 2006) To date, the Fesootai centres have not been as successful as expected and has received mixed reviews (T. AhSam, personal communication, 20th May, 2013; A. Saaga, personal communication, May 24th, 2013). Most of the centres have struggled with operational issues but there are plans for their resurrection and expansion as set out in the National ICT plan 2012-2017. The main issues identified have been the lack of accessibility and maintenance costs. 4.1.3.3 Establishment of Professional Society SITS Another significant development in 2003 was the formation of the Samoa IT Society (SITS) an association of IT professionals with the goals of i) developing the practice of the profession of information processing and related disciplines in Samoa, ii) fostering the training, education and qualification of persons practicing or intending to practice the profession in Samoa, iii) promoting proper conduct within its membership and to set ethical standards for the profession, iv) developing or providing lectures, meetings, conferences and to promote research in information processing and computer technology and any other related activities that are in the interests of the Society. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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4.1.4 ICT Infrastructure and Access Access to technology has always been a problem in Samoa, not only due to the cost of the technology beyond the reach of most Samoan citizens (Samoa GDP is per capita of $3,791(est. 2010)) but also because of the remoteness of Samoa from the footprints of major satellite providers. The cost of developing, operating and maintaining technology is difficult on limited government budgets (Boase 2009). Telephony rates have been quite high until very recently and the cost of hardware and infrastructure has been quite prohibitive. The infrastructure has been quite poor until recent times with most of last mile connections being old copper cabling. The lack of clean electricity has also been a major problem in the maintenance and longevity of ICT equipment. In the area of postal services the collection and delivery of postal items is limited, with mail delivered to postal boxes located in Post offices (World Bank 2011). The importance of infrastructure and access is reflected by its inclusion as a major goal in all the National ICT Strategic plans. 4.1.4.1 Limited Coverage Coverage was limited and reception was very restricted in the outer islands. In the 1960s, the single radio station at Afiamalu provided adequate coverage for only 55% of the population. (Broadcasting Development Coverage Report, 1976). Quality of coverage was then the most critical issue in the early days. Effective coverage was an important priority as broadcasting was the media for ongoing village development programmes, and for social, educational and civil defence notices and events. 4.1.4.2 Improved Coverage In 1978 a proposal for a multi-station approach for providing the maximum coverage for the 2 main islands was put in place with stations at Faleula, Asau, Taga, Tafatafa and Mulivai. In 1988 the Broadcasting ordinance of 1959 was amended to provide for private broadcasting stations. In 1994 the Televise Samoa Corporation was established as the government owned television station offering television programs to the public. Other privately owned television companies emerged in 2005 - 2006 such as TV3, LauTV, Vaiala Beach TV (VBTV) and a relay of Chinese CCTV. 4.1.4.3 Improved Access & Improved Infrastructure In the early 1960s, the establishment of telephone networks allowed for improved communication internally and also internationally as prior to this, the telegram was the main form of communication with the outside world. The government owned Post Office was then the sole provider of mail, telephone and telegram services. In 1972, the 1972 Post Office Act enabled the expansion of post office services with the offering of telex services for business.1999 saw the establishment of a government wide area network (GWAN) connecting the majority of government departments and centers to the Treasury department. Major gains in ICT usage occurred after 1996 in most government departments as they established networks and systems. These included the Treasury, Public Service, Health, Lands, Surveys and Environment, Public Works, Customs, Inland Revenue, Education, the National University of Samoa, Foreign Affairs, Agriculture, Prime Minister’s Office, Statistics, and Trade, Commerce and Industry (I. Aloaina, personal communication 20th May 2013).Of note was the Finance system (FMIS) which linked all government ministries to the Finance ministry for finance transactions (Aloaina, 2013; ITU, 2011) and the Customs department ASYCUDA system for processing Customs transactions.

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4.1.4.4 Improved Access through Mobile Services Major gains in mobile infrastructure occurred in 2006 with the launch of the two mobile services Digicel and Bluesky-SamoaTel. This mass diffusion of mobile phones is an example of inclusive innovation as this has dramatically improved access to information for all. 4.1.4.5 Universal Access Policy To ensure provision of telecommunication services to all and targeting specifically currently underserved areas, the Universal Access Policy was developed from 2009-2011 with the expectation of being provisioned by a Universal Access Fund. 4.1.4.6 Submarine Cable In 2007, negotiations were initiated for a submarine cable for communications (MCIT Report, 2006-2007). It was perceived that larger communications capacity of submarine cable would provide enhanced opportunities for such initiatives as e-government, e-tourism and ecommerce and seen as a precursor to encouraging foreign investment. In 2009 Samoa launched the ASH submarine cable. To date, the government of Samoa is currently negotiating for a second submarine cable to bring down the cost of broadband access (R. Aiolupotea, personal communication, 25th May, 2013). 4.1.4.7 Samoa National Broadband Highway (SNBH) In 2013, the Samoa National Broadband Highway (SNBH) was launched with the aim of connecting all government ministries, corporations, schools and hospitals via a wireless broadband network. The SNBH will provide the underlying infrastructure for all egovernment initiatives under the second e-government project (R. Aiolupotea, personal communication, May 25th 2013; T.AhSam, personal communication, May 20th 2013; O.Tanuvasa-Savea, personal communication, May 24th, 2013). 4.1.5 International Connectivity 4.1.5.1 High Cost of Connectivity The high costs of international connectivity is a major issue in Samoa with the heavy reliance on satellite connectivity in the early years of ICT development (T. AhSam, personal communication, May 20th 2013; ITU, 2012). The most prohibitive is the cost of Internet access which currently is still beyond the reach of most ordinary citizens and with Internet penetration in Samoa still under 10%. Internet access has been constrained by bandwidth limitations with sluggish dialup connections (Boase 2009). This has been alleviated to some extent by recent fibre optic upgrade to the infrastructure coupled with investment in broadband technologies. Currently international connectivity is via satellite and submarine cable. Although mobile penetration is high (95%) broadband penetration is quite low (ITU, 2011; ITU, 2012). 4.1.5.2 Strategies Strategies to resolve the cost of internet connectivity include the liberalization of the telcom industry to open up the market for competition, the deregulation of the International Gateway to allow for competition in International traffic, and the establishment of a second submarine cable to remove monopolistic pricing of international connectivity.

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4.1.6 Cyber security and ICT Applications 4.1.6.1 Cybersecurity As institutions integrate ICT and increasingly use ICT, the issue of security becomes increasingly important. As businesses, individuals and organizations in Samoa becomes increasingly reliant on ICT there is a need for secure and reliable infrastructure and assurance that private and sensitive information is protected online (R. Aiolupotea, personal communication, May 25th 2013; T. AhSam, personal communications, May 20th, 2013; O. Tanuvasa Savea, personal communication, May 24th, 2013). 4.1.6.1.1 Contingency Plans for Y2K Perhaps the first attempt at the level of institutions to increase awareness of information and computer security was in 2000 with the Y2K problem (Chan Mow, 2012). The Treasury department at the time conducted several seminars on risk management and institutions were encouraged to develop security policies and disaster recovery plans and procedures. Over the years there has been increasing awareness and developments in this area with institutions taking a planned approach to reducing security risks (Chan Mow 2012). Security audits were also added to the functions of the Audit department (T. AhSam, personal communication May 20th 2013; A. Saaga, personal communication, May 24th 2013). 4.1.6.1.2 Development of Policies and Legislation In the area of policy, the Internet and Email Use Policy, and the Internet Spam Policy first developed in 2008 have recently been updated with the Internet and Spam Policy 2011 and in 2011 a regional workshop developed a regional ICT Security Policy for Pacific island states (T.AhSam, personal communication May 20th 2013; MCIT Report 2008-2011). In May 2013, a Cyber Crimes act was passed making cybercrime punishable by law (T. AhSam, personal communication May 20th 2013). 4.1.6.2 ICT Applications With the increasing pervasiveness of ICT in Samoa, it is essential that technology be used to improve efficiency and productivity in the provision of services in the various sectors such as e-government, e-health and e-agriculture. Strategies promoting expansion of ICT applications in Samoa is illustrated in the following examples. 4.1.6.2.1 Expansion of Broadcasting Services In 2003 the Samoa Broadcasting Corporation (SBC) was established effectively merging the former Broadcasting Department, and the government owned television station Televise Samoa Corporation. This entity became known as the National/State Broadcaster of radio and television programmes. The National radio 2AP is now under MCIT control and plans for expansion of services include disaster awareness and emergency response, diversification of programs and the establishment of a new station at Nuu (MCIT Corporate Plan, 2011-2014). Currently there are 7 TV stations and radio stations providing services in the country. There are also 2 cable TV services, Bluesky-owned Moana TV and Pacific Cable Television. 4.1.6.2.2 Promotion of Local Content In broadcasting, an important area was the need to promote local content as this was deemed necessary for the promotion of social, cultural and religious values in the Samoan society (Broadcasting Policy 2005). At the same time the control of foreign broadcasting material used in the local broadcasts was also quite crucial. The need for initiatives for local programming production were also identified and the need to improve the quality of content presentation. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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4.1.6.2.3 Expansion of ICT Services Computer technology first emerged in Samoa in the 1970s and the main computer company Computer Services Limited (CSL) was established in 1977. Lesa Telecom Services, another prominent telecommunications company established itself in 1989. Within the business sector, several private companies and banks integrated computerized systems and networks as part of their business operations in the late 1980s with usage increasing over time to include the travel and hotel industry. A landmark development was the introduction of the first mobile network by a local company Telecom Samoa Cellular Limited (TSCL) through a joint venture agreement between the Government of Samoa and Telecom New Zealand Ltd. TSCL was given a license granting exclusive rights to offer mobile services for a ten-year period in Samoa starting from February 1997. In 1998 Computer Services Limited (CSL) launched its Internet Service provider Samoa.net using dialup lines initially and then progressing later to wireless technology. Later in the same year Lesa Telecommunication Services also launched its Internet Service Provider LeSamoa.net. In 2000, a third Internet Service Provider IPasifika.net started operations. 4.1.6.2.4 E-government Initiatives E-government provides avenues for improved service delivery by government to its stakeholders. In Samoa, there have been two e-government initiatives. The first e-government project funded by UNDP consisted of an e-readiness study, the establishment of the Fesootai centres, the installation of an MDG scoreboard, and the establishment of a government portal hosting all government agency websites. This first e-government project encountered many setbacks and did not achieve all its targets (Boase, 2009; A. Saaga, personal communication, May 24th , 2013). The second e-government project is still in its early stages and the establishment of the Samoa national broadband highway will provide the underlying infrastructure for its implementation (T.AhSam, personal communication May20th, 2013; A. Saaga, personal communication May 24th , 2013; O. Tanuvasa-Savea, personal communication 24th May, 2013). 4.1.6.2.5 Expansion of Mobile Services In 2006 Digicel and SamoaTel mobile networks were established with the issuance of GSM licenses to Digicel in April and SamoaTel in June. The impact of competition between these 2 mobile providers has been dramatic leading to a four-fold increase in mobile subscribers from 22,000 in 2006 to 80,000 by the end of 2007 (Pacific Economic Survey 2008). The prices of telephony also fell with the competition, with the cost of a 3 minute mobile phone call to the US dropping from WST$4 in 2006 to WST$ 1.79 in 2007 to currently $1.05. In December, 2011 Bluesky-SamoaTel launched its enhanced 3G mobile technology to be followed in 6 months by Digicel. These enhanced networks provided better flexibility and range of mobile services. Benefits of the high speeds afforded by the enhanced 3G network include improved downloading of applications, Facebook status updates, streaming video, creating and sharing mobile content, and improved videoconferencing and gaming experiences. The emergence of Bluesky-SamoaTel as a serious competitor has led to ongoing and vigorous competition in mobile services with Digicel which up till now has dominated the mobile market.

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4.1.6.2.6 Mobile Revolution Deregulation and reform have been the main forces driving the dramatic increase in mobile usage and what can be termed as the mobile revolution (Cave, 2012).

Figure 2. Mobile subscriptions (per 100 people) for selected Pacific Island countries (Source: Cave Report Digital Islands, 2012) Vigorous competition in the telecommunications market has resulted in falling price of telephony (Boase 2009). Competition in mobile phones and Internet services have accelerated ICT development and benefited the consumer. As the mobile phone networks upgrade to 3G technologies, the spread of mobile Internet has enabled Samoa to leap computer-enabled Internet connections (Cave 2012) as web-enabled mobile phones are readily available. There is also increasing consumer awareness of potential ICT products and services and also the popularity of social networking sites such as Facebook, YouTube and Bebo, particularly amongst the younger generation. According to the Cave report (2012), Samoa has one of the fastest growing rates of growth in Facebook users. The benefits of social networks are numerous in terms of connectedness amongst family members and friends.

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Figure3 Launch of BlueskySamoTel e-charge (Source: http://www.blueskysamoa.ws/) With over 95% mobile penetration, Samoa could leverage the numerous opportunities afforded by both the pervasiveness and affordability of mobile services and its numerous applications. For example, ITU (2011) and Cave (2012) suggest the use of mobile applications for testing water quality, early disaster warnings, weather updates, communication between patients and medical practitioners, dissemination of agricultural advice. However at the same time, the derogatory influence of mobile phones on social mores and moral fibre of society has been a point of concern with issues of broken relationships, and pornography associated with mobile use. Another point for concern is the displacement of money once allocated for food and essentials for the purchase of mobile phone credit. Such negative impacts of mobile technology on social mores need to be taken into consideration in terms of future development. The mobile revolution has also enabled the growth of the mobile money market where mobile companies and banking institutions offer mobile money financial services such as money transfer nationwide, bill payments, mobile phone banking and mobile top ups for cashpower. According to Digicel, this has resulted in reduction in the costs of inter-country remittances (Cave 2012). 4.1.6.2.7 Expansion of Other Services In 2012, CSL launched its e-rate program providing internet access to primary schools funded by a company trust fund. The project’s portal cslerate.ws is the first website with content fully in Samoan and aims to provide safe Internet access for educational purposes (O. Tanuvasa Savea, personal communication May 24th 2013). Another important development in 2012 was the launch of the FAO developed software, Solutions for Open Land Administration (SOLA) to make computerised cadastre mapping and registration systems more affordable and sustainable for developing countries. The emergence of broadband technologies and submarine cable has increased capacity/bandwidth thus enabling potential for ICT investment (MCIT Corporate Plan 20082011). However, utilization of the technology has not kept up with the rapid developments in recent years (Boase, 2009) and one of the challenges is to build the capacity so that the full benefits and opportunities provided by ICT can be leveraged.

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4.1.7 Financing, Monitoring and Evaluation ICT is costly not only in initial capital costs but also in subsequent maintenance, hence the need for a coordinated approach to financing ICT developments to ensure sustainable investments. Furthermore as mentioned earlier, the need for robust monitoring and evaluation framework to assess progress of developments against a set of milestones and deliverables is essential to ensure successful implementation. To ensure adequate financing of ICT investments, the project needs to be budgeted for its Total cost of ownership (TCO) to allow for not just initial capital costs but also for training, subsequent maintenance and replacement (Chan Mow, 2008).

Figure 4: Olomanu, Taga Radio Inspection Site (Source: MCIT Report 2006) The dynamic nature and brisk changes to technology has led to rapid obsolescence of technology thus worsening the problem of sustainability of ICT investments. In the area of expertise, the lack of expertise in certain crucial areas such as technical support, systems design and maintenance have also contributed to the challenges. 4.2 Current Status Samoa has made progressive gains in the last 20 years in the area of ICT, particularly in areas of policy and regulatory infrastructure. Telecommunications statistics for the years 2000 to 2008 appear in Table 1.

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Table 1. Telecommunication Statistics for Samoa 2000 – 2008 2

2

2

Indicators Total number of customers (fixed and mobile) No of Internet subscribers No of telecom customers in rural areas

2000 10,600

2001 11,500

2002 12,500

2003 15,000

2004 20,000

2005 26,000

2006 35,000

2007 40,000

2008 46,000

1,800

2,000

3,000

3,500

4,500

5,500

7,000

8,500

10,000

1,450

1,500

1,500

1,800

2,400

3,200

4,200

5,000

6,000

No of post office mail boxes per 100 inhabitants

4.05

nna

nna

5.53

5.58

7.06

8.24

9.41

10.59

(Source: World Bank report 2011 Implementation and Completion Results report (IDA-37240) on Samoa Telecommunications and Postal Sector Reform Project Report No: ICR00001793.) The current status of ICT in terms of statistics is as follows. There are currently 35,300 Land lines (2010) and 167,400 mobile users (2010). There are 4 privately owned television broadcast stations, one state owned and 6 privately owned radio stations (2 AM and 5 FM). There are about 9000 internet users (IntelStats, 2011) or 4.7% population penetration, and one satellite earth station (IntelSat). In terms of e-readiness Samoa was ranked 91 in 2005 and dropped to 151 in 2008 (UN e-government survey 2008). 5. FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS From evaluation of the literature and numerous ICT reports and from interview responses of key personnel in the field of ICT, the following recommendations are made: Recommendations for best practice are as follows: 1. Strong leadership with appropriate governance mechanisms are needed to ensure that the benefits of ICT are fully realised and contribute to the livelihood of the people. 2. An integrated approach to ICT development. The lack of success of some of the ICT projects point to the need for an integrated approach to ICT development. Projects implemented in isolation stand little chance of success as there is no ground swell of support from other projects to maintain momentum in their implementation. 3. Progress in the establishment of national ICT frameworks, policies and plans in Samoa has been quite impressive. However the real challenge now in terms of regulatory frameworks and policies is the implementation of these policies and policing to ensure compliance. Ensuring compliance with policies and regulations need to be encouraged and monitored. Secondly the need for regular updates of policies and regulations to keep abreast with the changes in the technology environment (ITU, 2012; D. deFreitas, personal communication May 24th 2013)). The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries www.ejisdc.org

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4. There is a need for monitoring and evaluation to assess the impact of all ICT development projects during and post implementation. In the past, most donor projects received insufficient scrutiny in terms of monitoring and evaluation of the progress during the project and also the post evaluation against measurable outcomes and indicators (FAIDP, 2010; D. deFreitas, personal communication May 24th 2013). 5. For sustainability of ICT projects it is recommended that investments be budgeted for total cost of ownership (TCO). This includes development, operation and maintenance and not merely the initial capital costs (I. Aloaina, personal communication May 22nd 2013). 6. Partnerships and collaboration at national and regional level in ICT projects and investments is recommended to facilitate sharing of resources and expertise. 7. Access to ICT continues to be an issue due to cost of access. Universal access is a goal to strive for and a positive step was the establishment of the Universal Access policy in 2010. Strategies for achieving universal access need further investigation (T. AhSam, personal communication May 24th 2013). 8. There is a need to promote local digital content (ITU, 2012) as this would improve access and stimulate local applications of technology. The lack of local content on websites, TV and radio programs prompts the need for capacity building in designing and active encouragement of development of local content. Websites, TV and radio programs with content written in the Samoan language will increase the number of citizens who can read and access information (O. Tanuvasa Savea, personal communication May 24th 2013). 9. The need to provide capacity building in ICT skills and knowledge is indicated in all ICT reports on Samoa and should be a priority in order to fully leverage opportunities afforded by the technology (A. Saaga, personal communication 24th May 2013). 10. The use of sustainable technology should be promoted and advanced. The use of existing technologies such as CDROMs, radio and DVDS needs to be encouraged as these are maintainable and affordable. 11. The potential use of mobile applications for testing water quality, early disaster warnings, weather updates, communication between patients and medical practitioners, dissemination of agricultural advice, need to be invested in. Potential areas recommended for future research are as follows: 1. Research on the effects of social networks is recommended as there is increasing awareness and use of social networking media particularly amongst the younger generation group of Samoa. The benefits of social networks are numerous in terms of connectedness amongst family members and friends, but there are also risks such as identity theft, lack of privacy, exposure to undesirable contacts etc. 2. The social implications of changes brought about by ICTs need careful investigation. 3. Research, on innovative technologies, best and sustainable practices in ICT, is recommended as ongoing to ensure optimal development in the right direction.

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4. Research on environmentally friendly practices and the safe disposal of ewaste is recommended particularly in the context of small islands with small land mass such as Samoa. 5. Security of data, computer networks is crucial for secure and reliable access. Ongoing research to keep up to date with the latest best practices in risk management is an imperative. 6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY There has been very little research in ICT development in Samoa and to date the current study is the only qualitative macro-level analyses of the development of ICT development in Samoa. The data in this study provides researchers, policy makers and practitioners background information on developments to date within ICT in Samoa. For example the literature in this study provided background information for the latest review of the Communications Sector Policy (H. Petana, personal communication October 15th 2013). Furthermore, the study provides recommendations relevant to the current developmental stage of ICT development in Samoa. 7. CONCLUSION This paper has looked at issues and challenges in the early stages of integration and development of ICT in Samoa, a small island developing state (SIDS) in the Pacific. . Issues, challenges and strategies in ICT development have been conceptualized and rationalized using Heeks’ Innovation theory (2013); FAIDP (2010) and the World Bank Infodev framework for assessing ICT projects (2005). This study makes the assertion that the focus of ICT development in Samoa is on the provision of ICT and ICT services to the “underserved”. The study illustrates that most of the strategies in ICT development in Samoa are inclusive innovations in themselves or indirectly result in inclusive innovation. The value and contribution of evidenced based research to the scalability of projects and to an understanding of how innovations can contribute to the wider development agenda cannot be overly emphasized (World Bank, 2005). It is still too early to realise the full implications of the transformative effects of the mobile revolution and social media. However, the full benefits of ICT could be realized if some of the recommendations mentioned above are adopted and implemented. 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY ADB (2011). ICT Development in Samoa. http://www.ADB.org. 5th January, 2012. AusAID (2008).Pacific Economic Survey, AusAID: Canberra. Bakalevu, S. (2005) Regional perspective on current status and trends of ICT applications in education. In ICT Capacity Building at USP Project ICT in secondary education in the Pacific region: Status Trends and Prospects. Suva: University of the South Pacific. Boer, J., Steen, M. & Posthumus, B. (2013) Six Methodological Guidelines for Organising Inclusive Innovation in BoP projects. Annual Conference of the Academy of Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Oxford, United Kingdom: University of Oxford. Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs (2011). Background Note: Samoa at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1842.htm, updated June 3 2011. 4th January 2012 Boase. R. (2009). Final Report ICT4D project for UNDP multicountry office based in Samoa. Broadcasting Department (1976). Broadcasting Development Coverage Report, Apia Samoa. Cave. D. (2012). Digital Island How the Pacific ICT Revolution is Transforming the Region. Lowy Institute for International Policy, November 11th 2012.

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UN e-government survey (2008). From e-government to Connected governance. United Nations, New York. Universal Access Policy (2010) Office of the Regulator, Apia, Samoa. World Bank (2003) infoDev Framework for Assessing ICT Pilot Projects World Bank. (2007). World Bank Governance Indicators 2007. World Bank. (2009). World Development Indicators. http://databank.worldbank.org/ddp/home.do?Step=12&id=4&CNO=2 World Bank. (2011). World Development Indicators. http://databank.worldbank.org/ddp/home.do?Step=12&id=4&CNO=2 World Bank (2011). Implementation and Completion Results report (IDA-37240) on Samoa Telecommunications and Postal Sector Reform Project Report No: ICR00001793.

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