(IT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) - Asian Transactions

Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 04

Making sense of Knowledge Management (KM), Information Technology (IT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI): an Integrative Approach Hala AbdulQader Sabri, PhD Associate Professor of Management Faculty of Administrative and Financial Sciences, Petra University Amman-Jordan [email protected]

management is not just computer and

Abstract Knowledge

management

(KM)

has

information

systems;

it

embodies

become well established in organization

organizational processes that seek to

and

their

augment the creative, intelligent, and

of

innovative capacity of human beings.

organization

Therefore, there are moral and ethical

management

theory.

In

in

field

enthusiastic

quest

knowledge

management,

theorists

and

the

information

system

implications of artificial intelligences that

developers however, mostly discussed

need to be raised and discussed.

knowledge management from one single

Keywords:

Artificial

Intelligence,

perspective, overlooking the need to

Information

Technology,

Knowledge

treating

Management.

it

from

a

multidisciplinary

perspective, by means of relating it to different factors such as information technology (IT) and artificial intelligence (AI). This study aims to fill this gap. It seeks to examine the interrelationship between information

knowledge technology

management, and

artificial

intelligence. It argues that knowledge

Sep 2011

ATBAS-50117046©Asian-Transactions

1


intelligence is a critical challenge for

1. INTRODUCTION The business literature has witnessed, in

organizations to enhance their competitive

recent years, a booming interest in

advantage in the global economy.

knowledge

This study examines the interrelationship

artificial

management intelligence

disciplines.

As

(KM)

from

knowledge

and

different work

is

between

knowledge

information

technology

management, and

artificial

increasingly immersed in a computing

intelligence. It argues that knowledge

environment, together with other existing

management is not just computer and

realities of globalization, information

information

overload, rapid technological changes and

organizational processes that seek to

increased concern in artificial intelligence,

augment the creative, intelligent, and

organizations started to learn to place

innovative capacity of human beings.

increasing values on managing knowledge

Therefore, creating the right corporate

and

learning.

culture is essential for activating a

Organization theorists, information system

knowledge base organization that sustains

developers, and economists, however,

the application of information technology

mostly discussed knowledge management

and artificial intelligence techniques in

from

modern organizations.

maintain

only

one

continuous

single

perspective,

systems;

it

embodies

overlooking the need to treating it from a

2.

multidisciplinary perspective, by means of

2.1 Defining Information, Knowledge,

relating it to different factors such as

and Intelligence

information technology (IT) and artificial

Information is data that has been verified

intelligence (AI). Therefore, addressing

to be accurate and timely, is specific and

the link between knowledge management,

organized for a purpose, is presented

information

within a context that gives it meaning and

Sep 2011

technology

and

artificial

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND


2


relevance, and that can lead to an increase

used to mean the confident understanding

in

of a subject with the ability to use it for a

understanding

and

decrease

in

uncertainty. The value of information lies

specific

solely in its ability to affect a behavior,

(WikePedia,

decision,

of

Drucker (2003) argues that in the new

information is considered valueless if,

information economy „knowledge‟ is not

after

remain

only another resource, it is the most

unchanged. Information is any kind of

powerful resource, and organizations are

event that affects the state of a dynamic

more than information processors, they

system.

of

are knowledge creators. Drucker (2003:

information is closely related to notions of

287) states "Knowledge is not impersonal,

constraint, communication, control, data,

like money. Knowledge does not reside in

form, instruction, knowledge, meaning,

a book, a database, or a software program;

mental

these

or

outcome.

receiving

it,

Moreover,

stimulus,

representation,

A

piece

things

the

concept

pattern, and

even

perception, entropy

purpose

if

appropriate

Knowledge).

contain

only

However,

information.

Knowledge is always embodied in a

(Businessdictionary.com).

person; applied by a person; taught and

Knowledge as defined by the Oxford

passed on by a person; used or misused by

English Dictionary are expertise, and

a person." Drucker (1997) maintains also

skills acquired by a person through

that knowledge is not the same as data or

experience or education; the theoretical or

information,

practical understanding of a subject, what

Knowledge is information that changes

is known in a particular field or in total;

something

facts and information or awareness or

becoming grounds for actions, or by

familiarity gained by experience of a fact

making an individual capable of different

or situation. The term knowledge is also

effective

Sep 2011

although

or

somebody,

action.


it

This

uses

either

suggests

both.

by

that

3


knowledge is personal and intangible in

is based on the meaningful organized

nature, whereas information is tangible

information from the human mind through

and available to anyone who cares to seek

experience

it out. Stenmark (2001) argues that

guidance for action and is a much more

knowledge and information affect one

implicit entity. Knowledge, as opposed to

another. He also maintains that all

data and information always has a human

knowledge is tacit and what can be

factor as it is stored in the individual's

articulated and made tangible is merely

brain or encoded in the organizational

information. Nonaka (1994) argues also

processes, documents, products, services,

that knowledge and information are

facilities and systems. March (1997),

similar in some aspects, but different in

therefore, argues that the management of

others. While information is more factual,

intellectual capitals has become a central

knowledge

theme in today's business competitive

is

about

beliefs

and

and

communication

with

commitments. He asserts that knowledge

advantage.

can be tacit and explicit. Tacit knowledge

Intelligence is an umbrella term used to

is understood and applied, difficult to

describe a property of the mind that

articulate,

direct

encompasses many related abilities, such

experience and action and usually shared

as the capacities to plan, to solve

through highly interactive conversation

problems,

and

Explicit

comprehend ideas, to use language, and to

knowledge, in contrast, is more easily

learn. There are several ways to define

codified,

or

intelligence. In some cases, intelligence

shared. Davenport (1997) argues that

may include traits such as creativity,

knowledge is part of a hierarchy made up

personality,

of data, information, and knowledge that

wisdom. However, some psychologists

Sep 2011

developed

shared

from

experience.

documented,

transferred

to


think

character,

abstractly,

knowledge,

to

or

4


prefer not to include these traits in the

largest extent possible by both individuals

definition of intelligence (WikePedia,

and organizations. Skyrme (1998) has also

Intelligence). Although Intelligence is

identified several critical factors to KM,

most widely studied in humans, it is also

which include knowledge leadership,

observed in animals and plants. Artificial

knowledge creating and sharing culture,

intelligence is the intelligence of machines

continuous learning, well developed ICT

or the simulation of intelligence in

infrastructure

machines.

organizational knowledge processes.

2.2 Knowledge Management (KM)

Knowledge management is not new, but

Some researchers feel that knowledge is

only recently have organization executives

based on individual and organizational

begun

competencies such as skills, know-how

systematic

and know-what (Nonaka and Tekeuchi

organize, and transfer knowledge. Hansen

1995; Davenport and Prusak, 1998).

et. al., (1990) emphasize that several

O‟Dell and Grayson (1998) defines

driving forces have surged the interest in

Knowledge management as a conscious

knowledge management. First the rapid

strategy of getting the right knowledge to

advances in information technology have

the right people at the right time and

made

helping people share and put information

knowledge more quickly and easily as

into action in ways that will strive to

well as to connect people in networks for

improve

performance.

the sharing of knowledge. Second the

According to Newman (1991) intellectual

companies' efforts to become learning

assets

knowledge

organizations, in which managers strive to

available to be used to exploitation – must

create a culture and a system for creating

be encouraged, preserved and used to the

new knowledge and for capturing both

Sep 2011

organizational

are

the

valuable

thinking

it

ways

possible


and

systematic

about to

to

deliberate,

create,

share

capture,

explicit

5


explicit and tacit knowledge and getting it

concept and its advantages to the members

to the right place at the right time.

are critical for effective KM.

Managers started to look for ways for

2.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI)

managing

Artificial

knowledge

techniques

and

by

using

methods

that

the were

intelligence

(AI)

(or

Manufactured Minds) is the science and

developed as part of the information

engineering,

technology (IT) to support the human

machines

resources through training and developing

programs (McCarthy, 2007). Most of the

knowledge based systems that allow the

research in artificial intelligence, however,

organization

is highly technical and specialized, Today

to

stay

competitive

(Davenport, et. al., 1996).

of and

making

intelligent

intelligent

computer

AI has become an essential part of the

Therefore, nowadays, one of the

technology industry, providing the heavy

main functions of management is to

lifting for many of the most difficult

achieve

problems in computer science (Russel &

the

information

synergy processing

between

data,

capacity

of

Norvig, 2003).

information technology and the creative

Artificial Intelligence is the area of

and innovative capacity of their human

computer science focusing on creating

members. The existence of a supportive

machines that can engage on behaviors

culture in an organization is vital in

that humans consider intelligent. The

developing the association between the

ability to create intelligent machines, the

knowledge capabilities and the business

dream of smart machines is becoming a

strategy. Putting KM into action, cultural

reality. Researchers are creating systems

renovation

which

is

required

as

the

organization's ability to announce KM

Sep 2011

can

mimic

human

thought,

understand speech, beat the best human


6


chess

player,

and

countless

other

to questions, learn, draw inferences and

achievements never before possible.

solve problems. Some of the areas

Artificial intelligence has undoubtedly

artificial intelligence is used in are: crime

seen its share of breakthroughs throughout

computers that recognize patterns of serial

its

killers,

history, many of which have been widely

handwriting

reported by the media According to a

recognition, face recognition and artificial

recent report, the manager of the Adaptive

creativity; in addition to game playing,

Systems group at Microsoft estimated that

chess, understanding natural language,

"about a quarter of all Microsoft research

computer vision, and expert systems. And

is focused on AI efforts". Google has also

one of the most famous uses of artificial

articulated

intelligence is the email spam filtering

their

goal

of

creating

optical

character

recognition,

recognition,

"obviously artificial intelligence", in the

(WikePedia).

sense of a truly "smart" program that

artificial intelligence is mainly driven by a

"understands"

the

desire to make machines that automate

universe of potential results to the point

tasks and require intelligent behavior that

that searches as well as a human with

could include things like planning and

immediate access to most of the Internet.

scheduling, handwriting, natural language

Clearly, artificial intelligence has led to

and speech, among other things. For this

important medical, commercial, and other

reason, many people think artificial

benefits,

intelligence is supposed to imitate human

and

user

queries

promises

and

many

more.

Artificial intelligence is already used to automate

and

replace

some

However,

speech

research

in

intelligence.

human

functions with computer-driven machines. These machines can see and hear, respond

Sep 2011


7


2.4 Knowledge Management and

capturing, defining, storing, categorizing,

Information Technology

indexing and linking digital objects

The terms „Information Management‟ and

corresponding to knowledge units. Thus,

„Information Value Chain‟ came about

knowledge management

when people realized that information is a

understanding of and commitment to the

resource that can, and needs to, be

information technology. However, use of

managed

the

the information and control systems, and

organization. Stenmark (2001) indicates

compliance with pre-defined goals and

that both terms consider technological

objectives and best practices may not

systems as key components guiding the

necessarily

organization‟s processes, while treating

organizational

humans as relatively passive workers who

organizations should take up a strategic

implement best practices archived in

view that considers its organizational

information database towards fulfillment

context

of organizational goals and objectives.

combination of information technology

Consequently, knowledge management is

and the creative, innovative capacity of

often referred to as an application of

human beings, as necessary, for survival

information systems. However, many

in the uncertain environments.

questions

for

the

that

long-term

competence.

upholds

a

All

synergistic

Mishra (2010) confirms that as knowledge

within

the

has become a key success factor in the

organizational members be made visible

global economy, IT has been generally

using the information technology?

accepted as a critical enabler for the

Zack (1994) maintains that information

successful

technology provides an infrastructure for

becomes quite important to ensure that

the flow of explicit knowledge through

knowledge in the minds of resources is

Sep 2011

how

achieve

the

that

on

of

the

can

knowledge

remain

benefit

involves

resides

KM


implementation.

It

8


safeguarded. It is found that, while 26 per

artificial intelligence (O‟Dell & Grayson,

cent

average

1998). Liebowitz and Beckman (1998)

organization is stored on paper and 20

believe that KM has evolved out of an

percent digitally, an amazing 42 per cent

amalgamation of concepts borrowed from

is stored in employees' heads. There have

Artificial

been many instances where the learning

Process Reengineering (BRP), Human

and knowledge is lost when resources

Resource

move to newer roles, or leave the

Organizational Behavior (OB) fields.

organization.

knowledge

They add also that in order for knowledge

management helps library and information

management to survive as a critical and

professionals in improving the services

strategic concept in organizations, the

being rendered to their users. Information

knowledge management field needs also

professionals have to recast their roles as

to

knowledge

Information

disciplines, like artificial intelligence (AI),

technology and systems can provide

in order to learn and apply what others

effective

have

of

knowledge

in

Moreover,

professional.

support

in

the

implementing

Intelligence

(AI),

Management

borrow

from

already

Business

(HRM)

other

and

established

accomplished

towards

knowledge management in organizations.

advancing the knowledge management

3. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT,

field. They add that more recently,

INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

computer science, cognitive psychology,

AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:

information technology, social research

AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH

and brain research have also contributed

There are many opinions of KM, whereas

to this field. However, Newman (1996)

some refer to it as an emerging discipline

takes

(Harris, Bair and Stear, 1998) others argue

differentiates

that it evolves from expert systems and

management

Sep 2011

another


point

of

between and

view

and

knowledge

re-engineering.

He

9


argues

that

implies

meanwhile

one-time

reengineering

individual

knowledge into collective, organizational

organizational processes from one stage of

knowledge and restoring, the field of

mechanization to a more efficient phase of

artificial intelligence (AI) can help push

mechanization

to

these views of knowledge management.

increase

efficiency;

management

achieve

implies

shifts

transforming

in

of

radical

knowledge,

maximum knowledge

continuous

and

Bradshaw et al., (1998) pertain that knowledge representation in rules, cases,

ongoing organic renewal of organizational

scripts,

processes

future

networks, are typically created in the AI

opportunities and threats surrounding the

field for building expert and other

organization.

intelligent systems. Bradshaw et al.,

Some researchers claim that Artificial

(1998) also add that the knowledge

Intelligence research is deeply divided

management field can apply these AI

into

to

techniques to help codify the knowledge.

communicate with each other. Hendriks

Other Artificial Intelligence techniques

and

the

like intelligent agents (software agents)

knowledge engineering methodologies for

can also be used to help in the search and

building expert systems have applied

retrieval methods of knowledge and

knowledge

information

to

subfields

Vriens

(interviewing,

anticipate

that

(1999)

often

argue

acquisition

that

techniques

in

the

semantic

knowledge

analysis,

management systems and they can be used

simulation, personal construct theory, card

to help in combining knowledge which

sorting, etc.) for obtaining the tacit

would ultimately lead to the creation of

knowledge from experts. Within this

new knowledge. Mishra (2010) maintains

context, Bradshaw et al., (1998) maintain

also that intelligent agents are a class of

that in looking at ways for sharing

software that operates autonomously,

Sep 2011

protocol

fail

frames/objects,


10


intelligently, and knowledgeably. They

individual

are technologies that use a built-in or

organization's knowledge and information

learned knowledge base to carry out

base, it may be preferable to have

specific, recurring and predictable tasks

intelligent agents who could be applied to

on the behalf of users. For example,

analyze the knowledge, email, web pages,

intelligent agent software can travel over

and

the

appropriate

internet

and

capture

the

most

the

workers

like

to

and

access

to

summaries

or

the

disseminate individual

appropriate information to the user's

pieces of information and knowledge to

preference. These technologies are like

those who should best make use of it.

expert systems, which are used to manage

Data mining and knowledge discovery

narrow

knowledge.

techniques could also be employed to look

Organizational knowledge can be captured

for trends, relationships, and possibly new

and stored using case-based reasoning

knowledge and information from the

systems.

organization's knowledge bases. Online

In addition, knowledge distribution, one

communities, such as Centers of Expertise

of the basic functions of knowledge

or Knowledge Centers or Communities of

management, involves sending knowledge

Practice in organizations, which share a

internally and externally to those who

common

could benefit from the use and application

management, are also ways of sharing and

of the knowledge. Typically, there is an

distributing knowledge. Members of these

infrastructure within the organization

communities

whose responsibility is to disseminate

thoughts, information, questions /answers,

knowledge to pertinent individuals or

and knowledge over the web. Knowledge

groups. Instead of simply having a passive

is distributed via the web to members of

distribution mode where it is up to the

these online communities.

Sep 2011

domains

of

interest


share

with

their

knowledge

experiences,

11


effects

3. CONCLUSION Artificial intelligence

unpredictable,

artificial

turning the

intelligence researchers have an ethical

spotlight back on the question of whether

responsibility to evaluate their work from

computer intelligence will surpass the

this perspective. That is once it is decided

human, and how quickly. However,

to have machines with an artificially

debates about the social impact of creating

created

intelligent machines have occupied many

sophisticated to challenge the human

organizations and individuals over the

brain, ethical and moral values do we

past decades. Markoff (2009) believes that

instill

artificial intelligence today is getting

civilization with its diverse cultural,

serious attention from NASA and from

religious, ethical and moral values, what

Silicon Valley companies like Microsoft,

exactly are we trying to create here and to

Google as well as a new round of start-ups

what purpose?

that are designing everything from next-

The moral and ethical implications of

generation search engines to machines

artificial

that listen or that are capable of walking

Meanwhile some argue that there are

around in the world.

already too many people living in poverty

Advances in artificial intelligence will

without work there is little or no reason to

have slight effects on individuals and on

create mechanical laborers. Others argue

culture.

that society cannot develop or take

They may create new knowledge; make

advantage of resources without the help of

certain

more

machines that can think for themselves.

accessible and change the value of some

Opinions also differ about the extent to

types of knowledge and ways of thinking.

which

Even though the exact form of these

intelligent and what they should look like.

Sep 2011

types

of

is

is

knowledge

intelligence

them?

Looking

intelligences

machines


adequately

at

are

should

human

obvious.

be

made

12


Research is widespread and diverse,

interdependent

relationships

covering all of the aspects of artificial

knowledge

intelligence. Although agreement among

technology and artificial intelligence.

theorist and practitioners, on what exactly

Therefore, statistical tests are naturally

defines intelligence, is not yet reached,

needed to assess the proposition and to

artificial ones are still created. Difficulties

operationalize

in programming an artificial brain are

proposed

apparent as the human brain has evolved

approach would be to study organizations

through millions of years of survival and

in a particular sector of industry and to

social behavior. Therefore, imitating the

establish

human's brain is a great challenge and will

interrelationships

take at least several decades more to reach

constructs considered in the study.

management,

the

between

information

variables

theoretical

empirical

model.

data

between

in

Better

about the

the

the three

even the most basic levels. Yet, Scientist need to make sure intelligent machines have no control over humans or human society and aren't capable of making any decision beyond mechanical, programmed movement. Limitation This study is theoretically oriented one. It requires further empirical research to overcome its limitations. But the analysis in this study has raised important issues for future research. For example, the researcher made an attempt to present the

Sep 2011


13


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