le rouge et le noir: implications of early pigment use in ...

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LE ROUGE ET LE NOIR: IMPLICATIONS OF EARLY PIGMENT USE IN AFRICA, THE NEAR EAST AND EUROPE FOR THE ORIGIN OF CULTURAL MODERNITY Author(s): FRANCESCO D'ERRICO Source: Goodwin Series, Vol. 10, CURRENT THEMES IN MIDDLE STONE AGE RESEARCH (December 2008), pp. 168-174 Published by: South African Archaeological Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40650028 . Accessed: 26/07/2013 07:55 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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SouthAfrican 2008 Archaeological SocietyGoodwinSeries10:168-174,

LE ROUGE ET LE NOIR: IMPLICATIONS OF EARLY PIGMENT USE IN AFRICA, THE NEAR EAST AND EUROPE FOR THE ORIGIN OF CULTURAL MODERNITY FRANCESCOD'ERRICO Institut du Quaternaire, 5199oftheCNRS,Bordeaux dePréhistoire etdeGéologie France PACEA/UMR University, TheGeorge DC, USA, University, Washington Department ofAnthropology, Washington Institute SouthAfrica forHumanEvolution, University oftheWitwatersrand, E-mail: .fr [email protected]

in depththe Thishas allowedthemnotonlyto investigate functional uses of ochre,but also to breakthe dichotomy betweenfunctionalversusnon-functional use in orderto i.e.howpervasive was the addressmoreinteresting questions, use ofochrein thelifeofMSA societies, whatkindofknowlochredidthesesocieties createand transmit, edgeconcerning andhowdidthisaffect otherspheresoftheircultural systems? I amsympathetic tothisapproachand I haveoftenfolloweda similar ofdifferent categories pathtoaddressthesignificance ofPalaeolithic materialculturefromAfricaand Europe(e.g. & Villa1997; d'Errico etal. 1995;d'Errico d'Errico1992,1995a,b; Backwell& d'Errico2001;d'Errico& Backwell2003;d'Errico tothe etal.2005).Theapproachalsobearsa degreeofsimilarity on pigment use workthatMarieSoressiand I areconducting al. d'Errico & Soressi Neanderthals et 2006; 2003; (d'Errico by see Soressi& d'Errico2007;Soressietal, in press).I therefore thisvolumeinhonourofLynWadleyas theappropriate place in theevidencefortheearliestuse ofpigments to summarize Neanderthals. to their to Africa and decoration, ochre, signifibody Europe, suggeststrategies explore symbolism, Keywords: and to reach cancefortheoriginofbehaviouralmodernity, conclusions. sometentative INTRODUCTION to Europeby anatomically Was pigmentuse introduced of fortheassessment haveproposedcriteria Manyauthors colonizers aftertheyhad developedit human modern & Chase material culture statusofprehistoric thesymbolic (AMH) (e.g. & Brooks2000;Wadley in Africaas a consequenceof the cognitiveenhancements Dibble1990;Donald 1991;McBrearty ordidit 2001,2003;d'Erricoetal. 2003;Henshilwood& Marean2003; granted bytheoriginofourspecieson thatcontinent, in EuropebeforethearrivalofAMHs? Bouissac2004).Complextechnologies, regionaltrendsin the emergeindependently have behaviourof Neanderthals use ofpigments, Debatesoverthe symbolic oftools,systematic styleand thedecoration of much of the the been a of on andrepresentational abstract media, unreliability hamperedby always depictions variety areamongthe evidencethathasbeeninvokedinsupportofit(seeZilhão2007 burials,gravegoods,and personalornaments thatattesttothecomplex and Soressi & d'Errico2007 forreviews).Relativelyfew creations morecommonlong-lasting behaviourare reportedfrom thatsuggestsymbolic naturethathas been observedin ethnographicallyartefacts symbolic recordedhumancultures.However,views divergeon the Neanderthalcontextsbeforethe so-calledMiddle-Upper thatdo existare and thoseartefacts and on theinterpreta- Palaeolithic ofeachofthesecategories transition, significance aretheytheresultofpurposeful orrepresen- oftenplaguedbyambiguity: ofabstract Theproduction finds. tionofindividual andtheuse Neanderthalactionor are theythe resultof non-human theuseofpersonalornaments tational engravings, to a once submitted reliable factors? the more as are of pigments generallyinterpreted Pigmentuse by Neanderthals, that is one of the behaviours well be & cultures of (McBrearty properanalysis,may expressions symbolic archaeological functional withan exclusively Brooks2000,Henshilwood& Marean2003;d'Errico& Van- incompatible interpretation, modelfortheorigin and thusmaychallengetheOutofAfrica haeren2007). of behavioural be to claimed use hasbeen Overthepastdecade,pigment modernity. thesymbolic to differentiate one ofthemostusefulfeatures it has THE EARLIEST USE OF PIGMENTS capacityof Homosapiensfromthatof Neanderthals; TwinRiversinZambia(Barham1998,2002)andKapthurin of'modernhuman elements beencitedas one ofthedefining & Tryon ofherteam(Wadley inKenya(McBrearty behaviour7. 2001;McBrearty 2006)areamong LynWadleyandthemembers cited to sites most inthe have been Lombard etal.2004;Wadley2005a,b, 2006; supportthe use of archaeological 2007) StoneAgetransition as oldas theAcheulean-Middle and tempering pigments in assessingthelatterhypothesis strumental in theKapthurin formathe enthusiasmof those who, perhapstoo quickly,have (-200 ka ago).AtthesiteofGnJh-15 witha totalmassof and tion,morethan70piecesofredpigments, betweenbehaviouralmodernity suggesteda synonymy associatedwithan earlyMSA carefuland morethan5 kg,wereapparently pigmentuse. Theyhave done so by combining ka These havenotbeen -285 old. of relevant however, pieces, assemblage archaeological microscopicanalysis systematic in a publication. Fieldwork at Twin excavatedat keyMiddleStoneAge (MSA)sitesand analysed,norillustrated material ofpigmenof176fragments oftasks. Riversin1999ledtothediscovery ofpigment usewitha variety replication experimental

ABSTRACT Middle Theincreasein thefrequency fromAfrican ofochrerecovered StoneAgesiteshasbeenused,alongwithotherdiscerned changesin thatmoderncognitive tosupportthehypothesis hominid behaviour, with abilitiesgraduallyarosegraduallyin Africa,in conjunction thebiological changesthatmarktheoriginofourspecies.In orderto I reviewtheearliestevidencefortheuse of assess thishypothesis materialin Africa,theNear East and Europeand pigmentatious Thisreviewindicatesthatthe discussitsevolutionary significance. use ofpigments at Africansitesis possibly stillunresolved, earliest, associatedwitharchaicHomo sapiens and notwithanatomically modernhumans;it thusbreaksthelink,established by theOut of and between change.Thislinkis biological cognitive Africascenario, black use the also challenged pigments byEuropean by systematic of modernhumans. Neanderthals priorto contactwithanatomically sitesindipiecesfromNeanderthal Ongoinganalysisofmanganese activities. withsymbolic catesuse thatis consistent


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andochre-stained stoneartefacts levelsofQafzeh, Israel(b-dj; FIG. 1. Modified from:cavePP13B at PinnaclePoint,MosselBay(lã); theMousterian pigments Cave(i), SouthAfrica;theMousterian levelsofPech-de-1'Azé theMiddleStoneAgelevelsofKlasiesRiver(e) and Biombos I, France(g-h); and theMiddleStone et al. 2001; Hoverset al. 2003; Mareanet al. 2007). Scale 2000; Würz2000; Henshilwood Cave,Egypt(i) (afterVanPeer& Vermeersch AgelevelsofSodmein bars- 1 cm.

inlayerswithagesofabout260ka and400ka. MSA layersat BiombosCave (Fig.If). Utilizedochreis also tatiousmaterial MSAunitsM2andM3atBiombos The -260 ka old layersyielded132piecesofpigmentatious abundantintheunderlying of use were the latter unit is between 125 ka and 140ka old (Jacobs Fivedifferent colours with traces etal material. pigment recorded.Geologicalsurveyssuggestthatprehistoric people 2006).TheabundantochrefoundintheM3layersofBiombosis closetotheworkedpiecesrecently severalkilometres found musthavecollectedthesepigments away thuschronologically fromthesettlement site.Discoveriesat thesetwositeswere at PinnaclePointbyMareanetal (2007). isolatedand undatedoccurrences used toconfirm Althoughochreis a commonfeatureat mostMSA sites previously increasesduringthe ofredpigments recordedatsitessuchas Nooitgedacht (South (Fig.la, e, and f),theuse ofredpigments Africa),Kabwe (Zambia) and Charama (Zimbabwe).The laterphasesof theMSA and becomesa constantfeatureof AcheuleansiteofBerekhat Ram,GolanHeights(NearEast), MSA 2b/Still Bay,Howieson'sPoortand MSA III sites(Watts toWatts(1999, clastonwhich 1999;Würz2000;Rigaudetal 2006).According whichisabout250kaold,yieldeda reddishtuff fortheuse a circulargroovewas carved(d'Errico& Nowell 2000).The 2002)peoplelivingduringtheMSAhada preference evenwhenyellowish of thisobjecton the same raw ofa strongredcolourant or yellowishexperimental reproduction indicat- brownmaterial ofsimilar chemicalcomposition was available. material consistently producedgroundredpigment, the These deliberate choices seem to contradict a one of the for that this be explanations groove. purelyfunctional ing may use of interpretation forpigmentuse. Many MSA colourantsare More robustevidenceforthe earlysystematic theymayhave been used to pigmentscomesfromcave PP13Blocatedat PinnaclePoint shapedas crayons,suggesting suchas leatherorforbodypainting. Atthissite57 pigment nearMosselBay(SouthAfrica). pieces, tracelineson softmaterial workindicatesthat'crayons' excavatedfromlayers However,experimental couldbe witha mass of 93.4 g, wererecently ofochregrinding -164 ka old (Mareanet al 2007).Ten pieceshave probable a by-product (Wadley2005b)and thatred as ochremighthaveadvantagesoveryellowochrewithregardto tracesof scrapingor grindingand two wereinterpreted was preservation and adhesiveproperties functional interpretation (Wadley2005a). havingbeenused;butnofurther which Evidence thatindicatesthatthespreadofpigmentuse is More than 8000 of ochre, fragments presented (Fig.la). modifications not limitedto sub-Saharanregionscomesfromthe siteof includeabout 600 withclear anthropogenic 2000).A Levallois (Henshilwood, pers.comm.2007),comefromthe-75 ka old Sodmeinin Egypt(VanPeer& Vermeersch


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flakefromlevels of -115 ka old is markedon both sides by a continuousred ochreline perpendicularto theflakemain axis (Fig. li). Van Peer et al (2003) also reportthatyellow and red ochre was ground in shaped mortars,with selected chert nodules, in an early MSA Sangoan contextwith an age of -200 ka on the 8-B-ll Sai Island in the northof Sudan. More than100fragments ofredpigments,somebearingtracesofuse, come fromthe Mousterianlevels of Qafzeh, (Israel) -100 ka old (Fig. lb,c,d). Qafzeh has yielded burials attributedto AMHs, but no pigmentshave been found in clear association withthe skeletons(Hovers etal 2003). Taborin (2003) and Hovers et al (2003) reported four completeGlycymeris sp. shells each with a perforationon the ofbivalvebelongingto thesame species, umbo,and a fragment fromQafzeh.Walter's(2003)analysishas detectedthepresence ofochreinside one specimenand manganese oxide,probably post-depositionalin origin,both inside and outside two other to establishwhetherthese specimens.Atpresentit is difficult shellswereused as ochrecontainers,palettesor personalornaments.The shellswere certainlybroughtto the site,which is 40 km fromthe sea. However,no traceswere detectedon the to indicatethattheshellswere deliberatelyperfoperforations were rated,and no studiesof modern or fossilthanatocoenoses conductedin orderto quantifythe occurrenceof perforations on the umbo in natural assemblages. Recent analysis was conductedon accumulationsofdead Glycymeris sp. shellsfrom theIsraelicoast,to studythepalaeoecology ofthisspecies. The analysisindicatesthat19.7% oftheshellsare unbrokenwithan abradedhole in theumbo,as are thosefromQafzeh (Sivan etal 2006).Thisimplies(d'Errico& Vanhaeren2007) thattheprobabilityof a chance selection of four such shells in a natural accumulationis low (P = 0.008),and it suggeststhatQafzeh inhabitantseitherselected naturallyperforatedGlycymeris or deliberatelyperforatedthem,leavingno obvious manufacturingtraces;alternatively, theylefttracesthatwere subsequently erased by taphonomic processes. Deliberate collection or perforationof the shells is consistentwith use for personal ornaments,but a functionas a paletteor a combinationof the two,cannotbe discarded. More compellingevidence forthe earlyuse of pigmentin body decoration comes fromthe discovery of red pigment residuesadheringto shell beads discoveredat the Grottedes Pigeons, Taforalt,Morocco (Bouzzougar et al 2007), and at BiombosCave (Henshilwood etal 2004; d'Erricoetal 2005).At the Grottedes Pigeons, microscopicresidues of red pigment were detectedon one unperforatedNassariusgibbosulusshell and on nine perforatedshells,out of a totalof 13 N. gibbosulus shells thatwere found in layers -81 ka old (Fig. 2). In some cases theresidueis in thesedimentobstructing theaperture.In othercases it is trappedin the groove at the contactbetween thelastbody whorland theparietalshield,on theedges ofthe on thecolumella,in fissuresin theparietalshield, perforations, and in the syphonal canal. On one shell (Fig. 2i) pigment residueis sealed by a calciteconcretion.Elementaland mineralogical analysisof the residue on thisshell has identifiedthe red pigmentas iron oxide with a very high proportion(over beads 70%) ofiron.Fourof41 perforatedNassariuskraussianus fromBiombosCave layerswithan age of -75 ka, show microscopic tracesof red ochre withinthe shell and on the outer surface.No ochreresiduesoccuron othergastropodsfoundin BiombosMSA layers.Deposition ofpigmenton the shellsmay have occurred 1) accidentally during the manufacturing process ifthe perforatingtool and/orthe maker's hands had ochreon them,2) iftheshellscame intocontactwithochrein a pouch or othercontainer,3) because ofdeliberatecolouringof

the beads, 4) fromrubbingagainstochre on hide, skin,thread or other material,or 5) frompost-depositionalcontactwith ochrein the sediment. The firsthypothesisseems unlikelyin thecase oftwo ofthe perforatedshells fromTaforaltthathave clear tracesof wear, because the pigmentresidues are foundon the worn area and post-dateany manufacturing process.On thesespecimensthe pigmentis caught in micro-cracksthat cross the worn area, indicating that wear and colouring were interlinked.This suggeststhatthe presence of ochre on the perforatedshellsis probablydue to rubbingagainstochre-stainedmaterialduring 'use'. No otherobjects(e.g. artefactsorbones) fromtheTaforalt depositscarrysimilarpigments,norare thereobvious particles of naturalochre in the sediments.More or less hydratediron oxides have contributeda reddishcolour to the carbonateand phosphate concretions present in the sediment, and they sometimesadhere tolargerobjects(especiallybones) at thesite. It is, however,extremelydifficult to see how pureriron oxide could have been depositedon theshellsat anypointduringthe diagenesisofthesecave sediments,and, ifso,how itcould have been so closelyintegratedwiththewear patterns.Thissuggests that the red pigmentwas an element of the beadwork. The application of red pigmentto strungbeads may have added visual symbolicvalue, since these were the only items with evidence of colourantin the cave. In Europe, more than 70 levels ascribed to the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic yielded material described as blocks of pigment,or as stonesused to grindor crushpigment.Most of the pigment used by Neanderthals is manganese dioxide, which produces a black pigment. Red pigment is rare. The pigmentsare fromsitesdatingmostlyto theend oftheMiddle Palaeolithic,with ages fromabout 60 ka to 40 ka ago, and are attributedto the so-called'Mousterianof Acheulean tradition' or the 'CharentianMousterian'.Ongoing analyses,conducted by Soressi and myself(Soressi & d'Errico2007), have thus far concentratedon two neighbouringsites: Pech de l'Azé I and Pech de l'Azé IV The former, excavatedin the 1960sbyFrançois Bordes, has delivered the largestknown collectionof Mousterianpigments(Soressi et al 2002). More than 500 blocks of pigmentcome fromthis site (Fig. 3), some found duringthe new excavationin a level older than 43 ka (Soressietal 2007). Most of the Pech de l'Azé I deposit was excavated duringthe nineteenthcentury,so it is likelythatthe 500 blocks and fragmentsbeing studiedrepresentless thanhalfofthemanganese fragmentsabandoned by Neanderthalsat the site.The upper layers of the nearby site of Pech IV are contemporarywith Pech I (McPherronetal 2001),but have yielded only26 pieces of manganese dioxide, within nine archaeological levels. Fifteenofthesepieces bear tracesofmodification.A fewpieces ofred and yellowochrewere also foundat bothsites,but these have no clear tracesof use. Althoughmanganese is available in the environmentclose to the Pech sites,the varietyof raw materialshapes (slabs of various thickness,and pebbles),and the compositionsuggests the Neanderthalswere aware of a varietyof potentialsources forthispigment.Analysisoftheblocksrevealsa cleardifference between the natural surfaces of the pieces that are usually and areas used byhumans,thatare flattenedbyabrairregular, sion and sometimesappear to be polished. Few ofthesepieces appear to have been scraped or engravedby a sharpobjectlike a flintedge or a piece of bone. Two hundred and fifty pieces fromPech I have ground facets.A numberof factorsindicate thatthesemodificationsare due to theuse ofpigmentsand are notnaturalor post-depositionalin origin:1) a worn grindstone stainedwithpigmentcame fromthelevelrichestin manganese



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FIG. 2. Top:areasinredindicate thelocation residues onNassariusgibbosulusshellsfromGrotte desPigeons, Morocco.Bottom: residues ofredpigment pigment on theventral side(A-B, i), insidethebodywhorl canal(G-H, i). Rectangles inA, C, E, G and the (C-D, 1),on thedorsalside(E-F,m) andclosetothesyphonal arrowinC identify intheadjacentmicrograph. theareaenlarged Scalebars:a-m,A,C,E,G = 1 cm;B,D,F,H = 500¡im(photographs modified afterBouzzougar et al. 2007).


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FIG. 3. ManganesepiecesfromthePechde l'Azé I Mousteriansiteshowing flatfacetsproducedbygrinding.

aresimilar tothoseobservedin thatitsappearancepredatesthecommonancestor(proposed 2) theabradedfacets fragments, the MSA,in the Upper Palaeolithicand in experimentallytobe around300ka to400ka old) ofmodernhumansand the of wear Neanderthals (Krauseetal. 2007). 3) the locationand morphology groundpigments, Theuse ofochrebecamewidespreadinEuropeafter35ka surfaces arenotrandom.Thenarrowedgesoftheblockswere thearchaeological culturegenerally used in orderto produceelongatedfacets.To ago withtheAurignacian, systematically a back and forth as the colonization of the Neanderthals exerted these facets, interpreted reflecting Europeanterriproduce ina direction isalsofoundatsitesattributed movement ona grindstone, parallelorobliqueto toriesbyAMH.Ochre,however, theaxisofthefuture facet.Thisprocesshelpedtoproduceflat tootherEarlyUpperPalaeolithic suchas the technocomplexes in of facets have France and the in cent these Uluzzian orslightly convexfacets. Chatelperronian Seventyper Italy.Substanremainder of tial of the naked On the red and black striations visible to are, quantities eye. pigments forexample, parallel the facets,the prominentareas between striationsare foundin theChatelperronian layersoftheGrottedu Renne, ofthefacetshavelost Arcy-sur-Cure, someofthemclearly andinsomecases,thesurfaces smoothed shapedbygrinding, possito create & Leroi-Gourhan alltraceoftheoriginal 1965; bly crayons(Leroi-Gourhan grinding. ofthefacets Salomon,pers.comm.2006).The Uluzzianlevelsof Cavallo Quantitative analysisofthemicro-topography on archaeological havealsoyieldedfragments ofochreandlisamples,and ofthesurfacesofmanganese Cave,Apulia,Italy, different monite(Palma di Cesnola 1993).Ochre crayonscarvedby modified orusedinthirteen fragments experimentally thatafter Neanderthals hadgroundthemanga- scrapingand decoratedwithsetsofnotcheshavebeenfound ways,suggests suchas animal recentlyat the EarlyUpper Palaeolithicsite of PekaryHa, nesepiecestheyusedthemtomarksoftmaterial orhumanskin.Theelongated onthearchae- Poland,in Pre-Aurignacian in shapeofthefacets layers(d'Errico& Vanhaeren, is consistent, as confirmed ologicalspecimens experimentally,press a). The human remainsassociatedwith the Chatelwithproducingclearlyvisiblestraight blacklines,perhaps perronianindicate that this culturaltraditionis due to to abstract The arranged produce designs. useofblackpigment Neanderthals (Bailey& Hublin2006).Thisimpliesthatat the forbody paintingis consistent withthe findingsof recent endoftheirevolutionary someNeanderthal communihistory remains fromEl Sidron tieswereusingbothblackand redpigments. palaeogenetic analysesofNeanderthal Cave,nearOviedo,Spain.Lalueza-Foxand colleagues(2007) foundin two individualsa variantof the Melacortinalíele CONCLUDING REMARKS The observedincreasein the frequency of ochrepieces (MC1R),notpresentin modernhumans,butwhichcausesan effect on thehairsimilarto thatseen in modernredheads. fromAfricanMSA sites has been cited,along with other totheseauthors, Neanderthals had white changesin hominidlifestyle, to supportthehypothesis that According probably skinand the same rangeof haircolourpresentin modern moderncognitive abilities arosegradually inAfrica, inconjuncfromdarktoblondand red.It is also tionwiththebiologicalchangesthatmarktheoriginofour Europeanpopulations, consistent withrecent & Brooks2000).Thefirst 1999;McBrearty geneticevidence(Krauseetal 2007)that species(Watts problem indicatesthata criticalgene knownto underliespeech - with thisinterpretation is thatthe emergenceof modern seemsolderthantheestimate thatgenetinamelyFOXP2- was presentintheNeanderthal genomeand behaviourinAfrica


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cistsproposefortheoriginofour species(e.g. Ingmanetal fossils 2000),andolderthantheageoftheoldestknownAfrican attributed tomodernhumans(e.g.Clarketal.2003;McDougall etal. 2005).ThisindicatesthatarchaicHomosapiensand not AMHsmayhavebeenresponsible forthefirst use ofpigments inAfrica, linkestablished thusbreaking thefunctional bythe Out of Africascenariobetweenbiologicaland cognitive ofa detaileddescription oftheallegchange.Thepublication from the formation is neededto edly-used pigments Kapturin testthishypothesis.The second problemis thatthereis evidenceforsystematic use byEuropean convincing pigment Neanderthals withAMHs.Ongoinganalypriortoanycontact sis of Pech I pigmentatious materialsshowsthattheuse of at least at thatsite,consistent withtheir is, manganesepieces useforbodyandgarment suchbehaviour isusually decoration; associatedwiththeneed to transmit inforsocially-mediated A degreeofuncertainty mation. andprobably remains, always willremain,when symbolic intentis attributed to technical actions.Thisambiguity, theinterprehowever, equallyaffects tationofNeanderthal and MSApigments. One may pigments evenarguethatthereshouldbe moreconcernovertheambisincethemodified areasofthesepieces guityofMSApigments, havenotyetbeensubmitted tothetypeofanalysisappliedto PechI pieces.Thesystematic useofpigments byNeanderthals showsthatthisis notspecies-specific behaviourand supports theviewthatthecognitiveprerequisites of modernhuman behaviour wereinplacepriortotheemergence ofbothbiologiand'modern'populations 2003;Zilhão (d'Errico cally'archaic7 inpressb). 2006;2007;d'Errico& Vanhaeren, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wouldliketo thankMarlizeLombardforinviting me to contribute a chapterto thisvolumehonouringLynWadley, and forherconstructive comments on thefirstdraftof this I also thankMarieSoressi,MarianVanhaeren, manuscript. ChrisHenshilwood, for JoãoZilhãoand KarenVanNiekerk, thestimulating discussions we havehad on thetopicoverthe lasttenyears.Thisworkwas fundedby theOriginofMan, oftheEuropeanScience LanguageandLanguagesprogramme Foundation(ESF) and theFrenchMinistry of Research(ACI et territoires). Espaces REFERENCES

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