Key words: Cold desert, Endangered medicinal plant, Indian Himalaya, .... Pradesh, India. ..... will be always important cash crops (Kinghorn and Seo 1996).
Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 1035–1045, 2005. DOI 10.1007/s10531-004-4365-x
Springer 2005
-1 Short communication
Kuth (Saussurea lappa) cultivation in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley, northwestern Himalaya, India: arising threats and need to revive socio-economic values CHANDRA P. KUNIYAL*, YASHWANT S. RAWAT, SANTARAM S. OINAM, JAGDISH C. KUNIYAL and SUBHASH C.R. VISHVAKARMA G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development, Himachal Unit, Mohal-Kullu 175 126, Himachal Pradesh, India; *Author for correspondence. Present address: Herbal Research and Development Institute, Gopeshwar-Chamoli 246 401, Uttaranchal, India (e-mail: cpkuniyal@ rediffmail.com) Received 16 September 2002; accepted in revised form 8 March 2004
Key words: Cold desert, Endangered medicinal plant, Indian Himalaya, Integrated approach, Saussurea lappa. Abstract. Surveys were conducted in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley in the northwestern Himalaya for assessing the past and present status of Kuth (Saussurea lappa) cultivation. The findings reveal that this age-old practice now is in bottleneck. Main factors responsible for this setback to the species were the lengthy cultivation cycle, small land holdings, and even fluctuating and relatively low market prices. Owing to these constraints farmers have now started replacing cultivation of this threatened herb with pea (Pisum sativum L.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and hop (Humulus lupulus L.). These crops obtained popularity due to comparatively more economic returns as well as their easy adaptability to the short growth season of the cold desert environment. Kuth cultivation in this region is among the interesting examples of domesticating wild medicinal herb by some innovative farmers during the 1920s. However, in the recent past farmers have been less interested to continue this practice due to its larger cultivation cycle, more profits with cash crops like pea and potato, and permit formalities at the time of export from the valley. In addition to being the oldest cash crop in the cold desert environment, Kuth is an endangered medicinal herb that has to be conserved on a priority basis. This study attempts to find out potential measures such as regular revision of market rates, development of existing uncultivable land under medicinal plant cultivation and strengthening the marketing network through establishment of federations of farmers at village level to revive cultivation of this important species.
Introduction Saussurea lappa (Decne) Sch. Bip., synonymous S. costus C.B. Clarke (Kushta: Sanskrit, Kuth, Kut or Koot: Hindi, Costus: English and trade name, Family: Asteraceae) is an apparently endemic herb in the parts of Kashmir (northwestern Himalaya) from 2500 to 3000 m from mean sea level and neighboring valleys (Anonymous 1976). This critically endangered medicinal species is
1036 enlisted in Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and is among the 214 Himalayan endangered medicinal and aromatic herbs (Anonymous 1973; Nayar and Shastry 1987, 1988, 1990). Khoshoo (1993) has prioritized this and 36 other Himalayan endangered medicinal plants for in situ and ex situ conservation. Due to a resource base bottleneck, the Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, has prohibited export of 29 medicinal and aromatic species including Kuth, either in crude form or in processed products that could be separated (Anonymous 2000). Saussurea lappa is a stout robust herb attaining a height of 2 m with radicle leaves having a lobately winged stalk. Terminal and axillary floral heads arranged in clusters are stalkless, hard, 3–5 cm in diameter and dark purple or black colored. Fruits are curved and compressed achene. Stout tuberous roots may be 60 cm long and are characterized by a penetrating aroma. Pale yellow or brownish viscous oil or Costus oil is obtained from the roots either by steam distillation or through extracting with solvents. The oil contains resinoids (6%), essential oil (1.5%), inulin (18%), and Saussurine and other alkaloids (0.05%). Biological actions of Costus oil are hyposensitive, bronchiodialatory, and antiseptic against Streptococcus and Streptophylococcus (Anonymous 1976). The remedial actions of Costus oil in leprosy have obtained recognition since time immemorial, therefore, the name Kushta (cf. to leprosy in Sanskrit, an ancient Indian Vedic language) has been given to it. In the cold desert villages dried leaves are smoked as tobacco. Dried leaves are also used as fodder during winter when fodder scarcity days remain on peak. Roots are used for protecting woollen garments and also for curing asthma and cold (Anonymous 1976; Aswal and Mehrotra 1994). Prior to the 1920s, natural habitats were the exclusive sources of its extraction for pharmaceutical uses. As the commercial requirement increased, some innovative farmers of the Lahaul valley simultaneously started its large scale cultivation. Either any of the absolute historical record is so far available for such initiatives. One of its positive advantages in its preliminary cultivation may be its easy propagation through seeds and confinement to the neighboring region. Kuth thrives well under cool humid conditions. However, when supported with adequate irrigation, this species also thrives well in areas of cold desert having dry temperate agro-climatic conditions. Aerial parts are annual while the root reaches harvestable maturity generally after 3 years. Propagation through seeds is common and on average 70% seed germination can be obtained under on-farm conditions. Seed viability decreases after 1 year of storage (based on our own observations; not published). This species could also be propagated vegetatively, through replanting a 2–3 cm long root collar zone. However, farmers in the cold desert areas of the Lahaul valley generally propagate this through seeds. This self-developed practice supported the rural economy immensely until the 1960s. During this period India was a major Kuth exporter to France and Hong Kong (Anonymous 1976). In due course, pea (Pisum sativum L.), potato
1037 (Solanum tuberosum L.) and hop (Humulus lupulus L.) got a special attraction in the cold desert agriculture due to their short maturation period and adaptability to the short growth period of cold desert conditions (Singh et al. 1997). As a result, Kuth, barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), the native variety of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and many more crops were either replaced or cultivated just with a purpose to maintain a seed bank. The area under Kuth cultivation was approximately 400–600 ha during the early 1960s, while in the recent past it has been reduced to 80 ha (Thakur et al. 1998). In the wake of global climate changes, frequent bottlenecks for conservation and global concern over herbal health care and conservation of biodiversity including agro-biodiversity have invited many attempts (Maikhuri et al. 1991; Bhadula et al. 1996; Singh et al. 1997; Moraes et al. 2000; Purohit 2002; Kuniyal et al. 2004). The Himalayan Mountains are known to be the storehouses of natural resources, cultural diversity as well as susceptible to biotic and other interferences (Anonymous 2001a). Despite worldwide opportunities for domesticating wild medicinal plants, existing practices such as domestication and cultivation of Kuth, problems associated with these practices and their extension are seldom considered. Some fruitful attempts have been made in this regard and conservation education programs and community participation are strongly emphasized (Dhar et al. 1999, 2002). Present attempts also highlight the problems arising in Kuth cultivation and the preventive measures to be taken for the revival of important species.
Study area The Lahaul valley is located in the Lahaul and Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh, India. This district extends from 3144¢57¢¢ to 3259¢57¢¢N latitudes and 7646¢29¢¢ to 7841¢34¢¢E longitudes between the Pir Panjal Mountain chains of the Greater Himalaya and Trans Himalaya (Aswal and Mehrotra 1994). Geographically, Lahaul and Spiti is the largest district with a total area of 13,841 km2 where forest cover is minimum (1.11%) when compared to other districts of the state (Anonymous 2001b). The physiographic structure of the Lahaul and Spiti district is peculiar with usual perpetual snow covered peaks and occasional winter snow bound valleys. Elevation in the study area varies from 2400 to 6400 m. Agricultural land is generally confined to the valley bases that range from 0.5 to 2 km in width. These valley bases are almost all situated along the banks of river Chandrabhaga and its tributaries (viz., Chandra originating from far apart in Spiti, and Bhaga having its origin near Leh). Tandi is the confluence of these two snow fed rivers. The Lahaul valley runs through Khoksar onward to Udaipur in a southeast to northwestern direction. April to September is the period of the main growth season. Agricultural practices are carried out during this duration. During winters the entire area remains cut off from other regions due to massive snowfall. Climatically, the Lahaul valley falls under the dry temperate zone and precipitation occurs in the
1038 form of snow that sustains irrigation and potable water needs of the people of the region.
Methodology Along with field observations of the authors, extensive primary surveys with the help of a structured questionnaire were conducted in the Lahaul valley for assessing the status of Kuth cultivation. During the course of survey, a gradual reduction in the Kuth cultivation was observed. Preliminary information was gathered from the farmers for the setback in Kuth cultivation. Based on the preliminary information and farmers’ perception, related information regarding the problems was collected in an already designed questionnaire. Three major problems, namely: (i) lengthy cultivation cycle of Kuth, (ii) small land holdings, and (iii) low and fluctuating market prices of Kuth, were incorporated in the questionnaire. Other problems relating to Kuth cultivation such as land use pattern and crop rotation were also recorded. Information regarding annual market rates (Rupees per kilogram, 1 US$ = 46.35 Rupees) and annual Kuth collection were obtained from ‘Lahaul Potato and Kuth Growers Society’ (LPKGS), a farmer’s co-operative based at Manali (District Kullu, H.P.). Four representative villages, namely Khoksar (3200 m) in the beginning of the Lahaul valley, Lindur (3300 m) and Hinsa (2700 m) in the middle of the valley, and Kuthar (2650 m) in the end of the Lahaul valley were selected for this study. A total of 67% households at Khoksar (out of 15 households), 91% at Lindur (11 households), 65% at Hinsa (52 households) and 59% at Kuthar (17 households) were interviewed randomly to ensure the overall representation and strengthening the facts discussed in the results. Information about land holding and land use was asked from knowledgeable family elders from each sampled family in the local land unit (i.e., bigha, 1 ha = 13.29 bigha) which was converted into hectares. Export of Kuth from the Lahaul valley was done through LPKGS until 2001–2002. After this people started individual export after getting a permit from the Department of Forest, Keylang.
Results Nearly 69 metric tonne (MT) Kuth was collected by LPKGS in 1988–1989 at the rate of rupees (Rs) 20.40 ± 2.04 kg. After this the annual Kuth collection kept decreasing, except in the years 2000–2001 and 1991–1992 which were the second and third highest collection years. Moreover, the rates per kilogram afterwards remained almost constant. In 1996–1997, the LPKGS offered approximately a threefold increase in its rates (i.e., Rs 75.00 ± 0.00/kg). However, the price of the year 1996–1997 could not be kept constant and further reduced to Rs 62.50 ± 7.50/kg in 1997–1998, and then remained more or less constant up to 2000–2001. Annual Kuth collection was also noted to
1039 fluctuate year by year. Once better prices were offered, annual Kuth collection was noticed to be influenced gradually in the third year (Table 1). Per-capita land holding in the cold desert Himalaya ranged from 0.406 to 1.188 ha. A major part of this land was dedicated to agriculture, ranging from 46.42 to 59.05% of the total land holdings (Table 2). Excluding Kuthar, in other villages 5.29 to 7.43% share of the available land is used for planting Salix sp., for meeting fuel wood requirement. The area under Kuth cultivation was less than the residential area in all the selected villages except Kuthar, where it was cultivated in an area of about 0.26 ha. At Khoksar, Kuth was Table 1. Annual Kuth collection from 1988–1989 to 2000–2001 in the Lahaul valley and mean market prices (Rs/kg, then 1 US$ = approximately Rs 46.35, Aug. 2004)a. Year
Kuth collection (metric tonnes)
Rates (Rs/kg)
1988–1989 1989–1990 1990–1991 1991–1992 1992–1993 1993–1994 1994–1995 1995–1996 1996–1997 1997–1998 1998–1999 1999–2000 2000–2001
68.85 5.05 29.10 42.00 27.70 8.45 16.70 3.00 12.00 8.30 22.00 17.10 43.80
20.40 21.25 21.25 21.25 21.25 21.25 21.25 21.25 75.00 62.50 56.00 55.00 56.00
a
± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±
2.04 2.83 2.83 2.83 2.83 2.83 2.83 2.83 0.00 7.50 4.50 5.00 0.00
Source: Lahaul Potato and Kuth Growers Society, Manali, Himachal Pradesh.
Table 2. Per capita land holding (including third class land in ownership) in the native villages of the Lahaul valley, cold desert Himalayas. S. no. Land use pattern
Villages and altitude Khoksar (3200 m)
A B C D E F G a
Agricultural (pea, potato, vegetables and others) Salix sp. plantation Residential area Kuth cultivation Total of A, B, C and D Third class land (protected for grasses)c Per capita land holding
Lindur (3300 m)
Hinsa (2700 m)
Kuthar (2650 m)
0.558 (59.05)a 1.062 (46.42)
0.397 (58.38)
0.376(58.30)
0.065 (6.87) 0.013 (1.38) 0.005b (0.53) 0.641 (38.83) 0.304 (32.17)
0.036 0.059 0.003 0.495 0.185
0.004 0.012 0.014 0.406 0.239
0.710 0.014 0.002 1.188 1.040
(7.43) (0.061) (0.09) (54.55) (45.45)
(5.29) (8.68) (0.44) (72.79) (27.21)
(0.62) (1.86) (2.17) (62.95) (37.05)
0.945 (100.00) 2.288 (100.00) 0.680 (100.00) 0.645 (100.00)
Values in parentheses are in percent. b At Khoksar Kuth was maintained in small kitchen gardens as a seed bank. c Third class land is not owned but protected by individual households and used for protecting grasses.
1040 maintained in the kitchen gardens as a seed bank. On the contrary, a significant part of grassland was in possession of the inhabitants. Grassland ranges from 27.21 to 45.45% of the total land holdings of the farmers. This land is used entirely for grasses during summer and used as grazing land during autumn. Some threatened and highly valuable medicinal herbs such as Aconitum heterophyllum Wall., A. violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf, Arnebia benthamii Wall. ex G. Don, Angelica glauca Edgew., Dactylorhiza hatagirea D. Don, Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Kunth, Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf, Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. Rheum sp., Delphinium sp. are found scattered in these grass fields. Besides the grassland owned by the farmers, people have plantation rights on third class forests (i.e., completely degraded forests) owned by the state government. Salix sp. is predominately cultivated for fodder and fuelwood in the third class forests land. However, the Department of Forest Government of Himachal Pradesh still owns the land right after raising the Salix plantations. Trends in the crop rotation pattern of the last decade indicated that the majority of the patterns have short growing cash crops, viz., pea and potato are rotated regularly and cultivated 2–6 times in each rotation pattern within 11 years (Table 3). Hop, a perennial crop is also kept in the same field for a long time, although the flowers of the hop are harvested annually. Kuth took 3 years to attain harvestable maturity. Findings of the questionnaire-based survey are presented in Table 4. A total of 72.7% households at Khoksar said that cultivating Kuth was a lengthy practice as compared to pea and potato, whereas 18.2% of households were not cultivating Kuth due to small land holdings and 9.1% of households were discouraged with the fluctuating and relatively low market prices. Most of the farmers at Lindur village were replacing Kuth with seasonal introduced cash crops like pea and potato, due to its lengthy cultivation cycle and other related problems. Small land holdings were major problems to the farmers of Hinsa and Kuthar. The lengthy cultivation cycle of Kuth and the ever fluctuating and low market prices were problematic to the farmers in these villages. Other problems faced by the villagers in cultivating Kuth are a need of permission from the state forest department. 50% households at Kuthar and 20.6% at Hinsa did not respond in any way.
Discussion The trend in annual Kuth collection from the Lahaul valley was indefinite. However, it seems to be adversely affected by fluctuating and relatively low market prices. Growing the perennial cash crops such as Kuth coupled with small land holdings and ever-increasing population pressure merely bear financial security to the native farmers in the cold desert conditions. Agricultural activities are the prime source of livelihood for a majority of the indigenous communities in the fragile and inhospitable climatic conditions of the
SL PS ST IR HL TA TA/ HV/ FE
SL ST PS/ FE IR HL PS ZM
SL PS ST IR HL HV PS/ST
1995 PS/ FE ST PS/FE PS HL ST HV/ FE/ TA
1996 ST PS ST ST HL TA ZM
1997 PS/ FE ST PS/ FE PS HL PS PS/ ST
1998 ST PS ST ST HL HV HV/ FE/ TA
1999 PS/ FE ST PS/ FE PS HL ST ZM
2000 SL PS ST IR HL TA PS/ ST
2001
2002
2003
SL ST PS/ FE IR HL PS ZM
SL PS ST IR HL HV HV/ FE/ TA
3 6 6 3 – 3 3
2 5 5 2 – 2 3
Potato
2 – – – – – –
Kuth
Pea
1994
1993
a
Frequency of pea, potato and Kuth
Year
a SL – Saussurea lappa, PS – Pisum sativum, ST – Solanum tuberosum, IR – Inula racemosa, HL – Humulus lupulus, TA – Triticum aestivum, HV – Hordeum vulgare, FE – Fagopyrum esculentum, ZM – Zea mays.
A B C D E F G
S. no.
Table 3. Crop rotation pattern in the Lahaul valley (1993–2003) and frequency of pea, potato and Kuth.
1041
1042 Table 4. Factors responsible for a setback in Kuth cultivation in the Lahaul valley: a people’s perception. S. no.
A B C D E a
Problems
Lengthy cultivation cycle Small land holdings Low and fluctuating price Others No response
Villages Khoksar (15)a
Lindur (11)
Hinsa (52)
Kuthar (17)
8 (72.70)b 2 (18.20) 1 (9.10)
7 (70.00) 2 (20.00) 1 (10.00)
– 10 (100.00)
– 10 (100.00)
10 (29.40) 12 (35.30) 4 (11.80) 1 (2.90) 7 (20.60) 34 (100.00)
1 (10.00) 3 (30.00) 1 (10.00) – 5 (50.00) 10 (100.00)
Indicates number of households. Values in parentheses are in percent.
b
cold desert Himalayas. Regional changes in traditional land use pattern in the cold desert Himalayas are known to be popular for profitable returns (Singh et al. 1997). Stagnancy or infrequent ups and downs in the prices will definitely deter the farmers’. Retail rates of Kuth at village level must be updated to the extent that it could be profitable as compared to pea and potato. Thus, these crops are frequently rotated as compared to other traditional crops. Amid the existing market rates Kuth is less profitable as compared to pea and potato. The cost of cultivation and net profit from pea is Rs 62,529.00 on a per hectare basis, whereas from potato the net profit is about Rs 53,625.00. The net profit while cultivating Kuth on 1 ha of land is Rs 117,683.00 (during 3 years) or 39228.00 per year (Thakur et al. 1998). With the existing market rates farmers will be hardly convinced. Therefore, regular reconsideration of prices will be necessary to sustain Kuth cultivation. Being the first ever cash crop, the agrotechnological knowledge and socio-economics of Kuth are deeply rooted in the Lahaul valley. Right now, for better economic perspectives, establishment of value addition centers at the local level might be practical for turning farmers to the value added suppliers rather than a crude drug seller (Purohit 2002). Per capita land holding in the Lahaul valley was less than 1 ha and major part of the available land, that is, differing from 46.42 to 59.05%, is dedicated to agricultural activities. On the other hand, a considerable area around the agricultural fields is for grasses. Putting the cultivable land under the risk of monetary insecurity will not be a better option for indigenous peoples. Hence, the community land or the land in the ownership of the native households which is just used for grasses or used as grazing land, could be developed as the cultivation site for crops like Kuth. It might be effective if the local administration encourages indigenous communities about identifying potential medicinal species and appropriate sites with the help of regional institutions. Involvement of native communities is a better option for resisting the challenges and complexities in biodiversity as well as agro-biodiversity conservation and sustainable development (Armitage 2003). The farmers of cold deserts have evidenced this attitude while struggling against the Kuth export policy of
1043 1984, imposing a complete prohibition on marketing of Kuth irrespective of verifying its source of origin. In order to overcome the constraints in marketing, establishment of village level federations of farmers will possibly be important. This will also help ensured marketing, and effective appraisal of interlinked problems. Supplying the crude products in bulk or value added products by the federations will be advantageous in reducing transport cost. In the light of habitat fragmentation and rapid depletion of resources, confusions in marketing structures must be addressed effectively (Maxted 2003). Due to the storehouse of important secondary metabolites, medicinal herbs will be always important cash crops (Kinghorn and Seo 1996). However, propagation of high altitude plants through seeds takes 3 years to attain harvestable maturity. Testing vegetative cultivation such as propagation through tubers or root segments may be a useful approach for reducing the long cultivation cycle. However, these should be tested in the field before recommending them to farmers. Moreover, mass scale propagation and selection of elites is also possible through this method (Kuniyal et al. 2003). Mixed cropping of medicinal herbs such as Kuth with food crops like pea may also be a useful option for obtaining better profits, as has been tested in case of Picrorhiza kurrooa (Nautiyal et al. 2001). Kuth is an endemic and threatened plant species. Threatened plants are known to be more vulnerable to interferences due to their restricted distribution (Xie 2003). The survival and growth performance of endemic plants also depend on environmental, demographic and development interactions (Lopez- Puzol et al. 2003). Anticipated revival of this age-old and self-innovated farmers’ initiative certainly requires an integrated approach involving local administration, indigenous communities and regional technical institutions. This overall management will be a viable strategy or a kind of adaptive management (Armitage 2003). It is encouraging that farmers are still maintaining the seed bank of Kuth at least in small pockets in the hope of a better tomorrow.
Conclusions The present study highlights the three major constraints standing in the way of a setback in the Kuth cultivation in the cold desert areas of the Lahaul valley. Farmers are gradually replacing Kuth with introduced cash crops, pea and potato, due to higher economic returns and adaptability of these crops to the short growth season of the cold desert environment. This analysis suggests that providing technical support, establishment of value addition centers, farmers’ federation and strengthening marketing infrastructures must be addressed in order to revive Kuth farming further. Existing market rates seem to be below par. Hence, market rates should preferably be revised regularly. Assured support of local administration in relation to identify farmers’ problems and a supporting marketing network could be another valuable step to promote Kuth. The barren land around a native village, if developed for medicinal plant cultivation with the
1044 active participation of the natives, may be a sustainable approach to encourage and spread Kuth farming throughout the cold desert areas.
Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Kosi-Katarmal, 263 643 Almora (U.A.) for providing the necessary facilities for completing this work. The first author also thanks the Director, Herbal Research & Development Institute Gopeshwar, Chamoli (U.A.) for support and encouragement. The critical comments by two anonymous reviewers on the initial manuscript, greatly improving it, are acknowledged gratefully.
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