learning to teach: teaching to learn

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A PROPOSAL FOR THE ‘COLOMBIAN FRAMEWORK FOR ENGLISH (COFE PROJECT)’ IN THE B.A. UNIVERSITY LICENCIATURA PROGRAMMES: ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (Working and Discussion Document)

LEARNING TO TEACH: TEACHING TO LEARN Blanca APARICIO de Escorcia Universidad del Valle

Jorge E. BENAVIDES B. Universidad de Nariño, Pasto

Melba Libia CÁRDENAS Universidad Nacional de Colombia

Juan OCHOA Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia

Carlos OSPINA Universidad de Caldas

Oscar ZULUAGA Universidad del Cauca

Department of English Language Teaching Faculty of Humanities and Languages London, UK, 1995 0

TABLE OF CONTENTS LEARNING TO TEACH: TEACHING TO LEARN INTRODUCTION PART I. LEARNING TO TEACH CHAPTER I: A FRAMEWORK FOR INSET 1.1. BACKGROUND 1.1.1. The role of universities in providing in-service courses 1.1.2. Roles of Secretarías de Educación in promoting INSET 1.1.3. School teachers' professional competence 1.1.4. Forms of INSET carried out in Colombia 1.2. PLANNING AND RUNNING INSET COURSES 1.2.1. Aims of teacher education 1.2.2. Philosophical principles in teacher education 1.2.2.1. The constituents of teacher education 1.2.2.2. A guide of flexible stages for INSET 1.2.2.3. Reflection: A means to explore and evaluate experience 1.2.3. Teacher preparation practices: Materials, activities and procedures 1.3. CLASSROOM OBSERVATION AND SUPERVISION 1.3.1. Clinical supervision 1.3.2. The teacher as self-observer 1.3.3. Types of feedback 1.4. ELT TEACHER TRAINERS 1.4.1. Who will train the teachers? 1.4.2. Roles of trainers 1.5. EVALUATION IN IN-SERVICE COURSES 1.6. ASSESSMENT 1.7. MAXIMISING BENEFITS IN INSET 1.7.1. The need for follow-up 1.7.2. Overcoming problems in intensive courses 1.7.3. Resistance to change in INSET 1.8. OTHER ALTERNATIVES FOR INSET 1.8.1. School-based INSET 1.8.2. Distance learning 1

CHAPTER II: INSET FOR THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 2.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 2.2. SELF-APPRAISAL IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 2.2.1. OBSERVATION 2.2.2. REFLECTION 2.3. EFFICIENT ELT PRACTICE IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 2.4. EFFECTIVE PRIMARY SCHOOL CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 2.5. INSET POTENTIAL AREAS FOR THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 2.6. SUMMING UP THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TEACHING CHILDREN AND CLASSICAL EFL PRACTICES

CHAPTER III: IN-SERVICE COURSES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 3.1. PREVIOUS IN-SERVICE COURSES IN COLOMBIA 3.2. TOWARDS NEW ARRANGEMENTS FOR IN-SERVICE COURSES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 3.2.1. Some general considerations 3.2.2. Some basic ideas that should support the implementation of in-service courses 3.2.3. Steps in our proposal for In-service courses for secondary school teachers 3.2.3.1. Pre-course links with schools 3.2.3.2. Strategies for establishing teachers' needs in In-service programs 3.2.3.3. Stages in planning In-service courses 3.2.3.3.1. Identifying in-service training principles 3.2.3.3.2. Define training content or components 3.2.3.3.3. Select training processes 3.2.3.3.3.1. Pre-course tasks 3.2.3.3.3.2. Hints while running the course 3.2.3.4. Evaluation 3.2.3.4.1. Process evaluation 3.2.3.4.2. Self-evaluation 3.2.4. Post in-service course training activities 3.2.4.1. The need for follow-up activities 3.2.4.2. Self-monitoring or self-observation as a means to control innovation CONCLUSIONS IMPLICATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY 2

PART II. TEACHING TO LEARN CHAPTER IV: LEARNER AUTONOMY INTRODUCTION JUSTIFICATION LEARNING HOW TO LEARN DEFINITION. WHAT IS LEARNING? LEARNING HOW TO LEARN LEARNING STYLES 1. Cognitive factors 2. Affective factors 3. Environmental factors THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AUTONOMY 4.1. AUTONOMY IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 4.2. REASONS FOR PROMOTING LEARNERS' AUTONOMY 4.2.1. Practical reasons 4.2.2. Educational aims 4.2.3. Differences in cognitive style 4.2.4. Learning strategies 4.3. ATTITUDES TOWARDS LEARNERS' AUTONOMY 4.3.1. Socialisation processes 4.3.2. Conflicting role demands for the language learner 4.3.3. Lack of metacognitive knowledge 4.3.4. Self-esteem 4.4. THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN PROMOTING AUTONOMY

CHAPTER V: TEACHING TO LEARN: A PROPOSAL 5.1. PART I. SELF-AWARENESS 5.2. PART II. DEVELOPING STRATEGIES 5.2.1. Managing the interaction 5.2.2. Managing the information 5.2.2.1. Strategy 1. Selectively attending 5.2.2.2. Strategy 2. Associating 5.2.2.3. Strategy 3. Categorising 5.2.2.4. Strategy 4. Pattern learning 3

5.2.2.5. Strategy 5. Inferencing 5.2.3. Managing the resources 5.3. THE WAY FORWARD 5.4. AUTONOMY AND SELF-ACCESS BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER VI: THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) IN PROMOTING AUTONOMY INTRODUCTION A. Overview B. The information revolution C. The role of Information Technology in Education 6.1. THE CONTEXT OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING 6.1.1. Brief History of Computers in Education 6.1.2. Computer-Assisted language learning 6.2. A METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK FOR CALL 6.2.1. Introduction 6.2.2. Approach 6.2.2.1. Theories of language learning 6.2.2.2. Exploratory and discovery learning 6.2.2.3. Collaborative learning 6.2.2.4. A Humanistic Approach to CALL 6.2.3. Design 6.2.3.1. The role of the teacher 6.2.3.2. The role of the learner 6.2.3.3. The role of the computer 6.2.4. Procedure 6.2.4.1. Computer-based activities 6.2.4.2. CALL Communicative activities 6.2.4.3. Program types 6.2.4.4. Evaluation of CALL Software 6.2.4.5. Pedagogical considerations 6.2.5. Interaction in CALL 6.2.6. Computers, teachers and the language lab 6.2.7. The computer as a language teacher 6.3. MULTIMEDIA 6.4. CALL AND SELF-ACCESS 4

6.5. TEACHER TRAINING 6.5.1. Training and the new technology 6.5.2. Teacher training in CALL 6.5.3. Pedagogical issues for the trainer 6.6. COMPUTER LITERACY 6.6.1. Attitudes towards computers 6.6.2. Computers and the language teacher 6.6.3. Technophobia 6.7. COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING PROPOSAL 6.7.1. CALL in the language curriculum 6.7.2. CALL, Self-Access, and Autonomous Learning 6.7.3. Appropriate technology and effective learning 6.7.4. Conditions for CALL integration into the language curriculum 6.7.5. CALL in the Colombian foreign language programs 6.7.5.1. Justification 6.7.5.2. Objectives 6.7.6. Stages within the CALL project 6.7.6. Stages within the CALL project 6.7.6.1. The introductory stage 6.7.6.2. The operational stage 6.7.6.3. Objectives of this stage 6.7.6.4. The integrational stage 6.7.6.5. The project's committee CONCLUSION BILIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER VII: THE USE OF VIDEO IN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND TEACHER TRAINING 7.1. INTRODUCTION 7.2. DEFINITION OF THE TERM VIDEO 7.3. RATIONALE 7.4. SOURCES OF VIDEO MATERIALS 7.4.1. Commercially ready-made video 7.4.2. Off-air or authentic television materials 7.4.3. Films 7.5. ADVANTAGES OF USING AUTHENTIC TELEVISION AS VIDEO MATERIAL 7.6. ADVANTAGES OF VIDEO OVER OTHER TYPES OF AUDIOVISUAL AIDS 7.7. APPROACH TO THE USE OF VIDEO IN LANGUAGE TEACHING 7.7.1. Pre-viewing 5

7.7.2. While-viewing 7.7.3. Post-viewing 7.8. VIDEO IN TEACHER TRAINING 7.8.1 Sample activity worksheet 7.9. VIDEO AND SELF-ACCESS CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS

CHAPTER VIII: RESOURCE CENTRES AND OTHER LEARNING FACILITIES 8.1. TYPES OF RESOURCE CENTRES 8.2. SETTING UP A RESOURCE CENTRE 8.2.1. Users 8.2.2. Services 8.2.3. Resources 8.2.3.1. Learning materials 8.2.3.2. Equipment 8.2.3.3. Staffing resources 8.2.4. Management infrastructure 8.2.4.1. Storage and display of materials 8.2.4.2. Cataloguing 8.2.4.3. Access 8.2.4.4. Regulations 8.3. PREPARATION AND TRAINING 8.3.1. Teacher preparation 8.3.2. Learner preparation 8.4. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY

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LEARNING TO TEACH: TEACHING TO LEARN.

INTRODUCTION The title of this working document encompasses two intimately interconnected and inseparable aspects of our profession: improving our daily teaching and leading the students to learn how to learn. They are so closely linked together that it is always a point of discussion which one should go first. The reason is that if we genuinely believe it is our duty to turn the students into independent, responsible and efficient learners, it is first necessary that we the teachers develop and practise the same learning styles. Thus we advocate for teachers who practise the theory supporting our profession that they can become models worth being followed initially, but encouraging of further learning in the students beyond our presence or influence. Learning to teach conveys, on the one hand, what the authors of this document consider should be the core of our work as both pre-service teacher trainers and as promoters of in-service education. Throughout this document, we have attempted to cater for the sector of ELT in Colombia that had somehow been neglected in the project before and which is the vast number of teachers already working in both primary and secondary school nation-wide. We feel that unless the COFE project devises ways to further qualify in-service teachers, the project will have little impact on improving the standards of English teaching in Colombia. Focusing solely on our Modern Language students at the university does not guarantee there will be significant results for the project since it may take quite a few years for these students to become teachers and to begin applying the improvements accomplished as a result of the project. For the sake of achieving a more thorough national coverage, we should address the massive body of teachers in Colombia so that they can feel part of the project. But more important, it should be expected that their students come to benefit from the improved teaching conditions the COFE project pursues, thus leading to better learning of English which after all is the ultimate goal of the project. That is why we have designed the first part of the project to be Learning to Teach which is intended for the university teacher-trainer, the pre-service student or just the in-service teacher. By learning to teach we approach the major considerations that in-service courses should attend to: raising the teacher's awareness through motivation, observation, and reflection schemes; pursuing her professional development, participating actively in this process, and maintaining this philosophy throughout her career. The current conditions of the teaching of English in both the primary school and high school levels in Colombia have been analysed in order to propose schemes leading to the further qualification of the teaching staff. It is sought that by having the teachers reflect upon their career and develop a positive attitude towards change and, consequently, their continuous professional development, this effect will trickle down to their students who will take on their learning in a more autonomous and efficient manner. 7

Teaching to Learn suggests, above all, a double responsibility. On the one part of the teacher who in his role of adviser and supporter, he must create the possibilities for independent learning and encourage the learner to take decisive action on his own development. On the part of the learner who must strive to break away from his traditionally dependent role to become an autonomous and effective thinker. Learning how to learn implies going through a process of awareness and strategic development. Chapter 5 suggests ways of facilitating this process by proposing activities for self-development in the language classroom. The role of educational and information technologies is also explored in depth in chapters 6 and 7, and chapter 8 opens the way to making self-access possible in the context of resource centres and other self-access facilities. Throughout this document, the word trainer is used as such for the sake of convenience given all the bulk of existing literature where it is widely used, but not implying behaviourist connotations. The trainer here is more the developer, facilitator, or provider of in-service qualification programmes of courses for teachers to-be or in-service teachers. The term INSET encompasses all matters dealing with in-service teacher education, teacher training, and teacher development. These will be used interchangeably to refer to the teacher's professional growth which should be the result of developing her confidence, self-reliance, selfesteem, and resolution to face the challenges her professional development entail.

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PART I. LEARNING TO TEACH Teacher training is a question of looking again at how people learn -this time, not how people learn languages but how people learn to be teachers. So, the emphasis is on the "how" not the "what", on process and means, rather than content. (Wajnryb, 1991: 26)

CHAPTER I: A FRAMEWORK FOR INSET Radical educational changes in Colombia such as the introduction of foreign languages in the primary school curriculum, the requirements of the P.E.I. (Proyecto Educativo Institucional), and the socio-economic demands of a changing world that presents for us the need to learn to communicate in other languages, increase the urgency for in-service courses, sometimes on a national scale, and sometimes more particularly in definite regions to which a special concern or problem is germane. The education of teachers will have therefore to be at the centre of any programme of educational reform since there is little hope of progress without systematic continuing inservice education. Fortunately this is a favourable time for changes in the initial and in-service education of teachers. Though the COFE Project did not state in-service programmes as one of its aims in the initial stage, it has gained importance as a way to prepare the grounds for implementing reforms in the educational system and to bridge the gap between new graduates and experienced teachers so that they work together to achieve the desired high quality in education. We are conscious that in-service teacher education is the primary policy instrument for helping teachers to master their new roles and responsibilities. INSET can be addressed to the entire existing 'stock' of teachers, while pre-service programmes can reach only the relatively small flow that enters the profession each year. INSET is therefore a more responsive instrument for accomplishing rapid change. Nevertheless, initial teacher education has important long-term consequences and, no doubt, it will be the path to bring about lasting reform of our educational system. This chapter does not purport to prescribe a new approach to teacher education, but rather seeks to raise key issues of current teacher education practices which will have to be considered by university teachers who will face the responsibility of running in-service courses. As Freeman notes, Teacher training is a fact of life: just about anyone who has been teaching for a while has played the impromptu role of teacher trainer in one form or another" But the base of experience needs frameworks and contexts within which it can be profitably applied to the preparation and development of teachers. (Freeman, in Duff, 1988, 110)

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We will start by referring to the Colombian ELT background by addressing issues such as the roles of universities and Secretarías de Educación in in-service programmes and the school teachers' professional competence. Then, we will consider the aims, philosophical principles and pedagogical points that are thought to be adequate for implementing INSET. Finally, we will propose some ideas for developing in-service courses for primary and secondary school teachers. 1.1. Background 1.1.1. The role of universities in providing in-service courses According to the New Education Act, universities should have the responsibility of running the in-service programmes for school teachers. However, universities lack public recognition of their standards of performance in teacher education. Many school teachers, specialists, or general practitioners argue that universities have devoted most of their efforts to initial-teacher preparation in theoretical issues which do not match the reality of teaching settings. This is due to the fact that trainees are instructed by staff with no experience of the actual conditions under which the teaching is to be done. Others assert that universities are at present incapable of planning or co-ordinating in-service programmes because the quality of initial teacher education has not guaranteed teachers' efficiency in contributing to high or at least adequate English proficiency levels of students leaving secondary schools. As can be deduced, many people appear to deny that universities have developed expertise in providing similar services at under-graduate level, or give little value to the paramount role played by Licenciatura programmes in determining initial professional preparation. Whether we entirely agree or not with the assertions mentioned above, the imperative need for universities is to establish links and feedback from in-service courses to pre-service courses and vice versa, as in-service development shall keep pace with other educational progress. In other words, if there are modifications in the general academic studies in Colombia as well as in the professional studies of the pre-service programmes, there must be even greater developments in in-service education. Consequently, it is our challenge to undertake the task of working with school teachers to know what goes on in their context with a view to offer in-service programmes that allow teachers to benefit from innovations and insights coming from universities. This will also contribute to improve our Licenciatura programmes and to suit the actual needs of those practitioners. Getting universities and schools together for mutual benefit cannot be achieved overnight. The present relationship between universities and schools tends to be one in which the universities play a supervisory role, and the staff in schools feel that they have a lower and inferior status. These facts, amongst others, will have a bearing when considering the roles of trainers as well as INSET arrangements. It cannot be forgotten that in-service needs of the general practitioner teacher are different from those of the highly trained specialist. The general practitioner starts off from an original main interest in pupils; the specialist from his main academic discipline. The former may well need more academic reference and the latter more knowledge of pupils. 10

1.1.2. Roles of Secretarías de Educación in promoting INSET Changes in education are placing important, new responsibilities for teachers across a full range of functions -including design and reform of the curriculum, adoption of instructional methods in tune with the P.E.I. (Proyecto Educativo Institucional), allocation of resources, planning and assessment of school progress. As said before, teachers are at the heart of educational development. Any benefits that accrue to students as a result of educational policies require the enabling action of teachers since expert motivated, flexible teaching staff are the most vital component of high quality provision (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1994). Yet, there seems to be no recognition of the value and need for the continuing professional development of school teachers of English in most Secretarías de Educación, and there does not exist a framework within which in-service can take place. For in-service programmes to be effective in increasing the quality of English language teaching and students' proficiency, it is necessary to make provision for professional development schemes and policies that take into consideration the teachers' conditions of service, so that both teachers from the public and private sectors be involved in programmes leading to examining and improving their teaching practices. In fact, the new Education Act estates that there must be committees responsible for in-service programmes in every Secretaría de Educación. The major novelty is that Secretarías de Educación and universities are coming together for the first time to work in achieving common objectives. Universities would have to contribute in diagnosing local contexts and in organising and developing action plans for different kinds of in-service opportunities. A further implication has to do with making continuing provision at local level so that an action plan takes into account the time-tables for in-service courses, universities plans for running courses on particular areas -closely related to their trainers' interests, experience, or research, or based on specific schools and teachers' requests. A serious attempt should be made to collate in at least one central point all the publications which deal with in-service facilities normally available for teachers in the area (departamentos, municipios, and zonas). COFE and ASOCOPI Newsletters, the resource centres, teachers' unions like FECODE, and schools organisations like CONACED could contribute to keeping teachers informed about in-service programmes and professional development activities in general. On the other hand, it should be clear that if teachers of English are to be encouraged to attend INSET, financial inducements will have to be offered to reduce costs which are almost always assumed by practitioners. Needless to say, it implies that a great deal more money will have to be available in the future than has been in the past and that, therefore, the Ministry of Education as well as Secretarías de Educación will admit that the prior planning of in-service courses to meet future situations is as important, and surely less expensive, than the creation of courses to resolve difficulties which have already arisen. 1.1.3. School teachers' professional competence Several factors have contributed to standards of ELT in secondary schools not always being of the highest. First, it is often the case that beginning teachers are thrown in at the deep end and 11

left to fend for themselves, with little if any professional guidance or assistance from the school authorities, M.E.N. or Secretarías de Educación. Secondly, prospective teachers often know more about theoretical and general educational aspects than how to teach a good lesson, or how to manage crowded classes. This aspect is closely related to the third one: ineffectiveness of initial teacher preparation. The fourth factor is a complex one but easy to name: lack of good quality of ELT materials and teachers' skills to improve them. Lastly, the motivation of the students in general has a bearing on standards of teaching. To be aware of the fact that most students can hardly cope with a simple communicative situation after four years of schooling is distressing, and we may wonder if this fact has influenced teachers' motivation for work and then, their efforts to overcome difficulties or to motivate students, when teaching higher levels of secondary schools. There is another aspect which ought to be considered in more detail. This is the apparent lack of interest shown by many school teachers in analysing, planning and self-evaluating the way they handle the teaching-learning process. Paradoxically, those teachers most in need of in-service are the least likely to be involved in it, as it is the energetic, active and enthusiastic teachers who tend to participate in events leading to improve their language competence as well as their effectiveness in teaching. It may also happen that teachers are afraid to attend in-service courses in ELT because they lack command in the language to endeavour in the academic work the courses demand, or just because they have never followed an in-service course in ELT. In other words, they may be nervous about exposing what they see as their inadequacies in a public forum, and may need reassurance. These factors should be considered by in-service providers so that teachers be offered opportunities to have support (e.g. from advisors or from materials to be found in the resource centres) in language practice and/or up-dating in methodology that build up their self-confidence and motivate them to continue professional development (e.g. through other in-services courses, workshops, conferences, work in projects, or independent learning). Despite the gloomy tone of much of the above, there are grounds for cautious optimism about the future of ELT in Colombia. Demands for English are certain to remain high and universities are conscious of the responsibilities they have in offering effective INSET. Additionally, the M.E.N. has reaffirmed its support for the COFE Project and that assures the potential role of the resource centres in contributing to INSET related to the project objectives. 1.1.4. Forms of INSET carried out in Colombia A range of in-service provisions have been implemented by the Instituto Electrónico de Idiomas, some universities, the British Council, teachers' associations like ASOCOPI, and the ColomboAmerican Centres in Colombia: Single lectures, informal activities, conferences, workshops, short weekend courses, short evening courses, short courses in school time, vacation courses, action research with university staff helping teachers to develop the skills to undertake a research within the school, and consultancy over particular aspects of the schools' work. All types of in-service activities listed before are valuable and have had some impact in teaching quality, but for the purpose of the present document, we would basically lead our attention 12

towards the planning and running of in-service courses. An in-service course is understood as a systematic and sustained work over a lengthy period of time and in which school teachers engage, following their initial professional certification. That work intends primarily to improve the teachers' professional knowledge, skills and attitudes in order that they can educate students more effectively and, in almost all cases, get further qualification in the form of credits or certificates (Hopkins, 1986). In the subsequent sections we will endeavour in pointing out aspects we think pertinent in our task of organising, developing and monitoring in-service teacher education programmes. 1.2. Planning and running inset courses 1.2.1. Aims of teacher education In-service education aims vary with the teachers' needs, previous in-service courses experiences, teaching situation, length of service, career prospects and resources available. INSET courses are often related to either one or many of these ideas: extension of knowledge, consolidation and reaffirmation of knowledge, acquaintance with curricular developments, repetition and extension of original pre-service education after intervals, i.e. positive retraining, and conversion courses. These ones are planned to "convert" teachers from work with pupils at one stage of education, or of one age, to the somewhat different work of teaching children at another stage or of a different age. Now, given the fact that we need to provide educational programmes in which trainees be involved in experiences that replicate the demands of their actual teaching, we can orient our efforts to facilitating language and methodological improvement as well as to promoting professional development. 

Language improvement Teachers, in order to facilitate the development of learners' communicative competence, should themselves have a great degree of language proficiency. Consequently, bearing in mind that the commonest trainees' needs and expectations are for language improvement, language work should be an important component in in-service courses. It is usually through insights into the use of language forms that participants can benefit. However, there are difficulties: it is impossible to eradicate common errors or improve pronunciation, for example, without breaking up the flow of the in-service course session, and in any case mere correction, without further teaching or follow-up, is unlikely to help in the eradication of persistent errors. As we see, the teachers' own level of competence in English is a significant factor in the planning of in-service courses. In order to foster general language improvement we consider that: * Grammar and written English can be practised by asking teachers to produce lesson plans, brief reports and projects. 13

* Some time should be given to focus on participants' weak points either in a plenary or in tutorial sessions in which we would examine the products and consider strategies that may be used to improve future performances. * Extra oral fluency practice can be gained by ensuring ample time for group discussions. * Resource centres should provide materials for different levels of language proficiency so that teachers could have extra-class practice that suits their current needs. * If possible, in-service sessions could allocate specific time for the language component. In that case, a diagnostic test would provide precise information for the strand's aims and contents. Furthermore, this arrangement could serve three main purposes: concrete attention to teachers' language improvement, teachers’ participation in learning experiences, and reflection on those experiences. * The course materials should include a strong language improvement component, closely integrated with the content language most school textbooks and syllabuses cover as well as with the teachers' expressed/identified needs. 

Methodological improvement TASK 1

1. What sort of balance between theory and practice should there be in in-service courses? 2. Which factors would determine that balance?

According to Britten (1985), the first aim of the methodological component is that of relating practice to principle: developing an awareness of the rationale of particular procedures and of when they are useful; relating one procedure to another; relating short-term objectives to longterm aims; and understanding the organisation of language courses in terms of ends and means. In brief, the aim is to develop the basic "know how" skills. This leads us to visualise a particular situation: In order to help teachers to respond to the demands of the teaching tendencies, English language in-service courses tend somehow to equip teachers with a stock of techniques for making lessons 'interesting' and for 'getting it across', but not very much to consider the principles behind teaching practices In the report about classroom-oriented action-research carried out by Jiménez et al. in Ten Colombian Universities, Murphy (1994, 13) remarks that trainee teachers in the final year of their Licenciatura Programme pointed to an imbalance and lack of connection between theory and practice in their professional preparation courses. They are treated to discursive descriptions of approaches and not led to a coherent understanding and approach, rooted in their experience and practice.

This situation identified in pre-service may not differ very much from INSET programmes. In view of what has been said, we need to think about the attention given to the theoretical treatment of methodology. It does not mean that in-service courses should be intended to produce either linguists or educational theorists. It means that we, trainees and trainers, have to assume that the principles behind particular teaching practices do not exist as abstract generalisations. These principles only have value insofar as they are seen to be based on successful practice and insofar as they produce successful practice. That is to say, the use of theoretical principles should be explicitly related to the need to solve practical problems. 14

It should be stressed that the treatment of relevant theoretical components in in-service course sessions facilitates the teachers' understanding of the principles behind specific teaching practices. If teachers are given opportunities to elicit and discuss such principles, it is likely that they undertake the task of evaluating the rationale against their own classroom experience (Ramani, 1987). Furthermore, theoretical components foster and underpin attitude change during training itself and minimise reversion, once training is over, to older or ineffective teaching models. By considering the principles underpinning teaching practices, teachers develop their 'personal theories of action' (Ur, 1992). Hence, we would have to bear in mind that the pedagogy of inservice courses should integrate teaching practice and observation through a variety of experiential activities and procedures characterised by critical discussion and reflection (e.g. case studies, evaluation of data coming from pupils). It is now time for universities to begin to move from the clear rationalistic and academic orientation to think about teacher preparation programmes "designed to develop the professional theory of action of participants through the integration of both practical and theoretical input, experience and reflection" (ibid. 61).

TASK 2 1. Read the following suggestions and list other areas and/or topics that could be addressed in INSET programmes. Suggestions Since linguistic theory is part of the underpinning of language teaching methodology, some awareness may be called for. From linguistics itself we can take accounts of the nature of language, and/or ways of describing the structure and use of the language. From psycholinguistics we can take accounts of the language-learning process in particular and of how the mind deals with language in general. Lastly, from sociolinguistics we can take accounts of how language is used in social situations. 2. Choose one of the areas/topics considered above and think about an INSET activity for primary school teachers of English to relate theory and practice. 

Professional development Several authors (Edge, 1988; Freeman, 1989; Wallace, 1991) have made the distinction between 'teacher training' and 'teacher development'. Although we will refer to these issues later on, it is fair to say beforehand that training is something that can be presented or managed by others; whereas development is something that can be done only by and for oneself. On the basis of the above assertion, one realises that for professional development to occur, experiences are needed which take teachers beyond 'training' and which seek to develop the teachers' awareness and control of the principles underlying effective teaching -planning, organisation, management, and delivery. These educational experiences should prepare the ground for critical thinking, autonomy and self-direction, all of which secure life long duration through self-monitoring.

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Provided that in-service programmes focus on clarifying and elucidating the concepts and teaching processes that guide the effective teaching of English, teachers can continue to grow and develop in their profession. To do so, they should be able to make better choices, informed by their experience as well as by the rationale of English language teaching. It is relevant to note that professional development should embrace personal development (individualised learning) and staff development (the collegiality of group learning) (Bell and Day, 1991). The reasoning behind this is that the interdependent relationship of the school and the teacher is crucial: a teacher cannot improve her performance consistently if the school organisation is in poor conditions, if the proposals she brings into the classroom do not fit what goes on in the school in terms of say, curriculum, approaches and aims agreed upon by school organisation. After all, the total functioning of the school rests on the sum of the individual teachers' contributions. Therefore, if the organisation can harmonise the individual teachers' interests for professional development, with the requirements of the school organisation as derived from its educational aims, it will improve both individual and school performance. In such circumstances, much of the professional advancements of individual teachers will benefit and affect the improvement of the school. In view of this, we hope that INSET courses motivate teachers to endeavour in projects which are conceived in the light of the school P.E.I. so that they are capable of applying what is being developed in those courses for their own growth as well as for the school improvement. Finally, we need to be aware that simple exposure to new teaching ideas will not in itself be sufficient to guarantee self-development. What teachers need from INSET providers is a learning experience that will be sufficiently impressive and supportive to urge them to integrate existing skills with new suggestions, and so develop a more complete methodology and theoretical basis that respond to the reality of their teaching environment. Likewise, selfdevelopment cannot be undertaken unless there is defined policy translated into INSET plans, support and enough funding from M.E.N., Secretarías de Educación, and schools administrators. 1.2.2. Philosophical principles in teacher education In-service teacher education programmes, as any educational attempt, is determined by some sort of ideology or philosophical principles. Taking into account the aims of teacher education already mentioned, we propose that in-service programmes in ELT can be developed by considering valuable aspects from the "Descriptive model of teaching: The constituents" (Freeman, 1989), "The 'E.R.O.T.I' model: A teacher training planning guide" (O'Brien, 1981), and "The reflective model" (Wallace, 1991). In other words, we propose that for running in-service courses for school teachers of English in our country, three main entities should be borne in mind: * The constituents of teacher education * A guide of flexible stages on which we can base in-service courses procedures * Reflection, as a means of exploration and evaluation of experience.

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1.2.2.1. The constituents of teacher education Freeman (1989) describes language teaching as a decision-making process based on four constituents: knowledge, skills, attitudes and awareness. Let us consider what each one of them implies. 

Knowledge Knowledge embodies what is being taught, to whom it is being taught, and where (the sociocultural, institutional, and situational contexts). As said before, professional knowledge embodies received knowledge and experiential knowledge. Although it is assumed that the success of a training course depends on the extent to which teachers accept new ideas as 'their own', there are certain aspects to bear in mind. First of all, teachers bring considerable previous knowledge, derived from skills training and their own learning experiences. They also possess some sort of language learning theory which underpins what they do in the classroom. Thus, it is not our task to falsify trainees' beliefs, but to get them to think about things being done in the classroom, and to help them to establish links between received knowledge and experiential knowledge, as well as between the training situation and the reality of the teaching practice itself. 

Skills Skills define what the teacher has to be able to do. However, we cannot favour a merely mechanical performance of abilities. We believe that teachers will succeed in transferring skills to new or different teaching-learning situations if they are able to determine appropriateness of the skills as well as to adjust them to the learners and to a variety of situations. Principles and skills are tools for action. Taken together, knowledge and skills make up what is often referred to as the knowledge base of teaching. Although it evolves throughout the teachers' professional life, it is on these broad foundations that teachers base their decisions. Now, it is the implementation of this knowledge what constitutes the main concern of training. Training, as explained by Freeman (1989), is a process of direct intervention by the trainer. The process is initiated by the trainer, but carried out by the trainee to work on specific aspects of teaching. Training can be run within a fixed time period, once criteria are met. 

Attitudes Attitudes can be defined as the stances one adopts towards the activity of teaching and the participants engaged in the teaching-learning process. No doubt, attitudes influence the effectiveness of teachers but, can in-service education affect teachers' attitudes? We are certain that teacher education is about changing them and that there seem to be changes in observable behaviours, in beliefs and in the way teachers perceive the acts of teaching. In fact, we expect in-service outcomes to be new teachers' attitudes. However, these outcomes are not homogenous or directly observable.

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Awareness Awareness can be identified as the capacity to recognise and monitor the attention one is giving or has given to something. This capacity can account for why teachers grow and change. As with the development of attitudes, awareness may be immediate, or it may be delayed, so one has to keep in mind that awareness may arise from teacher education practices which stimulate the trainees' capacity to scan the processes taking part in their teaching settings. Access to each of the other three teacher education constituents is through teachers' awareness: Teachers can be or become aware of how much they possess, how well skilled they are, or how productive their attitudes are. As can be seen, awareness as the superordinate constituent has a fundamental role in how the teacher makes use of the other three constituents. We have referred to training as the educating strategy which entails knowledge and skills. We can now concentrate on development, a process raised by the tutor, but whose work is undertaken by the trainee. Contrary to training, which is a process of direct influence, teacher development is a process of influence in which the trainer works to provoke the trainee's awareness of what the latter is doing. It involves a process of reflection, critique, and refinement of the teacher's classroom practice. For this reason, development is a less predictable or directed strategy than training, and though the trainer works through development strategies to clarify and expand the teacher's awareness of what the teacher is doing and why, development is internal, personal to teachers and open-ended. It is worth to observe that for development to happen, attitude toward, and awareness of self in the teaching situation, are necessary. By addressing the teacher's experience and perceptions of teaching, the trainer encourages and supports the teacher to generate her own solutions. We have pointed out the four constituents of teacher education, which involve constant shifts, negotiations, actions and responses to numerous variables. Let us now examine the importance of decision making, because it is on the basis of those four constituents that teachers' decisionmaking capability grows.

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Descriptive Model of Teaching: The Constituents (Freeman, 1989: 36)

The process of informed decision-making will involve the teacher in investigating what options are open, examining them in the light of decisions made by others (e.g. materials designers, curriculum, school arrangements), and of practical constraints given in the teaching reality. It will also involve choosing the option which will most appropriately mediate between the two. The number and nature of options available to individual teachers will depend in part on the practical experience they bring to the task, in part on how familiar they are with relevant theory, and in part on the sensitivity and talents of the individual. 1.2.2.2. A guide of flexible stages for INSET We have argued that attention needs to be given to the constituents of teacher education for they are the basis of teachers' decision-making. Particular importance should also be assigned to teacher education procedures. We find that the 'E.R.O.T.I.' model (O'Brien, 1981) offers a valuable guide for sequencing those procedures.

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The 'E.R.O.T.I.' Model: A teacher training planning guide (O'Brien, 1981: 59) In the diagram above, the two-dimensional arrows indicate that we are allowed to mix elements together, while the broken arrows propound that the sequence is more likely to be effective via rationale. Before trying something out or attempting to integrate it, we are recommended to start with direct experience of a technique or idea, or by observing the technique in operation, or by studying its rationale in terms of underlying principles. It goes without saying that the sequence is flexible and that the degree of emphasis to be given to each one will depend on the aims of the course, on the objectives of particular sessions, on relevance and time available; on the personality of trainees and trainers, their cultural, educational and professional backgrounds; and finally, the trainees' levels of training and experience. 1.2.2.3. Reflection: A means to explore and evaluate experience If we think about the philosophical orientations that have been observed in the Colombianteacher education programmes, we can say that there has been a combination of three philosophical orientations (also named models): The craft model, the applied science model and the reflective model (Wallace, 1991). That combination has been the result of the diverse perspectives of individuals (e.g. trainers, counsellors) and educational policies (e.g. Ministry of Education regulations, training traditions). Each of them is held together by a set of common assumptions about the nature and purposes of schooling, teaching, teachers and their education, that determines specific forms of practice in teacher education. Now, let us analyse 20

very briefly the philosophical principles that constitute the essence of those orientations and some of the implications of each model in the light of our ELT context. The craft model to teacher education is viewed as a process of apprenticeship in which trainees are expected to develop specific and observable skills of teaching. It is believed that trainees learn by copying the techniques demonstrated by the trainers, by following the experts' instructions and advice, and by accumulating that knowledge in a tacit way. As a matter of fact, the part of the teacher in this model is that of recipients of professional knowledge. Perhaps the most prevalent orientation underlying most teacher education programmes is the applied science model. It stresses that teaching problems can be solved by the application of empirical science. In view of this, the findings of scientific knowledge and experimentation are conveyed to the trainee by the experts in specific fields. This model also argues that as professional science develops, it brings about changes in the teaching practice. Nonetheless, these changes in practice are established only by the experts, and not by the teachers themselves. As can be perceived, little value is given to the teachers' expertise derived from experience and it is very likely that there exists a split between science and professional practice. The reflective model has gained great attention in Colombia and attempts to understand its beliefs as well as to base current teacher education practices on it are being made. This model prioritises the development of inquiry about teaching and about the contexts in which teaching is carried out. In view of this, attention is given to both experience and to the scientific basis of the profession. Professional knowledge entails two main dimensions of teacher education: 'received knowledge' and 'experiential knowledge'. The former includes, among other things, facts, data and theories related to some kind of research. The latter relates to the professional's ongoing experience. According to Wallace (ibid.), experiential knowledge derives from two phenomena identified by Schön (1983): 'Knowing in action' and 'reflection'. The first one is associated with tacit recognition that enables the practitioner to make judgements. Reflection, on the other hand, is explained by Boud et al. (1985) as a form of response of the practitioner to experience in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations and to get ready for new experiences. We cannot deny that the accumulation of practice breeds confidence. The development of automatic classroom habits, claimed by the craft model, is a necessary part of professional learning and performance, and we could not function without them. Despite this, it is our view that restricting teacher education programmes to a craft model does not guarantee dynamism and innovation. With respect to the applied science model, we must admit that scientific knowledge contributes in attaining the 'technical mastery' of the working environment. Besides, theoretical knowledge that at first seems irrelevant to teaching is often later, as the teacher becomes more experienced, integrated into 'theories of action' (Ur, 1992). Nevertheless, it is 21

very unlikely that INSET based on purely theoretical input would suit the needs of practitioners. After all, not every problem can be solved by simply receiving the updated knowledge. It follows from the previous arguments and from what we expressed regarding the aims of teacher education, that a link between theory and practice should be maintained. Bastidas et al. (1991) and Cardona et al. (1992) value the functions of the reflective model and propose that teacher education should be based on its principles. To support that recommendation, we can list some of the advantages the model offers: it permits exploration of what is to be acquired, sharpens the judgements about practicality, provides room for weighing alternatives and decision-making, provides corrective feedback on performance, and requires practitioners to tie theoretical and practical information together. Despite the positive aspects we find in the reflective model, we need to admit that there are certain assumptions which cannot easily be achieved in most teacher education conditions. Calderhead (1988) makes the point that reflection, in the general sense of an appraisal of one's own work, requires not only the possession of certain knowledge, critical skills, and a way of conceptualising one's own learning as a reflective process, but also a basic practical competence together with some degree of self-confidence. Reflection requires the development of several attitudes and abilities, such as introspection, open-mindedness, and willingness to accept responsibility for decisions and actions. We also find that reflection implies the availability of ample time for practising and experiencing, the presence of working knowledge on the part of the trainee, and a trainer with capacity for reflective thought and informed critical judgement. These factors will affect, among other things, the planning of in-service programmes, the training procedures, the roles played by trainees and trainers, the materials for INSET, the evaluation of current teaching practices and the evaluation of in-service programmes themselves. We have insisted on the fact that the process of critical inquiry which should accompany inservice education tasks can be improved by the trainer. He can work to trigger the teachers' awareness -which provokes attention towards skills, knowledge and attitudes- of what the latter is doing. In so doing we integrate reflection as a process of becoming aware of one's context. In this section, we have proposed an abstract framework for in-service education which will be subject to various constraints and compromises in specific circumstances. In our attempt to promote self-development and the teachers' decision-making capability, we have argued that the trainer can find guiding principles in the reflective model as well as in the constituents of teacher education. Additionally, we have suggested that in-service courses' sessions can be developed by following the 'E.R.O.T.I.' model stages in which the elements of the reflective model can be incorporated. 1.2.3. Teacher preparation practices: Materials, activities and procedures We have previously said that INSET could be run by following the stages given by O'Brien (1981). In order to ensure the effectiveness of given stages, we can appeal to a varied repertoire of 22

practices: e.g. case studies, demonstrations, classroom teaching, simulations, and elicitations, to name a few. Similarly, we can appeal to a stock of teacher training materials which expose trainees to different types of data (e.g. lesson plans, transcripts, pupils' written work, activities and materials used/created by school teachers, materials proposed to strengthen the classroom practice) and which allow deep insights into the teaching-learning field. Now, it is worth pointing here that many teacher training materials brought into the INSET classroom make assumptions about the teachers, the degree of control over what and how they teach, the time and resources available to them, the size and the flexibility of the class. However, as soon as teachers evaluate their feasibility of putting those materials into practice, differences appear. It therefore becomes essential to assess the aims, the contents, the methodology, and the roles of teachers and trainers implicit in in-service teacher education resources. It is not possible to give an account of all the activities and materials we can exploit in INSET in this document. Rather, we will provide a list of key sources where we can find a detailed classification, definition or illustration of teacher preparation practices and materials: - Ellis (in Richards, 1990) considers experiential (e.g. teaching practice) and awareness-raising teacher preparation practices. He also identifies ways of providing data, different types of tasks, and a sample activity. - Woodward (1992) illustrates ideas for enabling, sharing, eliciting, encouraging, questioning, responding, enriching and developing in INSET courses. She proposes main activities, variations for self-access work, and activities which require some kind of trainer counselling. - Richards and Lockhart (1994) offer a series of activities for exploring classroom processes through observation, self-evaluation, programme evaluation, and action-research. - Wallace (1991) refers to modes of teaching and learning in teacher education courses. - Doff (1988) concentrates his teacher training course on methods and techniques which develop practical skills. - Woodward (1991) talks about strategies that can be applied to particular training topics. - Wajnryb (1992) provides a range of tasks for classroom observation. - Parrot (1993) illustrates tasks to stimulate discussion of key issues related to language teaching and learning. - Wood, et al. (1986-1987) comprise materials for trainers and trainees and which have been used by The Instituto Electrónico de Idiomas for carrying out INSET throughout the country. - De Campo et al. -COFE-Project (1995) propose support materials for the professional preparation component of Licenciatura Programmes.

It is relevant mentioning that teacher preparation practices can be set up by studying teaching and learning from two perspectives described by Richards (1990): A micro- approach and a macro-approach. The former focuses on directly observable characteristics of what the teacher does in the classroom. The latter is holistic and makes generalisations and inferences that go beyond observable characteristics. The micro-analysis of teaching depends on the identification of low-inference categories of teacher behaviour that are believed to contribute to student learning. Among the teacher preparation activities that lead to micro-analysis we have: teaching assistantships, simulations, tutorials, workshops and mini-courses, micro-teaching and case studies (e.g. observing behaviours in video). However, effective teaching cannot be described only in terms of low23

inference skills or competencies. Higher-level categories are also necessary for examining teaching. In the macro-analysis of teaching, emphasis is given to the examination of the total context of the classroom, in an attempt to understand how the interactions between and among teachers, learners, and classroom tasks affect learning. Activities such as practice teaching, observation, self- and peer-observation, seminars and discussion activities are thought to follow the macroanalysis. We can conclude this section by noting that the choices we make in activities and procedures for teacher preparation will affect the atmosphere, role relationships and spirit of the course. Also, it is important to observe that by varying the style of the INSET sessions we aim to optimise learning outcomes: acquisition of knowledge, development of particular skills, projection of theory, reflection on previous knowledge and assumptions, development of new attitudes and personal development. 1.3. Classroom observation and supervision Observation is a technique used to collect data on how learners use language, to study language teaching and learning processes in the classroom and to study teachers' and students' behaviours. Gómez et al. (1993) argue that classroom observation is very relevant for both classroom research and professional development and address key parameters in the recall and analysis of data, as well as various ways in which the primary data may be examined or observed (either directly or indirectly). In the following paragraphs we will focus on the role of observation and supervision in in-service programmes, the models of approaching the observer as well as the teachers' reactions towards supervision. Finally, we will consider self-observation as a means of self-evaluation. Observation is a fundamental, yet often disregarded, tool in in-service work with teachers. It is often forgotten that teachers can think about and conceptualise what goes on in the language classroom through guided, systematic, and focused observation. That is to say, observation can assist the teacher in developing a terminology for understanding and discussing the teaching process, in developing an awareness of the principles and decision making that underlie effective teaching, in distinguishing between effective and ineffective classroom practices, and in identifying techniques and practices they can apply to their own teaching (Day, 1990). It is therefore our task to choose or devise an observation system for generating data for reflection. Among the issues highlighted by Wallace (1991), we may need to heed the following questions: 1. Do we want a complete system which has already been worked out in detail, or would we prefer to work out our own categories to a particular area of concern? 2. How much learning time is involved? 3. Are we interested in looking at the teaching globally or at specific areas? 4. Do we wish to focus on the teacher or the learner, or on some balance between the two? 5. Are we interested only in assessing the classroom events, or are we more interested in formative aspects, or are we interested in classroom data mainly for research purposes? 24

6. Are we interested in acquiring quantitative data or qualitative data, or in a mixture of both? 7. If we are going to measure interaction how are we going to do it?

1.3.1. Clinical supervision We have a wide choice of supervisory behaviours which can be utilised in the process of both pre-service and in-service teacher development programmes. Among them, stands clinical supervision. Clinical supervision is defined by Wallace (ibid.) as "a particular mode of training, namely face-to-face interaction between a supervisor and a teacher or a group of teachers, with reference to some classroom teaching that has previously been observed, the aim of interaction being to discuss and analyse the teaching with a view to professional development of the teacher or teachers concerned" (109). This training mode can be implemented in a variety of ways. Freeman (1982) and Gebhard (1984) have proposed models in order to define the role or function of the supervisor and supervision differently, which we summarise as follows: Approaches

Role of the observer/supervisor

Directive supervision

To direct and inform the teacher; to model teaching behaviours; and to evaluate the teachers' mastery of defined behaviours. Alternative supervision To suggest a variety of alternatives (either by the supervisor or the trainee) to what the teacher has done in the classroom, and to substitute self-generated alternatives for prescribed alternatives. Collaborative supervision To work with teachers but not to direct them. To participate with the teacher in any decisions that are made and to attempt to establish a sharing relationship. Non-directive supervision To encourage teachers to come up with their own solutions to teaching problems, by providing an understanding response. The supervisor is non-judgmental as in the collaborative approach, but does not share responsibility. Creative supervision To combine any of the above approaches, or to shift the responsibility to another source (e.g. another teacher), or to use insights from other fields. Roles and functions of supervision and supervisors

In the models already mentioned there is a tendency to one of two approaches identified by Wallace (1991): the prescriptive approach and the collaborative approach. In the former, trainees welcome the authority of experience as it gives them confidence and relieves their anxiety. In the latter, there is more concern about mutual respect and recognition of strengths and weaknesses in order to foster reflective practice and professional development. We have illustrated that there is a wide choice of supervising behaviours which teacher educators can select from. Working with only one model can be appropriate, or it can be limiting. It is our task to discover which supervisory behaviours work well for the teachers taking part in-service programmes. At this point it is sound considering teachers' reactions towards feedback on observation. Talking about how lessons went is a delicate issue in feedback sessions, especially if we 25

concentrate heavily on individual negative points. Teachers become defensive and frustration can emerge. It is important noting that, the experienced teacher may react to observation in a variety of ways, ranging from passive tolerance to outright hostility (Fitzpatrick and Kerr, 1993). Reactions can be explicit through strategies such as acquiescence, denial, making excuses, silence, saying sorry, refusal or even bargaining i.e., by accepting criticism on certain points on the condition that other points are praised. It may also happen that teachers do not engage in discussion or useful analysis of each other's lessons, which reinforces their passive role and the judgmental role of the trainer. In any case, the only way to proceed is to design structured, depersonalised sessions with clear objectives and teachers-based tasks. There are many concerns in relation to the use of observation instruments. They are generally thought of as devices of summative evaluation to be completed by supervisors and later used as input to possible feedback sessions and the preparation of reports. Also, observation instruments can consist of a lengthy and comprehensive list of items which are difficult to rate in real time of an actual lesson. A major problem is how to make it an instrument for teacher development rather than a static, prescriptive list of teacher qualities and lesson characteristics, against which the performance of a teacher can be summatively evaluated (Swan, 1993). In an attempt to find solutions to the problem areas outlined and to apply the notion of collaboration as a means to analysing teaching, we propose the following strategies: - Ask teachers to think of areas they would like to observe in their own classrooms and to classify the items under a number of different categories so that they agree on an observation check-list. After trying them out, teachers can be given time to reflect on what went on in the classroom so that they have time to assimilate the events of the lesson and become objective about their performance before "cold analysis". They can also think about suggestions for further improvements of the observation check-lists. - If possible, promote peer observation (in micro-teaching or ideally, in real classrooms, especially if several teachers from the same school are attending the course) as a means of gathering information about teaching, rather than a way of evaluating it, by considering the following guidelines (Richards and Lockhart, 1994): 1. General principles . Observation should have a focus . Observers should use specific procedures . The observer should remain an observer 2. Suggested procedures . Arrange a pre-observation orientation session to discuss the nature of the class observed, the kind of materials being used, the kinds of students in the class, and so on. . Identify a focus for the observation. For example: organisation of the lesson, teacher's time management, students' performance on tasks, classroom interaction. . Develop procedures for the observer to use. For instance: timed samples coded categories, broad or narrow descriptive narrative. . Carry out the observation . Arrange a post-observation session 26

It is necessary to mention that teachers are observed or persuaded to observe themselves for development purposes. The observer may then provide less directive feedback than when the purpose of observation is primarily training, as in pre-service courses. The feedback will involve guidance, suggestion and exchange of ideas; but above all, the trainee will be oriented towards self-appraisal and towards the development of new ideas for herself. 1.3.2. The teacher as self-observer Teachers are interested in knowing how well they are doing. A supervisor's evaluation and students' grades are ways of assessing this, but a direct source of information for teachers is regular observation of their own teaching. Self-observation or self-monitoring entails a systematic observation, evaluation, and management of one's own behaviour, for the purpose of achieving a better understanding and control over one's behaviour (Richards, 1990). Let us identify four main reasons for the use of self-observation by teachers: First, for most teachers, the amount of time spent in in-service courses is relatively short in comparison to the length of their teaching careers, so selfobservation is a key ingredient in a teacher's continuing growth. Second, self-observation provides an opportunity for teachers to reflect critically on their teaching. Third, it can help to narrow the gap between teachers' imagined view of their own teaching and reality and this, in the end, contributes to better understanding of their own teaching accomplishment. Fourth, self-observation encourages teachers to take responsibility for improvement. The question that arouses now is how is self-observation carried out? There are three major techniques to doing it: through personal reflection (diaries), self-reporting, and recording lessons. A number of aspects of classroom life can be examined when reviewing information gathered: classroom management, grouping, structuring, tasks, teaching resources, classroom interactions, opportunities for speaking, quality of input, feedback. In order to apply self-observation techniques effectively, the following guidelines are suggested for teachers (Richards, ibid.): 1. Decide what aspect of your teaching you are interested in learning more about or you wish to improve by reflecting on problems you may be having with specific aspects of your teaching. 2. Narrow those choices to those that seem most significant to you so that you focus on one are at a time. 3. Develop a plan of action to address the specific problem area you have identified. 4. Draw out a time frame to carry out your goals

1.3.3. Types of feedback We have made the point that the way in which both the observer and the teacher approach observation, the steps which they take to implement that approach, and the follow-up are the cornerstones of successful in-service work, and thus, of professional development. The following are some suggestions on different types of oral and written feedback we have come across:

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- Trainer as listener: Teacher discusses her performance during the lesson. - Written self-evaluation activity: Teacher fills in a self-evaluation sheet after her teaching a lesson. - Written self-evaluation as a post-viewing task: Teacher fills in a self-evaluation after reviewing her lesson (by referring to her lesson plan, notes, or audio/video cassette, if feasible). - The teacher is encouraged to honestly and objectively appraise her own performance and acknowledge mistakes, which in turn help to build self-reliance, versatility and the willingness to adapt in unpredictable teaching situations (Baker and Hamilton, 1993). - Resource centres can be used as a means to support teachers in such an attempt, so that they can go there to find answers to questions, have access to resources, and talk about problems with other teachers or special "consultants". A similar role can be played by 'school counsellors' (See sections 1.4 and 1.7).

We know that providing feedback demands a lot of time and that it implies making provision for tutorials so that trainers are able to apply clinical supervision which has positive effects on teachers. This has very much to do with staff availability and course arrangements. Let us illustrate how it could be put into practice: If a 90-hour course is valid two credits in the Colombian School Teachers' National Rank, 60 contact hours would include exposure to language and methodology, and the remaining time could be distributed in such a way that group and individual tutorials appropriately scheduled support teachers in what they are trying out as a consequence of INSET. Needless to express that courses run by teams foster more enriching feedback and wider attention to teachers' concerns and progress. These administrative forms of building in the minimum degree of support and supervision in current INSET circumstances in Colombia have been implemented in some institutions, and trainees' reactions have been favourable. In the discussion of the aspects covered so far we have often mentioned that trainers have primary roles in the accomplishment of teacher education aims. We now want to refer to this aspect in some detail. 1.4. ELT teacher trainers To be a teacher, you must know the technique. To be a trainer, you must know the technique, know why it is effective, be able to articulate or convey that understanding to others, and know how it relates to other aspects of language teaching. (Freeman, quoted in Duff, 1988, 112)

1.4.1. Who will train the teachers? TASK 3 Here is a list of the kinds of knowledge that trainers running in-service courses in ELT need to have, as pointed out by a mixed group of experienced and potential teacher trainers. 1. To what extent do you agree with them? 2. Are there other issues that should have been considered? Knowledge needed by a trainer Aims, philosophy and methodology of teacher education How adults learn Evaluation in teacher education 28

Organisation / logistics of in-service courses Context of ELT (e.g. socio-economic status, classroom conditions) Materials used in schools School / classroom practice How pupils learn (Second language acquisition) Language description 3. Do you have staff with relevant expertise in in-service teacher education institution/department/licenciatura programme? If not, where could you find that expertise?

in

your

4. How could staff with experience in in-service teacher education or professionals willing to move into that area develop as trainers or trainers of trainers?

It may be the case that the movement of teachers into teacher training occurs with little opportunity to undertake formal preparation for such a work. Universities, in order to respond to the demands of in-service education will have to rely on highly experienced teachers. They will draw largely on their teaching experience, transferring the skills gained in the classroom to the training situation. It is common sense that we practice what we preach, since training of others must be grounded in one's own practice and "not in some desiccated prescription deriving from almost forgotten -and even sometimes very limited- experience" (Duff, 1988, 111). Nevertheless, there are other requirements for ensuring that staff selected to be involved in teacher education are fully able to respond to the responsibilities implied. Establishing clear criteria for the selection of teacher trainers is one of the most difficult and important factors in running successful and effective programmes for the preparation of school teachers. The following diagram represents the main criteria as a set of interrelated continua: Experience of TEFL/TESL short (e.g. 2 years) long one teaching situation many teaching situations one level (e.g. elementary) all levels does not include experience parallel includes a lot of parallel experience to teaching teaching only teaching plus many duties familiarity with few teaching materials wide range of materials general EFL/ESL only EFL/ESL plus different types of English for specific purposes no EFL/ESL teacher-training experience broad experience of teacher training Education, qualifications and personal skills First degree only professional and post-graduate qualifications not specific relevant relevant degree TEFL/TESL qualifications, M.A., etc. knows only English knows several languages intermediate English advanced / native-speaker of English unskilled in educational technology skilled in many media little or no experience in materials writing, experienced group management, lecturing and seminar-leading Personality and predominant teaching style consultative autocratic neutral dynamic, energetic carefully methodical unmethodical 29

gentle, approachable distant teacher-centred learner-centred very prone to anxiety unflappable committed to given methodology uncommitted to any methodology Some factors influencing the selection of teacher educators (Adapted from Rossner, 1988: 105-106)

The diagram above does not imply that any particular characteristic is "best". Much will depend on the role the trainer will be assigned during a particular course, the course aims or the circumstances for different participants and INSET providers. Another aspect that needs particular attention has to do with the fact that a majority of courses may be given by teams of trainers. That sort or arrangement requires harmonious planning, review and administration of the course so that participants do not encounter evidence of lack of consultation, conflicting information, and contradictory advice. We are aware that the pressures and constraints of running teacher education programmes, often in financially unfavourable conditions, make compromises and corner-cutting inevitable. Despite that, we propose that a strong case can be made out for universities and the COFE Project to ensure that members of the teacher education team: 1. Have opportunities to be involved in discussion of the rationale behind the course and the constraints surrounding the plan for it. 2. Become familiar with the profiles of the course participants. 3. Gain the teachers' confidence by helping them with the teaching materials they are currently using. This could be done at the resource centres, and through assistance and advice on how to use those materials. 4. Invite experienced and competent school teachers to co-operate in the in-service courses so that they bring their expertise from the actual teaching situations into the in-service classroom and, later on, they could also act as advisors in the schools. 5. Establish a network of teacher trainers for the exchange of information, and in general, for the purpose of ongoing professional development. In this, the I.E.I. contributions are particularly significant. 6. Have opportunities to observe other colleagues and to work alongside with them on all components of the course. 7. Get involved in day-to-day planning, administration, and materials selection and development. 8. Review the course, the progress of participants and the trainers' own performance. 9. Develop their own much more specific criteria for trainers’ selection and their own induction programmes, when required. 10. Attend courses or events leading to better teacher trainer performance. These events should be one of the main concerns of the COFE Project, particularly of the so-called Staff Development sub-project.

We have raised the point that for INSET to be grounded on current teaching practices, knowledge about the teachers' environment is required. This could be enriched by having INSET teams made up by university and school teachers. In that case, we would have to find out where good school practice is and bring teachers with high expertise into the university. We believe that such a type of arrangement would have mutual benefits: the teacher would contribute with her knowledge of children / pupils and, the trainer, with his specialised academic discipline. INSET based on both perspectives will hopefully be more successful. We will expand this idea later, when we talk about INSET follow-up.

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1.4.2. Roles of trainers The demands on teachers of English in Colombia have become more clearly defined and more challenging, and so have the demands on their trainers. In these circumstances, "the effectiveness of trainers depends on their rising proficiency in training and appraisal -but it also depends on their humanity, on their commitment to, and skill with, trainees as human beings" (Cameron-Jones, 1991, 34). Considering this, we cannot forget that teachers, as adults who come back into the university to learn more about teaching ideas, are giving themselves another chance at learning, a chance to prove that it can be a stimulating, positive and dignified experience. In having that experience, the trainer plays a paramount role. If we want to act effectively and ethically as trainers, we need to be aware of the particular roles to be assumed according to the teachers' needs, learning styles, previous preparation and the contextual factors that affect both teaching settings and in-service conditions.

TASK 4 The roles of the trainer Catalyst Task setter "Expert" Facilitator Lecturer Model ? Explainer Questioner Teacher Counsellor Guide Assessor Supervisor 1. Which roles do/would you assume most often in your work as a trainer? 2. Which of them are more likely to be assumed in pre-service or in-service courses; in short, intensive courses or longer courses? 3. What are the likely implications of the different roles for the kind of training that is provided? (Adapted from Read, 1995) 

Roles related to top-down and bottom-up points of view The trainer's conceptions regarding his role in teaching and how learning takes place best, are closely related to top-down and bottom-up approaches. We can draw some distinctions between these two approaches and these are set out in the table below. TOP-DOWN

BOTTOM-UP

The trainer is the 'knower', the trainee 'unknowing' The trainer makes all decisions about what trainees need to know The trainer draws on his knowledge to enforce learning The trainer delivers the body of knowledge

The trainer and trainee know in different but complementary ways The trainer and the trainee share in the decision-making process The trainer draws on the trainee's knowledge to reinforce learning The trainer and the trainee work together to pool their knowledge The trainer builds into sessions opportunities for feedback and discussion

The trainer provides no or few opportunities for feedback and discussion

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The trainer evaluates the training from his own The trainer and the trainee evaluate the training from both point of view their points of view The trainer repeats the training course for the next The trainer uses both evaluations to modify the course for group of trainees the next group of trainees Roles assumed by trainers when top-down and bottom-up beliefs prevail (Based on Burns, 1992)

We believe that the top-down approach results in little or no change in practice as trainees do not engage in any meaningful way in integrating what they hear in in-service sessions with what they carry out in the classrooms. On the contrary, in the bottom-up approach the trainer sees himself as possessing a certain kind of broad theoretical and practical knowledge which will need to be complemented by the particular situational knowledge brought by the trainees from their own teaching contexts. Although the table depicts the two approaches as polarised, in practice it is likely that most inservice courses will be somewhere along a continuum. As trainers we will need to reflect on our own conceptions and therefore, on the roles we will assume, in tune with the methodology to be used and with the type of trainees we work with. 1.5. Evaluation in in-service courses Feedback from trainees, during and at the end of the course, allows trainers to analyse their own work in terms of the impact training arrangements, procedures and roles have on teachers. The trainers' comments will also be valuable, and some ways -like the ones suggested in the preceding section will have to be fixed. In the case of INSET sponsored by the M.E.N. or Secretarías de Educación, a committee working under certain prescribed parameters will be required. At this stage we would like to refer mainly to evaluation carried out by course participants. Whether we use unstructured or specific instruments to gather information about given issues, feedback can be set up by appealing to process evaluation. By process evaluation we mean that participants evaluate the course while it is in progress. The results of the evaluation can then be used to shape the subsequent development of the course. The evaluation process will require assigning some time for obtaining daily feedback, end-ofweek/period feedback, and end-of-course evaluation. In either case, we can allow for any reactions on areas such as the ones highlighted by Morrow and Schocker (1993): 1. The relationship between input (materials and opinions) provided by teacher trainers and the sharing of insights and experiences between participants; 2. Management of learning in groups by participants, and how this can be facilitated by trainers; 3. Appropriacy of content offered; 4. Critique of the course programme, and suggestions for future events.

Daily and end-of-week / period feedback have implications for the ongoing course design and make participants feel that their comments are valued and taken seriously. Of course, this does 32

not mean acting upon all types of feedback, but it involves giving feedback on feedback, negotiating, and making decisions about specific areas where changes can be made. The idea of end-of-course evaluation is nothing new. It is standard practice for institutions to hand out questionnaires on the last day of the course asking for feedback from participants on everything from the materials, to the content areas covered, to the effectiveness of teaching procedures. The value of this kind of evaluation lies on how they enrich future courses development. The following are examples of instruments used to obtain trainees' feedback at the end of the course. Though all of them seek data on trainers' work (e.g. methodology and contents of the course), the second one pursues more information regarding the effect action-research had on trainees. The last sample contains a series of questions to evaluate trainees’ satisfaction after an in-service programme. Sample 1: Trainee feedback (Vasconcelos, 1994, 13-14) Sample 2: Evaluation of an INSET course (U. Nacional de Colombia, 1995) EVALUATION OF THE COURSE 1. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS 1.1. At this stage of my profession I could say that action research is................ 1.2 Action research is carried out in order to............... 2. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS 2.1 What are the most significant things you have learned in carrying out action research? 2.2 What questions / issues has your classroom research made you think about? 2.3 In what areas would you like to continue your research? 2.4 How has your teaching changed as a result of your involvement in the research project? Since I have been doing research, I find that when I teach I know... 2.5 Which main difficulties have you had in carrying out classroom research? 3. WRITE YOUR COMMENTS REGARDING THE FOLLOWING ASPECTS (PLEASE CONSIDER THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COURSE) 3.1 Materials used 3.2 The way the course was taught 3.3 Contents of the programme 3.4 Feedback received from tutors 3.5 Others

Sample 3: Evaluation of participants’ satisfaction after a training programme (Cameron-Jones, 1991)

TRUE 1. Did you learn more about X? 2. Do you now think more deeply about the rationales for using X in teaching? 3. Do you feel clearer about deciding when to use X in your own teaching? 4. Were the examples of other teachers using X (live or on video) 33

FALSE □ □

□ □









useful to you? 5. Did you learn more about how to appraise a teacher’s use of X? 6. Were the printed materials (or video clips) on which you practiced such appraisal helpful to you?

□ □

□ □

7. Do you feel more able to appraise other teacher’s use of X? 8. Do you feel more able to self-appraise your use of X in your own teacher?

□ □

□ □

9. Was it helpful to practise, with the observer present, your use of X with your own pupils? 10. In yourself, do you now feel ready to move on from the X section of this programme or would you prefer to consolidate de X section?









1.6. Assessment Far from being a necessary requirement in order to gain the qualifications (e.g. credits, certificates), assessment plays a positive role in teacher education. It determines what should be done in order to achieve the goals of the course; it promotes integration of various areas of the course, and develops the trainees' powers of analysis and reflection. We think that in courses where assessment is required, provision for a variety of forms should be made. Cardona et al. (1992) suggest diagnostic tests, achievement tests, written essays, oral presentations, classroom observation, projects, materials and syllabus design, and critical reviews, among others. It is not within the scope of this document to define forms of assessment. A detailed account of modes of assessment in teacher education can be found in Wallace (1991). Finally, we would like to add that assessment load, distribution, schedule and demands would have to be progressively and carefully thought about. In most learning situations the teachers or external evaluators have the final word regarding the assessment of the learners and their work during the course. Adopting a similar position in the in-service assessment-process would stand in contradiction to the belief that the teacher is an equal partner in the learning process and that she is responsible for her own professional development. We would like to argue that the teacher is capable of taking on the responsibility of assessing her own achievements, provided that she has been directed on how to do so. Teachers can be provided with a detailed list of criteria decided on by the trainers and agreed on by the trainees as the minimum criteria for passing the course/assignment/project. The teachers have to relate this list during and after fulfilling the task. The specific criteria will help the trainee to focus attention on the important parts of the task, and to disregard unnecessary details. The following example shows the parameters agreed upon for assessing the actionresearch projects carried out during a course. CRITERIA FOR THE FINAL PAPER As said in the programme for this course, teachers "will submit an academic paper in which they will identify a problem in their teaching situation with its corresponding plan of action for solving it. It will also contain the results obtained during a period of implementation of the said plan". 34

Working in groups or individually, you are expected to: 1. Identify a concrete problem you have in one of the courses you are teaching. 2. Follow the action research cycle (stages) which has been studied during the course. 3. Do not forget considering aspects like . Techniques for data collection, if necessary. . Resources needed for the project. . A general description of the field of action (i.e. teaching situation). . The action plan (strategies / solutions of action to innovate the situation). . The results of the implementation during a period of time (e.g. 5 classes, 1 week). In other words, what happened when applying the strategies or some of them? . The effects of the implementation i.e. your impressions and thoughts (your reflection). . The difficulties you had during the implementation of the proposed plan. . Your plan / ideas for continuing the implementation of the action plan in the future. Remember The project should: 1. Be at an acceptable level of language accuracy. The argument should be clearly enunciated. 2. Show evidence of having integrated aspects studied during the course. 3. Be submitted on.... (date) 4. Be presented and discussed on.... (date) Tutorials As scheduled. Sample of assessment criteria used in an INSET Course on “Listening practices in English Classes" (Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1995)

Finally, we will have to consider that for self-assessment to be effective, trainees would require some sort of trial and monitoring, especially if their previous learning experiences did not allow self-assessment. On the other hand, it may also happen that trainees want to be assessed by the trainer and then, a combination of trainer assessment and teachers' self-assessment could be adopted. In any case, we would have to gradually work out what the best way of assessing a particular in-service course is. 1.7. Maximising benefits in inset 1.7.1. The need for follow-up It is a common experience during the implementation of in-service programmes that new methodology/ideas are accepted and practised with enthusiasm in the training session and many people assert that this would have no impact at all on subsequent classroom teaching. Then, we ought to bear in mind that there is enormous potential for INSET, as well as preservice courses, to fail to have an impact on teachers or, perhaps, to sustain a change in their practice. Since academics do not research impact, and authorities do not monitor it, we do not know much about it. This is a very odd state of affairs: money and efforts can be wasted because follow-up is not taken into account.

35

In view of this, it is important to be clear about maximising impact of courses on teachers' long term practices, and to put into practice whatever measures seem most effective. In different sections of this document we have mentioned some of them. Nonetheless, here we feel inclined to stress two key measures, namely: * Highly motivated teachers: They will put new ideas into practice without any future support. But they are rare. * Support for teachers after (e.g. a full-time course) or during (e.g. a part-time course), in their classrooms.

Let us refer to the second measure in more detail. Teachers can be supported in many ways: - Supervised practice in teachers' own classrooms (through visits to schools by trainers) - Self-supervised practice by trainees in school based courses. - Peer- supervision - Use of a project - Subsequent follow-up courses - Follow-up seminars - After course reports - University teachers acting as part-time advisors or teacher supporters (this would not imply leaving teaching duties entirely) - Supervision by a school-based professional or advisor.

Supervised practice by trainers is claimed to be one of the best ways to ensure INSET impact, but in the Colombian circumstances it is somehow unrealistic. Supervised practice is a highly labour intensive service and the relationship between cost to the provider institution and fees is a factor that affects what can be done. In short, we would require a general policy that supports time, budget, and the trainees and trainers commitment to work together under such scheme. In the following paragraphs we will address the issue of school-based advisors and the use of projects as tools to follow-up in-service courses and to impact change. We feel that working with school-based advisors who keep in touch with university staff, would have a knock-on effect on school practices and that strong links between universities and schools could be maintained. We would like to propose the idea of strategically placed teachers whose expertise could contribute to motivate and sustain an on-going process in their schools/regions/zones. They could function as part-time teachers and part-time counsellors/resource persons in their schools. If possible, they could co-operate in planning and running INSET which under the main responsibility of universities.

TASK 5 Here are some characteristics we would like a school-based advisor to have. 1. To what extent do you agree with them? Are there other aspects that should be taken into consideration? 2. Would it be possible for your institution to set up work with this type of counsellors? A school-based advisor should be able to: - use the language confidently 36

- establish a relationship of mutual trust with other teachers - have flexibility of approach - be sympathetic to other teachers' problems - ponder what is feasible: . the most valuable form of evaluation is self-evaluation . there is no substitute for hands-on experience.

As an example, we suggest that school advisors could work out a follow-up plan coming from the school reality itself, and develop it with some guidance derived from university. As a starting point, we could ponder issues like the ones contained in the format below: PLANNING CHANGE Dear school advisor, We would like to invite you to survey your school environment by gathering information about the following aspects. Discuss those issues which may need group consideration with other colleagues in your department. Then, think about what you could do to impact ELT school practices. 1. What issues are priorities for my school? 2. What are my aims? 3. What am I trying to achieve? 4. What resources will I need? 5. Who are my allies? 6. How long will it take? 7. Who will need convincing? 8. Who may act as 'barriers' to all or some of these developments? 9. What are my strategies for implementing practical change in - my classroom? - my team? - my school? 10. How can I measure or evaluate the success? 11. What sort of help will I need from outsiders e.g. universities? Format for planning school counsellors' work

We now turn to the issue of using projects as a means to impact change. The requirements on schools to develop an institutional project (P.E.I.) make us think on how to contribute to projectrelated change in schools and on how to articulate in-service to the P.E.I. of schools where course participants work. The projects teachers would engage in will include e.g. designing/evaluating/improving materials or carrying out a small-scale action-research work. In either case teachers will have to plan, teach, evaluate and provide evidence in the form of data, pupils work, etc., under some sort of distance supervision (i.e. tutorials). We understand that not everyone is willing to or has the required expertise to do actionresearch. However, as emphasised by Gómez et al. (1993), action-research can be systematically introduced in teacher preparation programmes and attempts can be made to facilitate a deeper exploration of the classroom. For instance, an INSET course run on the basis of once/twice-a37

week sessions, we could allocate action-research as one of the strands of its programme so that in every training session teachers study the process and implications of such an approach by referring to other aspects raised in the programme (e.g. methodology, classroom management). Simultaneously, teachers can be assigned tasks leading to apply the research cycle in the light of the aspect they wish to investigate. Before presenting the final report, some time and support should be given to monitor the action plan and to project ways of continuing the process when the course is over. In order to motivate teachers to observe the effects of the action plan over a long period of time, workshops and brief presentations could be invited before the end of the school year or as part of the COFE project and ASOCOPI regional seminars. Finally, we can support the use of action-research because, as Belleli (1993) puts it, it implies unlimited time for teachers to learn, is linked to a particular classroom or school problem, drives sharing of ideas around common concerns, and allows practical follow-up support. We have considered some factors that have a bearing in ensuring follow-up and INSET impact. It seems then, that we need to look beyond a simple, short-term tendency of in-service courses, and try to see them as part of a wider process of teacher education. The challenge becomes greater: the question is not only how to affect the immediate teaching performance of individual teachers, but also how to use in-service as a means to affect the whole system of teacher education so that it becomes more conducive to effective teaching for, after all, teacher development starts when teachers finish INSET. 1.7.2. Overcoming problems in intensive courses For a variety of reasons, teachers prefer to attend intensive courses: concentration on one academic area at a time, expectations towards fast accreditation, personal and work constraints, to cite a few. Intensive teacher training sessions lasting from a day to a week or more, are often stressful situations for trainers and teachers. A lot of information, ideas about good practice, and theoretical issues are packed into a very short time span and these circumstances generate problems. There are at least three problems due to the time constraints and concentrated nature of intensive courses (Spaventa, 1992). The first is the limit on interaction, discussion and processing time. The second is the tendency to centralise and topicalize discussion, so that only one issue at a time is on the floor. The third is the need to limit reading and to focus on practice. In order to tackle these problems with the collaboration of teachers, we can try the following ideas: - Organise co-operative groups of say 4 individuals each, and ask each member in the group to take responsibility for one of the readings. The next session they break into "expert" groups, in which each person has read the same article. The expert groups discuss the article and come to a consensus about its meaning and application. They then return to their "base" co-operative group and report on the article to their group members. - To get teachers familiar with relevant issues raised in the ELT field, each person summarises a reading, and then tapes it to a chalkboard which remains a sort of community newspaper for the rest of the course or for other 38

teachers' general information. To give the chalkboard community newspaper more structure, interest groups or headings can be identified e.g. elementary school, bilingual teachers, and secondary public school teachers. - Exploit awareness-raising tasks that allow teachers to explore their beliefs about teaching practice and which demand some solutions to problems or concerns commonly found in real teaching situations. "Beliefs need first to be articulated, and then analysed for potential contradictions with each other, the teaching circumstances, and the beliefs of learners. Only then will teachers be able to accommodate new ideas" (Lamb, 1995, 79).

1.7.3. Resistance to change in in-service courses TASK 6 1. Have you ever sabotaged your own learning experiences? 2. If your answer is 'yes', think back to the last time this happened to you as a teacher-learner. When was it? Where? Why? 3. Luxon claims that "change is often painful and there is often resistance to it" (1994: 6) What are your reactions to this assertion?

Resistance is defined as a refusal to adequately consider new ideas, methodologies, or approaches presented in the learning situation (Byrnes, 1992). The resistance faced by teacher trainers is great in its scope and complexity. Teachers bring highly developed preconceptions and expectations to the in-service course. Often, resistance is aroused because the ideas, techniques, or attitudes presented in the course require or demand that the trainee re-appraise her existing knowledge or opinions. The necessity for such reappraisal is what leads to resistance or avoidance in the trainee. Teachers may react to the subject matter, the organisation of the learning, the learning methodology or to the trainer. As can be deduced, trainees make judgements not only about what is presented to them but also how it is presented, and whether the person presenting it is competent of suitable to do so. Throughout this document we have emphasised that we need to motivate the development of autonomous, critically reflective and aware teachers. These are common characteristics of process-oriented training which many trainees find difficult to cope with, mainly because of their beliefs about teaching and learning, but also because of the amount of time spent in more traditional educational environments. As Borg puts it, "applied indiscriminately in such a situation, process-oriented training may not only fail to accomplish its objectives, but may lead to a sense of disorientation, frustration and alienation among trainees"(1995, 15). Four main categories of conflict in process-oriented training are related to the trainers' role, to the trainees' role, to training methodology and to training content. What may worry us is that conflict experienced by trainees will interfere with learning. This spurs us to explore practical steps to minimise conflict and therefore, resistance to change.

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TASK 7 Here are some suggestions for minimising conflict in INSET process-oriented training. Add other steps or strategies you would recommend. Suggestions - Acknowledge the possibility that trainees may resist a process-orientation - Make the assumptions the course is based upon explicit in the course programme - Provide mechanisms through which trainees can provide regular feedback on the course - Encourage the trainees to choose their own modes of working - Adopt modes of assessment which reflect the process-orientation of the course

Resistance to change is a very common problem that may arise during the INSET sessions themselves. It can also influence the teachers' commitment to take on tasks set up during the training process or on their rejection to try some innovations. The most important thing regarding resistance to change is that it makes us think about those course arrangements that may affect teachers' reactions towards what is going on in the INSET environment, our understanding of how teachers and adults learn their learning styles and their personalities. 1.8. Other alternatives for inset So far, we have referred to the fact that professional development of teachers can be enhanced through a series of academic events. The need for careful and systematic planning and running of in-service courses has particularly been emphasised since it is the most common and widely accepted approach to the development of teachers in Colombia. In so doing, it is thought that individuals who attend the courses will then successfully generate change within their schools. This 'individualistic approach of the professional development of teachers' (Bell, 1991) or course-based INSET has advantages, disadvantages and assumptions which have been dealt with in some depth in this document. A summary of those aspects is provided in the table below: Advantages Can increase improve skills

knowledge

Disadvantages and

May be too theoretical

Assumptions One teacher can influence whole school or group of colleagues

Choices determined by providers Teachers can make choices from what is offered

May not reflect school needs

Theory can be translated into practice by teachers

Provides opportunity to reflect on professional practice

May not have practical application in the classroom

A wide variety of different needs can be met by the same course.

May be full-time

May be high cost

Can lead to further qualifications

May require long time commitment A summary of course-based INSET for professional development (Based on Bell, 1991)

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We hope that attempts will be made to ensure that courses are relevant to the needs of teachers and their schools. The focus will be on how far those teachers who attend courses can make a more professional contribution to the effectiveness of their institutions. 1.8.1. School-based INSET We have seen that there are major concerns surrounding the course-based INSET (e.g. coverage, follow-up, and cost) and, therefore, we have pointed out the need to search for alternative strategies for teachers' professional development. Ideas such as structured followup, assessment through projects, and work with school counsellors have been proposed. This alternative has to do with a 'school-based' INSET scheme (Bell, ibid.) which could be promoted through identified highly qualified teachers working in conjunction with university staff. The assumption behind this is that the development of teachers should be closely related to the overall planning and review process of school management and should take account of the various characteristics of staff and the idiosyncratic of groups of teachers. Let us outline the main features of school-based INSET: Advantages

Disadvantages

Based on school needs Schools can programme

provide

Requires ability to identify needs clearly own

Enables schools to use outside expertise May cope with different levels of professional development

Some schools may not have sufficient expertise or resources

Assumptions That all schools can identify own needs That schools have sufficient resources to meet needs

May lead to parochialism May ignore or undervalue individuals needs while overemphasising school needs

Professional development will be linked to whole school policy

Can use teacher expertise available in school A summary of school-based INSET for professional development (Based on Bell, 1991)

As can be observed, changes aspired to in school-based INSET cannot successfully be implemented unless they are firmly rooted in the overall policies of school. This type of provision is crucially important, but its true impact cannot be measured homogeneously. Additionally, school-based INSET is likely to vary from system to system and from institution to institution. It is not realistic, for instance, to expect teachers to pursue in-service programmes if it is not going to make any difference to their salaries or career prospects in the longer term, or if they are not given time and resources within the school. To conclude this part, we would like to stress that INSET provided in different ways by outside agencies and attended by individual teachers is valuable but too limited and it may need to be extended to encourage teachers and school staff to plan their own programmes in the light of their self-identified needs and P.E.I. If we aim at higher quality of education, we must give schools the chance to discern their own priorities and to receive the kind of support they require through some sort of INSET. The strength and effectiveness of this consideration comes 41

from the very fact that teachers have a clear, shared vision of their own purpose and method. Shared values are tempered and tested daily in the interactions among students, school staff, and the outside community. They are built into the organisation of teaching and learning, and into management arrangements that determine how teachers work with their colleagues. They are part of a school culture. These shared values, commitments, and ways of working cannot be easily changed by a new policy or programme issued by central authorities. However, if the policy or programme is consistent with the school's own priorities, the school may make good and effective use of it. 1.8.2. Distance learning Given the geographical conditions of the provinces where a good number of Colombian ELT teachers live in, distance education is perhaps one of the most effective, not to say the only, alternative they have to pursue their professional development. Whatever the medium used to access this population - radio, television, mail, or E-mail for a few privileged universities government offices in charge of promoting teaching quality should consider the creation of programmes intended to provide continuous support to the teacher. There are several aspects we would have to start considering in order to initiate even a small scale distance learning programme. Among them, we can point out the teachers' qualifications and needs; the kind of access to technology facilities they have at home, the programme arrangements that would suit them best, the type and amount of support they would get from INSET providers, and the kind of preparation they would require in order to undertake such programmes. This last factor would demand careful consideration since most teachers may need a first intensive module for language improvement. Similarly, a very first session/module on learning to learn or learner training will aid those teachers who have been away from academic life for a long time. Distance learning will have an impact on teachers' development and on their autonomous learning process. However, the scope of this type of education is so vast that it could be the core of a future working document. In the interest of promoting some thinking about this topic, we suggest the following bibliography as perhaps a starting point for considering the magnitude, relevance, and helpfulness of distance learning: . Holmberg, B. (1974) Distance Education: A short handbook. London: Hermods. . Jenkins, J. (1981) Materials for learning: How to teach adults. London: Routledge. . Keegan, D. (1990) The foundations of distance education. London: Routledge. . Parer, M (ed.). (1989) Development, design and distance education. Centre for Distance Learning, Gippsland, Victoria. . Roe, P. & K. Richard (eds.) (1994) Distance learning in ELT. London: Modern English publications in association with the British Council. . Rowntree, D. (1990) Teaching through self-instruction, a practical handbook for course developers. London: Kogan Page. . Rowntree, D. (1992) Exploring open and distance learning. London: Kogan Page. . Rowntree, D. (1994) Preparing materials for open, distance and flexible learning. An action guide for teachers and trainers. London: Kogan Page & Institute of Educational Technology. Open University. 42

We do not think the few ideas highlighted in this chapter would solve all the problems we face when planning, processing, deepening, and broadening in-service courses, but they might be steps towards a solution. In view of this, the INSET sub-project (initially named 'Links with schools') will have to motivate the sharing and discussion of other solutions tried out by trainers working in different contexts of our country since, as Wajnryb asserts, Strategies and solutions are arrived at through experience and reflection...there are no glossy, easy solutions to the problems that confront a trainer -no 'best way' to do anything, no prescriptions, no formulae. (Wajnryb, 1991:27)

In the preceding sections we have raised issues regarding philosophical and practical principles which will influence, in one way or another, the way INSET is planned and therefore, the impact it may have in the improvement of teaching English in primary and secondary schools. We are conscious that an effective programme of teacher education which seeks to have effect requires that efforts and persuasion are distributed across the system. Students, teachers, trainers, schools' administrators, national and local authorities -all have to be moving in the same direction if difficulties are to be overcome and changes are to be introduced. In the subsequent sections we will address the topic of INSET for primary school teachers, an aspect which demands our attention, mainly now that we face the challenge of teaching foreign languages to young learners.

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CHAPTER II: INSET FOR THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 2.1. General considerations The purpose of this component is to shed some light on major concerns and issues that INSET involves for in-service primary school teachers. Now that the teaching of English has become mandatory in the primary school curriculum, a lot of attention and expectations have centred on the processes and guidelines the teachers of English for primary school are going to be provided with. There are matters still to be considered such as:  Who is going to do the actual teaching; either the primary school all-round subject teachers or the B.A graduates in Modern Languages?  Who is going to train these teachers?  What special considerations and provisions is the government going to make to facilitate or make feasible tangible results in the learning of English by children?  Will all these efforts to broaden the teaching of English to the elementary school curriculum make any difference in terms of better command of English for those students beginning their sixth grade in high school as compared to nowadays when the teaching of English only begins then?

The scope of this project is not to become prescriptive, so as to tell the government educational authorities, the faculties of Education, school teachers, and the community in general the miraculous recipe to make this process successful. Rather, it aims to provide important research bases and insights regarding ways in which the primary school teacher can become better qualified to do her job and therefore enhance the possibilities of her students to learn or acquire English in the primary school classroom. Initially it is important to remember that the new law of Education has given the faculties of Education in Colombia the responsibility of setting up and running the INSET programmes, which primary school teachers are going to attend in the future. This kind of commitment is a major turning point in terms of perhaps restructuring the pre-service curriculum plans in order to focus on this level of ELT. At the same time, it becomes urgent to qualify university staff so they become efficient primary school teacher educators since most of them have been involved with high school programmes in the past. What should be avoided is the idea that what works for the high school level is going to operate well in the primary school classroom by disregarding the vast differences between these two levels and the particular characteristics of how children learn another language - which have been clearly compiled in the Working Document 4 (1994). One alternative way proposed here deals with the incorporation of extremely skilful primary school teachers in the methodology and teaching practice components of the Licenciatura programmes so they can serve as first-hand informers, co-operate in team teaching, provide demonstrations and fill the gap existing at times between academia and the real world of expertise. Another important consideration we have to make at this point is the role the Secretarías de Educación should play in this sense, since there has traditionally been scant contact between these government offices and the Faculties of Education. We firmly believe that unless both parties work closely together when devising an INSET plan for EFL primary school teachers, little 44

will be accomplished and the innovation may be doomed to fail from the start. There are important elements on both sides that should be united for the sake of better qualified teachers: the Secretarías de Educación have primary school teachers who, although they may have never taught English to children officially, possess the hands-on expertise that combined with the academic background of the university staff would make up a more balanced and efficient work team for the implementation of this project. In addition, private bilingual schools, in spite of the fact that their teaching conditions may be relatively different from those in the public sector, should be contacted on account of their most invaluable experience gained through teaching English to children for many years. One point touching upon the Secretarías de Educación we want to make very clear is the importance of involving the personnel that will finally teach English to children. We are convinced that it is far more advantageous in terms of professional qualifications to have Licenciados in Modern Languages doing the teaching (after implementing some sort of primary school INSET recycling schemes) than have all-round subject teachers directly in charge of this work. Here are some differences with which we justify the above: Parameter Command of English EFL training

Experience with children

Licenciados

All-round-subject teachers

Fairly acceptable. They studied English for 4 years at the university

There are no official records of Englishspeaking primary school teachers or of their proficiency in this language. They have gone through methodology and teaching There has been no official training in this practice courses for several years. sense given the fact that English was not taught in the primary school before. Very little on the whole, although some universities Supposedly very broad. They should allow their students to do their teaching practice know about children's behaviour, with children or provide teaching children cognitive skills, learning styles, although components through their methodology courses. some of them may not be process-aware. Differences between licenciados and all-round subject teachers

There are also some risks involved with having all-round-subject teachers take over the teaching of English. One is that they would have to start by learning English, not an easy task when you are being pressed to show results in a relatively short period of time and when not all primary school teachers have the aptitudes and right attitude to learn a foreign language. Besides, they would have to be trained in methodology matters simultaneously with their learning of English. This would bring up another complication since you should not simply teach what you do not know yourself. The whole process could fail and even produce negative effects on the children towards the study of English if the wrong language models and inefficient methodology practices are adopted. In this sense, Brumfit (1991) provides a very handy reminder of the kind of characteristics young learners share. They are variables that should be considered in any ELT training course, when designing lesson plans and materials, or when dealing with general aspects of syllabus or curriculum: 45

1. Young learners are only just beginning their schooling, then, teachers have a major opportunity to mould their expectations of life in school. 2. As a group they are potentially more differentiated than secondary or adult learners, for they are closer to their varied home cultures, and new to the conformity increasingly imposed across cultural groupings by the school. 3. They tend to be keen and enthusiastic learners, without the inhibitions which older children sometimes bring to their schooling. 4. Their learning can be closely linked with their development of ideas and concepts, because it is so close to their initial experience of formal schooling. 5. They need physical movement and activity as much as stimulation for their thinking, and the closer together these can be, the better.

TASK 1

Based on your experience in working at the high school level/your knowledge about secondary schools, which of the above characteristics do you think children might share with teenagers and what others would tell them apart?

We hope that, in the interest of achieving reasonable results with the teaching of English in the primary school, the Secretarías de Educación appoint licenciados in Modern Languages to perform this task and ensure, in co-operation with the Licenciatura Programmes that these personnel get involved permanently in INSET courses leading to their professional development within this particular level. 2.2. Self-appraisal in the primary school The term appraisal can be clearly defined as a positive valuing of the teaching professional's performance and projection within her field. Other terms such as evaluation, assessment, or 'capacitación' (enabling) have through the passage of time become imbued in negative connotations that raise the teacher's self-defense mechanism from the start. The reason may lie within the idea that if there is an evaluation is because something has been done wrong or if there is 'capacitación' is because the teacher has been unable to meet certain standards. For this reason, the term appraisal is a more positive concept which, as mentioned before, focuses on valuing or considering the positive aspects of the teacher in order to help her come to an understanding of her profession, performance, potential and future projection (Webb, 1994). Considering our reality and referring back to the justification of appraisal outlined at the outset of this paper, the only mechanism that may receive some degree of acceptance and application is the appraisal done by the very teacher; self-appraisal. Prior to any kind of INSET course, attempts have to made in the direction of having the teacher confront herself and develop a willingness to understand her responsibility towards her profession since oftentimes in the public school sector she ends up being only accountable to herself. For whatever reason teachers choose this profession, and after fully realising or accepting that we are going to be in this field for quite a long time to come, we should think that for the sake of our pupils and for our own well-being there is no other way other than developing a welcoming attitude towards change, innovation, and personal satisfaction which will make our pupil's stay in the classroom and, likewise, our own career a profitable, enjoyable, and enriching experience. 46

Here is a child's experience that could shed some light in this sense (Montgomery, 1989, 7): Jonathan, who is rising five, remembers the last time on the mat where he had pins and needles and Sarah kicked him. He remembers that Darren bit him and the news was everybody else's and it was boring. He fidgeted and the teacher shouted. He got up and was knocked down by a big boy and cried. Nicholas laughed at him and pushed him when they were outside in the playground and he was just miserable and wanted to go home. He wasn't going to sit on any more old mats; he wanted to go home now before anyone noticed. He makes for the door...

In this case the child perceives the classroom as a hostile environment and he well knows what to do: leave. Unfortunately the system is not that easy to beat, especially at that age and he is brought back to cope with it again because the situation is expected to get better eventually since he will someday learn to adjust to these conditions. However, this does not always happen as we all wish. The same situation could apply to the teacher when looking introspectively into her own professional development conditions if she has not understood her role in education, if she has not accepted the fact that no one else but herself will show her how to improve her job and therefore derive further satisfaction from her work. Once the above has been understood will INSET seeds have any chance to flourish. Any INSET proposal should intend to lead the teacher into self-appraisal schemes that motivate and offer a positive framework within which a member or members of a particular staff can systematically reflect upon their careers and decide upon their own professional development. It is hoped this document helps the teacher go through what Ellis (in Richards, 1990) calls awareness-rising practices which are intended to develop her conscious understanding of the principles underlying both the teaching of English and her role in that process. In conclusion, trying to change practice may turn out to be ineffective if firmly held attitudes and beliefs are not dealt with first. The next step after having defined one's potential, role, duties, and projection is to analyse different strategies that can be used to observe the way the teacher carries out her work in order to help her establish a diagnosis of her own needs and mechanisms to meet them. Here are the most common observation considerations that have been used in our profession to a lesser or greater extent depending on the particular circumstances of the teacher's job. 2.2.1. Observation In order to get to know in more detail what we as teachers need, it is necessary to take an introspective look into our regular teaching , although it could also be added that by observing the attitudes, rapport, involvement, and participation of the students in class we should also be able to tell what a teacher is like. In this sense Montgomery (1989, 39) says: Good teaching is occurring where pupils learn most of what the teacher intended and much more beside, where they continue to study and pursue the topic long after the lesson ends, where they do not have to work but want to do so.

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By either observing herself or having an external referee observe her performance a teacher can obtain valuable input she can use to determine the adjustments or changes she deems necessary to improve her work. However, this determination of being willing to go through what some consider a nuisance or an ordeal has to be based on the analysis of certain factors related to the self-analysis of the teacher's performance; that is her own self-appraisal, for the whole process of observation and reflection to have some chance to work out a change or improvement on the teacher. Once this initial but indispensable personal agreement is reached, other factors, such as who is going to do the observation, what is going to be observed, what approach is to be used and, most important, what is to be done with the information collected, fall into place since there will be more acceptance, commitment and identification with the whole process on the part of the teacher. Most teachers usually do not feel comfortable having strangers or even other adults within their classrooms. They may regard this intrusion as an act to view what it is they do wrong since that has been the purpose of most supervision visits they have gone through either when doing their teaching practice at the university or when working mostly in the private sector. Therefore teachers may raise their defense shields when someone mentions the word supervision or even observation; and usually just a few think that this will be a good chance to share with others useful ideas they do in the classroom. In this respect, Wragg (1994) comments: I once went to a rural primary school and observed some of the most exciting work I have ever seen. When I urged the teacher to write up what he was doing so that others could read about it, he declined, saying that his colleagues might think he was boosting. By contrast practice in surgery is much more open matter. The developers of transplant and bypass surgery took it for granted that successful new techniques must be witnessed by, and disseminated to others through their actual presence at operations, or by means of videotapes and the written and the spoken word.

It is time teachers value their work and see it with the same perspective other professionals do, showing what works in their classroom and looking in others' for ideas that complement theirs. The next step is choosing who is going to do the observation in our classroom and agree on what aspects the teacher feels she needs to get feedback on, and what method seems to work better in observing her work. Since this observation proposal is based on the teacher's own willingness and awareness, the observer must meet her expectations and conditions so that the teacher feels at ease and looks forward to participating in this activity with professionals she feels confident with, values, respects, and listens to. Bell (1989, 68) suggests that: A supervisor should be someone that the observed teacher respects and from whom he or she can learn; the observer needs to be someone with greater and wider experience who is capable of commenting constructively on the teacher's performance in a way that promotes a willingness to learn and change.

Different types of observation procedures were discussed in the first chapter. The teacher should decide which one of them is the most suitable given her current teaching situation. However if the teacher still feels some kind of apprehension or second thoughts about letting 48

other people into her classroom, she should start by audio or video taping her classes in order to get used to the idea of revising her performance and work on ways to reach improvement. Richards (1990) views self-monitoring as a way to give the teachers much greater insight into their own teaching than more traditional forms of assessment with the additional advantage that it leads to better management and understanding of their own performance. Think of the times you have been observed as a teacher by others. Describe the way you felt, the kind of person who monitored you and the results of such observation.

TASK 2 2.2. 2. Reflection In order for self-appraisal schemes to function and INSET courses to be effective the teacher has to formulate beforehand her own model of professional activities. In other words, she should state clearly what she does and what she feels is expected of her within her educational community. For Wallace (1991) the reflective practice model stems from the trainee's existing conceptual schemata or mental constructs which constitute her personal overall view of and standing within her profession. From there the trainee places herself in a dual situation where she receives new knowledge that she contrasts against her experiential background. Afterwards she continuously observes her practice to reflect on it and improve it, thus webbing up a reflective cycle. Professional competence is then the combination of her received and experiential knowledge applied in her ever-improving practice. Although this model fits well into most teaching situations in the sense that it aims at constant professional development, other external and underlying considerations affecting and shaping the teacher's performance such as the role of parent associations and the community involvement in the primary school seem not to be clearly stated. Here is a different model addressing the above-mentioned factors as suggested by Montgomery (1989, 24)

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Community School

The wider Community A. Curriculum development activities (ac) In-service training

(ab) Study and research (abc) The professional teacher

Parents and directives B. Teaching and pupil learning (bc) guidance and counceling

C. Administration and management school ethos and life Local educational authorities health and social services

other schools and teachers' centers

In this scheme, the teacher is a professional who is capable of going on educating herself and analyse her practice from the start. Then she develops the curriculum the school has adopted through effective teaching and learning styles, strategies, and affective variables compatible with the principles contained in the curriculum and philosophy the school administration and the teaching staff is committed to develop. However, the scope of his work does not end there since, in order to ensure further achievements in teaching children, their families, their community, the community in general and the educational policies and authorities cannot be ignored if we want our work to transcend outside the classroom. 2.3. Efficient ELT practice in the primary school

TASK 3

Take a look at the following two checklists of good practice. The first one comes from The National Curriculum Modern Languages Report (1994) concerning the most salient features found in effective and successful learning environments in Britain and the second model depicts Brumfit's central tenets of teaching English to children in the primary school Brumfit (1991). Which of the descriptions suits your own teaching reality more precisely and which features of both do you find in your work?

 Do you have up-to-date records on pupils' progress? in: listening skills? oral skills? reading development? writing development? (or on the skills pertaining your focus in EFL?)  Do you prepare graded work for those students definitely behind the others so that they develop a feeling of assurance and improvement?  Do you prepare challenging and interesting work for high achievers so they greatly exploit their potential?  How long do you spend preparing for each day's teaching?  What makes a good indicator of learning failure? 50

 Do you continually try to develop new ways of teaching familiar topics?  Have you tried out any new teaching technique in the last month?  Have you learned any new information or found something usual to incorporate into your teaching in the last 48 hours?  Have you made any new teaching resource in the last three days?  When did you last attend a short in-service up-dating course other than the school's mandatory in-service provision?  Are you aware of the in-service courses offered by the faculties of Education in your region?  What steps do you take to broaden your intellectual and creative abilities?  How do you seek to widen your horizons and experience so that you can enrich your teaching?  How do you personally keep up your command of English? When did you last tape record or video one of your sessions for analysis? The National Curriculum Modern Languages Report

At first sight this extensive questionnaire may seem to be more demanding than what the teacher can actually meet. However, it is the sum of most of these characteristics which make a teacher a professional aware of very different fields around him and which he uses to facilitate his students' learning by turning his work into an exciting and stimulating environment for the pupils. This view of the National Curriculum Modern Languages Report, besides the above questionnaire, also sums up the major characteristics of effective primary school as follows:  Good teaching promotes a sense of enjoyment and motivation.  Teaching approaches are consistent across the department.  A well-ordered and adaptable scheme of work has been produced jointly by members of the department. It describes the agreed objectives, the progression expected for learners of all abilities, and the resources and teaching methods designed to achieve it.  From the start, the target language is the normal means of communication.  Activities are well matched to learner's age, maturity and ability.  Learners should be clear about what they are doing.  Activities are varied, and taken at an appropriate pace.  Activities bring a range of skills into play.  Learners often work co-operatively in groups.  Learners become increasingly independent in their work.  Published materials are used selectively.  Some activities are planned in collaboration with other departments.  Learners read extensively for information and pleasure.  Learners are given an insight into both their own and the foreign culture.  Learners have regular contacts with either native speakers or audio/video authentic materials.  Assessment is integrated with teaching and learning.  Homework is a planned part of the course.

Brewster (cited in Brumfit, 1991) views her model of good primary school EFL practice as follows:

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Good primary practice

Recent EFL developments

Syllabus Syllabus derived from topics and concepts

Use of project and theme-based language work

Methodology Topics used to promote activity-based learning, including surveys, investigations and problem-solving often involving small group work. Language and learning products Pupils' spoken and written products, e.g. taped stories or written instructions, provide the input for other pupils to work with. Display of children's work considered important for motivation. View of the learner Child-centred approach led to a holistic view of the child's education, including a concern for creativity and self-expression through music, drama and art. Children treated as agents of their own learning, leading to promotion of independent learning, use of self-access work and pupils setting their own agenda. View of the teacher Experiments in classroom practice led to diversification of teacher's roles to include monitor, facilitator, consultant, etc. Cultural context Child-centred approaches led to a concern with cultural appropriacy and development of 'multi-cultural' education in its best sense, e.g. avoidance of tokenism or stereotyping.

Development of task-based methodologies. Use of pair and group work for surveys and problem solving.

Production of materials by learners with an audience other than the teacher, e.g. fellow pupils, pupils in other classes.

Increasing use of e.g. poster presentations, class magazines. Interest in the learner-centred curriculum and humanistic approaches. Use of role-play, jazz chants etc. Development of learner-training; development of procedural syllabus.

Growing interest in a range of teacher's roles and teaching styles. Developing recognition of importance of cultural issues in planning context-sensitive materials, training courses etc.

Teaching children implies a series of strategies that could be summed up as follows: Give them a purpose and an audience as much as possible for everything they write, read, listen, speak, draw, complete, and display. Children do not tend to get actively involved in ELT activities, unless these are fun, meaningful, or complementary of others they do in other subjects such as art, music, or even content subjects such as science, social studies, and math. In this sense, if teachers make their English classes centred on topics e.g. flying things, living beings, means of transportation, it will be easier for the children to concentrate on what the teacher is saying about them because they already have some background on that topic obtained through other classes or from their environment. This so-called non-visual information will serve as an anchoring device for the English language points being taught. In summary, before thinking of teaching, say, a particular grammatical structure, the teacher should think what topics would be interesting for the pupils and then which of the former would be necessary and appropriate to convey the latter. Another important aspect to be considered when teaching children is their interaction through pair or group work when involved in activities such as colouring, drawing, painting, cutting, pasting, modelling, dramatisation, singing, playing games inside and outside the classroom are 52

useful to prolong the children's attention span and to foster socialisation and communication amongst them. If children do not find the learning of English fun and interesting, all the efforts of its introduction in the primary school may be wasted and, what is worse, their attitude towards the language may become detrimental for its teaching in high school. All of these features are not enough to be successful in teaching children unless they are intertwined throughout the teacher's work in what is called here effective classroom management. This is of such importance at this level of education that a great deal of attention has been given to it in this chapter. 2.4. Effective primary school classroom management This topic is seldom touched upon or referred to in most literature dealing with the teaching of English. The reason may lie on the fact that it has supposedly nothing to do with that type of research and should fall within the realm of other disciplines such as psychology, counselling, or perhaps even social work. This has led theoreticians to entirely ignore the minute characteristics and elements needed to guarantee the minimum conditions required to conduct a class where all the "big bang" types of EFL theories and methodological recommendations can indeed take place. Consequently, since effective classroom management is not a favourite topic in our field, a good number of trainers and methodology teachers in our ELT context follow that same pattern. As a result, trainees or pre-service students arrive initially in the classroom full of wonderful ideas and disposition, but may wind up frustrated because they never foresaw there would be certain classroom situations that, if not coped with soon and dominated, would greatly jeopardise or interfere with their teaching success. The term classroom management is extensively used nowadays under many different definitions that encompass many an aspect or miss out on others. Richards (1987) views classroom management more from the teacher's perspective as the ways in which student behaviour, movement, and interaction during a lesson are organised and controlled by the teacher to enable teaching to take place most efficiently.

Fontana (1985: 87) regards classroom management from the perspective of the learner and points out that by classroom management he means the way in which individual teachers organise their approach to learning and organise the classroom as an aid to that learning. Good classroom management leads students to get a clear picture of what is going on and what is expected of them, and allows them to see more clearly the consistent consequences of their own behaviour, both desirable and undesirable.

Both perspectives have to be considered at all times at any teacher training experience but it is definitely the latter which will ultimately determine the efficiency of the teacher's classroom management scheme. The importance of classroom management is such that courses at the primary school level which do not have a persistent, valid and encouraging management plan have almost no chance to succeed in substantial and beneficial ways for the learner. Teachers cannot expect the 53

children to behave the way older youths would because they are at very different cognitive, physical and maturing stages (see Working Document 4). They respond to strategies that are not at all used in other levels such as assigning responsibilities within the classroom, giving animal names to work groups; using symbols to get their attention, silence, or engagement in activities, just to mention a few. That is why it becomes so necessary to reach into the child's own world in order to take advantage of a series of actions, attitudes, abilities, skills, and strategies that allow for closer personal interaction between the teacher and the pupils leading to the negotiating of learning in a stimulating and meaningful environment. Bull (1987: 132) points out that teaching intentions will be conveyed to pupils by the way the total environment is organised There have probably been occasions when you have watched a colleague teaching and been impressed by the way in which every aspect of the classroom environment was geared to teaching and learning.

It is the appropriation of this so-called craft component which usually tells teachers apart and which allows a particular teacher to guarantee she has the right conditions for carrying out her classes, thus ensuring better opportunities for students to learn. Furthermore, the theory of practice, as Schön (1983) says, is more likely to arise from effective teaching models that will support the forthcoming body of theory and knowledge that will derive from actual, genuine expertise. Richards (1990) also stresses the importance of knowing what good teaching practice is like and of providing opportunities for the novice to acquire the skills and competencies of effective teachers and to discover the working rules that those teachers use. For all the above reasons this section seeks to relate major components of EFL teacher education (Wallace's received knowledge) such as lesson planning, methodological techniques, eliciting information, asking questions, turn taking , among others, to the teacher's classroom reality (experiential knowledge) in an effort to provide teachers with a more tangible strategy towards accomplishing a more effective performance. Finally, since it is likely there will be a considerable number of Licenciados teaching English in the primary school without much experience in educating children, the following list of major features various authors consider vital in order to have a well-managed classroom can prove to be very helpful in order to plan and organise the students' environment as to make the teaching and learning process a most effective and satisfactory one: 

Negotiate the rules with the children Children will respond better to policies and rules in the classroom and at school if they feel they participated in the process of setting up the way the class will function in the future. Assign as many responsibilities or duties as possible ranging from academic matters to all kinds of school or classroom co-operation. For instance: one child in charge of daily updating the classroom calendar, one more in charge of handing out written materials, one more in charge of collecting classwork, one more in charge of bringing in mops or brooms in case they are needed, etc. Think of all those time-consuming activities you do as a teacher that the students could do for you and assign each to a different student for a certain period of time. You will see how organised your 54

class will be after everybody knows what is expected of each one of them. List and define all rules, routines, directions or other clues you want the class to follow so that the children behave appropriately and you avoid the daily wearing off of organising and maintaining class control throughout the school year if those have not been established and consistently practised .There will be no more rushing, shouting, pushing, or fighting to get your attention to do something in the classroom because they will know whose job it is. There will be other times when to offer themselves as volunteers but even that, too, has to be done according to the rules agreed upon from the start. Children enjoy doing voluntary work in the classroom because it is a chance for them to socialise, be useful, maybe show off a bit, or just stand up from that torturing chair they are forced to sit on all day long. 

Be well prepared before going into the classroom Make sure you have all the elements needed to work in the classroom and make provisions for those the students are going to need to carry out your class. Carry a box or bag where you always keep extra pencils, colour pens, sharpeners, erasers, scissors, glue, additional classwork material, toys, etc., in order to minimise the possibilities of wasting precious class time simply because a child is missing something he needs to get started. Provide the missing object showing some kind of discomfort for that situation so that the pupils do not get spoiled and are encouraged to develop better organisational skills. 

Lesson planning It is no secret to anybody that most lesson plans teachers are obliged to complete in whatever format the supervisor or school authority demands almost always do not necessarily reflect what actually goes on in the classroom. Rather, they are an administrative requirement for which the teacher is seldom held accountable in the public sector. It seems that the way traditional planning is done is very different from the way effective teachers prepare their classes. They seem to think first of various activities they want their students to do as a way to reinforce the topic of the class. This does not mean they do not have clear objectives for the class, but rather that most teachers think initially of tools they can resort to in order to get the students to concentrate and work constructively towards their development of objectives (Halliwell, 1992). For this practical reason, it is interesting to consider a different approach to planning a lesson which is based on the way effective teachers do. This way we hope we are leading to the discussion and pursuit of lesson plan formats matching the teacher's reality more closely. Montgomery (1989, 51) provides a helpful model she calls tactical lesson planning based more on structure than on content in regard to teachers that spend long periods of time on information gathering or on over-extended activities during which children can and lose concentration and direction. It also involves activity changes bearing in mind the attention span of the students and signs the children give when a change is necessary. Objectives are intertwined within the phases and it is suggested here that those attained should be written after the class as a way to indicate what the students are capable of doing. This proposal may sound too liberal for quite a few supervisors or school authorities, but it is time the typical lesson plan exacting the traditional headings: objectives, introduction, methods, contents, 55

teaching aids and evaluation be revised in the consolidation of better alternatives reflecting the changes occurring at different phases of the lesson. Here is a possible alternative model to traditional lesson planning accompanied by a lesson plan intended to teach the days of the week and to express future actions e.g., I am playing basketball tomorrow: 

Central objective As the main point of the lesson write a brief statement or title about what the pupils are to learn. For example: Expressing intentions and plans for the week. 

Introduction: (3-5 minutes) This occupies the first few minutes of the lesson when the teacher outlines the main purpose and/or reviews previous related work and/or revises the degree of achievement by questioning the pupils. This gives the children a time to adjust to the new class and concentrate on the tasks or activities the teacher is proposing for this new class. Tell the students that they are going to learn how to express what they want to do on different days of the week. Ask students, ‘who was missing yesterday, who is missing today, and who might be missing tomorrow’ making emphasis on the time markers: yesterday, today, and tomorrow. You could also explore their knowledge of the days of the week in their native language through finding out about the days when major events or popular activities or television programmes children like take place. 

Phase one: (about 10-20 minutes depending on age and concentration span of pupils) The presentation of the first part of the lesson content, including where possible any video/audio aids as concrete examples. This is the time of the class when the teacher practically does all the talking while pupils listen. If a single child is evidently not listening, the presentation should not go on for he and maybe others will not understand what he is supposed to do when practical work begins. Review morning, afternoon, evening and introduce -ing used to express plans for the afternoon or evening, e.g., I am going to the movies this evening. Flash cards with different activities will be useful to demonstrate or reinforce vocabulary and have the students associate the messages they are listening to with pictures being shown. A calendar with the days of the week written in different colours will provide the reference needed to conceptualise or understand the equivalence and order of the days of the week. 

Phase two: (about 10-20 minutes depending on task requirements) An activity change for the pupils must be presented at this stage so that they turn to practical work. Thus they switch from listening in phase one to writing, drawing, colouring, or to some different activity, e.g., pupils completing a worksheet with reference to phase one. Pupils are given a blank week calendar for them to fill out with the activities they are planning to do on each day.

September 1995 Monday 10

Tuesday 11

Wednesday 12

Thursday 13

Friday 14

If writing is too difficult a task for this class or for a particular pupil, they could draw the food they intend to eat on each day, the places they are visiting a day at a time on the upcoming vacation, and so on. After 10 minutes students are paired and will exchange sheets. They should ask each other what they are doing on a given day to 56

both practice the target structure and vocabulary; What are you doing on... (day) and I am v + -ing, and also challenge their memory of what they wrote or drew on each box. 

Phase three: (about 5-10 minutes depending on task requirements) This could be the final section of a single lesson in which student can report orally on the written work they did so that they get to check their work for the main correct points to be included. Students report orally to the whole class on what they are doing or their partners are doing on a particular day. The teacher asks the classwork-collecting monitor (pupil) to gather the worksheets for teacher check-up and the teacher may play the guessing game: Guess who's going to the carnival on ...(day) by looking at the worksheets and have the students get interested in coming up with the right name quickly (this activity can also be combined with the game 'hangman'). Finish the class by telling the students what you are planning to do for the week. If homework is to be assigned, ask the students to bring information on interesting events taking place in town this week.

The main features of this way of planning are:  It resembles the way a class unfolds more realistically.  This plan is easier to follow because it is based on the structure or the course the class is expected to take.  Materials or teaching aids needed are listed and their purpose outlined for the stage when they are actually needed.  Objectives, which are implicit throughout the stages, might be written down after class as to report on what the students are actually capable of doing.  Since this model is based on actual practice and expertise, it lends itself more easily to genuine lesson planning on the part of the teacher.

TASK 4

How would you plan a lesson to introduce the unit Food that makes us strong (food groups)? What other content subjects is it related to and what language items would be appropriate and necessary for doing so?



Be punctual It gives the students the idea you also abide by the same rules you demand they do. Start your class timely and finish it before the bell rings, not after since students may be compelled to uncomfortably rush to finish tasks, put things away, clear desks, return to standard sitting arrangements. Administer time wisely so the pupils think you plan the scope of your classes carefully. Students most likely will look forward to being with you again if beginning and finishing class is smoothly and enthusiastically worked out. In this respect Fontana (1985) says: Conclude your class with a friendly note. It makes the fact of facing them again that much easier. 

Bring the students to order quickly before class starts Remember that all the time you waste calming down the students or having them assume their initial expected position for class is precious time you are sacrificing from the real teaching you should do. Shouting will always lead to higher levels of noise since students will get to think that unless the teacher shouts increasingly louder, they are entitled to be disruptive. Besides, once students fall into that habit, no matter how loud you scream they will just not pay any attention to you anymore. Simply put, the pupils must know that a simple gesture, look, or utterance normally produced will bring order to the class. Do not start class until everybody is quiet and 57

ready for class because following directions and participating in activities in another language demands higher levels of attention than in the mother tongue. If the students are not ready you will most certainly not advance much in class. You may have to address the leaders of the pack by their names to produce a cascading effect on the others, ask a serious question to one of the disrupters so the others feel like they could be next and therefore centre their attention on what you are saying immediately, or something of that sort. Nevertheless consistency and reiteration in the application of controls for this kind of situation will almost always be enough. 

Inform the pupils about what the class is about No matter how young the children can be they will understand what you want to pursue in class and what you would like them to do. Tell the students in very simple terms the purpose of the class before you start so they concentrate more easily on the topic you intended to teach. This activity is particularly useful to develop critical thinking skills and cognitive mapping for they will be more alert for the parts of the whole you outlined initially (Kennedy, 1991) 

The talented "can-do-it-all" teacher Working in the primary school classroom poses a series of demands on the teacher that are not that evident in other levels. Children will identify more with an adult who is often capable of putting into operational terms concepts, ideas or parts of the lesson because that way learning will become easier to grasp for them. Moreover, activities based on the following skills will enhance the pupil's attention span thus encouraging a proper behaviour that facilitates learning. Here are some skills an effective primary school teacher should work on (Brewster, 1992): Telling stories: Use different voices, make pauses to add suspense and arise curiosity and interest, change your tone of voice, put on a piece of costume or clothe to add mystery and boost the student's attention when reading or telling a story (sometimes something so simple like a handkerchief will work miracles). Singing, playing an instrument, or just playing recorded music: Songs help children relax, move around, release energy, and learn lots of vocabulary, improve pronunciation, internalise language forms and functions and, in general, practice listening, speaking, reading, and writing through exercises that are based on the song. Drawing: Visualising what the EFL teacher says is extremely important for children. You do not have to be an artist to learn how to draw basic figures. There are quite a few drawing teachyourself methods based on such simple systems as using stick figures. Drama, acting or performing: It gives the students a chance to interact with others, move around, be creative, overcome fears or apprehensions to speak in public and practice the language they have been learning in the classroom. It also gives a purpose and an audience for the children's work which are of paramount importance in working at this level (Halliwell, 1992). Developing basic mimicry skills can help the teacher improve her body language which plays a very important role when working with children. Dance, role play, puppet activity, and model 58

making have to be emphasised in order to make the teaching based on topical rather formal organisation (Brumfit, 1991). 

Establish leadership authority quickly To become a leader behave as one from the start. This may be accomplished by actions such as occupying a central position in the classroom, moving confidently within the classroom, talking firmly and sounding sure, interacting with the students in a warm but respect-promoting manner, establishing eye contact, calling them by their names. Classroom talk; the language usually used in class such as commands, basic instructions, notices, etc., has to be encouraged and maintained from the start because as time goes by and students get used to it, English will sound more natural and spontaneous in the classroom. 

Demand active and thorough participation of all students in your class Call students by their names so they feel you are interested in them at a personal level and that you are serious about what you want from them. Mnemonics are useful to retain all their names if you have too many students. The following tips may be useful to you: Try to learn the full names of the student (both first and family names). Although it looks like a more memorydemanding task, it actually develops more memory connections (webbing) and therefore more possibilities to access a student's name. Also, it avoids memory lapses when you have various students by the same name. Ask the students about their parents and what they do and try to establish some sort of connections, even though they may be entirely arbitrary, with the student's name. 

Make the best use of your voice You may remember the times you have had a sore throat and have been unable to talk to your students. If you happen to have gone to work under this circumstance you may remember how frustrating it was to have the students follow your directions, especially if they did not have any plan of classroom management fully in operation. Your voice is the most important means of communication you have with your students and therefore a tool that has to be most efficiently utilised to enhance understanding on the part of the learner. It is usually the case that we do not know how we sound when speaking until we record ourselves. Do this and find out if you seem to have the following features most people find relevant when listening attentively to another person: pleasant voice (get other people's opinion as well), clarity (well-articulated sounds), right volume and tone to expressively add colour, interest, and involvement (Fontana, 1985) 

Be alert to and analyse what is happening in class If children think they are smarter than you, please consider other professions because you have almost no chances to be an efficient primary school teacher. If you overhear trouble or see it coming out of the corner of your eye, go on with the class but send a warning message to those challenging your standing in the classroom. Pretend and make them believe you have eyes on the back of your head, that you have supernatural hearing powers that you can see through walls or desks, and so on so forth. This all makes part of the fantasy and imaginative world children live in and that is important to respect and encourage since it is the rooting of 59

innovation and creativity. Establish eye contact with them, move around, and sit next to them. The pupils must be well aware of and apply the procedures needed to ask for help so class development does not become entangled. Ignore those in violation of the agreements or indicate no availability to them. There are many strategies through which this can be done, Wragg (1994) brings up the example of teachers of small children who usually crouch alongside them to minimise the height difference, but when they are angry they may draw themselves up to their full height, maximising the height difference to establish or maintain dominance. This and many other uses of non-verbal behaviour are crucial in the classroom since they can be very valuable in keeping the class going without having to resort to interruptions. A teacher communicates enthusiasm and holds pupil's attention through her non-verbal behaviour. Besides, boring classes are often those which are presented in a boring way by a teacher unable to bring about interest or enthusiasm for the subject on the part of the children (Bull, 1987). After students have settled down to work, another important aspect is to maintain the appropriate classroom conditions. The teacher should move around providing group or individual encouragement so they feel you are interested in and value their work. The pupils, whether slow, average or high achievers expect positive comments from the teacher or assistance during the lesson. This attitude will help reinforce the student's self-image leading to further active interest in school work (Montgomery, 1989). Also, by watching closely the work being done by the pupils, the teacher should be able to determine the degree of effectiveness of her directions or explanations. Just as important as knowing what is going on in the classroom is the analysis of the situations arising constantly and that are both predictable or unpredictable, depending on the kind of task or activity your students are involved in. By analysing those situations it is meant the time you take to analyse and correct matters such as:  What you are doing or have said provoked a right or wrong reaction.  The unnecessary edge you gave to your voice when speaking to a certain child discouraged him from doing a better job (Fontana, 1985).  You have allocated your attention fairly among the students; that is, you have addressed some students more than others.  You have stuck most of the time close to one or various students.  What you intended to be a joke was actually misunderstood by the class, a group or even by just one student.  You inadvertedly established a comparison that humiliated or put down one or several students instead of having provided a positive model aimed at drawing attention to good work, and so forth.

This feedback you provide yourself with will help you take measures that remedy whatever inappropriate action you may have undertaken so that students most often receive the same treatment and feel they have equal rights and participation in class. Again, tape recording yourself or bringing in a peer to discreetly observe your class will cast a lot of light on your performance leading to assume a better perspective for your teaching. Finally, the teacher in the primary school should understand that she is not only a teacher, but an educator and that all she says and does when in contact with the pupils will determine if they will welcome her 60

teaching or not. Adults can be different in this sense since they may be able to put aside aspects such as the teacher's personality upsetting traits to concentrate merely on the knowledge they expect from the teacher. 

Ensure opportunities for practical activities Fontana (1985) poses as a rule of thumb that "teacher talk" as part of a lesson should occupy no more than a minute to a minute and a half (dependent on the ability of the class) for each year of the children's age. Thus, an 8-year-old child's attention span would roughly be 12 minutes. If the class is not interesting, this time will reduce dramatically. Therefore, it becomes imperative that primary school teachers plan practical activities that allow for change of pace, task, materials, interaction strategies, skills, abilities, focus or setting. Students could listen, write, read, speak, through various activities such as working with texts, copying from the board, describing cards to the class, group or partner; interacting with others to find answers to a task proposed, gathering information to make graphs, posters, displays, watching or listening to programs in order to make reports, and many other combination of activities that will keep the students' attention vivid, therefore enhancing the possibilities for learning to take place. 

Facing the unpredictable: critical situations and emergencies There are a lot of cases when unusual situations happen in class that are not necessarily the result of downright misbehaviour: water being spilled, a paint container falling on the floor and splashing all over, a window being broken either from the inside or the outside, a child still not very good at sphincter control, someone collapsing as the result of illness, etc. Every teacher might come up with an endless list of situations that happen in the classroom and that, if not treated promptly and skilfully, will lead the class to a total standstill. First of all it must be made extremely clear that the handling of emergencies like flooding, fires, earthquakes, volcano eruptions and the like must be treated according to the emergency manual every school must have. Make sure your students have gone through drills repeatedly and just follow the guidelines if a situation like this ever happens. What we are interested in more here is the handling of critical situations that take place in the classroom and that do not necessarily imply an emergency. At all times play down the whole event and resort to the plan of duties the students have adopted and practised before: The one in charge of mops will go get one, the child in charge of going to the office will go and ask for whatever or whoever the teacher deems convenient. Try to minimise the situation, handle it quickly and carry on with class, especially when the event was caused by the students on purpose. Thus, they may not resort again to this kind of strategy to see the class paused or finished earlier than expected. A focus on correcting misbehaviour is likely to have the opposite effect to that intended. It can lead to an increase in misbehaviour and in time spent dealing with it (Bull, 1987). There will be time later, once the class is finished, to deal with these cases, if necessary.

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Get involved with your pupils' problems You may remember Jonathan's case at the beginning of this chapter. Frustration will most certainly arise if the teacher is unable to provide immediate or short-term solutions to the problems a student faces. Again, the list is endless and the solution to some of them may go beyond your control. No matter if you can or cannot solve the problem, tell the student when to talk to you in private even if it is for one or two minutes. The important thing here is to make sure the child feels he has somebody to provide him with support whenever he needs it. You may be exhaustedly busy, but time has to be made for this kind of pupil counselling. Students will pay attention, respect, and listen to you if this is what they get from you. Brewster (1992) suggests keeping records with details of the children's home background, health problems, hobbies or other important aspects of the pupils' lives in order to help the teacher build up a picture of popular school-based and personal topics which you can draw upon in your lessons to make them interesting and fun. However, the teacher has to be extremely cautious as to always handle these associations positively and, most of all, to be genuine and by no means sound artificial when bringing into focus these personal aspects. 

Make full use of questions Asking questions appropriately is one of the best tools you have to keep the interest in the class going, to encourage slow learners and challenge high achievers, to maintain the class in control when there seems to be some kind of disruption, and the like. Bull (1987) lists the following functions of questions: -Get children thinking -Revise or recall previous information or skills -Structure a task -Arouse curiosity or interest -Draw on pupils' own experiences, views, feelings. -Check understanding -Diagnose children's difficulties -Stimulate questions and discussions among pupils -Encourage participation by shy or reluctant children -Express interest in pupils' ideas or feelings -Gain attention and keep children "on the task"

As we can see from the above, questions play a major role in class management and should be used in accordance with the other features of non-verbal behaviour explained before in order to ensure a positive effect on the pupil. Remember that a bad combination of these two aspects may turn into encouragement or resentment, praise or irony, interest or mockery, or many other impressions. A teacher who varies the type of questions she asks -factual yes-no, or, one word answer; opinion-based, open-ended types- and who poses them frequently directing them at specific children is using a valuable strategy for keeping everyone attentive and active (Brown, 1995).

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Classroom appearance and wall displays A primary school teacher should give the classroom appearance the same importance a caring mother does to her children's bedrooms. The walls can be used to exhibit a variety of visual materials that will make the classroom lively and will maximise learning possibilities. Here are a few ideas of wall displays your classroom could have: . A clock . A weather chart portraying the picture of today's weather and a forecast for tomorrow . All the student's pictures arranged within a common theme: a train, a house, a bus. There could even be a special part of this board to display the pictures of the kids absent for the day. . The class schedule . A calendar with important events coming up . The alphabet both in print and in cursive . Science, cultural or sports news of the week . Art works

Most of these displays should be maintained and updated by the students themselves as part of the distribution of duties comprised in the classroom management plan. Students will enjoy being in charge of a particular part of the classroom displays. Make sure this task does not become too lengthy or arduous turning into a burden for the students. Also, set aside some time to go over the contents exhibited with the students so that they relate directly with all the information gathered there. 

Correct and return student work quickly Children are usually anxious to get their work back with the teacher's impression provided that there is a positive and stimulating relationship between the teacher and the students. By doing this the pupils will think you are a genuine person that also follows rules of the same kind they have to adhere to. When correcting work, evaluating, marking, or responding to the students, focus on the positive aspects and write encouraging comments about the ones they did not get right. Hand back the work with a smile or one brief comment if possible. Remember, this is the same treatment most people would like to be given when appraised or evaluated. 

Do not threaten or make promises you cannot keep Children are much more sensitive than adults in this sense and will feel detachment from a teacher who makes more promises than she can meet, or who will not obey or pay attention to someone who threatens too often and does not act accordingly. If for some reason you are unable to comply with something you promised, explain it to the students in detail and provide alternatives. Always try and be consistent, fair, and encouraging in the following of the principles you use to manage your class. After all, it may be better to be the head of a smoothly-running company than the warden in a top-security prison.

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Can you think of other classroom management techniques ELT teachers can use to improve their performance in primary school?

TASK 5 2.5. Inset potential areas for the teaching of English in the primary school Perhaps the most important objective of the COFE project is ultimately to impact positively and substantially the learning of English in Colombia by leading the programmes of Modern languages in the various universities to reflect upon their own teaching, strengthen their curriculum, and develop new and efficient programmes for the professional development of both pre-service and in-service personnel. The following list of potential INSET areas is intended to provide professional development ideas for the teacher of English in the primary school. Once the teacher has defined her strengths and weaknesses in her teaching career, she should be able to pinpoint those areas where she feels there is room for improvement and make the contacts necessary with the local universities or INSET providers for the promotion and future scheduling of training courses aimed at satisfying that particular need. The more narrowed down and better defined you make your INSET request, the better planning and completion treatment the course will be given. Courses intended to improve the teacher's professional standing in her career concentrate on levels such as developing basic competence in English and on primary teaching methodology (Brumfit, 1991). The University of Cambridge breaks down the above levels and proposes six areas in the Certificate in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language to Young Learners (1994):  Language analysis and awareness  The learner, the teacher, and the teaching/learning context  Planning for effective EFL teaching  Classroom management and teaching skills  Teaching resources and materials  Professional development

However, there are some other areas not clearly encompassed within this view, which should be given some particular attention and discussion. One is that dealing with the philosophical, political and educational factors underlying the teaching of English in the primary school so that the teacher raises her awareness of why the teaching of English is justified there and uses that rationalisation to motivate students to learn the language. Considering the great potential it entails, action-research is another area that might be given special treatment (COFE's Working Document 3, 1993). Here is a list of areas and topics partly based on Clegg's (cited in Brumfit, 1991) and also partly on the University of Cambridge's syllabus proposals within the areas outlined above for the teaching of English in the Primary School intended to help the teacher to define her own needs, 64

the trainer to propose topics for teacher training, and for the Faculties of Education to make them part of their current teacher preparation curricula. Factors underlying the teaching of English in Colombia  Disposition towards and motivation for the learning of English by children in primary school in our country.  Educational policies and support provided by the government for the teaching of English  Colombian general educational policies for primary school education.  Major cultural aspects of English-speaking countries.

The kind of teacher we are aiming at throughout this document is one that understands the scope of his work and fully perceives the role he plays within the whole educational process. Being aware of the major considerations taken into account for the teaching of English in the primary school and the relevance of speaking English in an ever increasingly de-bordering world will lead her to see herself not as a tool, but rather as an important protagonist in this process. Language in use: Improving the teacher's command of English.  Determining the teacher's actual proficiency level  Relating both the methodological and the language improvement components.  Proposing adult study skills and exploring their learning strategies  Planning courses aimed at correcting language weaknesses detected in the trainees.

There is a rather widespread misconception that to teach English especially to children a basic grasp of the language will do since the linguistic interaction with the students is usually kept to a minimum. However, the teacher's command of English in primary school should be such that she provides excellent models in this target language so that speaking the mother tongue excessively in class does not hinder the practice and familiarisation with the former. Then it is extremely important for the teacher to question what she may have considered sufficient skills so far to teach children and finds the way to pinpoint her strengths and weaknesses in English so she can concentrate more clearly on aspects that need improvement. Another way to facilitate language bettering is dealing with it incidentally in teacher training sessions as Kennedy (1991) suggests. Using English in these sessions is a realistic and meaningful way to engage in practice beyond the usual and, at times, routinising language of the classroom. The teacher could also get involved in activities carried out in English either at the level of her own school, the local universities, and the teachers' associations he can contact or just within the study groups he decides to pertain to. Writing articles for newspapers or newsletters, holding conversations or organising total immersion sessions, establishing penpalship habits, putting up a play with colleagues are just some of the ways the teacher could explore to keep her English active and on the rise. Linguistic aspects dealing with learning another language  Learning Vs acquisition  Major considerations of bilingualism and its effects on children in the primary school context.  Considerations of the learning to read and write in the mother tongue and its implication on developing the same skills in another language. 65

 Basic concepts and terminology used in ELT for describing form and meaning in language and language use.  Basic concepts and terminology used for describing language skills and subskills.  Language description and syllabus design for the teaching of English as a foreign language to children (5-10).  The practical significance of the similarities and differences between languages.

It is important for the teacher to know what is the latest research on second language acquisition, on learning, on bilingualism and on many other aspects dealing with the principles of teaching and learning a first and second language in order to know what may be the effects of her teaching strategies. Furthermore, this part of the applied science, as Wallace (1991) calls it, is the foundation of all the craft work we do as teachers in the classroom and what, once involved with, makes us professionals and therefore different from the local artisans . Methodological considerations  Models of teacher education practice: craft, applied science, reflective practitioner.  The young learner's educational background and traditions.  The context for learning and teaching EFL at this range.  Children's interests, motivation and needs for learning English as a foreign language.  Different teaching and learning styles and affective factors at this age range and differences with teenagers and adults.  The planning and execution of autonomous learning and self-access proposals or schemes.

The ultimate goal of this area should be to encourage and later on attain innovation in classroom methodology leading to actual improvement of the students' learning. Furthermore, as mentioned later on in this document, teachers should aim at getting the students to learn to learn so they become autonomous in appropriating further knowledge. Brewster (1992) advocates for a general methodology in primary teaching closely linked with the active participation of the children so that they learn by doing through frequent recycling of concepts and the use of a great variety of teaching aids e.g.; realia, models, puppets, songs, games, etc. Effective teaching and planning  Analysis of effective teaching planning programs and experiences.  The practical realities of planning for effective teaching of young learners  Language across the curriculum; content-based instruction  The selection and evaluation of appropriate materials, resources and aids for specific lessons.  The selection and evaluation of appropriate exercise types, activity types and tasks for specific lessons.  The evaluation of lesson plans  The evaluation of the whole process of teaching English in the teacher's primary school.  The assessment of the pupil's proficiency in English.  The set-up of functional follow-up systems allowing the teacher to assess his students' learning progress and his own teaching performances.

Specialised and innovative models for lesson planning in primary school should be sought and implemented in order to make this task-consuming activity teachers deal with everyday interesting and worthwhile doing.

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As said before, contents from other subjects or from the student's reality should be incorporated into the actual teaching of English in order to give the students a purpose for learning this language. However, careful attention should be paid as to ensure keeping a balance between the contents and the language used, since the teacher might end up covering a lot of topics or developing various skills, but not advancing much in the pupils’ learning of English. Constant supervision on the teacher's part in matters dealing with the development of his classes and the completion of the school's curriculum will help stabilise and strengthen the whole process of teaching English at the school. Classroom management and skills involved with teaching children  The effective organisation of the classroom.  Establishing and maintaining classroom presence and control.  Making appropriate language demands.  Working with mixed ability classes.  Student interaction.  Monitoring learner's progress.  The evaluation of classroom management and teaching skills.

Classroom management involves certain routines and actions used by teachers to make their teaching more effective (Brewster, 1992). This area should be broken down in smaller components such as helping the teacher realise his own teaching skills, the managing of an effective learning environment for the pupils, and ways of organising the classroom. The combination of all these elements will provide an inviting atmosphere where both the teacher and the students feel at ease and think of it as the appropriate environment for the former to do his job and for the latter to spend quite a bit of time every day. Resources and materials for teaching English to children.  Developing basic teacher’s artistic skills required for his daily teaching to children, e.g. story-telling, drawing, and acting, puppet work, and mimicry.  Commercially-produced resources and materials for teaching EFL to young learners.  Non-published resources and materials.  Using aids, resources and materials.  The selection and evaluation of resources and materials for use in teaching, testing, and for reference.  The adaptation of resources and materials for specific groups of learners.  Setting up a school's resource centre to foster co-operative teaching and autonomous learning of English.

It is usually the case that most English teachers working in the public sector in Colombia are under-resourced to add that touch of excitement and interest good materials and equipment give to a class. However, ways should be explored to make the best use of whatever form of materials the teacher may have available in combination with techniques to use those in large classes through the use of interactive approaches. Teachers should also learn to analyse the value of textbooks and other teaching materials so they can decide when it can be appropriate to follow the instructions contained in the teacher's edition, adapt or replace parts or the whole of those materials. 67

Considering the opportunities made possible by the set-up and existence of several Resource Centres by the COFE Project in our country, teachers should be encouraged to make contact with the one nearest them and benefit from the materials, equipment, and activities being held in those centres. The section on Resource Centres and other learning facilities presented in the second part of this document should provide the teacher with ideas on what they are, their objectives and on how to make full use of them. Professional development  Self-assessment: developing strengths and understanding weaknesses.  Working in context: being a teacher, colleague and employee.  Professional development: support systems, publications and courses.  INSET opportunities within the teacher's context.  Organising appropriate professional development groups.

As said in the introduction of this section, INSET courses should focus on raising the level of awareness of the teacher towards her profession so she can be able to observe her performance, reflect on it, determine strengths and weaknesses and devise a plan of action leading her to pursue her own professional development. It should be kept in mind that the process outlined above is repetitive throughout our career as teachers for there should never be the time when we can genuinely say or even think we know enough to do our job. Perhaps the end result of all this would be to return to the teacher the sense of pride for her work other professionals have for theirs. 2.6. Summing up the differences between teaching children and classical EFL practices. Finally, in the interest of helping the teacher round up her view of the particularities implicit in the primary ELT model and hence of avoiding treating primary school pupils the same as teenagers or adults, the following chart depicting classical EFL teaching contrasted against actual primary school practice is provided (Brumfit, 1994). Model Model of language and syllabus design

Classical EFL

Mainstream primary practice

1. Syllabus tends to be mainly linguistic and mainly structural/functional.

Syllabus is oriented to topic and concept rather than language.

2. The model of language relies mainly on the categories of structure, function and skill, listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Skills categories are applied within topics. Language categories which might be used to set objectives within tasks are discourse, function, structure and lexis.

3. Teaching objectives are usually framed and tasks set in terms of one or more of these categories.

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Topics are selected for their potential for exploring aspects of the curriculum, e.g. maths, environmental studies. Tasks will often foster the development of study skills such as survey skills or collecting and recording data in investigations.

Model of Language Acquisition

4. Teacher control of the input is important. The input is often dominated by an ordered sequence of language items. Spoken language is acquired by a combination of form-orientated practice (repetition) and meaning orientated communication. . 5. Tasks are often shaped in order to generate discourse in which specific items determined by a syllabus are used. Listening, reading, and writing skills are also acquired via a combination of formorientated and process/communication-orientated activities.

Model of classroom practice

6. The work of the classroom is orientated towards language/communication practice. Oral work often takes the form of specified stages: presentation of new language, controlled practice and communicative practice, often but not necessarily in that order. Reading, writing, and listening activities are often subordinated in their purpose to the linguistic/communicative orientation of the oral work.

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The teacher creates a learning environment which facilitates language acquisition and communication. This is achieved through enquiry which generates opportunities for small group work, and teacher-pupil communication. The teacher provides contextual support (e.g. pictures, matrices) and support at different levels of language for skills development. This support aims to provide access to tasks for learners with varying levels of cognitive and linguistic ability. Learners explore topics through a sequence of problem-solving and research tasks. Final products and the audience for those products are important both for motivation and the learner's attention to language use. The teacher intervenes in the selection and sequencing of tasks, task design and group composition. He/she may model language, shape and correct pupils' discourse and offer support at an individual's level of language ability.

CHAPTER III: IN-SERVICE COURSES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL 3.1 Previous in-service courses in Colombia English for EFL in Colombia has been officially and privately provided by different bodies over the years. In-service in Colombia goes back to the 1960's years when it was provided by public Universities, by the British Council and by the Instituto Electrónico de Idiomas (I.E.I.). The I.E.I. being one of the many Divisions of the Ministry of Education (MEN) was the government Institution directly responsible for foreign Language In-service Education (Inset) and curriculum design. The British Council works closely together with the Instituto Electronico de Idiomas and ASOCOPI (Asociacion Colombiana de Profesores de Inglés). It continuously participates in workshops-seminars locally organised in conjunction with the IEI and Asocopi. It also gets actively involved in the National Conference of Teachers of English and in bringing into Colombia guest speakers who participate in courses for teacher trainers at least twice a year. The latter courses are co-ordinated by the IEI and are provided in Bogota and usually in Cali, Medellin or Barranquilla. Attendance to these courses is restricted in numbers, by institutions and by regions. The Colombian Association of Teachers of English organises regional one-three day seminarworkshops mainly for secondary school teachers and a four day Annual National Conference. Asocopi publishes a newsletter and the HOW magazine which carry information on the trends in ELT methodology, books, seminar-workshops and conferences. The Centro Colombo Americano of Bogota holds a yearly ELT National Seminar for teachers from secondary school and Universities. Different Colombian Universities, especially those that have Faculty of Education and Language Schools organise In-service seminars. ‘Actualizacion’ could be considered as non-credit courses and credit courses. The former are organised by the British Council, the IEI, Centros Experimental Pilotos (CEPS), local and regional Secretaries of Education and ASOCOPI. Credit courses may be offered by Universities, Institutes of Higher Education and the Secretaries of Education through the CEPs and have to be approved by the CEP. The courses are ninety hours' duration and are worth two credits on the promotion and pay scale. In Bogota, they are taught by staff of the IEI and University teachers. In other cities they are promoted by the CEPs, and taught by University teachers or selected secondary school teachers whose command of the language is outstanding and who have also attended the In-service courses for teachers trainers jointly organised and taught by the IEI and the British Council. They are usually offered during June and December vacation periods, as well as throughout the school year in the Friday afternoons and long morning sessions on Saturdays. In groups of four, discuss how you have run the In-service courses in your University, confront your ideas with those of your colleagues and try to design a new model for In-service courses. These cues could be useful: audience, content, schedule, assessment, follow-up, methodology, objectives, materials, etc.

TASK 1 70

3.2 Towards new arrangements for in-service courses in secondary schools 3.2.1 some general considerations. Based on the above information it is easy to conclude that in Colombia the provision of Inservice training is still relatively small. Many courses relate to a limited number of fashionable subjects. There are not enough practical courses on useful topics that fulfil the teachers’ needs. It is often difficult for teachers to obtain release from school in order to attend them. Too many courses, again, involve travelling a considerable distance from home. In-service teacher training courses in Colombia take various forms and are designed to fulfil different functions. Their popularity probably lies in obtaining an accreditation (certificates) to be ranked in a better position and in what Widdowson calls the "Social and professional intensity of the event" (Widdowson, 1987: 27), the break in the routine, the chance to meet new colleagues and to discuss one's professional problems, the exposure to lots of stimulating new ideas, the novelty of being a student again. 3.2.2 Some basic ideas that should support the implementation of in-service courses The most fundamental form of innovation is the transformation of the values of teachers. All other forms of innovation, in materials, methods, pupil grouping, and so forth, are often dependent for their success upon a shift in the values of teachers. The intimate relationship between teachers’ values and the effectiveness of a particular innovation is clear. We start from the assumption that development is a transformational process which could take place in myself and in everybody who are continually engaged in transforming their lives through a process of questions and answers. So we believe this document will fulfil its aim of encouraging practitioners to have faith in their own creative powers to understand education from the point of view of making sense of their own practice, while exercising their critical powers in evaluating the contributions of other thinkers to this understanding. We believe that In-service professional Education should be focused on the self-education of teachers. We are convinced of the need to encourage people to appreciate the powers of the self, when that self engages in the process of his own development, of the power to create their own understanding. This power allows us to apply our educational practice to the process of transforming our lives. If we are not happy with the situation, we should change it. In order to do this, we may follow McNiff's point of view (1993: 4) Teachers must regard themselves as free thinkers, as creators of their own lives, in order to regard themselves as part of educative process. If they do not, teachers remain as implementers; and that, to my mind, is wasteful and immoral.

We could consider two approaches to in-service professional education according to Wallace, (1992). (1) The dominant view, that knowledge about education generated by researchers is imposed upon the teachers, and (2) an alternative view, that educational enquiries are 71

processes that enable teachers to create their own knowledge and to seek to understand their own professional practices with a view to improving them. We believe that the best teaching is done by those who want to learn. So teaching is the ability to bring the learners to be open to their own processes of self-development so the teachers establish the frameworks of care in which learners may develop their own understanding of their own experience, their own process of self-improvement. If we take teaching as a process of action research and reflection, into the on-going process of current practice (see COFE document 3), we may say that the teacher who does it is open to her own development. Her teaching situation is the place for opening up her own spirit of learning; the process of her teaching is the process of her learning in which intellectual curiosity has a main role to play. In order to help teachers to start developing learner autonomy in their own classes we have to practice learner autonomy with teachers in workshops. Developing learner autonomy is a long process and it implies constant work with oneself for teachers as well as for learners. One main insight is that responsible learner autonomy will not be realised unless learner roles as well as teacher roles are radically changed from what is normally seen in a traditional teacher-centred language learning situation. If learners are to be responsible for their own learning they must learn how to manage their learning and teachers have to learn how best to facilitate and support such a process. In-service training and development is presented here as an interactive process involving two individuals: the secondary school teacher and another person, the teacher educator, trainer, the colleague. The second individual we refer to as the collaborator. These two individuals, the teacher and the collaborator, are engaged in a process, the purpose of which is to generate some form of change in the teacher. The two individuals must collaborate to achieve that purpose, which is to generate change in some aspect of the teacher's decision-making based on knowledge, skills, attitudes, reflection and awareness. So they see training as a strategy for direct intervention of the collaborator to work on specific aspects of the teacher's teaching. The intervention is focused on specific outcomes that can be achieved through a sequence of steps within a specified period of time. It is therefore useful to see training in terms of successive stages in a changing process. Identifying these different stages and their different requirements can suggest in which ways training methods should change as training proceeds. 3.2.3 Steps in our proposal for in-service courses for secondary school teachers. 3.2.3.1 Pre-course links with schools. The designers and collaborators of In-service courses should go to the country to meet future participants to have the opportunity to see or discover their real needs and also plan their long tern effect of their work. It is not difficult to meet In-service course participants three or two months before the course. Now that there is a new law for Education in Colombia, we can take advantage of `Municipalisacion' to design school or regional inset courses, in such a way, 72

teachers do not have to go to the University to take the In-service courses. It is the University and specifically, the Faculty of Education leading each school or department that goes to the school or to the town and searches for the real needs which teachers have in their daily teaching activity. What we would like to have in Colombia is In-service Training courses devised for secondary school teachers by a specific team with the clear interest in the outcomes. They are designed either for the institution itself in which the teacher works with the participation of the educational authority (head teacher, head of English Department) responsible for language teaching in the school, in a town or in a number of schools from the same area in big cities. With this type of course, the teachers are brought together from a common teaching context and are most likely to be homogeneous in their need and desires. Such courses can normally have clearer and more specific objectives in terms of what changes are possible and what changes can be expected, thereby reducing the distance between theory and the teachers' own classroom reality. Outcomes will still be dependent on individual teaching contexts and teaching styles. In such a way, we could avoid what has happened between the in-service programme and the implementation of an innovation in the classroom discovered by Breen et al. (1989: 126) with a long-running in-service programme, "there is a significant gap between what teachers think and do together in workshops, and what an individual teacher thinks and does in the classroom." The first step to the expansion of In-service training would be to establish clear lines of communication within and between the bodies involved; that is to say, establish a line of responsibility between the faculties of education and secondary schools. It is clear from experience already gained that the avoidance of wasteful duplication of effort depends on the efficient sharing of information and on the acceptance of responsibility. In such a way we could think of organising a network to share information, materials, experiences, knowledge to run a form of permanent professional Education led and supported by the COFE PROJECT. It seems to us that it is very significant to know before-hand what are the mental parameters within which the teachers conceptualise the teaching and learning process, to be sure how they are going to interpret the ideas during the course and to what extend they will apply them later on, because it is not difficult to find former In-service course participants one year after the course who have not been able to implement certain practical ideas promoted on the course and it is caused by the inability to apply the new ideas within the existing parameters of the school or other particular constraints. So, in short, the designer of In-service courses must pay attention to three key aspects, the ideas which are going to be presented in the course, the personal `theories' or beliefs of participants and the manner in which teachers will apply those ideas in their school context. In these pre-course links with school, contacts with the head of school, head of the language Department, and teachers of English must be made to inform them about the course, the demands the course makes on the trainee, to establish what the school needs from the course 73

and to link the course goals with the school development goals and finally but very important is indeed to know the teacher’s needs.

TASK 2

Think for a few minutes about ways for establishing lines of communication within and between the faculties of education, COFE teams and secondary schools. Write down in a list your thoughts. Discuss them and decide how they could be improved and implemented.

3.2.3.2 Strategies for establishing teachers' needs in in-service programs. This part is an attempt to clarify the needs of the teachers with the stress on the importance of the teacher reflecting on what she does in her work context, seeing alternatives and planning action. The obvious first step is to take the idea of professional development seriously, and try to find out how the teachers see their career development and their specific needs. The teachers, after an informative meeting, fill in a simple questionnaire before the course and the trainer can have a discussion with them to know their opinions about their job and work context. If the questions are actually quite demanding, teachers can take the questionnaire away overnight to think about what to say. 1) What developments in yourself as a teacher of English would you like to see in the next few years? 2) What experience do you already have which gives you a good start in that direction? 3) What skills, knowledge or experience do you feel you need? 4) What do you feel are the greatest obstacles to your development? 5) What do you expect to gain from your In-service course?

From your personal point of view, write a questionnaire to establish the teachers' needs. Comment it with your university colleague and other participants

TASK 3 3.2.3.3 Stages in planning in-service courses We have found useful to view planning an In-service course as a five step procedure. (1) Identifying In service Training Principles (2) Define Training content or components. (3) Select Processes (4) Evaluation. (5) Self-monitoring in teacher development

3.2.3.3.1 Identify in service training principles. By training principles we refer to a set of beliefs which the trainers possess about training and which underline in a global manner the approach to training which they adopt. The beliefs given below embody our conception of training and of course they could be followed, adapted, adjusted or enlarged depending on the specific circumstances or particular context.

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-Learning is more effective when it exploits relevant existing experience, both cognitive and affective, which the trainees possess; therefore the experience which trainees bring to the training situation is valued and exploited. -Training should enable trainees to become more aware of themselves on both the personal and the professional level. -Interactive learning is richer than non-interactive learning; therefore, trainee interaction is promoted, as well as, positive trainer/trainee and trainee/trainee relationships. -Training should encourage trainees to develop their own critical ability and their own decision-making skills assuming responsibility for their own learning and focusing their attention on both the processes and products of learning. -Teaching is a practical activity, and trainees should be able to perceive training as being directly relevant to classroom practice. -To be effective, training has to be based upon an awareness of the practical constraints of the training situation and the school context. -The approach is learner-centred, seeking to adapt to the need of trainees and subordinating means to ends. Also enquiry-oriented work and task-based work are encouraged. -The process-oriented learning will promote the objectives of developing autonomous, critically reflective and personally and interpersonally aware trainees.

The above list of principles is presented to exemplify the application of this stage and not as model we want to prescribe. Principles arise from each individual trainer's life, long experience of learning, teaching and training.

Based on your own experience and taking into account your regional context, to what extend do you agree with the above principles, and, which new principles should be included?

TASK 4 3.2.3.3.2 Define training content or components. Here we interpret training content on two levels, the first sees content as the topic under study; the second refers to what the trainees should obtain during the session and then apply in their schools. This second level could be called objectives or aims. In-Service course should consist of a set of components or parts. We suggest three major course components. What we suppose is that teachers all want to renew their teaching methods, so the first component should be applied linguistics, methodology or pedagogical skills in which the relevant methods and techniques for teaching English are explored and the various classroom skills the teachers need to teach successfully are discussed and practised. This component, of course, is divided into a number of topics according to the trainees' and schools' needs, for example: lesson planning, use of aids, teaching of the four skills, etc. We suggest using teachers' interest in small scale classroom change we feel it might have much greater chance of success introducing bits of activity based, or study case approaches or others than larger missions to radical changes. Monolithic systems are harmful to individual large scale action, particularly where a teacher works in a greater deal of professional isolation, and collaborative work with colleagues is rare. Giving awareness of alternatives and of the possibility of making choices within these alternatives is perhaps a more feasible aim, because it fits with 75

the area of individual control and choice the teacher has. We think that theory here is built on classroom practice, the area in which teachers have a chance of making an informed, responsible choice of the many alternatives that can come from the sharing of the practices of other teachers and this is a particularly persuasive means of encouraging change. Some of our teachers will be activists, and will be able to work within their constraints for larger change. Helping them reflect on classroom practice and see alternatives can only assist them too. Secondly, there will be a language improvement component seen principally as a process of raising the language level of the trainees. But we must ensure that language improvement may not become confused with the subject matter of Linguistics with the emphasis on increasing knowledge about the system of the language rather than an ability to use the language, or even better to devise and conduct activities which give extended practice in using the language to improve the teachers' communicative ability. We think that in most parts of Colombia, the main concerns of English teachers in secondary schools is the need to improve their own command of the language; so the In-service teacher training course which fails to take this into account is failing to meet the needs or respond to the wishes of the teachers themselves. Thirdly, professional development seen as a process done by and for oneself, taking into account the previous experiences and trying to reach a high standard of one's awareness for improving the principles of teaching such as: teaching management, planning organisation, materials design, theories about learning and teaching, application of other subject matters in teaching, etc. All this cognitive exercise and educational practice should provide the basis for self-development, self-direction, autonomy and the power of being always ready to take what she considers good to develop a new methodology that responds to the real situation in her school and community. Many points already mentioned can be applied to the further professional development of experienced teachers. Let us mention some: teachers can work in pairs, see themselves on videotape, look at lesson diaries and transcripts, study videos of other teachers' lessons, etc. Also it could be possible to go to someone else's classroom to observe a class, unfortunately somewhat rare in our Colombian context, schools would do well to schedule visits to classrooms, when possible to other schools. Furthermore the link between classroom observation during in-service courses and future practice must be strong. It is advisable for teachers to observe a colleague's lesson in a systematic way, selecting only one aspect, looking perhaps at teacher-pupil interaction, class management strategies, or the nature of the task being set for individual pupils, and at the same time reflecting on her own practice. Reciprocal pair work, whereby two teachers pair up to study and observe each other, is a rich form of professional development. It is preferable some degree of structure for such activities to be sure to draw conclusions from post-lesson discussions.

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The final aim of this component is that trainees could formalise the process of reflection and that the classroom teacher should also become a researcher practising action-reflectionresearch. In planning In-service teacher training programs, we need to think how to deal with the running of each component. Probably there are a number of approaches the course designer might adopt. We propose four possible approaches. (1) Make Language Improvement Central. Make language improvement the central element of the course, and plan the other components around it. The language course would be the central element and provide the input for the other components, in particular methodology and pedagogical skills. The trainees would first have direct experience, learning English, of the particular teaching approach, or technique, as genuine language learners, before discussing the approach, method as teachers. (2) Link Methodology and Language Improvement. Make methodology the content of a language improvement programme. For example; one could use reading and listening passages about various methodology topics, and when appropriate devise moments in which the content is discussed. (3) Include a Language Component. Include some kind of language improvement component alongside the other parts of the course. But it is difficult to introduce a separate major component such as language improvement into a training course without sacrificing other parts of it. (4) Tackle the Problem Indirectly. This approach aims to improve the teachers' English by ensuring that the other components of the programme, methodology, professional development, are conducted in the medium of English, with plenty of opportunities for the trainees to discuss issues in English, read widely around the subject matter and to practice teaching units from the textbooks.

3.2.3.3.3 Select training processes. By training processes we refer to the methods trainers adopt to reach objectives, e.g. discussions, lectures, workshops, etc. Here we look at the manner in which processes can be chosen more systematically on the basis of previously identified principles and content, so the trainer will choose those training processes which are compatible with their principles. To follow the principles, task-based activities will be used in conjunction with a range of alternatives such as lectures, demonstrations, observation of teaching, (refer to Ellis, 1986 for a discussion of a full range of teaching training activities). Woodward, 1992, includes ideas for eliciting and transmitting information, ideas, opinions and awareness in teacher training sessions. Also she provides ways for trainees to get interested in information through a series of activities such as mapping what you already know, dividing up tasks, predicting what comes next, questions, filling in gaps, maze discussions, matching, sequencing, summarising, categorising, same or different, etc., which can be used or adapted according to the constraints of each context. The use of tasks in language teach-training and development, however, is a particularly appropriate where participants are encouraged to value their own experience, beliefs, opinions and knowledge and to reflect on these and evaluate them in the light of new input. 77

The role of the trainer is very much one of the facilitator, and only rarely one of the provider. It is assumed that she will be responsible for selecting tasks, for setting them up and for leading subsequent plenary discussions or for co-ordinating the presentation of results of experiments and research. The role of the trainee is to be actively engaged in the learning process. Active engagement can take many forms such as doing, thinking, contrasting, reacting, redefining, observing, outlining, reflecting, summarising, preparing, considering, applying, analysing, listing, selecting, prioritising, ranking, interpreting, compelling, comparing, arranging, evaluating, designing, etc. Some activities such as pair and group work could be used in the development of the course as they are an appropriate opportunity to show the trainees how to organise and adapt so that they can serve their own concerns. In the In-service courses the trainers have to see group work as a possible solution to some of the problems teachers have in large classes; also it can provide opportunities for oral practice, increase students' sense of responsibility for their own learning, encourage co-operation and exchange of ideas, and make aspects of classroom management more efficient. We would like to illustrate this point with a sample taken from Spencer, David (1993). EXAMPLE OF A TEACHER TRAINING MAZE Procedure Each group (3 or 5 participants) has a complete set of cards, face down, from 1 to 14. One group member turns over card one, reads it aloud to the group, and the group then proceeds to discuss which step (i.e. which card) to take next. It can be useful to set a minimum time limit for each decision, to avoid trainees racing through the maze without considering the options carefully enough. If the trainees are not happy with either of the options, ask them to write down the card number and what action they would like to have taken, but then choose the option on the card which they least dislike, in order to continue through the maze. When a group reaches the end, they reflect on the whole situation. They can also look at the other options they have previously rejected. Classroom management with adolescents CARD 1 You are presenting a new structure to a monolingual group of fifteen twelve-year olds on a Wednesday afternoon. The two most talkative children are chattering in their own language and laughing. They consistently do this in your lessons. What do you do? * Continue your presentation, thinking it is not worth stopping the class again for the same two students. (CARD 2). * Separate the two Students. (CARD 3) 78

CARD 2 You continue the presentation but the chatting soon spreads to two or three other students. What do you do? * Decide to abandon the presentation and tell the students to do the reading exercise in the textbook and write out the answers. (CARD 4). * Ask the original two students to repeat what they are talking about to the whole class. (CARD 3)

CARD 3 One of the students looks very resentful and says in a loud voice: "Why is English so boring". What do you do? * Ignore the comment. (CARD 5). * Tell the student to see you at the end of the class. (CARD 6).

CARD 4 The whole class is now quite restless and unhappy since those who were paying attention before do not understand why they should have to do the reading exercise. What do you do? * Promise the students that if they finish the exercise quickly they can play a game afterwards. (CARD 7). * Remain serious, telling them to work individually and to write their answers on paper, which you will take in later to correct. (CARD 8).

CARD 5 The student simply continues chatting to his/her neighbours as soon as you are not looking at, or speaking directly to, him/her. What do you do? * You send the student out of the class. (CARD 9). * Tell the student to come and see you at the end of the class. (CARD 6).

CARD 6 At the end of the class the student stays to see you and so does a small group of his/her friends. What do you do? * Start to talk to the students with the other students around. (CARD 10). * Tell the group of friends to go away. (CARD 11).

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CARD 7 After the reading, you set up the game. You have spent an hour last night preparing the activity which you expect to take twenty minutes in the class and the students to enjoy. After four minutes you hear the uninspired cries of "finished". This is not the first time that it has happened. What do you do? *Tell them to do the activity again. (CARD 3). * Start the presentation again; warning them that if there is any chattering they will have to do some more written work instead. (CARD 12).

CARD 8 When they have nearly all finished they are much quieter and seem to have calmed down. What do you do? * Start the presentation again; warning them that if there is any chattering they will have to do more written work instead. (CARD 12). *Decide to let them play a game that you have prepared, to compensate for the last activity. (CARD 7).

CARD 9 The student has gone out of the classroom but the door has a window in it and he/she keeps making faces at the other students from time to time, which they find very amusing. What do you do? * Decide it is easier to let the student back in since he/she is just as disruptive outside the class as inside. (CARD 13). * Tell the student to see you at the end of the class. (CARD 6).

CARD 10 The student's friends defend him/her, saying that he/she didn't do anything and that you, the teacher, can't take any action against the student. What do you do? * You are unsure what disciplinary action can normally be taken in your school so you tell them all, including the "difficult” student, to go, asking them to behave better next time. (CARD 13). * You tell the group of friends to go away. (CARD 11).

CARD 11 You are not sure whether to take a "hard" or "soft" approach. What do you do? * Ask why the student finds English boring, what could you, the teacher, do to make it more interesting. (CARD 14). * Tell the student that if his/her behaviour does not improve immediately you will take important disciplinary action. (CARD 13). 80

CARD 12 You start the presentation again and the same student simply continues chatting to his/her neighbours as soon as you are not looking at, or speaking directly to, him/her. What do you do? * You send the student out of the class. (CARD 9). * Tell the student to come and see you at the end of the class. (CARD 6).

CARD 13 You decide to find out about the disciplinary system in your school. Look back at the steps you have taken and discuss how effective you think they have been. *How could some of these situations have been avoided in the first place? *What might you do next?

CARD 14 You decide to rethink your lesson-planning in response to some of the students' comments. Look back at the steps you have taken and discuss how effective you think they have been *How could some of these situations have been avoided in the first place? *What might you do next?

The following example is taken from Cardenas, (1994) Reflective practice in methodology courses. TEACHING LANGUAGE COMPONENTS AND DISCOURSE SKILLS READING WORKSHOP ON CASE STUDY Objectives 1. To develop judgement through case studies. 2. To make student-teachers more aware of what is involved in reading. 3. To analyse ways of helping students to understand the information contained in a text and of increasing pupils' motivation in intensive reading. Sources "Reading for what purposes?" and "Selecting a text" (chapter 2 and 3) in Nuttall, C. (1982). Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. Heinemann. Hubbard. P. et al. (1983). A Training Course for TEFL. OUP. Doff, A (1988) Teach English. CUP. Hughes, A (1989) Testing for Language Teachers. CUP. Procedure 1. Provides reading: Trainees read chapters 2 and 3 from Nuttall (1982) and chapter 11 from Hughes (1989). 2. Elicitation (Socratic Technique) and mini-lecture. 81

Key Points: a. What is reading? b. Reasons for reading. c. What makes a text difficult? d. Reading as interaction e. Text and discourse f. Approaches to reading (intensive and extensive reading) g. Testing reading h. A reading lesson 3. Group work a. Case study Background information Level: 9th (`Bachillerato' or Secondary Education) Hours per week: 3 Place of English at school: EFL Methodology followed by the teacher: Transition from the audio lingual method to the communicative approach Students will continue studying English in 10th and 11th. Task: Using sample materials which have been adapted by `Bachillerato' teachers in order to develop a reading lesson, 1) Identify the key elements the teacher applied in the lesson to help students improve reading. 2) Evaluate the appropriacy of the pre, while and post-reading activities. 3) Which vocabulary would you pre-teach? How would you do it? b. Workshop 1) Activities 1 to 5, "Unit 5: Using a reading text" (Doff: 1988). 2) Planning a reading lesson.

The samples given before require trainers to ensure that each step is carried out in an appropriate format and time frame. In all cases, a follow-up whole-discussion guided by the teacher educator is important to the success of the teacher preparation practices. Each sample provides a certain degree of structure to guide the class discussions on the basis of trainees' experiential knowledge and perceptions as well as the input coming from data and procedures such as lectures, readings, classroom teaching, textbook materials and case studies. The point is to put trainees in touch with their own experiences and attitudes, and with the theoretical background that will be shaping their future teaching. It is worth noting that the sample is both oriented toward long-term objectives (e.g. contextual factors) and toward immediate response (e.g. planning, analysing data). On the other hand, we involve trainees in activities in which they can talk about EFL (by recognising a dilemma, responding to it and examining a solution), apart from the actual doing of it (experimenting with a solution), rendering explicit the principles underlying a given practice. In so doing, we can 82

contribute to the education of reflective teachers -ones who assess the origins, purposes and consequences of their actions at all levels. Below are some teaching training activities and procedures. Read through them and group them into two groups according to the given criteria. Then be prepared to give the roles of the trainee and trainer in each case.

TASK 5

Samples of teaching materials, lesson plans and outlines, classroom teaching, clinical supervision, peer teaching, group/pair work, micro-teaching, lectures, reading, video and audio-recording lessons, case studies or problem-solving.

3.2.3.3.3.1 Pre-course tasks. Having known and analysed the trainees' needs, designed the syllabus, the trainer selects the appropriate literature that the future trainee needs to read before the course begins. He makes the necessary arrangements and contacts to distribute all the handouts, books or bibliography with clear instructions about what to do and if it is necessary for them to make a data collection or gather materials they are going to use during the course. In this way each teacher brings to the group her own background of knowledge. This quality offers a better scope for studying methodological problems because when given the opportunity to think about his work, the teacher has a greater potential because he knows his own situation and the basic insight needed to start a process of professional development. 3.2.3.3.3.2 Hints while running the course. There is one way for beginning the course with awareness raising activities; where participants confront their own routine practice and values. The participants themselves determine the specific areas of their teaching that they wish to develop and formulate their own way for change in the classroom. The process begins by raising trainees’ awareness of individual linguistic strengths and weaknesses. Next, trainees are encouraged to set personal priorities for areas which require most attention. Then, trainees try and take action in a variety of ways -some of them given by the teacher (learning strategies) - by selecting and using the most appropriate means to work on their own established priorities. It could be necessary for the trainees to take a test on their linguistics skills: speaking, reading, writing, listening which provides teachers with an overview of their linguistics strengths and weaknesses in such areas as aural comprehension, pronunciation, grammar, speaking, ability to summarise, formal and informal writing, etc. The trainee with the trainers decide on the language skills which require most attention. During the development of the course, or in special tutorial meeting, collaborator and trainee could draw up a language development plan which specifies professional and linguistic priorities in terms of objectives and activities. In addition, it could be possible to begin the preparation of a development professional project which will include language development and professional development focus to change the traditional way of teaching. 83

3.2.3.4 Evaluation. The key element of this stage will be a systematic and continuous evaluation of the methodology and content of the course, involving the participants and focusing on the learning processes which they are experiencing. 3.2.3.4.1 Process evaluation. To meet the course aims, and the expectations of the participants, it is very important to introduce a structured ongoing process evaluation. This evaluation would focus on the participants' perceptions of and reactions to the content and methodology of the course, and will have specific aims. They could be: -To keep the course aims and principles in participants and trainers' minds. -To know participants' reactions to the activities undertaken on the course as they were experienced. -To make explicit participants views about how they learn. -To involve participants directly in replanning and shaping the course while it is being implemented. -To solve potential conflicts by bringing critique into the course rather than externalising it during the coffee break.

For process evaluation, data for feedback can be gathered in three different ways. (a) Daily individual evaluation sessions. (b) End of week evaluation in plenary (c) End of course group evaluation

The daily evaluation session. At the end of every day, three or four people are invited to come and see one of the trainers for a guided interview of about ten or fifteen minutes. The choice of the participants will be at random. The comments will be noted down by the trainer to be processed in the daily meetings of the course team and reported back to participants in the weekly evaluation meetings. The guided interview sheet should be elaborated each day according to the content, objectives and methodology. The weekly evaluation session. The participants will have the chance to give their opinions about their experiences in plenary. In this session, trainers need to encourage positive and negative reactions to get a balance picture of what is going on. One way of doing this weekly evaluation is going through these steps: the evaluator first reports to the group the results from the daily individual sessions in order to inform them. Based on these individual issues or on other relevant, not mentioned issues, participants are asked to contribute individually and anonymously, writing the opinions, agreeing or disagreeing, and offering suggestions. The end of the course group evaluation. This is based on the activities undertaken at this point in relation to the approach adopted during the course. The trainees are asked to follow these steps: (1) Individually, Think of three practical ways in which the ongoing evaluation of the course actually had an effect on you, in terms of yourself or the group. In what way would the course have been different without it? (2) Work in pairs and explain the advantages to your partner 84

(3) In groups of four, agree on three elements that you consider most important. Write them down and give reasons that support them

In a further step, (plenary) participants consider the possibilities of transferring to a classroom level the process of evaluation techniques and the ideas introduced on the course to link Inservice processes to what happens in the classroom. The following questionnaire is redesign from one of a similar format devised by David Nunan on the "good" language learning task. QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE "GOOD" TEACHER TRAINING SESSION Read the statements. Circle the number which most closely reflects your view according to the following scale: 0 = this is not a characteristic of a good training session 1 = this characteristic may be present, but is optional 2 = this characteristic is reasonably important 3 = this characteristic is extremely important 4 = this characteristic is essential

In a "good" teacher training session: 1.

Participants are encouraged to reflect critically on their own practice and experience. 0 1 2 3 4 2. Input comes from participants as well as trainer. 0 1 2 3 4 3. Content is perceived as personally relevant to the participants. 0 1 2 3 4 4. A variety of tasks and training procedures are used. 0 1 2 3 4 5. The trainer practices what she preaches i.e. makes links between training methodology and normal classroom procedures. 0 1 2 3 4 6. There is a group work. 0 1 2 3 4 7. The content is largely theoretical. 0 1 2 3 4 8. There is a balance between theory and practice. 0 1 2 3 4 9. The content is largely practical. 0 1 2 3 4 10. Participants are given "recipes" which they can use immediately. 0 1 2 3 4 11. Participants are given opportunities to discuss and exchange ideas in the light of their existing knowledge and previous experience. 0 1 2 3 4 12. Participants' previous experience is valued positively and built on in the session. 0 1 2 3 4 13. The trainer takes into account the real teaching situation and constraints faced by participants. 0 1 2 3 4 14 The content is not prescriptive 0 1 2 3 4 15 Both training and development needs are addressed 0 1 2 3 4 16 The atmosphere is informal and relaxed. 0 1 2 3 4 17 The trainer work in trainer-centred mode some of the time. 0 1 2 3 4

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Look at the process evaluation and think, with your colleagues about the possibility of transferring this kind of evaluation to the university or school; or design some changes in order to be implemented in such situations.

TASK 6 3.2.3.4.2 Self evaluation Another way to see what is going on in the learning and teaching process in In-service courses is the self-evaluation. This is seen as a means of controlling the effectiveness of methodology used, and as a basic step to implement self-evaluation in secondary schools. A self-evaluation questionnaire is applied after each training session. The purpose of the questionnaire is to encourage the teachers to reflect on their own teaching practice. Towards the end of the unit, week or course a similar questionnaire is given to the trainees to be filled out. This forces trainees to reflect on their own work throughout the course. Here is a sample of a trainer's self-evaluation. The idea for this questionnaire is taken from one of a similar format devised by Williams, M. on "A developmental view of classroom observation" SELF-EVALUATION FORM Before the lesson ask yourself: 1. Is your activity at an appropriate intellectual level to stretch and challenge trainees? Is it too easy/difficult? Is it interesting, motivating? Is there enough opportunity for the trainees to talk? 2. What meaningful language will it promote? 3. Where will there be opportunities for trainees to give their own ideas? 4. What is the place of the activity in your scheme of work? What preceded it? What will follow it? 5. Show how it might involve/lead into reading, writing, grammar, etc. 6. What might the trainees learn? Write the aim of the activity and the language aims. 7. What provision have you made for trainees who finish quickly/slowly? During and after the lesson, ask yourself: 8. What evidence was there that the trainees were interested/not interested? 9. Who was not involved? Why? 10. Write down on paper some language that trainees used. Was it meaningful or meaningless? 11. What will you do next to follow up this lesson? 12. Which of your aims were achieved? Were other things achieved instead? 13. When did trainees give their own ideas? Did you accept their ideas? Did they have a fair share of time to talk or did you dominate the discussion? 14. What have you learnt? Write down how you would like to develop your teaching in the future.

The following trainee self-evaluation has been redesigned from one of a similar format devised by Kari Smith. TRAINEE'S SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE NAME: 1. I have been present in all the lessons. Yes/No I have been absent from...............lessons. 2. I have contributed a lot during the sessions I have contributed very little during my lessons 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 86

3. I have handed in all the assignments I have handed in no assignments 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 4. I have handed in all the assignments on time. I have handed in all the assignments late. 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 5. The level of my papers is very high The level of my papers is low 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 6. I have read at least 5 books from the reading list I have read nothing from the reading list 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 7. I have been of great help to my peers I have been of not help to my peers 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 8. I have done very well in teaching at school and during practice. I have done poorly in my teaching practice 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 9. All the lessons I taught were well prepared. My lessons were poorly prepared. 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 10. I have progressed a lot during the course I have progressed very little during the course 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1

3.2.4 Post in-service course training activities. We think that the Inset English Programme has to be successful in getting the teachers to question their standard practice and to develop new approaches to teaching English. This has to be achieved by helping them to develop their own confidence and skills as users of English, and then by inviting them to compare the methodology used along the course with the methodology which they use with their students. At the end of the course the trainees are left to make their own decisions about what methodology and materials will use with their classes, but are encouraged to form school groups or regional groups to discuss problems and to exchange experiences, materials and ideas. Teachers who attend the Inset courses are exposed to a great amount of new information and ideas in order to get salutary effects, because in the planning of In-service courses the trainees' beliefs are taken into account since the Inset course is seriously concerned with long term change in teachers' practice.

87

Read the following information about the in-service course types and discuss them with your colleagues, based on the present situation of your department (state) consider which one could be offered to make your `capacitacion' programme more appropriate. List the advantages and disadvantages.

TASK 7

Course Types *non-multiplier multiplier *TP-based non-TP-based *school based centre based *teacher-focused issue-based *full-time part-time *single issue multiple issue *contact mode distant mode *accredited non-accredited

3.2.4.1 The need for follow-up activities. How much good did it do? Based on our experience we can conclude that without subsequent follow-up activities the effect could be fail to have an effect, because the motivation and stimulus gained soon decreases by the confusion and frustration they suffer in trying to apply all that they have learnt without the appropriate conditions and still working with existing parameters of syllabus, examinations, materials, official expectations, class size, etc. We consider that the most valuable consequence of the In-service programme is the regular linking of course content to the daily teaching experiences of the teacher. They should return to their classes with new ideas and techniques to try out, because the course emphasises the idea of bridging theory with practice, well expressed on Taylor's principle. "Theory is to be found in practice; therefore, there must be no separation of the two". So let’s think how to promote innovation. How to promote innovation. After the input has been provided we allocate more time for teachers to work with the new ideas. For example, that if we did a session on reading in which we presented a number of different types of pre-reading follow up tasks, the teachers have to find where and how these ideas might be applied in their own course and programme. On this basis we can follow or adapt a set of procedures devised by Palmer (1993). The procedures are: 1) Selection (e.g. choose an activity from those that have been presented which you would like to try) 2) Placement (e.g. find a place in your textbook or syllabus where this activity might be appropriate) 3) Adaptation (e.g. rewrite the activity to suit your a. syllabus 88

b. course book c. students' interest and context d. teaching style 4) role. (e.g. decide whether the activity would supplement or replace something already in the book)

In such a way the teaching materials produced during the course could reflect much more those ideas generated by the course. The overall effect was reinforced by post-course meetings where innovations were evaluated on the basis of the participants' actual experience in the classroom and feedback and advice can be given.

TASK 8

In-service credit course are offered in Colombia in two modalities: a full time vacation period course and throughout the school year in the Friday afternoons and in long morning sessions on Saturdays. Keeping in mind that the most important goal is to reach change inside the secondary school classrooms, in which of the two modalities the follow-up activities could be implemented and controlled more effectively to see the impact that the in-service course has had. Course Shape 1. Teachers working at schools

Teachers in in-service courses

Follow-up

Teachers in in-service course sessions

Teachers in in-service course sessions

Follow-up

Teachers in in-service course sessions

Follow-up

Do not forget that during the course there must be a supervised practice that could be in certain amount a kind of follow-up activity. In addition, it is quite indispensable to maintain the links with schools and promote a support in order to establish a "supervision" done by the trainer, teachers, the head of the department, a master teacher or a mentor, etc. Prioritise the following items by numbering them from the most important to the least to see what makes a course has an impact on teaching.

Course

?

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Teaching

_____ Practical courses _____ Course takes into account school context _____ Course takes into account teachers' beliefs _____ Supervised practice in the course _____ High motivation _____ A great variety of activities _____ Principal supportive _____ Course driven by needs analysis _____ Degree of negotiation in In-service course syllabus _____ Openness to trainees' ideas _____ Quality of course/task design.

3.2.4.2 Self-monitoring or self-observation as a means to control innovation Behind every In-service teaching education programme there is an underlying desire for changes in teaching practice and behaviour. In our case, we need to raise awareness and to convince teachers that they should implement changes for personal reasons such as need to recharge one's way of teaching after several years of teaching the same things in the same way. The most interested in knowing what teachers do in classroom are teachers themselves. All teachers want to know what kind of teachers they are and how well they are doing, so the more direct source of information for teachers is regular self-observation of their own teaching. Self-monitoring or self-observation is defined by Anstrong and Frith (1994) as “a systematic approach to the observation, evaluation and management of one's own behaviour, for the purpose of achieving a better understanding and control over one's behaviour". In Language teaching, self-monitoring refers to the teacher making a record of a lesson, either in the form of a written account or an audio or video recording of a lesson, and using the observation as a source of feedback on his or her teaching. Why to use self-monitoring? Teacher training programmes should mark the beginning not the end of professional development. In order to improve their daily performance, teachers need feedback on what they do and how well they do it. Self-monitoring is one of the means of obtaining such feedback because: Self-monitoring provides an opportunity for teachers to reflect critically on their teaching; Self- monitoring can help teachers to see their own teaching in reality and not what they imagine; Self-monitoring enables teachers to draw their own judgements about what works and what doesn't work in their classroom.

Richards, J.C. (1990) proposes three major approaches to self-monitoring in teaching: through personal reflection, self reporting and audio or video recordings of a lesson. Personal Reflection. The simplest form to self-monitoring is through the use of a diary in which the teacher makes an honest and open report of what happened in a lesson. Teachers write notes as soon as possible after the lesson or while the students are doing any activity. The teacher can record several kinds of information such as lessons that were taught and events 90

that took place during the lesson, reactions to classroom activities and interpretations to what went on in a lesson, ideas for future classes and reminders for needed actions. -Self-reporting. Self-reporting is another approach to gathering data on one's own teaching. Self-reporting involves completing a check-list in which the teacher indicates which teaching practices were used within the lesson, unit, week or month and how often they were employed. Self-reporting allows teachers to make a regular assessment of what they are doing in the classroom. For example, a teacher could use self-reporting to find out: -kinds of teaching activities used regularly -the degree to which objectives are being met -the kinds of activities that seem to work well or not to work well.

A number of aspects of classroom life can be examined when analysing diaries, or self-reports. Let us mention only some related to classroom management: Teacher-student interaction, grouping, structuring task, teaching aids, classroom interactions, opportunities for speaking, questions, etc. In order to apply self-monitoring techniques some guidelines must be followed. Here we present an example. a) Choose what aspect(s) of your teaching you wish to learn more and improve. b) Narrow your choices to that or those that seem more important to you c) Draw a plan of action to face the specific problem you have identified (a kind of personal milestone) d) Establish a time frame to meet your goals.

The next sample of teacher self-observation checklist is taken from Christison, M.A. and S. Bassano, (1984) "teaching self-observation". TEACHER SELF-OBSERVATION CHECKLIST Thoughtfully consider each statement. Rate yourself in the following way: 3 = Excellent

2 = Good

1 = Needs improvement

0 = Not applicable

Write your rating in the blanks provided. When you have finished, give overall consideration to the various areas. I. Learning Environment A. Relationship to students ____ 1. I establish good eye contact with my class; do not talk over their heads, to the blackboard or to just one individual. ____ 2. If I tend to teach predominantly to one area of the classroom, I am aware of this. I make a conscious effort at all times to pay attention to all students equally. ____ 3. I divide my students into small groups in an organised and principled manner. I recognise that these groups should differ in size and composition, varying with the objective of the group activity. B. The Classroom ____ 1. I arrange the seating in my class to suit the class activity for the day. ____ 2. I consider the physical comfort of the room such as heat and light 91

____ 3. When I need special materials or equipment, I have them set up before the class begins. C. Presentation ____ 1. My handwriting on the blackboard and charts is legible from allocations in the classroom. It is large enough to accommodate students with vision impairments. ____ 2. I speak loudly enough to be heard in all parts of the classroom and I enunciate clearly. ____ 3. I vary the exercises in class, alternating rapid and slow paced activities to keep up maximum interest level in the class. ____ 4. I am prepared to give a variety of explanations, models or descriptions, understanding that one explanation may not be sufficient for all students. ____ 5. I help the students form working principles and generalisations. ____ 6. Students use new skills or concepts long enough so that they are retained and thus future application is possible. ____ 7. I plan the `thinking time’ for my students so they can organise their thoughts and plan what they are going to say or do.

Here is another sample for evaluating classroom behaviour taken from Richard CHART FOR EVALUATING CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR. Checklist items The pupils: They listened to each other more readily. They employed self-check devices to a greater extend The work they handed in was more carefully executed The talk was in English in a greater extent. They managed to divide the work in the group more effectively. There was greater evidence of co-operation. They learn to select from options. They learned to accept variety rather than uniformity in assignments. There is more evidence of learning. They are participating in classroom management functions. There is evidence that they are working more independently and turning to each other for guidance The teacher: I am able to do less of the work. I am able to step aside and observe what is going on. I can attend to individual pupils more readily. I have been able to relinquish some of the classroom management responsibilities. The proportion of teacher-pupil talk has changed. Materials are being exploited more effectively. My voice is more often at a lower pitch. I am ready to have learners prepare materials. Language is being used for a greater variety of contents.

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Comment

How do I do

TASK 9

In order to draw your own conclusions and suggestions, what's your opinion about self-monitoring and self-observation? Do you think that it could be useful for your professional development and it could be applied in our Colombian context easily? Could you design some practical strategies to achieve this goal?

CONCLUSIONS  For INSET schemes to prove effective in the Colombian ELT context, considerable support on the part of the Government will be needed in terms of allocating economic and human resources that guarantee a nation-wide coverage of the teaching population. National and local authorities should recognise the importance of teacher quality in promoting student achievement (learning to teach and teaching to learn).  INSET policy goes beyond the scheduling and execution of teacher training courses or sessions.

More thorough aspects comprising school teachers' important in solidifying a more effective INSET line.

needs, coverage and follow-up are

 An INSET programme for a region needs to have coherence in terms of: - Geographical spread - Appropriacy of topics - Regularity of training - Sequence 

Those who undertake the preparation of teachers should themselves be teachers of ample expertise who have proven to be effective educators in the ELT classroom. Thus, theory and practice will be closely intertwined and important links between the universities and schools can finally become established and strengthened. IMPLICATIONS  The COFE project has served to promote staff development within most Colombian universities involved in ELT. Consequently, it is hoped that they serve to determine the direction INSET programs are going to take in the future. This new view should help set up a permanent place for the INSET classroom, where the following aspects are permanently being developed: - Classroom research - The design, production, and compilation of materials and information about theses, dissertations, and important publications in the area of teacher education by ELT professionals in Colombia. - Availability of Resource Centres for teachers and students to have access to various forms of teaching and learning facilities. - Follow-up of the university graduates performance and professional standing. - Revision and updating of IEI materials (Instituto Electrónico de Idiomas). - Ultimately, become the seedbed for ELT policy-making in our country. 

It is very important to strengthen COFE’s newsletters in terms of coverage and layout since it is the most important means of communication amongst all the different participating 93

institutions and school teachers the project is aimed at. School subscriptions and funding from Secretarías de Educación should be sought to make the above possible. 

In Colombia the provision of In-service training is still relatively small; there are not enough practical courses on useful topics that fulfil the teachers' needs. It is often difficult for teachers to obtain release from school in order to attend them. Too many courses, again, involve travelling a considerable distance from home. 

The most fundamental form of innovation is the transformation of the values of teachers seen as a development process which could take place in myself through questioning and answering. So In-service professional education should be focused on the self-education of teachers helping teachers to start developing learning autonomy in order to change learners’ roles as well as teachers’ roles. 

The designers of In-service courses should go to the country to meet future participants to discover their real needs in order to design the courses either for an institution, for a town's schools o for a number of schools from the same area in big cities. These courses can normally have clearer and more specific objectives in terms of what changes are possible and what changes can be expected. 

The designer of In-service courses for secondary schools must pay attention to three key aspects: the ideas which are going to be presented in the course, the personal `theories' or beliefs of participants and the manner in which teachers will apply those ideas in their school context. 

The designer of the course should establish pre-course links with schools in order to inform the head of the school, the head of the language department and the teachers of English the demands the course makes on the trainee, what the school needs from the course, to link the course goals with the school development goals and also to know the teachers' needs. 

Planning an In-service course for secondary schools should have a five step procedure: 1) Identifying In-service training principles, 2) Define content or components, 3) Select processes, 4) Evaluation, 5) Self-monitoring in professional development. 

The In-service course should promote: the exploitation of relevant existing experience; trainees interaction since interactive learning is richer that non-interactive learning; the development of her own critical ability and decision-making; learner centred approach; enquiry oriented work; task-based work; the process oriented learning to form autonomous, critically, reflective and personally and interpersonally aware trainees. 

In-service courses should consist of three components: methodology component in which the relevant methods and techniques for teaching English are explored and the various classroom skills are discussed and practised; language improvement component seen as a process of raising the language level and professional development component considered as a process 94

done by and for oneself, taking into account the previous experiences and trying to reach a high standard of one's awareness for improving the principles and ways of teaching. 

The role of the trainer is very much one of the facilitator responsible for selecting tasks, for setting them up and for leading plenary discussions or co-ordinating the presentation of results of experiments and research. 

The role of the trainee is to be actively engaged in the learning process. This can be done in: thinking, contrasting, reacting, redefining, outlining, reflecting, summarising, preparing, considering, applying, analysing, listing, selecting, prioritising, interpreting, comparing, evaluating, etc. 

The In-service course has to be successful in getting the teachers to question their standard practice and to develop new approaches to teaching English, also to form school groups or regional groups to discuss problems and to exchange experiences, new ideas and materials. 

The In-service course should mark the beginning not the end of professional development. In order to improve their daily performance, teachers need feedback on what they do and how well they do it, self-monitoring is one of the ways of obtaining such feedback. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker.G. and S. Hamilton (1993) "Models of teaching practice and feedback for teacher training in EFL" The Teacher Trainer. 7/1: 31-35. Bastidas, J. A., L. H. Alvarado, L. E. Vanegas, G. A. Ruiz and C. E. Ossa (1991) Document One. A Proposal of Framework for the Teaching of English in the Colombian B. A. Programmes. Ealing: Polytechnic of West London. Bell L, 1988. Appraising teachers in schools, a practical guide. London: Routledge Bell, L. and C. Day (1991) Managing the professional development of teachers. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Belleli, L. (1993) "How we teach and why: the implementation of an action research model for in-service training". In Edge, J. & K. Richards (eds.) Teachers Develop Teachers Research. Papers on classroom research and classroom development. London: Heinemann. Belleli, L (1993) In Edge, J. and K. Richards. Teachers Develop Teachers Research. Papers on classroom research and teacher development. London: Heinemann. Borg, S. (1995) "Conflict in Process-Oriented Training" The Teacher Training. 9/1: 15-17. Borg, Simon. (1995) "Conflict in process-oriented training". The Teacher Trainer vol. 9/1 Borg, Simon. (1994) "Planning training sessions". The Teacher Trainer, vol 8/1. Boud, D., R. Keogh and D. Walker (eds.) (1985) Reflection -Turning Experience into Learning. London: Kogan Page. Bradley, J et al., 1983. Inside Staff's Development. Windsor: Nelson. Breen, M.C., L. Dan, and G. Gabrielsen (1989) The evolution of a teacher training programme, in R.K. Johnson (eds.) The second Language Curriculum. Cambridge. CUP. Brewster, J et al., 1992. The primary English teacher's guide. England: Penguin English Britten, D. (1985) "Teacher training in ELT: Part 1" Language Teaching. 18: 112-128. 95

Britten, Donard. (1990) Three stages in teacher training. ELT journal Vol. 42/1, OUP. Brown S, 1995. Assess your own teaching quality. London: Kogan Page. Brumfit, C.1980. Problems and principles in English Teaching. Bath: The Pitman Press. Brumfit, C. et al., 1994. Teaching English to Children. Windsor: Nelson. Bull, S. & Solity J, 1987. Classroom management: principles to practice. London: Routledge Burns, A. (1992) "Practical reflections in teacher inservice training". The Teacher Trainer. 6/1: 19-20. Byrnes, F. (1992) "Resistance to change in teacher training courses". The Teacher Trainer. 6/1: 4-6. Calderhead, J. (1988) Teachers' Professional Learning. London: The Falmer Press. Cambridge Integrated Language Teaching Schemes, 1994. Proposed certificate in Cambridge. Cameron-Jones, M. (1991) Training Teachers. A Practical Guide. Glasgow: The Scottish Council for Research in Education. Cardenas, M. L. (1994) Reflective Practice in Methodology Courses. (Paper presented at the 29th ASOCOPI Congress). Medellin. Mineo. Cardona, G., N. Chavarro, M. M. Giraldo, F. Moreno, A. Puello, Y. Rodríguez, R. de Guerrero, A. Stephens, E. Valencia and W. Velásquez (1992) Document Two. A Proposal of a Framework for the Teaching of English in the Colombian Licenciatura Programmes. Ealing-London: Thames Valley University. Cullen, Richard. (1994) "Incorporating a language improvement component in teaching training programmes". ELT journal vol. 48/2. OUP. Cyril, Weir and Jon Roberts (1994) Evaluation in ELT. Blackwell. Day, R. (1990) "Teacher Observation in Second Language Teacher Education". In Richards, J.C. and D. Nunan (eds.) Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. De Campo, B., N. Vargas, R. Brown, Y. Rodríguez, M. L. Cárdenas, L. D. Arias, E. Rodríguez. (1995) COFE Project Supporting materials for the professional preparation component. Santafé de Bogotá: Mimeo. Doff, A. (1988) Teach English. A training course for teachers. Glasgow: Cambridge University Press. Duff, T. (ed.) (1988) Explorations in Teacher Training. Problems and Issues. London: Longman. Edge, J. (1988) "Training, Education, Development: Worlds Apart? (Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Association for Teaching and Research in Overseas Education) Edinburgh: Moray House College. Ellis, R. (1990) "Activities and procedures for teacher preparation". In Richards J. C. and D. Nunan (eds.) Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1986) "Activities and procedures for teaching training". ELT journal, vol. 40/2. OUP. Ellis, R. (1990) "Activities and procedures for teaching training". in Rossner, R & Bolitta R. (eds.), Currents of change in English language teaching. OUP. Ellis G. & Brewster, J. 1991. The Storytelling handbook for primary teachers. England: Penguin English. Fitzpatrick, F. and R. Kerr (1993) "How do you think it went?" The Teacher Trainer. 7/2: 9-13. 96

Fontana D, 1985. Classroom control. London: BPS. Freeman, D. (1982) "Observing teachers: three approaches to in-service training and development". TESOL Quarterly. 16: 21-28. Freeman, D. (1989) "Teacher Training, Development and Decision-Making: A Model of Teaching and Related Stages for Language Teacher Education". TESOL Quarterly. 23/1: 27-45. Freeman, Donald (1989) "Teacher training, development and decision making": A model of teaching and related strategies for language teacher education. TESOL quarterly, vol 23/1 Galton, M. Simon, B., and Croll, P. 1980. Inside the Primary Classroom. The ORACLE proyect. London. Gebhard, J. G. (1984) "Models of supervision: choices". TESOL Quarterly. 18/3: 501-514. Gómez, G. E., S. S. Jiménez, M. Luna, B. E. Martelo, M. Marín de O., C. Ortega, G. P. Quijano, F. J. Romero, A. de J. Sir, F. A. Taylor, A. Vergara, and C. Villamizar (1993) Document Three. A Proposal of a Framework for the Teaching of English in the Colombian Licenciatura Programmes. Ealing-London: Thames Valley University. Haliwell, S, 1992. Teaching English in the primary classroom. Longman Group. Hopkinks, D. (19986) (eds.) In-service Training and Educational Development: An International Survey. London: Croom Helm. Jarvis, Jennifer (1991) "Perspectives on the In-service training needs of teachers of English to young learners". The Teacher Trainer, vol. 5/1 Kennedy, C & Jarvis, J, 1991. Ideas and issues in primary ELT. Edinburgh: Nelson. Kouraogo, P. (!987) "Curriculum Renewal and INSET in difficult circunstances". English Language Teaching Journal vol. 41 /3: 171-8 Lamb, M. (1995) "The Consequences of INSET" ELT Journal. 49/1: 72-80. Lamb, Martin (1990) "The consequences of INSET". EFL Journal. Vol. 14/2. OUP. Luxon, T. (1994) "The psychological risks of teachers at a time of methodological change" The Teacher Trainer. 8/1: 6-9. McNiff, Jean (1993) Teaching as learning. An action research approach. British library cataloguing in publication data. Montgomery J, 1989. Appraisal in the primary school. Scholastic. Morrow, K. and M. Schocker (1993) "Process evaluation in an INSET course". ELT Journal. 47/1: 47-55. Morrow, Keith and Marita Schoe (1993). "Process evaluation in an INSET course". ELT journal Vol. 47. OUP. Murphy, D. M. (1994) Classroom-Oriented Action Research in the Colombian Framework for English. London: Thames Valley University. Mimeo Nunan, D (1989) "A client centred approach to teacher development". ELT journal vol. 43/2. OUP. Nunan, D. (1988) The learner centred curriculum. Cambridge. CUP. Nunan, D. (1989) Understanding Language Classroom . New York. O'Brien, T. (1981) "The E-R-O-T-I model: a stimulating guide for teacher training" In Marsh, G. (ed.) Focus on the Teacher. ELT Documents 110. London: British Council. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1994) Quality in Teaching. Paris: Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. 97

Palmer, Christopher (1993) "Innovation and the experienced teacher". ELT journal Vol. 47/1. OUP. Parrot, M. (1993) Tasks for Language Teachers. A resource book for training and development. Glasgow: Cambridge University Press. Parrott, Martin. (1993) Tasks for language teachers. A resource book for training and development. Cambridge. CUP. Ramani, E. (1987) "Theorising from the classroom". ELT Journal. 41/1: 3-11. Ramini, E. (1987) "Theorizing from the classroom". ELT journal Vol. 41/1. OUP. Read, C. (1995) Tasks in teacher education. London. Photocopy. Richards, J. C. (1990) The Language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge: University Press. Richards, J. and D. Nunan (eds.) (1990) Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. and C. Lockhart (1994) Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J.C. (1990) The language teaching matrix. CUP Rossner, R. (1988) "Selecting Teacher Educators - establishing criteria". In Duff, T. (ed.) Explorations in Teacher Training. Problems and Issues. London: Longman. Salmon, P & Claire H, 1984. Classroom collaboration. London: Routledge. Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. London: Temple Smith. Smith, Kari (1991) "The use of self-evaluation in the teaching training training". The teacher Trainer, vol. 5/3. Spaventa, L. (1992) "Maximising learning in an intensive teacher training course" The Teacher Trainer. 6/1: 14. Spencer, David (1993) "Process options series: ideas 23-25. Reading mazes". In the Teacher Trainer, Vol. 7/3. Swan, J. (1993) "Metaphor in action: the observation schedule in a reflective approach to teacher education". ELT Journal. 47/3: 242-249. teaching English as a foreign language to young learners. University of Universidad Nacional de Colombia (1995) In-service course: Listening practices in the English class. Mimeo. Ur, P. (1992) "Teacher learning". ELT Journal. 46/1: 56-61. Vasconcelos, G. (1994) "Trainee feedback". The Teacher Trainer. 8/2: 13-14. Nunan. Second language teacher Education. Cambridge. CUP.Wajnryb, R. (1991) "More hurdles - Becoming a Teacher Trainer". The Teacher Trainer. 5/2: 25-27. Wajnryb, R. (1992) Classroom Observation Tasks. A resource book for language teachers and trainers. Glasgow: Cambridge University Press. Wajnryb, Ruth. 1992. Classroom observation tasks. CUP. Wallace, M. (1990) Training Foreign Language Teachers. A reflective approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wallace, (1992) Training foreign language teachers: a reflective approach. Cambridge. CUP. Webb, G, 1994. Making the most of appraisal. London: Kogan Page. Widdowson, H. G. 1987. A rationale for teacher education in council of Europe project No. 12, Council of Europe. Strasbourge. 98

Williams, M. (1989) "A developmental view of classroom observations". ELT journal, vol 43/2. OUP. Willis, M. (1983) Children into Pupils: A study of language in early schooling. London Wood, J., A. Gutiérrez, M. Blanco, P. Moreno, and Y. Rodríguez (1986-1987) Curso de Capacitación de profesores de Inglés. Trainee's version. M.E.N. Colombia - Instituto Electrónico de Idiomas. Mimeo. Wood, J., A. Gutiérrez, M. Blanco, P. Moreno, and Y. Rodríguez (1986-1987) Curso de Capacitación de profesores de Inglés. Instructor's version. M.E.N. Colombia - Instituto Electrónico de Idiomas. Mimeo. Woodward, T. (1992) Ways of Training. London: Longman. Woodward, T. (1991) Models and Metaphors in Language Teacher Training. Loop input and other suggestions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Woodward, Tessa (1992) Ways of training. Recipies for teacher training. Longman. Woodward, Tessa (1991) Models and metaphors in language teacher training: Loop input and other strategies. Cambridege. CUP. Wragg E, 1994. An introduction to classroom observation. London: Routledge Wright, T. (1990) "Understanding classroom role relationship". in J. Richards and D. Nunan. Second language teacher Education.

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PART II. TEACHING TO LEARN CHAPTER IV: THE CONCEPT OF LEARNER AUTONOMY We are, in my view, faced with an entirely new situation in education where the goal of education, if we are to survive, is the facilitation of change and learning. The only man who is educated is the man who has learned how to learn; the man who has learned to adapt and change; the man who has realized that no knowledge is secure, that only the process of seeking knowledge gives a basis for security. Changingness, a reliance on process rather upon static knowledge, is the only thing that makes any sense as a goal for education in the modern world. (C. Rogers, Freedom to learn, 1994)

INTRODUCTION The second part of this document is directed to the adult as a learner and, specifically, to language teaching trainees in undergraduate programmes and to in-service language teachers. Personal and professional developments have been the main concerns of this stage of the project. As a person, the language teacher will perceive growth of her potentialities in continuing education as a permanent process of self-awareness. As a professional, she will strive to better understand the learning development of students at all levels. The close relationship between learning to teach and teaching to learn will become apparent in this section. After some conceptual considerations on how to characterise and better understand the mechanisms involved in the learning process, we will present a proposal for promoting awareness and confidence in learners and teachers on their road to autonomy. We will also explore self-access as the ultimate goal in learner independence, stressing the use of technologies such as Video and CALL to provide extended communicative possibilities for learning, teaching and training. A section will be devoted to the setting up of resource centres as effective tools for self-directed learning. Justification There are some indications of change and innovation in the traditional system of higher education in Colombia. There has been a tendency in recent years to move from a strong emphasis on transmission of specialised knowledge to an emphasis on the development of humanistic, student-centred approaches to the delivery and acquisition of knowledge. The traditional system could be characterised by the presence of all or some of the following features: (adapted from P. Rae, 1993) 1. A permanent expansion of the syllabus content, in an attempt to cover as much as possible of the everincreasing number of specialisms in every discipline, in order to produce professionals who 'know it all' in their area of specialisation. 2. An emphasis on the lecture system, in which the traditional lecturer delivers a large amount of material in the modality of 'transmitter-receiver', without any interest given to how much of the material is being duly processed and retained by the learners, except at examination times. This modality is also considered 'effective' by administrators because lectures can be delivered to large numbers of students at a time, and staff can be released to fulfil administrative duties. 100

3. A considerable amount of time spent by the learner in face-to-face activities, watching and listening to teachers, with little time left for independent learning and self-reflection. 4. An excessive importance given to assessment in terms of a large number of examinations which evaluate the results rather than the process of learning. The type of assessment commonly used tends to emphasise competition and ranking rather than collaboration and self-promotion. 5. Extreme dependence of the students on teachers, acquired in an educational system that stresses memorisation and teacher authority at the lower levels, instead of critical learning , development of individual learning styles and autonomy. 6. Massification of the educational system without a correlative increase of resources in terms of teaching and tutoring staff, library facilities, computer availability, services and other facilities.

If a real change is to be produced in institutions of higher education in Colombia and consequently in the educational system as a whole in terms of qualitative improvements in the conditions for learning, some fundamental actions must be taken simultaneously to counteract the effects of undesirable existing practices. The rate of production of useful knowledge in the world is increasing at a vertiginous pace. Confronted with the possibility of accessing it, a good learner must possess the ability to decide what must be learned and to learn it fast and effectively. Learning is a selective, individual process governed by specific needs and learning styles. It requires a critical, questioning approach that can only be developed in a favourable educational environment. Such an environment can be created if some of the following recommendations are put into practice: -Emphasis on quality of content rather than on quantity. Since it is impossible to 'know it all', emphasis should be on knowing it better or differently. This implies more room for discussions and critical interactions in small groups to promote learning by doing rather than by passively receiving accepted knowledge. -Flexibility in the choice of contents through modularisation and credit accumulation schemes that will allow the learner to reinforce individual strengths and preferences -Possibility of learning through collaboration rather than competition, by establishing opportunities for group work and co-operative tasks. -Possibility of learning from assessment through processes of self-evaluation and peer-evaluation. Involving the students in assessment will give them a deeper insight not only on the subject matter they are learning, but on the ongoing process of learning from feedback obtained from peers and teachers. It will also give them a new sense of commitment and responsibility. -Possibility of progressing at their own pace. Instead of spending more time on things they already know, students should be given the opportunity to demonstrate their existing competences, as a way to allow them to select a wider range of subjects at an appropriate level and spend more profitably their time in areas of their specific interest in the curriculum. -Emphasis on study skills and on the development of individual learning styles, as a means to achieve greater autonomy and to increase critical thinking strategies.

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-Possibility of using adequate self-access resources which will allow the student to move from a traditional teaching mode to a more flexible learning environment.

Profound educational changes require a serious commitment from all parts involved. Institutional innovations, if introduced from the top, will fail to be successful if they are not effective in involving participants at all levels from the very beginning of their inception. This paper is about one of the conditions necessary for changes to be effective: the development of autonomy in learning in general and in language learning in particular. It is directed to learners and teachers and administrators, for all of them are equally responsible for the 'facilitation of change and learning' Learning how to learn Definition: What is learning? This may be the sort of question that most people would find difficult to answer. Psychologists and educators have tried to provide definitions for a concept which is, at best, elusive: everybody knows that it exists, but nobody can exactly define what it is. There is, in any case, agreement that learning is a complex process that involves not only cognitive factors but also affective and environmental ones. Some of the aspects that are usually mentioned when discussing learning include: problemsolving, an internal process that leads to behavioural change; the construction and exchange of personally relevant and viable meanings; a process of changing insights, outlooks, expectations or thought patterns. (Smith, 1983: 34) Significant learning starts from an individual sense of discovery, a need to satisfy our natural curiosity about the world and about ourselves. 'Significant learning combines the logical and the intuitive, the intellect and the feelings, the concept and the experience, the idea and the meaning' (C. Rogers, 1983:20) From an observation of how people learn, we could perhaps isolate some of the characteristics of the learning process: 1. Learning goes on through life. Although much of it is intentional, we learn unintentionally from everyday experiences in the socialising process (from family, peer, work mates, at play, at school, from the mass media). If we define learning as a process of change, we can watch ourselves in a permanent process of changing the perception of even the simplest things in our immediate environment. 2. Learning is a personal and natural process. Learning can be stimulated by the presence and the efforts of others, particularly teachers, but only the learner can learn. This is not a trivial observation, since many teachers are frustrated and surprised to see that their efforts in 'doing well' their jobs do not necessarily lead to effective learning in their students. 3. Learning is bound up with human development. It affects and is affected by the biological and physical changes in personality, values, roles and tasks that usually occur over the normal human life span. 102

4. Learning pertains to experience and experiencing. The adult's reservoir of past experience represents at one and the same time a potentially rich resource for learning and an obstacle to learning, since learning constitutes in part a process of reaffirming, reorganising and reintegrating one's previous experience. 5. Learning has its intuitive side. Some of our most important and creative insights can come through tacit knowing, through the subconscious, by letting problems and ideas simmer, by paying attention to the seemingly unrelated and through meditation.

Learning may be intentional or random; it may involve acquiring information or skills, new attitudes, understandings or values. Most of these may be acquired through education, which has been defined as 'the organized systematic effort to foster learning, to establish the conditions, and to provide the activities through which learning can occur' (Smith, 1983: 35-37) In analysing the characteristics of learning in a science teaching situation, the American Association for the Advancement of Science provided the following principles for learning sciences, which show a remarkable similarity with those proposed for second language learning. The principles are: -Learning is not necessarily an outcome of teaching. Learners are not able to process all that instruction presents. The depth of comprehension or meaningful understanding of concepts is far more important than a superficial, high quantity of information about the subject. -Prior knowledge influences learning. Learners must construct their own meanings regardless of how well concepts are presented to them. Effective learning often requires the restructuring of one's thinking to accommodate new ideas. It may even mean discarding old beliefs to make way for new or changed connections. Students need encouragement to develop new views, through understanding how the new ones help them make better sense of the world. -Learning usually moves from the concrete to the abstract. Successful learning relies very heavily, especially at the early stages, on concrete experiences, the use of manipulative materials in a here-and-now context. -Learning requires practice in new situations. Learning to think critically, analyse information, communicate ideas, argue logically, and work on a team requires practice in applying concepts in new, realistic situations. -Effective learning requires feedback. Learning often takes place best when students can express ideas and get feedback from their teachers and peers. Feedback, to be useful, needs to be more than just correct answers. Rather, it needs to be analytical or suggestive of other ways of thinking. Feedback needs to come when learners are interested in it. Learners then need time to reflect on it, make adjustments and try again. -Expectations affect performance. Learners respond to their own expectations of what they can learn. If they believe that they can grasp a complex concept, the probability is very high that they will. Self-confidence engenders success. Learners also assess the expectations made about them by teachers and peers. If learners are expected to perform poorly, they probably will do so. (Adapted from Kessler, ed. 1992: 67)

Learning how to learn Because learning is a lifelong pursuit, learning how to learn is the best way to empower the individual to continue learning in whatever situation he may find himself, whether in the 103

educational system or outside of it. The individual who has learned how to learn can do, among other things: -take control of his own learning -diagnose his own strengths and weaknesses as a learner -identify his needs, wants and lacks as a learner -identify his preferred learning style and use it with optimal results -approach problems and try to find solutions for his own learning process -evaluate different stages of his own learning process -organise activities to increase his learning -work collaboratively with others to construct new meanings -help others learn more effectively

Learning styles One of the determining factors in promoting learning is the consideration of the fact that individual learners have preferred learning styles, that is, characteristic ways of processing information, feeling and behaving in learning situations. Knowledge of one's learning style is useful in becoming an effective learner and an effective teacher intent on promoting ways of learning how to learn among her students. The three major kinds of factors influencing learning style are cognitive, affective and environmental. 1. Cognitive factors These involve preferred patterns of perceiving, remembering, thinking and problem solving. Complex cognitive strategies, structures and controls permit us to conceptually organise our environment, they help pattern our behaviour and constitute a major component of learning style. Learners are usually placed in a continuum with regard to their tendencies to perceive the environment in an analytical (field independent) as opposed to a global (field dependent) way. Field independent persons tend to perceive elements independently of context or background. They have the ability to impose structure on a learning task by extracting general principles. They can identify alternative patterns within a whole structure. Field independence is associated with a more internally directed approach to learning requiring less external structure and feedback. (Smith, 1983) Field dependent persons tend to approach a new field or situation in a global way. They prefer greater amount of external structures, direction and feedback. When problem solving implies analysis, they are not at their best. Applying rules suits them better. They tend to be comfortable with learning and problem solving through collaboration, whereas field independent learners tend to be less influenced by the rewards of their social surroundings and less influenced by peers (Smith 1983) Willing (1987:10) further subdivides the concept of cognitive style into the subcategories which involve information processing, learning strengths and human relations. 104

Another related approach to cognitive structuring which may turn out to be extremely important for language learning results from Kagan's research into the way people form and use concepts in interpreting information, thinking and problem solving. Analytical-descriptive conceptualisation involves finding similarity in things based on the external, physical attributes of stimuli and information. The relational-contextual (or global) person will perceive the same things as abstract wholes To identify these tendencies, Kolb and Fry (as quoted in Smith 1983:62) developed a model of the learning cycle that integrates conceptualising tendencies. Learning is portrayed as a cyclical process with four kinds of activities. The learner can begin with any of the four and proceed through the cycle. For fully integrated learning to occur, all activities must eventually be utilised, but the learner can start at any one point in the cycle. The dimension of the vertical axis relates to conceptualising processes, which range from concrete to abstract. On the horizontal axis cognitive manipulations, ranging from active to reflective are represented. Concrete experience, which involves intuitive feeling, has to be followed by reflective observation, which involves perception and comprehension; this is followed by abstract conceptualisation, involving intellectual thought; finally, comes active experimentation, involving real-time action, which will entail further concrete experience and so on.

Concrete experience ACCOMODATOR

DIVERGER

Testing implications of concepts in new situations

Observations and reflections

CONVERGER

ASSIMILATOR Formulation of abstract concepts and generalisations (Taken from Smith, 1983: 63)

Other modalities of cognitive perception that may be relevant to language learning have to do with reliance on sensory perceptions in experiencing and organising information. Three major modalities are utilised: the kinaesthetic leads to physical or motoric thinking, the visual leads to spatial thinking, and the auditory leads to verbal thinking. Individuals differ markedly in their preferred reliance on one or the other of these means of representation. This results in characteristic differences in learning and thinking styles. (Adapted from Smith, 1983)

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2. Affective factors Another important component in determining learning style has to do with affective factors such as the amount of structure and authority the learner prefers or most profits from. Structure has to do with the imposition of rules, guidelines and prescriptions for carrying out learner activities. Many learners require a large degree of control and authority over the different stages of the learning process (planning, conducting and evaluating). Others may be relatively autonomous in one or all of them. Great care must be exercised when promoting self-directed learning in considering 1) that interdependence and even dependence can be as functional for some learners as independence and autonomy is for others; 2) that different modes of learning require different degrees of autonomy and 3) that there is potential danger in confronting learners with the responsibility of exercising more autonomy than they are prepared to exercise. (Adapted from Smith, 1983: 65) Other affective factors which have been object of research include expectations and motivation. The degree to which a learner is willing to persist in accomplishing a difficult task and have positive attitudes towards the desired outcomes are both important components for achieving learning, especially in a self-directed situation. 3. Environmental factors These are extremely important considerations when thinking in terms of self-directed learning and especially when setting up resource centres. Light, sound, room temperature, physical surroundings, time of day, possibilities of interacting with others, degree of informality, etc. are some of the factors that may suppress or enhance the possibilities of learning effectively. In the next chapters we will refer specifically to the influence of learning styles and related concepts to language learning in general and to self-directed language learning in particular. The concept of learner autonomy In general educational terms, autonomy is an attitude towards learning which may not necessarily have many external features. But in terms of this attitude, we could define autonomy in learning by listing some of the most common observable characteristics: -Autonomy implies the ability to make decisions about our own learning -Autonomy involves some degree of independence from other people and from systems normally used to control learning -Autonomy involves thinking critically about concepts, situations or people -Autonomy means being inquisitive, wanting to find out about things before somebody else does it for you. -Autonomy implies being able to make connections between current and new knowledge -Autonomy is about taking responsibility for one's own learning, making informed decisions, taking charge. -Autonomy is a way of being. It can be exercised in the classroom, working with others or in isolation. (Adapted from D. Baume, 1994)

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From accounts of what autonomous learners do, we can generalise the following behavioural principles: -Autonomous learners choose what they want to learn based on an analysis of what they need to know -They investigate possible ways in which they might achieve learning -They are versatile learners and can use a great variety of situations to promote their learning. -They can monitor their progress and change their plans accordingly.

Being autonomous, or knowing how to learn, involves, then, a set of processes in which the learner acts as his own manager of change through a perception of his needs and of the ways he goes on about his own learning. Developing skills in learning how to learn can create a challenge to the adequacy of the learner's existing meanings, values, skills and strategies. The learner can experience internal conflicts as old and new meanings or values clash and he can feel disorientated as new strategies require new behaviours. The learner often has also to learn to confront negative attitudes from the teachers or administrators who consider the learner's independence as threatening to their own values and beliefs about learning. (Adapted from Brundage and Mackeracker, 1980, as quoted in Willing 1989). In the next chapter we will consider the implications of autonomy in terms of language learning, and specific actions that can be carried out in order to promote a change of attitudes in all those involved in the educational process. 4.1. Autonomy in language learning In discussing autonomy, we have stressed the learner's responsibility for making and implementing all or most of the decisions concerned with his own learning. We must also stress the fact that autonomy is ability, a power or capacity to act in a given situation and not the actual behaviour of an individual in that situation. Autonomy is understood more as a way of being than as a way of doing. Being autonomous does not imply working alone all the time. Communication with others is an essential element in learning. Learning a language is fundamentally a process of socialisation. Bruner (1983), in describing examples of children learning to talk through interaction with their caregivers observed that ‘the lessons are obviously as much cultural as they are linguistic. Language acquisition seems to be a by-product of cultural transmission. The engine that drives the enterprise is not language acquisition per se, but the need to get on with the demands of the culture' Independent learning and autonomy in language learning must also be seen in the context of socialisation. The learner becomes independent after a period of confronting himself with others in a learning situation, that is, through interaction with others. Being autonomous is the result not of standing in isolation, but of being with others and learning to stress individual characteristics through observation and reflection of self and others. In order to clarify the different ways in which a learner can be autonomous, I will adopt, for the purpose of this paper, some of the definitions proposed by Dickinson (1987: 8-9). He uses the 107

term 'self-instruction' as 'a general cover term to make broad reference to situations in which learners are working without the instruction or direct control of a teacher' (p. 8).Traditionally, in the language learning classroom, the teacher has been responsible for setting up the materials and activities that will promote learning and has also been responsible for all the management tasks involved. One view of self-instruction proposes that the teacher include the learners increasingly in the decision-making process and let them assume an increasing degree of responsibility for their own learning. An opposing view is one in which the materials and resources for learning are written in such a way that the decision-making and much of the management of the learning are built into the materials. The learner's responsibility in this case may be limited to matters concerning where and when the work takes place and which parts of the programme to work on at particular points in time. These opposing views reflect extremes in our understanding of the process of language acquisition. Whereas the first one assumes a difference in learning styles and the possibility of learning through the use of individual strategies, the second one takes its extreme form in the programmed learning approach to individualisation of the fifties in which time, pace and rhythm were the only variables open to individual choice, whereas every other aspect of learning had been taken into account in a piecemeal fashion in the materials themselves. 'Self-access' refers to the organisation of learning materials and other resources to make them directly available to the learner. Producing learning materials for self-access implies a consideration of different aspects: how the materials can relate to the potential needs of the learner in terms of content; how they can respond to the objectives the learner sets for himself; how they can contribute to the development or enhancement of learner strategies; how they can promote the student's progress; how they can be monitored by the learner himself. 4.2. Reasons for promoting learners' autonomy Some of the main reasons for helping language learners become more autonomous spring from a consideration of the following factors: 4.2.1. Practical reasons Learners who may not have the opportunity to attend regular classes, mature students who look for opportunities of continuing education, learners with specific language needs, and people with time constraints are all candidates for autonomous, self-directed learning. Whatever the circumstances, autonomous learners will always find a way to develop their own programmes and achieve the desired learning goals. Learners who are dependent on the teacher's permanent direction and leadership will often find limitations in their possibilities for advancement in the autonomous learning process. 4.2.2. Educational aims In the wider context of education, all parties involved in the process of teaching and learning should be interested in promoting learning efficiency.

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From the point of view of the learner, autonomy helps him take responsibility for the different stages of the process, thus enhancing the feeling of control that results in an increase of motivation to perform effectively. Autonomy also helps promote positive attitudes towards oneself and tolerance towards others, helping the learner overcome some of the negative factors that may hinder his learning. From the point of view of the teacher, a profound change of roles may cause a threatening situation. The teacher must understand her new situation and accept the challenge of supporting the learner and helping him strengthen his personal capabilities for self-instruction and self-assessment, thus creating a less competitive, more collaborative environment. In selfinstruction, the learner has access to a multiplicity of resources, the teacher, his fellow students, appropriate materials and technologies. The teacher is still the most valuable. From the point of view of the institution, autonomy in language learning will also help promote independence in the learner in approaching broader areas of educational concern, thus making him more a more critical and effective learner in other academic subjects. Learner autonomy will require a more effective use of institutional resources, human and otherwise, new styles of teaching, and plentiful alternatives for self-direction and self-access. Institutions will also have to assume new responsibilities in the creation of opportunities for continuing education. The rate of change in modern society through technological development, new economic and commercial opportunities and political associations, will generate social and individual pressures for new patterns of work involving higher degrees of collaboration among specialists. Only individuals prepared for autonomous, self-directed, independent and collaborative work will be able to keep up to date with innovations. It is then a matter not only of convenience but also of institutional responsibility to promote the development of autonomous, creative, independent and critical thinkers that will be able to face the challenges of society at large. 4.2.3. Differences in cognitive style In the previous chapter, we analysed some of the aspects that determine different learning styles. By acknowledging these differences in the learner and allowing for flexibility in individual approaches to solving tasks, we may encourage different ways of dealing with reality and processing information. Thus, a flexible classroom environment should allow for contrasts such as a)learners who concentrate on meaning with those who concentrate on form; b)those who practice extensively in the same area with those who move on to new areas immediately; c)those who control the flow with those who prefer to react to the initiative of others; d)those who have a high criterion of accuracy with those who are fluently inaccurate; e)those who explore functions with those who explore structures (adapted from Tyacke and Mendelsohn, 1988, as quoted in Wenden, 1991: 12). 4.2.4. Learning Strategies Learning strategies seem to be elusive mental processes difficult to define and to characterise. One way that researchers have used to clarify the concept has been to catalogue the abilities 109

that appear to be typical of the good language learner. A list of these features provided by Joan Rubin (1975, as adapted by Naiman et al., 1978) has been the starting point of much of such research: -The good language learner is a willing and accurate guesser; -The good language learner has a strong drive to communicate, or to learn from communication. He is willing to do many things to get his message across; -The good language learner is often not inhibited. He is willing to appear foolish if reasonable communication results. He is willing to live with a certain amount of vagueness; -In addition to focusing on communication, the good language learner is prepared to attend to 'form'. -The good language learner is constantly looking for patterns in the language; -The good language learner practises. -The good language learner monitors his own speech and the speech of others. That is, he is constantly attending to how well his speech is being received and whether his performance meets the standards he has learned; -The good language learner attends to meaning. He knows that in order to understand the message, it is not sufficient to pay attention to the grammar of the language or to the surface form of speech.

Wenden (1991: 18) defines learning strategies as mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so. She lists the following characteristics: -Some can be observed. There is an observable behaviour that accompanies the mental act as when learners ask a question to clarify something they do not understand. Other strategies cannot be observed, as when learners infer or compare. -Cognitive strategies may be deployed consciously in response to a problem a learner has clearly perceived and analysed. They can also be automatised. The decisions to use them remain below consciousness, a learned solution to a class of learning needs or problems with which learners are familiar. -Strategies, unlike more enduring personality characteristics of a learner, including learning style, are amenable to change. They are part of our cognitive software, acquired in the same way as we acquire language. Ineffective ones can be changed or rejected, new strategies can be learned and well-functioning strategies can be adapted to new situations. -Strategies are problem-oriented. Learners use them in response to different kinds of learning problems or needs.

Although researchers in Second Language Acquisition have not been able to define exactly what a strategy is, there are extensive writings dedicated to describe and characterise them. Rebeca Oxford (1990: 1) offers a quite exhaustive inventory of language learning strategies, that she describes as 'tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence'. Oxford classifies language strategies into direct and indirect strategies, which are in turn subdivided into other categories and so on, yielding an almost exhaustive set of possibilities.

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A diagrammatic overview of her system can be represented as follows: (p.16)

Direct

Memory strategies Cognitive strategies Compensation strategies

Learning Strategies Metacognitive strategies Indirect Affective strategies Social strategies

Or, in a more functional representation, showing relationships between Direct and Indirect strategies and among the six strategy groups: (p.15)

Memory Cognitive

Social

Compensation

Affective

Metacognitive

4.3. Attitudes towards learner autonomy In their development towards autonomy, learners need to clarify their own attitudes towards the process involved. Attitudes have a) a strong evaluative component whereby the learners agree or disagree with the notion of assuming more responsibility for their learning; b) a cognitive component, beliefs, perceptions, information about what learners believe about their role in the learning process or about their capability as language learners; c) a behavioural component whereby learners are predisposed to act in certain ways but not in others (adapted from Wenden, 1991: 52) Many factors may influence learners' attitudes towards autonomy. Some of the factors mentioned by Wenden are: (p. 55) 4.3.1. Socialisation processes Research in adult learning has shown that socialisation processes that may begin in the primary school tend to encourage dependence rather than independence in adults. These processes emphasise the concept that responsibility for learning must be taken by formal institutions and the teacher. The students often see themselves as consumers of learning while teachers are perceived as the source of knowledge and as the decision makers about success or failure in examinations. 111

4.3.2. Conflicting role demands for the language learner When learning a foreign language, the learner's priorities are often directed to goals related to personal concerns that go beyond the language itself. Language learning is seen as a means to achieve other purposes in life and the learner is not necessarily willing to take on a responsible role in the learning process itself. 4.3.3. Lack of metacognitive knowledge Ignorance about their mental processes may contribute to learners' lack of self-confidence in taking responsibility for their learning. Many learners are unaware that they can observe, evaluate and change their own cognitive behaviours and be able to get actively involved in their own learning processes. 4.3.4. Self-esteem A factor influencing language acquisition is the evaluation a person makes and holds with regard to himself. Self-esteem can manifest itself with regard to specific situations or particular tasks. A lack of self-esteem is believed to contribute to the formation of learners' negative attitudes towards their capability to learn autonomously. This is also related to self-image, the outcome of the evaluation that persons make with regard to themselves and their ability to be successful learners. A negative self-image can not only influence language learning outcomes but also shape learners' attitudes towards learning autonomy. Training in autonomy means helping learners to discard assumptions and prejudices which underlie their attitudes towards their role in learning. Through psychological preparation, learners can build self-confidence in their capability to work independently. (adapted from Wenden, 1991) 4.4. The role of the teacher in promoting autonomy Teachers have been traditionally viewed as authority figures, identified with roles like instructor, director, judge, leader, evaluator and controller. These familiar roles will restrict possibilities for communication in the classroom, especially in the language classroom, because they force all communication to go to and through the teacher. In a system where the learner assumes increased responsibility for his learning, the teacher must assume new functions as facilitator, guide, consultant, advisor, coordinator and co-communicator. Her new capacities must also include identifying students' learning styles, conducting training on learning strategies and helping learners become more independent. Her managerial tasks will be less directive, more collaborative and supportive, to enhance new types of relationships with learners (adapted from Oxford, 1990:10). Her main role as advisor for the learners in the process of becoming more autonomous will include helping the learners to develop their ability to: -Define their learning objectives, based on a definition of needs. -Define contents and progressions to be made -Choose methods and techniques -Monitor the learning procedure -Evaluate what they have acquired in the learning process (Adapted from Holec, 1981, as quoted in Oxford 1991: 23) 112

As a result of this new profile of the teacher, new demands will be made on her creativity and her flexibility to adapt teaching techniques to suit different learning demands from the students. Her status will no longer depend on the power conferred by hierarchical authority but on the quality and importance of her relationships with the learner. As Strevens (in Altman and James, 1980) puts it: 'It takes a better teacher to focus on the learner'. In the next chapter, we will make a proposal for developing learners' autonomy in the classroom. The activities proposed to be developed with the support of the teacher, will contribute to motivate the learner to try them on his own until he is capable of reaching a satisfactory level of self-direction.

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CHAPTER V: TEACHING TO LEARN, A PROPOSAL In designing this proposal for learning how to learn, the following aspects have been considered: 1) The course is addressed to students of English as a Foreign Language in undergraduate Teacher Training programmes, to teachers of English in INSET courses and to learners of English in general. It can also be useful to students in other fields, since learning strategy development can be also removed from the immediate context of language learning, and some tasks such as categorising, analysing, sequencing, predicting, for example, can be related to situations in other areas of cognitive development or to situations which do not resemble the activities of formal learning. 2) The aims of the course are: a) To raise students awareness about their language learning needs. b) To explore students' attitudes and beliefs towards learning. c) To explore different learning styles. d) To help the learner develop good learning strategies. e) To encourage learners to assess their own language development. 3) Strategies have been defined as operations employed by the learner to aid in the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of information. For the purposes of this paper, we will adopt an expanded definition proposed by Oxford (1990: 8): "Learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations". 4) Although most learning strategies are presented separately, they will necessarily overlap, because learners when communicating are involved in a number of processes at once: keeping the conversation going, listening for key words, monitoring the conversation, trying to record the information, etc. It is advisable, therefore, to seek links between the various strategies and explore as many as are relevant while working on a particular topic, in a sequence which makes it easy for the learner to explore the strategies and build on the language content at the same time. (Adapted from Willing, 1989) 5) Language learning strategies contribute to all aspects of the learning-acquisition continuum. Although some strategies may be more directly related to learning and others to acquisition, no distinction between the two is made in this proposal and the term 'learning strategy' will be used to refer to those which enhance any part of the learning-acquisition continuum. 6) The course can be used as a separate unit in the syllabus or integrated to other learning tasks. Activities can be adapted to different levels. At beginners' level, discussions could be carried out in Spanish. Most of the activities should be carried out individually, but some can be done in pairs or in larger groups. 7) This proposal is based on the assumption that independence is achieved through collaboration with others, as a process of acquiring control and responsibility in the realisation of tasks. Tasks are understood as cultural; social activities and not merely as experimental tasks. There is a range of communicative ways of learning (or tasks): observation, comment, discussion, explanation and participation are all equally important. 8) Activities marked 'To the student' and ‘To the teacher' are carried out in the classroom. The 'For further exploration' activities are to be carried out by the student outside the classroom. The teacher may propose other alternatives. Although most of the activities are designed for individual development, there is an underlying principle that emphasises collaborative work. An individual with full awareness of his own capabilities as a learner may contribute to co-operative work with a better understanding of his contribution and that of others to working in collaboration. In this sense, many of the follow-up activities proposed here involve sharing with others the process of developing learning strategies. 114

9) The model proposed here has been inspired by Willing (1989), although with considerable modifications and adaptations both in content and in terms of the formal presentation. Tasks 1-10 are concerned with developing self-awareness. Tasks 11-16 develop strategies for managing the interaction, while tasks 17-31 focus on the management of information. Finally, tasks 32-35 develop learners' effectiveness using resources.

5.1. Part I. Self-awareness

TASK 1 AIM: to help students describe themselves as learners TO THE STUDENT: Look at the following pairs of words and try to decide which word in each pair describes you best. Add other words to the list if you consider it necessary. mature-childish assertive-self-effacing friendly-detached disorganised-methodical introverted-extroverted sleepy-lively shy-uninhibited

competitive-co-operative alert-inattentive talkative-subdued lazy-industrious impatient-patient dogmatic-open-minded rigid-flexible

TO THE TEACHER: Discuss the results of the survey with the students and get them to talk about learning in general and learning English in particular. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Work with a friend. Try to find the words that you think best characterise your friend. Discuss the results with each other.

TASK 2 AIM: To elicit information about the learners' needs and their actual use of English TO THE STUDENT: Think of as many ways as possible that you need to use English in your everyday activities. How do you think you could increase your opportunities for using English? Fill in the following questionnaire. Tick the appropriate phrases. 1) Why do you need to learn English? -For study purposes

-For professional development 115

-As a job requirement -For travel purposes -To listen to the radio -To watch TV in English -Other (specify) 2) What language skill do you need most? -Speaking -Listening -Reading -Writing 3) Where do you normally speak English? -At work -At school -With foreign friends -Other (specify) 4) Where do you normally listen to English? -Television -Radio -Friends -Neighbours -At work -At school -At the cinema -Other (specify) 5) What sort of programmes do you watch on TV, in English? -News -Documentaries -Quiz programmes -Movies -Comedy -Soap operas -Cartoons -Interview programmes -Children's programmes -Sports -Other (specify) 6) What do you listen to on the radio, in English? -News -Weather forecast -Interviews -Other (specify) 7) When you watch television in English, how much do you feel you understand? Place the percentage in front of each of the items above (10% 25% 40% 50% 75% 100%) 8) When you listen to the radio in English, how much do you feel you understand? Place the percentage in front of each of the items above (10% 25% 40% 50% 75% 100%) 9) Where do you feel you have the most problems with listening? -People speaking too quickly -People not speaking clearly -Listening to speech on the radio -Listening to long segments -Not understanding every word -Social conversation -Other (specify) 10) Where do you read in English? -At school -At home -At work -Other (specify) 11) What do you read in English? -Textbooks -Fiction -Poetry -Drama -Magazines -Newspapers -Specialised journals -Technical manuals -Advertisements -Captions on TV movies -Other (specify) 12) Where do you feel you have the most problems with reading? -Grammar -Vocabulary -Specialised terminology -Different styles -Text structure -Other (specify) 13) What do you write in English? -School assignments -Letters -Scientific reports -Professional articles 116

-Essays -Other (specify) 14) Where do you feel you have the most problems with writing? -Sentence structure -Text structure -Spelling -Vocabulary -Other (specify)

TO THE TEACHER: Discuss with the students about their needs and about how they could increase their possibilities of using English outside the classroom. Help them to make plans to improve specific skills by recommending them authentic materials that may be available in the resource centre or in other learning facilities. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Try to identify a new way you can use English. Bring in a new action plan to the next class in the form of a proposal for self-access in one of the four language skills.

TASK 3 AIM: To elicit information about attitudes to learning English TO THE STUDENT: Indicate some of the reasons you like or dislike learning English -It is useful for my career -I enjoy learning languages -I like English because it has a very easy grammar -I like to find out about other cultures -I like to watch movies in English -I would like to live in a foreign country -English is the best language in the world -I do not like English because I resent American imperialism -I believe everything should be in Spanish -English is very difficult -I am not motivated to learn English -I hated English when I learnt it at school -Other (specify)

TO THE TEACHER: Discuss some of the reasons for students’ attitudes, trying to draw on their previous personal experience with the language and on external reasons and beliefs determined by societal attitudes. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Write a short essay (in Spanish) explaining some of the reasons why you like or dislike learning English.

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TASK 4 AIM: To determine the influence of sensory inputs in language learning TO THE STUDENT: 1) Follow carefully the teacher's instructions. Discuss with the class the advantages of this learning method. Which is your favourite sense? 2) Try to recall previous experiences in which your senses played an important part in your learning process. TO THE TEACHER: (adapted from Willing, 1989: 31) 1) Divide the class into two groups. Group 1 gets a poster showing several different objects. These objects should constitute new vocabulary. The name of each object should appear beside the picture of the thing. Only words whose spelling is reasonable phonetic should be used. Group 1 is told to learn the words, without speaking; only looking. Group 2 gets an identical poster, except that the words do not appear. Instead, the teacher sits with the group and, out of earshot of group 1, tells them the names to the things as clearly as possible and as many times as requested. Learners may not speak or write, but only listen. They too must learn the words. 2) The teacher then tests the two groups, more or less simultaneously. With the unlabelled poster as stimulus, learners provide the names of the objects. Group 1 does this in written form. Group 2 does it individually, orally. 3) The total number of correct responses is added up for each group. The totals can then be converted to get an average per individual, to see which group actually did better. 4) The procedure should now be repeated with a new set of words, but with the groups reversed as to visual and auditory stimuli so that results can be compared.

FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: To extend the idea of the use of the senses in learning, try the same or a similar experiment with a couple of friends or relatives. Compare results.

TASK5 AIM: To find out about preferred ways of learning English TO THE STUDENT: Read the different experiences of English Language learners Discuss in pairs how the last sentence of each experience may be extended.

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Case 1. 'My worst language learning experience was at school. I had a really terrible teacher for French. I hated her, she gave us grammar tests every day and I always got bad marks. We never learned how to speak, and I got very bored. She was always in a bad mood, too. In fact, I remember one day....' Case 2. 'My best language learning experience wasn't really like learning at all. It was when I was in Italy and I met an Italian woman. She was also on holiday and we spent a lot of time together. She helped me with my shopping and sight-seeing and to understand menus in restaurants. When she went home, I still had one week's holiday and I found......' Case 3. 'In my opinion, the best way to learn a language is to get a good grammar book, a good dictionary and a nice teacher. You need to have those things to start with. After a while, you should go to the country where they speak that language and just practice what you have learned. It is very important to........' Case 4. 'I think there should be some grammar and vocabulary exercises, but also a lot of time for speaking. I hope the teacher will correct all my mistakes and tell me what books I should read. I think we should do some listening work to help our understanding, but the most important thing, is that the teacher should........'

TO THE TEACHER: Ask the students to complete the sentences in 1, 2, 3, 4. Get them to discuss what methods they think would work for them individually. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Outside the classroom, interview some fellow students about their previous language learning experience. Record the interviews. Bring them to class for discussion. Which method tends to be the favourite among the students interviewed?

TASK 6 AIM: To consider the students' learning styles (adapted from Willing, 1989) TO THE STUDENT: Answer the following questions as truthfully as possible. When you have finished, assign points to your answers, as follows: No=1 a little=2 good=3 best=4 1. In English class, I like to learn by reading 2. In class, I like to listen to and use cassettes 3. In class, I like to learn by games 4. In class, I like to learn by conversation 5. In class, I like to learn by pictures, films, video 6. I want to write everything in my notebook 7. I like to have my own textbook 8. I like the teacher to explain everything 9. I like the teacher to give us problems to work on 10. I like the teacher to help me talk about my interest 11. I like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes 12. I like the teacher to let me find my mistakes 13. I like to study English by myself 14. I like to learn English by talking in pairs 119

no no no no no no no no no no no no no no

a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little

good good good good good good good good good good good good good good

best best best best best best best best best best best best best best

15. I like to learn English in a small group 16. I like to learn English with the whole class 17. I like to go out with the class and practise English 18. I like to study grammar 19. I like to learn many new words 20. I like to practise the sounds and Pronunciation 21. I like to learn English words by seeing them 22. I like to learn English words by hearing them 23. I like to learn English words by doing something 24. At home, I like to learn by reading newspapers 25. At home, I like to learn by watching TV in English 26. At home, I like to learn by using cassettes 27. At home, I like to learn by studying English books 28. I like to learn by talking to friends in English 29. I like to learn by talking to English native speakers 30. I like to learn English by travelling

no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no

a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little a little

good good good good good good good good good good good good good good good good

best best best best best best best best best best best best best best best best

TO THE TEACHER: Ask the students to add up their points by grouping questions into the following sets: Set l Set 2 'Communicative' 'Concrete' Questions 29 Questions 3 28 25 30 22 4

Set 3 Set 4 'Authority-oriented' 'Analytical' Questions 8 Questions 18 5 6 14 7 26 1 2 18 17 21

27 13 12 9 24

Make sure students understand the procedure. Find out from each learner which set gave the highest total. The set with the highest total will represent that individual's learning style. Discuss with the students their own perceptions about their learning styles and the implications for the classroom. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: In your next four English classes, write a diary of the activities proposed by the teacher and on those you enjoyed most. Compare your observations with the results of the questionnaire.

TASK 7 AIM: To find out about individual learners' study habits TO THE STUDENT: Put a tick in front of those statements you agree with: 120

1. I try to study English at home every day 2. I like to study my English sitting at a table or desk 3. I like to study English lying down on a bed or a couch 4. I do not like to work on small details 5. I am impatient. I like to make progress quickly 6. I like to work on a project for a long time, without being interrupted 7. I enjoy working on details 8. I always think about what I am going to do before I do it 9. I study best when it is quiet 10. I study best with background music 11. I like studying with lots of light 12. I study best when the lights are dim 13. I concentrate best when I feel warm 14. I like to study with one or two friends 15. I study better if I eat while I study 16. The things I remember best are the things I read 17. I remember things best if I study them early in the morning 18. Noise usually keeps me from concentrating 19. The things I remember best are the things I hear 20. I prefer to go to classes early in the morning 21. I prefer to go to classes in the evening 22. I often get tired of doing things and want to start something new 23. I like to be given choices of how I can do things 24. I like to listen to people talk 25. I like to draw and paint pictures 26. I like to work for short periods of time and take many breaks 27. I like to make a plan for what I am going to do every day.

TO THE TEACHER: Explore with the students some of the reasons why they prefer certain ways of studying and what could be done if they wanted to change some of them. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: During the next week, try to change some of your usual study habits. How did you feel? Could you adapt to the new situation easily?

TASK 8 AIM: To elicit learners' preferences on classroom activities TO THE STUDENT: Fill in the following form with your teacher and other students in your class. Select some of the activities recently done in class. You can refer to your diary for this purpose Day 1. 2. 3......

Activity

I liked it because ...............

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Discuss how the activities you liked most helped you to learn more English and talk about what you want to do next. TO THE TEACHER: After several classes, remind the students of the activities they have done and have them fill in the form. Discuss which activities they liked and why. Help them think of ways to apply the same types of techniques within their own experience in real life. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Choose an activity you liked a lot. Prepare a short presentation for the class using the same type of activity.

TASK 9 AIM: To draw the students' learning profiles TO THE STUDENT: With the information you have collected about yourself in the previous weeks, fill in the following questionnaire, which will help the group create a wall chart describing each student's learning style. Name My favourite class activities are: My favourite sense is: seeing hearing

smelling

touching

tasting

My learning style is: (refer to the results of task 6) In English, I am best at: Outside the classroom, I use English to:

TO THE TEACHER: Collect the information from individual students and help them create a wall chart for the group, in the following format: Student's name

Favourite class activities

Favourite sense

Learning style

1. 2...............

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Best talent in English

Uses English outside class in.....

FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: With a group of fellow students, apply the questionnaire to the teachers in your Department. Prepare a wall chart for them.

TASK 10 AIM: To extend the awareness of learning styles and apply it to new situations TO THE STUDENT: Now that you have found out about preferred ways of learning, select three of the cases below and discuss , in pairs, what each one of them can do to help his or her own learning. Case 1. Luz Marina enjoys listening to songs and music. She would like to improve her English. Can she use the music in some way to help her English? Case 2. Ana Milena has a TV, but she almost never watches it. Her friends tell her it can help to make her English better, but she does not know how to use it to learn. Should she just watch TV? What kind of programmes should she choose? What can she do while she is watching? Case 3. Jairo has just made a North American friend. How can he take advantage of this situation to improve his English? Case 4. Gloria says she likes reading stories, but she is not sure how it can help her to improve her English. Tell her what she can do. Case 5. Eduardo has a long bus trip to and from work every day. He wants to use the time to improve his English. What could he do?

TO THE TEACHER: Try to direct students’ discussion to focus on learning strategies rather than on content when finding ways to help. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Make a list of all possible ways to learn English that are available in your immediate environment. With the class, prepare a poster with recommendations for other students in your programme and post it on the bulletin board. 5.2. Part II. Developing strategies In this section, some of the categories described by Oxford (1990:17) will be exemplified by means of specific activities. A more complete collection of activities can be designed by teachers according to the needs of particular groups of students.

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5.2.1. Managing the interaction

TASK 11 AIM: To plan for a language task TO THE STUDENT: Work in pairs. Select one of the following situations. Prepare a short presentation to explain the situation to the rest of the class. Feel free to select the procedure that you are most comfortable with. You can choose one of the following or a mixture of them: a) explain it in words b) draw a picture of it c) write out a report d) demonstrate it actively e) use no words but only gestures, pointing, etc. Situations: 1. Report to the traffic policeman an accident that you saw happen. 2. A foreign visitor asks you for directions to get to the cathedral. Explain to him how to get there as clearly and accurately as possible 3. A friend from another town wants to know the curricular system at your university. Explain the system to him.

TO THE TEACHER: As the students do their presentations, take notes on the strategies they use to communicate with others. Discuss your observations with the students. Is it possible to establish a relation with their preferred learning styles identified in part I? FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: From a textbook, select an activity or task that you specially like, to develop it with your fellow students in the next session.

TASK 12 AIM: To promote strategies to improve speaking and listening TO THE STUDENT: Read the following list of strategies carefully. What strategies are normally used in conversation?

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The student asks the teacher: a) To repeat a word he does not understand b) To repeat a sentence c) To explain a word, sentence or phrase d) If what he has said is correct e) If the other person has understood him f) To repeat, using other words g) To speak more slowly h) To spell words to make the meaning clear i) To use examples to explain meaning j) Other

Now, listen to the conversation between the teacher and one of your fellow students. Tick the strategies the student uses to better participate in the conversation. TO THE TEACHER: If possible, invite a native speaker of English to the class. Have him initiate a conversation with one of the students, in English. Ask the other students to take note of the strategies used by the student when he does not understand. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Prepare a role play with another student. One of you does not understand what the other is saying and has to use different expressions to be able to get at the meaning.

TASK 13 AIM: To help the learner clarify potential misunderstandings TO THE STUDENT: Study the following expressions carefully: -Pardon? -Could you say that again? -What did you say? -What do you mean? -I didn't get that -I'm lost -You lost me there -I'm sorry, I didn't follow you -What's that again? Work in pairs. Select one topic of conversation and develop it into a speaking-listening activity. Every time you don't understand, ask for clarification until you get the information you want.

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TO THE TEACHER: Divide the class in pairs. Distribute one of the following tasks to each one of the groups. a) Students A and B look at a collection of photos on the same topic (young men and women; variety of streets and houses, etc.). Student A selects one of the photos without telling student B which one it is. Student A describes aspects of the photo. Student B asks for clarification as many times as necessary until he is able to identify the photo being described. b) Students A and B have identical maps A selects a town or another place in the map and gives clues to B. Student B asks for clarification as many times as necessary until he is able to identify the place in the map. c) A has a drawing that B cannot see. A gives clear instructions to B who must reconstruct the picture by drawing it as close to the original as possible. B can ask for clarification as many times as necessary.

FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Think of a similar game or situation you want to play with a fellow student in the next class. Make it difficult and challenging.

TASK 14 AIM: To encourage students to use English outside the classroom TO THE STUDENT: Discuss with your teacher the possibilities of using resources to practise your English outside the classroom. Look at the following list of possibilities and decide on what resources you would like to use: -radio -newspapers -cassette recorder -videos -grammar books -books in interest areas -other games played in English

-magazines -TV programmes -songs -dictionaries -textbooks -language games -Other

Fill in the following contract for the next two weeks: CONTRACT Name of the student

Class

Name of the teacher I will use English Times I will use English to

Days

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If I cannot keep this contract, I will negotiate with my teacher Signed (student) Signed (teacher) Date

TO THE TEACHER: Advice the students on the resources they can use. Take them on a visit to the library/resource centre/video library, etc. Have them sign the contract and sign it yourself FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: In two weeks’ time, you will have to report on the activities carried out outside the classroom. Write a report on them, noting down the difficulties met in the process.

TASK 15 AIM: to encourage students to monitor their own learning process TO THE STUDENT: Work in pairs. Select a topic of conversation. -Start the conversation and record it in an audio recorder -Listen to the conversation again. -Take notes of your own production and try to identify your mistakes in grammar, vocabulary, etc. -Listen to the conversation again. Take notes of your partner's production. Identify his mistakes. -Discuss with your partners the errors you both make. Try and explain the causes.

TO THE TEACHER: Self-evaluation should not be a threatening experience. Be supportive of the effort made by the students to identify their errors. Discuss with them the usefulness of being able to learn from their own errors. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Start keeping a record of your progress by filling in an evaluation form every week. Compare your performance from one week to the other. Note down your progress: EVALUATION SURVEY Name How do you feel about

Week Very good Quite good Not very good Terrible

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1. 2. 3. 4.......... How do you feel about your progress this week List the five activities you found most helpful this week 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. (Source: J. Clemens and J. Crawford, as quoted in Willing 1989)

TASK 16 AIM: to encourage students to monitor their own language development TO THE STUDENT: Design a format for your learning diary. You can include in it the items suggested below or others you consider important. MY LEARNING DIARY Today I learned Today I practised Today I used English in these places Today I spoke English with the following people: Today I read/I wrote One thing I did very well today One mistake I made today My difficulties I would like to improve My learning and practising plans for tomorrow

Date

At the end of each lesson, or at the end of the week, make an entry in your diary of some of the things you did well or those you want to improve (Your diary is private and you don't have to show it to anyone if you don't want to) TO THE TEACHER: Discuss with the students the importance of keeping diaries as a valuable tool for self-monitoring and self-evaluation. Encourage the students to prepare their own format for their diaries. Allow some time at the end of the class or at the end of the week so that they can write their entries. Encourage them to share some of the things they write with other fellow students

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FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Discuss with a friend the best ways to correct some of your mistakes. If you have the same problems, design an action plan to improve the area of language which is causing you difficulties. Write the plan down. Put it up on the bulletin board so that other people can benefit from it. You do not have to sign your names. 5.2.2. Managing the information The strategies proposed here are adapted from Willing (1989: 83). They can all be classified as 'cognitive' strategies, used to control and manage information. For a more complete classification of cognitive strategies, see Oxford (1990:17). Although many other strategies are normally introduced in the language classroom, these have been selected as being particularly useful in facilitation learning and therefore, as a means to assimilate information for future use. 5.2.2.1. Strategy 1. Selectively attending It consists of the act of focusing on those components of any object or concept which are positively needed for assimilation and the implicit elimination of the potential components which are not needed or not relevant for the purpose of the task at hand.

TASK 17 AIM: to develop the learner's ability to listen for certain features TO THE STUDENT: Listen to one of the tapes and follow your teacher’s instructions carefully. Take note of the things you hear. Compare notes with another student. TO THE TEACHER: Prepare several recordings with a collection of sounds. Play them to the class and ask them to identify sounds separately. Examples: -Traffic noise: buses, motorbikes, cars. -Two simultaneous conversations at a party and some background noise: music, plates breaking, glasses being filled... -Two different conversations recorded separately. Play them simultaneously. Students have to pick up words in one or the other or both.

FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: While you are watching an action movie or a video on your TV, close your eyes completely and try to identify as many background sounds as possible. Do the activity for at least ten minutes. Tell somebody to note down the things you hear and later check to see how accurate you were.

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TASK 18 AIM: to develop the learner's ability to attend selectively to language input TO THE STUDENT: Listen to a tape recording of a weather forecast. Note down the number of times you hear the following words: WORDS weather fine warm chilly sunny showers cloudy hot temperature

NUMBER OF TIMES

TO THE TEACHER: Prepare radio or TV recordings with accompanying worksheets. The students will listen to find answers to the questions in the worksheets. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Prepare a recording with a fellow student. Try to find a difficult text from the radio or TV or have a friend record a text for you. Prepare a worksheet with relevant questions about the text. Have a competition in class. Students listen to the recording. Those that get the largest number of words right win the prize!

TASK 19 AIM: to develop learners' ability to get the general idea in a text by selecting key words TO THE STUDENT: Select a copy of a text taken from a newspaper or a magazine. You should look at a variety of sections: world news, cover story, people, letters, etc. Read the headline. Pick out the words you know. Read the first paragraph. Pick out any words you know. Can you guess what the story is about? Write a brief composition including the words you have selected from the text.

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TO THE TEACHER: Bring to the class a large collection of different types of texts taken from current newspapers and magazines. Have the students read the texts selectively, trying to identify as many familiar words as possible. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Prepare a handout for the next class. Paste on it fragments of texts selected from a magazine. Paste the titles of the texts separately in a scrambled order. Have other students try to match the titles to the texts. 5.2.2.2. Strategy 2. Associating The main function of this strategy is to ensure effective storage and retrievability by taking in new information and merging it with previous structures of meaning. New complexes of meaning are assimilated to existing meaningful wholes. The strategy manifests itself, for example, in the use of mnemonic techniques to remember through association with meaningful chunks previously stored in the mind; in language practice in meaningful contexts; in building up semantic networks for specific topics. Associations are on the whole culture-bound, but take specific personal forms depending on experiential knowledge, educational background, affective factors, etc...

TASK 20 AIM: to enable learners to focus on systems for learning vocabulary TO THE STUDENT: The teacher will show you a collection of twenty objects explaining their use to you. Practise the names of the words while miming their use. Revise the words at home trying to associate the names with their use. TO THE TEACHER: Bring twenty objects to the class (kitchen utensils, office supplies, etc.) Teach the students their names and explain their use. Have the students learn and repeat the names while miming their use. -Ask the students to revise the names at home -In the next class, ask the students to recall as many of the words as they can and write them down. -Bring the objects out again. Ask the students to categorise them according to the different kinds of associations they make for them. -Ask the students to make lists grouping the words as they consider most appropriate. -Discuss their choices.

FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Prepare a collection of ten pictures from magazines. Make sure you know the names of the objects in the pictures. Bring them to the class. Work in pairs. Ask 131

your partner to arrange the pictures in sets. Teach him the names of each object. Discuss the associations employed to classify the pictures.

TASK 21 AIM: to group words into semantic networks TO THE STUDENT: Work in groups of four. Decide on a topic you want to explore. Write the name of the topic in the centre of a piece of paper. Each member of the group provides words that can be related to that topic. Write the words in a web around the topic. Get as many related words as possible. Ask the teacher for help if you do not know the words in English. Each member of the group organises all the words into subsets according to possible associations that come to his mind. Compare the sets and discuss the reasons for grouping the words in that particular way. TO THE TEACHER: Explain to the students the idea of a semantic network. Draw one example on the board. In groups of four, ask the students to brainstorm on a topic and produce as many related words as possible. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Write a brief composition on the topic you have explored in the group, using the associations you made. Read your composition to your fellow students in your next class.

TASK 22 AIM: to design mnemonic devices to remember vocabulary TO THE STUDENT: Think of you own way of remembering words by associating them with mental images. Example: Think of ten places you are familiar with and that you can always remember in the same order. These places will be used every time you have to make word associations. TO THE TEACHER: Read ten words to the students. Ask them to try and remember them in association with familiar places. Check to see how many words they have remembered.

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FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Design your own mnemonic device. If necessary, go to the library and read about effective ways of memorising. In the next class, share your system with the class and show them how effective it is. 5.2.2.3. Strategy 3. Categorising. This strategy involves the capacity to analyse, to identify individual features of objects or concepts and to use these features to classify them into groups with other objects or concepts that share the same features. Full analysis of any object of perception or knowledge consists of separately identifying, then cataloguing the component parts or aspects of the object, including the relationships between the parts (adapted from Willing, 1989: 103)

TASK 23 AIM: to help the learner develop skills in categorising TO THE STUDENT: In a brainstorming exercise, think of as many items as possible that you can buy at the supermarket. One of the students writers all these words on the blackboard. This will be the shopping list for the class. Copy the list from the board. -In pairs, discuss how items in the list can be organised in groups or categories. -Go to the supermarket. Compare the way in which you have organised the items on the list with the way in which they are actually organised on the shelves.

TO THE TEACHER: Encourage a discussion on classification systems and their usefulness in all areas of academic concern. Look at ways of isolating features for classifying objects in different ways: colour, shape, use, etc. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Make a survey among a large number of students in your programme. Ask them questions about their place of birth, place of residence, colour of hair, eyes, etc. Once you have collected the data, classify and analyse it. Enter the results in a chart and discuss the percentages in each category with the rest of the class.

TASK 24 AIM: to help the learner develop skills in recognising categories

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TO THE STUDENT: Get the classified advertisements section in the newspaper (This can be done in Spanish). Cut up as many ads as possible from different sections. Put them in a bag and scramble them. -Bring the ads to the class. Mix in a single bag all the ads brought by all the students. Mix them well. -Work in pairs. Take a random collection of ads from the bag. Discuss the possibility of putting them into different categories: houses for sale, jobs wanted, etc.

TO THE TEACHER: Before doing this exercise, discuss with the students the most common categories found in the classified ads section of newspapers. Take advantage of this exercise for practising reading abbreviations in classified ads. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Identify other systems of classification in your immediate environment: library, programmes on TV, etc... Be prepared to explain the system to your fellow students in the next class.

TASK 25 AIM: to help the learner develop skills in categorising different types of information TO THE STUDENT: Examine the following sentences or paragraphs, taken from a booklet on eye care, and try to categorise them under one of the following labels: Symptoms Treatment Do Don't

Questions Answers General Information

1) 30 million people in the UK regularly suffer from minor eye problems ________ 2) Why do my eyes sometimes feel tired and sore? _________ 3) Apply eye lotion or use special lubricating eye drops ________ 4) Everyday our eyes are assaulted by a whole range of irritants such as air pollution, pollen, wearing contact lenses, dusty or smoky atmospheres _________ 5) Do computers harm my eyes?__________ 6) Wash your hands before touching your eyes _________ 7) Eyes can become tired and sore due to the drying effects of central heating, air conditioning, the wind and the sun ___________ 8) Sleep in your contact lenses-your eyes will feel dry and sore afterwards ________ 9) Read the label of eye care products ____________ 10) Using a computer does not damage your eyes but long hours spent at the screen can leave eyes tired and sore dry eyes _____________ 11) Miss out on sleep. A good night rest is the best remedy for sore, tired eyes ________

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TO THE TEACHER: Help the students explain what language aspects helped them determine the way they categorised the items. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Prepare a similar exercise to share with the class in the next lesson. 5.2.2.4. Strategy 4. Pattern learning This strategy is extremely important in language learning, for it allows the learner to observe samples of language, work out the rule and generalise it by applying it to new instances of language. This mental operation is essential for language acquisition of both L1 and L2 in natural contexts. By teaching the learner to use it consciously, his ability to construct the internal grammatical system of the language will be enhanced.

TASK 26 AIM: to help the student identify grammatical patterns (adapted from Willing, 1989: 116) TO THE STUDENT: Look at the following sentences in Japanese. Identify as many grammatical patterns as you can. Discuss your findings with the class. TO THE TEACHER: Ask the students to formulate rules from the examples observed. If possible, confront these rules with those formulated in a Japanese grammar book. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Try and get samples of sentences in another language. Prepare a set of sentences that have something in common and something different. Ask a native speaker of another language to translate them into his language. Compare the sentences and work out the rules.

TASK 27 AIM: to help the student discover spelling rules TO THE STUDENT: Look at the following list of verbs. Compare both columns. Formulate rules to explain the differences. 135

walk run want study control reply rub mend play help shop cry grip apply

walked running wanted studied controlled replied rubbed mended played helped shopping cried gripped applied

TO THE TEACHER: Have the students expand the list, looking for more words that respond to the same rules FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Find a reference book where grammar or spelling rules are explained. Select one of the rules and find as many examples as you can. Try and find some exceptions to the rule. Bring your findings to class and discuss with your fellow students.

TASK 28 AIM: to help students perceive patterns in discourse (adapted from J. Morgan and M. Rinvolucri, 1984: 59) TO THE STUDENT: Work in pairs. Read the following scrambled sentences. Reconstruct the story by arranging the sentences in the appropriate order. Compare results with other students. Discuss the criteria you used. 1) The man returns, sees blood everywhere, cannot find the child 2) The dog guarded the house when the man was away 3) A pack of wolves attacks the house 4) A man had a favourite dog, Gelert 5) One day the man goes hunting and leaves the dog on guard 6) He thinks Gelert has killed his son and he kills Gelert 7) The dog defends the child, kills one wolf 8) Too late, he finds his son patting the dead body of the wolf 9) The dog was devoted to the man and his infant son

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TO THE TEACHER: Sequencing is a most useful activity for understanding different organisational patterns. It is hoped that the task initiated here will be integrated into many other activities in the classroom. Discovering pattern typologies is an essential part of most language courses. Care should be taken to expand this initial activity into working texts characteristic not only of narrative structure but also of description and exposition (process/result, structure/function, etc.) FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Find a story you want to share with your friends. Scramble the sentences and bring it to the class. Have your fellow students reconstruct it and discuss the results. 5.2.2.5. Strategy 5. Inferencing This strategy consists of discovering hidden meaning by drawing upon what is already known. Guessing, predicting and hypothesis-testing are manifestations of this strategy. When practised actively in language learning, it creates the possibility of using already internalised rules, meanings and patterns of the language, plus the general, non-linguistic knowledge relevant to the situation to reveal a new meaning, form or structural pattern. Inferencing constitutes a powerful tool for learning to learn, by going beyond the immediate input and drawing from internal resources to create meaning.

TASK 29 AIM: to help the learner focus on non-verbal clues to determine meaning TO THE STUDENT: Watch the video presented by the teacher. Turn the volume down. Try and follow the emotions of the characters by looking at the expression of their faces, their gestures, etc. Watch the video again with the sound on. Compare results. Did you guess right? What gestures helped you infer what was going on? TO THE TEACHER: Provide the students with a video of a soap opera or a movie (It can be in Spanish) Play it twice, as indicated above. Discuss the results with the students. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Prepare a role-play with a fellow student. Select a topic (a minor car accident, for example) and mime it out in front of the class. Try and exaggerate the gestures to express your feelings: anger, aggressiveness, conciliation, pain, etc. The rest of the class must guess what the situation is and the kinds of feelings expressed. 137

TASK 30 AIM: to encourage students to predict from the linguistic context. TO THE STUDENT: Try to reconstruct the damaged text provided by the teacher. Use as many clues as you can: grammatical, lexical, previous knowledge of the world. Discuss your reconstruction with the class TO THE TEACHER: Select a text. Delete large chunks from it by drawing thick black lines across it in different directions. Leave the title intact. Have the students reconstruct the text. Discuss the different versions they come up with and compare them finally with the original version. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Select a text and organise a 'cloze' activity. Ask your teacher to explain how the cloze procedure works. Make your activity as challenging as possible and have other students solve it in the next class.

TASK 31 AIM: to help learners use their previous knowledge of the world to predict language appropriate to a given context TO THE STUDENT: This type of task is very useful for activating your previous knowledge before you approach a new reading text. You will have to use this strategy very often as a pre-reading activity. Make sure that you think of as many words or concepts as possible before you start reading the actual text provided by the teacher. TO THE TEACHER: Ask the students to work in pairs. Give them the topic of a text you are going to show them later. (An advertisement for a new soda drink, for example). Ask the students to predict the vocabulary that is going to appear in the ad. They can use dictionaries if they need to. -Have the groups discuss the lists with one another. -Hand out the text and have them compare it with the list they proposed.

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FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Select a short text. Identify ten key words that reflect adequately the content of the text. Bring it to the class. Write ten words on the blackboard. Have the rest of the class predict what the text is about and give it a title. Compare results by reading out the original text. 5.2.3. Managing the resources In this section, we include some practical activities that will encourage the learner to be more effective in the use of bibliographical and technological resources. Some of the recommendations that are put forward will be reinforced in the next chapter, which deals with the use of technologies for self-access. We have selected a few aspects normally included under the labels of study skills that contribute to a higher level of student autonomy by making him a more efficient user of the resources available.

TASK 32 AIM: to make students aware of available resources TO THE STUDENT: Make a list of all the resources (people, physical facilities, services) available to you in your university or school. Identify what kind of help you can expect from each one of them and how they are related in terms of your learning goals. TO THE TEACHER: Make sure that students include in their list as many resources as are available. Add some of your own. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: In groups of four, go to the places you have identified as supporting your learning process (resource centre, library, laboratories, reading rooms, etc.) and find out what kinds of facilities they offer.

TASK 33 AIM: to have students suggest more effective ways of using resources TO THE STUDENT: In groups of four, draw a list of suggestions to improve the place you visited for task 32. Be as explicit and constructive as possible in your recommendations. You could start by thinking in terms of your needs as a learner and of the difficulties you have found in using the 139

facilities. Consult other students. Make concrete suggestions for improving the use of the resources. Discuss your proposals with the rest of the class. TO THE TEACHER: This is a good opportunity to integrate the students into some of the decision-making aspects of learning. Discuss their recommendations and try to take action to have at least some of them accepted by the persons in charge of the resource facilities. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Carry out a survey among other students in your programme. Try to determine what their collective needs are in terms of resources. In the class, discuss some of the ways in which your recommendations could be implemented.

TASK 34 AIM: to have students further explore the library resources (adapted from J. Deem, 1993) TO THE STUDENT: Go to the library and find out how some of the library services work: -Where is the reserve area located? -Where is the periodical collection located? -What are the special collections held in the library and where can they be found? -Are there card catalogues? On-line? Other? -Do you know how to operate them? -Does the library have an open system, with free access to the book stacks? -What are the rules for requesting interlibrary loans? -How can you have access to databases, e-mail, Internet, CALL, etc.? -Where are photocopying machines located? -How long can you keep a book? -Are there quiet individual or group study rooms in the library? -What are the opening hours?

TO THE TEACHER: Encourage the students to make frequent visits to the library. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Go to the periodicals section of the library. Find out what kind of publications they have. Consult the catalogue and identify a journal related to your area of interest. Check out a recent issue to read about the state of the art in the area selected.

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TASK 35 AIM: to encourage the learners to familiarise themselves with textbooks TO THE STUDENT: In order to develop effective ways of studying, it is convenient to do a good preview of the books you need to read. This can be done in three steps: scanning the table of contents, reading the introduction and doing a general overview of the book. Go to the library and select a textbook in your area of interest. Answer the following questions about the book: -List the main objective the author had in writing the book -Explain the organisation of the book in terms of content -List any special features of the book -Decide on a reason why you would or would not like to read it.

TO THE TEACHER: Bring an assorted collection of books to the class. Have the students preview them by observing their general features. Send them to the library to select a book of their own and find answers to the general questions proposed. FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION: Select a book in English that you would like to read. Preview it and make an attractive presentation in front of the class, to convince other students to read it too. 5.3. The way forward This proposal was set to introduce most of the strategies that are fundamental for learners' autonomy. It does not claim to be exhaustive and most of the tasks proposed should serve as an initial introduction to the strategy, to be expanded and reinforced through everyday language activities in the classroom. Only by exposing the learner to a variety of strategies and encouraging him to expand their use to new situations, will he become truly independent and self-directed. The proposal implies a positive attitude on the part of the teacher too, and a capability to assume the new responsibilities that are involved. An important part of professional development would be to include in INSET courses elements of learning how to learn. These could take a similar shape to the ones designed here, with more emphasis on the tasks related to those aspects that allow the teacher to reflect on her own process both from the perspective of being a learner and being a teacher. In this way learning to teach and teaching to learn would come together in the best of ways. 141

5.4. Autonomy and self-access We cannot expect learners to become autonomous overnight. Years of previous training and development of dependent attitudes towards learning may make it difficult for a learner to change his ways. What we, as educators, can do, is provide students with as many opportunities as possible for exercising their autonomy by creating their own pathways towards learning. The proposal presented in this chapter is just one way by which teachers and learners can start changing their views on the process. Another complementary way is to provide the learner with opportunities to utilise self-access facilities whenever existent. Self-access can take many different forms. Libraries and other resource centres provide different possibilities by holding different types of materials that students can use on their own. This process, in turn, requires some form of training to allow the user to benefit from the resources in the best possible way and to reinforce his independent strategies with full responsibility. In chapters 6 and 7, we will examine some of the ways that learners may become more independent through the use of educational technologies, such as CALL and video. In chapter 8, we will explore possibilities of training for teachers and learners within the context of language resource centres. BIBLIOGRAPHY Altman,H. and James, C. (eds.) (1980). Foreign language teaching. Meeting individual needs, Oxford: Pergamon Press. Aston, G. (1993). The learner's contribution to the self-access centre. ELTJ 47/3:219-227. Barnett, L. and Jordan, G. (1991). Self-access facilities, what are they for?, ELTJ 45/4 Baume, D. (1994). Developing learner autonomy. Birmingham: SEDA Paper 84 Brookes, A. and Grundy, P.(eds.)(1988) Individualization and Autonomy in Language Learning, ELT Documents 13l, Modern English Publicartions and the British Council Bruner, J. (1983). Child's talk, New York: W.W. Norton and Co. Carvalho, D. (1993). Self-access, Appropriate material. The British Council Chamot, A. and O'Malley, M. (1987). The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach, TESOL Quarterly 21, Vol. 2 Deller, Sh. (1990). Lessons from the learner. Pilgrim Longman Resource Books. Harlow: Longman. Dickinson, L. (1987). Self-instruction in language learning, New Directions in Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP Dickinson, L. (1988). Learner Training, in Brookes and Grundy, (eds.) (1988) Dickinson, L. and Carver, D. (1980). Learning how to learn: steps towards self-direction in foreign language learning in schools, ELTJ/1 Ellington, H. and Race, P. (1993) Producing teaching materials, A handbook for Teachers and Trainers. London: Kogan Page. Ellis, G. and Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to learn English-a course in learner training, Cambridge: CUP. Esch, E. (1994). Self-Access and the Adult Language Learner. London: CiLT 142

Fisher, R. (1990). Teaching children to think. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Gathercole, I. (ed.) (1990). Autonomy in Language Learning. London: CiLT Geddes, M. and Sturtridge, G. (eds.) (1982). Individualisation. Oxford Modern English Publications. Gibbs, B. (1981). Teaching students to learn-a student centred approach, Oxford: OUP. Hammond, M. and Collins, R. (1991). Self-directed learning, Critical Practice. London: Kogan Page Harding Esch, E. (1982). The open access sound and video library of the University of Cambridge, System: 13:28 Hodgson, B. (1993). Key Terms and Issues in Open and Distance Learning. London: Kogan Page. Holec, H. (1979). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press Kessler, C. (ed.), (1992). Cooperative Language Learning, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Regents. Lewis, R. (1990). How to write flexible learning materials, a brief practical guide. Coventry: National Council for Educational Technology. Little,D. (ed.) (1989). Self-access systems in Language Learning. Dublin: Authentik and CiLT McCall, J. (1992). Self-access. Setting up a centre, The British Council Miller, L. and Rogerson-Revell, P. (1993) Self-access systems, ELTJ 47/3:228-233 Moore, C. (1992). Self-access, Appropriate technology. The British Council Morgan, J. and Rinvolucri, M. (1984). Once upon a time, Using stories in the language classroom. Cambridge:CUP Naiman, N. et al., (1978). The good language learner. Research in Education Series n. 7, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Nunan, D. (1989). Understanding Language Classrooms: a guide for teacher-initiated action. London: Prentice-Hall International. Nunan, D. (1991),. Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge:CUP Nunan, D. (ed.) (1992). Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching, Cambridge Language Teaching Library. Cambridge: CUP O'Dell, F. (1992). Helping teachers to use a self-access centre to its full potential, ELTJ/46 Oller, J., John W. and J.C. Richards (eds) (1973). Focus on the learner, Pragmatic perspectives for the language teacher, Rowley: Newbury House Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies, What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. Race, Ph. (1993). Never mind the Teaching, Feel the Learning. Birmingham: SEDA Paper 80 Rogers, C. (1994). Freedom to learn. New York: Merrill Rowntree, D. (1990). Teaching through self-instruction. London: Kogan Page. Rowntree, D. (1994). Preparing materials for Open, Distance and Flexible Learning. An action guide for teachers and trainers. London: Kogan Page and Institute of Education and Technology, The Open University. Sheerin, S. (1989). Self-access, Oxford: OUP Shore, C. M. (1995). Individual Differences in Language Development. London: Sage Publications. Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning, Edward Arnold. Skehan, P. and Wallace, C. (eds.) (1992) Thames Valley University Working Papers in ELT Smith, R. (1983). Learning how to learn, Applied Theory for Adults. Milton Keynes: The Open University. 143

Smyth, E. (ed.) Individualization in Language Learning, ELT Docs 103. London: The British Council ETIC Strevens, P. (1980). "The Paradox of individualised instruction: it takes a better teacher to focus on the learner", in Altman et al., Foreign Language teaching, meeting individual needs, Oxford: Pergamon Press. Sturtridge, G. (1992). Self-access, Preparation and Training. Manchester: The British Council Tudor, I. (1993). Teacher roles in the learner-centred classroom. ELTJ 47/1:22-31 Wenden, A. (1991).Learner strategies for learner autonomy. N. York: Prentice Hall International Wenden, A. and Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies in Language Learning, London: Prentice Hall International. Wertsch, J. (ed.) (1988) Culture, Communication and Cognition, Vygotskian Perspectives, CUP Willing, K. (1989). Teaching how to learn, learning strategies in ESL. Activity Worksheets. Sidney, NCLTR, Macquaire University. Willing, K. (1989). Teaching how to learn,. learning strategies in ESL. A teacher's guide. Sidney: NCLTR, Macquaire University. Wright, T. (1987). Roles of Teachers and Learners, Oxford: OUP Yoke, L and Brown, R. (1994). Guidelines for the production of in-house self-access materials, ELTJ 48/2: 150-156.

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CHAPTER VI: THE ROLES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) IN PROMOTING AUTONOMY ...the goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning... learning to learn is more important than being 'taught' something… (Brown, Principles of Language Teaching and Learning, 1980: 77)

INTRODUCTION In this part of the document we will deal with the introduction of Educational Technology and particularly, Information Technology (IT), in the form of computers for language learning. We will address a very important aspect of how CALL can be viewed within a pedagogical model, in order to see some of the properties of its use. We will deal very briefly with the development of CALL and its different implications in language learning. We will see how CALL can contribute to support language learning and develop autonomous learning by providing the learners with new modes of learning, their attitudes, roles, and involvement. Finally, we would like to propose an outline of a possible way towards the implementation of CALL within the licenciatura B.A. language programmes in Colombia A. Overview The expansion of Educational Technology during the 70's, 80's and mid 90's has been very significant in education, yet there have been no challenges posed to it from fields like cognitive science and Information Technology. It is said (as mentioned in Hawkridge, 1990) that there is a trend to adopt new theories of learning like Piaget's constructivism and Vygotsky PZD (Proximal Zone Development) since Skinner's behaviourism cannot account for the complexity of human cognition even though it has largely influenced Education Technology up to these days. Piaget's and Vygotsky's approaches may provide new grounding for Education Technology, since they seem to be linked to the latter. Educational technologists question the persistence of educational technology with the behaviourist model, especially if the answer to whether the study of human behaviour providing sufficient basis for understanding learning is in the affirmative. There is not much to discuss about the changes produced by Information Technology, especially with the introduction and use of affordable microcomputers in education thus with the information revolution and the arrival of Information Technology, mainly in the form of computers, there is another challenge posed for Educational Technology. This challenge could be expressed in terms of how and to what extent Educational Technology will accommodate to make Information Technology an exploitable source in education. Up to the mid 90's we can say that IT has been contributing to some extent to solve problems in education, especially as an aide to teaching and learning. However, we must be critical about what could actually be happening with IT as part of Educational Technology, and verify whether it is actually improving education in general or not, whether it is helping us to convey our purposes as educators or not. 145

Taking the first challenge for IT into consideration then we have to enquire into the possibilities of the whole educational technology for promoting autonomous learning and learner independence through self-access work. Autonomous Learning then is regarded as an attractive idea for teachers since in education the fundamental goal for teachers would be to help learners to achieve learner independence. This does not mean that the teacher has to be free of responsibility and the change to autonomous learning can favour an instant shift being produced by the use of educational technology. It seems that training and reorienting the role of the teacher is a key factor to achieve changes from teacher dependence of class teaching to a context in which the learner would be independent enough to continue learning by himself and being responsible for his own learning. Consequently, it would be interesting to see how Educational Technology with its resources could play an important role in helping provide the context for changes in language teaching and learning to happen. Also, Information technology with the use of computers could also contribute to the aim of achieving progressively more autonomy in language learning. Thus, a self-access system in which the learner can find the resources to start using a self-directing approach to language learning would be an appropriate and reasonable means to progressively achieve autonomy in language learning. Two important parts of today’s introduction of technology in education are the Information revolution and the Information Technology. B. The information revolution There are some changes caused by the technology on the way information is handled in a variety of human activities, especially in education. In the first place, the information revolution has meant that the information must be available and accessible to everybody. Therefore, if we have information we have the starting point to the solution of problems, the completion of tasks, or the making of decisions. The new technological developments provide the means for storing it so that it can be easily and quickly accessed. For this reason, this age of information is sometimes described as a post-industrial economy, where information takes the place of other forms of wealth such as capital. In the second place, we find that a great deal of educational processes involve information and such mental processes as ordering, presenting, processing, interpreting and looking for value in it. This is why the new forms of availability and accessibility through technological developments with computers have profound implications for these aspects of education, implications which are as yet unclear and about which there is bound to be controversy. We are not yet certain about important changes arising out of the new technology. They may result in new approaches to information, or perhaps, as many educators expect from direct changes in pedagogy using computer assisted learning systems. C. The role of Information Technology in Education It is very common for many people to experience a great deal of excitement generated by rapid new technological developments, and the ongoing need to think about how to fit this into 146

existing systems. For the most part this has resulted in a situation where almost all the energy is concentrated on the actual technology itself and not on the implications of its use. The resulting danger is that it is easy to be misled by the whole business and to become uncritically enthusiastic about future possibilities. It is important then to concentrate on the real purpose of using new technology so that quite considerable investment of time, energy, enthusiasm and resources is worth trying it. The overall effect which information technology is having on society at large cannot be denied and so schools, and especially universities, whether they wish to or not, will have to become involved. Today, only a comparatively small proportion of teachers and schools are using the technology in any very complex or extended way. However, it is still very early to show significant or dramatic changes since the current situation cannot be taken as anything other than an initial stage. Also, it is too early for any sort of acceptable empirical evidence. However, the impact on individual schools and individual practitioners, where the innovation has been made available, is said to be significant. 6.1. The context of computer-assisted language learning 6.1.1. Brief History of Computers in Education The introduction of computers in education started during the early sixties as Computer-Based Learning (CBL), a fast growing method of instruction which is about using a computer to learn about something, which may previously have been taught by more traditional methods. This included books, tapes, slides and of course human teachers. CBL's initial concept was to use computers as some sort of teaching aide. For many educationalists, CBL began at a most unfortunate time in the history of computing. It started when computers were all of the type that filled very large rooms and had extremely specialised experts to whom most people asked for assistance, educators and teachers included. The introduction of CBL in education has been slow and inconsistent because it was originally developed as a method of programmed instruction (PI) and programmed learning (PL) related to the work done by behavioural psychologists such as Skinner, Crowder and Pressey. Skinner’s method was essentially a linear series of small learning steps, whereas Crowder advocated a branching approach involving a multi-choice question format. Each methodology was encapsulated into self-instructional 'Programmed Learning' text books where the reader was directed to different sections depending on the answer given to a question. Later it was realised that the computer offered a more flexible presentation capacity which combined with the American love of technology led many 1960's educators to produce CBL in the form of thousands of pages of text with questions of the form 'which is correct: 1, 2, or 3?' This type of CBL was called Computer-Assisted Instruction. Thankfully, this method was a failure and the teachers who thought that the computer might do them out of their jobs could breathe again. 147

6.1.2. Computer-Assisted language learning Computer-Assisted Language Learning is usually represented by CALL; however, people may use other equivalents as we saw in its beginnings: CBL (Computer-Based Learning), CAI (ComputerAssisted Instruction), CBI (Computer-Based Instruction) and CAL (Computer-Assisted Learning). CALL, in very general terms may be understood as a concept of using computers for language learning purposes. We can say that CALL started as a part of the PLATO educational project in the USA, at the University of Illinois, one of the best known and most ambitious educational projects which started in the 60's using very expensive mainframe computers. In England CALL projects initiated during the 70's, one of which started at University of Hull. During the 70's with the arrival of affordable microcomputers there were many successful attempts to introduce CALL in private and public educational institutions even though the hardware development was far ahead of the amount and quality of the software available. The microcomputer boom in the 70's and 80's led to many institutions to buy microcomputers without giving serious planning to what they wanted to do with these machines. This uncontrolled enthusiasm was the rule in most developed countries regarding the use of this new gadget. Fortunately, the euphoria of the introduction of computers in education seems to have diminished significantly in these days. In the end, there is a lesson to be learnt from this period in other countries about the introduction of computers in education and in language learning and it is mainly the fact that the introduction of technology has to be taken more pragmatically. 6.2. A methodological framework for CALL 6.2.1. Introduction. CALL has undergone quite different stages since the introduction of computers in language teaching and progressively into language learning. Since its beginnings CALL has struggled to accommodate to the contextual situation, that is, to progressively match its technology with current methodology practices. In its beginnings CALL was relegated to mechanical and routine aspects of language teaching. Drill and practice was usual during the seventies and eighties. However, a more communicative approach to CALL was indeed sought. Today CALL is involved in a more communicative activities and the interaction user-computer, user-user is said to be far more advantageous in terms of production and more cognitively demanding. However CALL has reached a stage in which people are trying to find a pedagogically sound scheme to account for the different processes which can be achieved or set up by a computer, computer-based materials and consequently by different learning scenarios. In other words, we need to start establishing a supportive pedagogy which does not necessarily relate to current methodological theory. Often times CALL activities, software, the machine itself, not to mention the interaction achieved within a CALL environment have been questioned in terms of its pedagogical value. Nonetheless there have been a lot of efforts in introducing, 148

mastering, and filtering the new technology in educational contexts with promising results and this is sometimes disregarded by most critics, or technophobic educationalists. As Phillips (1985), and Weible (1987), (mentioned in Hubbard, 1992) put it, CALL and its technology has been striving and searching for an appropriate and effective methodology. Through its different stages, CALL has been establishing as a stand-alone discipline, and abundant literature supports the need for appropriacy of a methodological framework for CALL. Consequently, several efforts have been made in order to achieve this goal. Higgins (1983, 1988), Underwood (1988), Phillips (1985), and Wyatt (1987), to mention just a few, and lately Hubbard, 1992) have come up with some ideas of how a methodological framework for CALL can be established in the domain of courseware and materials development. Certainly, using the experience of the people engaged in the development of CALL, its effectiveness, advantages, disadvantages, limitations, capabilities through the approximately two decades of its permanence in language teaching and language learning, it is possible to suggest a general view of CALL into a more identifiable type of 'method' in language teaching and learning. This way we will be looking forward to making CALL not only revolutionary but also evolutionary. We will be looking for a place among current language methodology as well as general learning theories, as perhaps Hubbard (1992), puts it in one of his principles for determining a methodological framework: The framework should be based to the degree possible on existing frameworks or views of methodology for language teaching and learning in general. This makes it easier to interpret and aids in integrating CALL into rather than isolating it from, the language teaching profession at large. (Hubbard, 1992: 42)

Hubbard considers, for example, in one of his principles that a CALL framework has to relate to existing frameworks with a general coverage of language teaching and learning. This model taken from Richards & Rodgers (1982) in which there are three levels of organization: Approach, Design and Procedure will be used for relating CALL to existing methodologies, without implying that CALL is a true method, but for the sake of understanding some of the aspects of CALL that make it similar or different to other methods. 6.2.2. Approach 6.2.2.1. Theories of language learning This part deals primarily with the theories of learning in general related to educational software and the use of computers in language learning in a more specific domain. We will take a look at three of the most important with which most of second and foreign language teaching and learning had to deal with.

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The first theory unknowingly applied Skinner's behaviouristic theory to account for measurable behaviour and positive and systematic reinforcement. Behaviourism does not account for language production which is quite different from discrete fixed responses. However, Skinner’s theory is not completely rejected since there are some forms of learning which may be originated from the type of stimulus-response schema (low level specific fact and motor skills), the type of drill-and-practice computer programs exhibited in the beginnings of CALL usually reflecting what at that time was known as Programmed Instruction (PI) and Programmed Learning (PL). Since in this theory the learner is seen as a passive entity from which only responses can be elicited by external stimuli, then a more plausible theory of learning which views language learning as an active and constructive process has to be considered. Jean Piaget's view of learning as a process in which the learner is actively involved, reviewing experience, validating hypotheses and constructing from previous knowledge is translated by Seymour Papert (1980) into the Educational Computing area, by providing young learners with tools for constructing knowledge and understanding. The constructivist approach (Piaget's learning theory) named because of its emphasis on the learner's construction of this own understanding inspired Papert to work out a model of how computers can be used in education, using the LOGO programming language in children which showed the possibilities of using educational software. The idea of the children's thinking developing from sensor motor, concrete reasoning and abstract reasoning gives CALL the possibilities of working through different stages according to the developmental stages of the individual. The third theory of language learning which is also taken as a reference for CALL is Vygotsky's view of Communicative learning. The first and second views of learning are centred towards the learner as an individual and the view of individualised learning through the use of computers. With Vygotsky's view of learning, CALL integrates a more humanistic and communicative aspect of learning working with computers, since this learning process not only involves learners but also teachers and the whole community. Social context is then introduced as an important component of learning in CALL. In this third view, language learning is socially dependent and therefore the role of the teachers is not dismissed since the learner will develop through language by learning to interact with others. CALL then has to see the learner as an active communicative participant in learning where the computer and the software provide the context for learning and communicating with teachers and learners. 6.2.2.2. Exploratory and discovery learning Learners can make discoveries about the language being learnt especially in CALL activities (i.e. text reconstruction) in which they have to test their intuitions about how the language works. According to Stevens, (1992) students working in CALL are more likely to internalise the fruits of their own discoveries. This, so called, exploratory approach provides students with powerful 150

means of accessing linguistic data, broadening the scope of action in any field, allowing and promoting students independence and curiosity. The exploratory learning materials cover authentic texts as in a 'concordance' program in which occurrences of a given word can be found in texts to systematically offer insights of how language works in the case of grammar and vocabulary learning, for example. One of the best examples of exploratory interaction is hypermedia of which hypertext is one application. In hypertext the possibilities of accessing information in a non-linear form are vast, thereby broadening the possibilities for exploratory and discovery learning. This is the principle of navigating through information in the Internet and the World Wide Web. This type of text can be combined with videos, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, diagrams, maps, atlases, etc. which the students can explore to retrieve the information needed for a particular unknown word. With this type of exploratory approach to language learning in CALL the students have to undergo an introductory stage in which they are guided to the use of different types of programs emphasising this particular characteristic. Systematic guidance at early stages can lead to another area in the educational process within a CALL context, that is, learner autonomy and learner independence. 6.2.2.3. Collaborative learning In the Vygotskyan view of learning the teacher's role is that of a supporter and his communicative role with learners has to be emphasised. This brings to CALL the question of whether teacher-learner interaction or learner-learner interaction is preferred for cognitive and learning purposes. Research indicates that learners working in groups with computers can address problem-solving tasks in a more comprehensive way since the explicit sharing of ideas is what makes a group work towards a solution. Light's (1993) review of qualitative and quantitative research in the field shows that teachers perhaps have to re-evaluate their own work if their job is to make learning more dependent on learners' interaction. This leads to think that collaborative learning embodies the social component sought by Vygotsky and the emphasis on group work when using computers, especially at early stages in the process. Within the behaviourist theory of learning, learners will be considered as the ones who achieve a desired competence and performance. In CALL, individualisation could be interpreted as a form of self-instruction conducing to 'effective learning'. Even with the constructivist approach to language learning in mind the learner could be seen as an individual trying to build models of the world (knowledge) based on previous experiences. This could lead to a strong form of usermachine dependence, with the frightening idea of a CALL scenario where there could be something like one computer per student where the learner will almost always spend most of the time in front of the machine without interacting with others (teachers and learners included). 151

This is probably one the factors and arguments raised by opposers to the use of computers in education due to this dehumanising characteristic, and no doubt it would be a big mistake, seeing the role of the computer as that of the teacher, thereby replacing the later from the educational context. The learning process, especially in language learning is as much a social as an individual process. The possibility of computers in providing context for language learning might be one of the key areas where the teacher often failed in providing, mainly that kind of teaching geared towards what the student needs as an individual. However, the computer is said to provide the scenario for small group work. Before the arrival of computers this aspect has been difficult to achieve in practice as some reports may inform. In primary classrooms, for example, Galton, (1980) reports that despite being seated in groups, children almost always worked separately, that is, on their own tasks. Studies such as those by Jackson, Fletcher, and Messer, (1986) report that in primary schools the predominant pattern was children working in pairs rather than individually at the computer. Children are often engaged in a truly joint venture working together on a shared task. However, people tend to see or imagine a child or an adolescent working alone over his computer for long periods of time. On the contrary, evidence tends to show, at least at initial stages, that computers may be well associated with collaborative learning. Another wrong idea about the use of computers for improving learning arises from the very fact that teachers who are said to be concerned with the social aspects of learning in the end only seek and praise individual performances in classrooms and individual outcomes. Unfortunately, this is an extended concept in education: one thing is the way collaborative learning is conceptualised and the other is how it is realised or put into practice. Other studies such as Light and Glachan, (1985) show that simply putting learners together in front of a computer is no guarantee for peer facilitation in their learning process. There has to be a condition in the learning situation and that has to do with the engagement of the learners in the task. As suggested by Light (1993) "it might be just the fact of having to talk about what you are doing as you solve a task which makes learning more effective". Perhaps, the most striking evidence in favour of collaborative learning may be found in the study by Johnson, Johnson and Stane, (1986) (mentioned in Light, 1993) where three groups of 11-13 year-olds worked on a geographic simulation task. The first, working on an individual condition, the second competitively and the third co-operatively. Results show that the third group showed significantly higher level of achievement on a day-by-day basis and on a final test. Also, they showed less dependence on the teacher and more positive attitudes towards working with students of the opposite sex. Based on these initial findings we can say that collaborative groupings could play a central role in CALL. Evidence of social-cognitive conflict was also found in works like those of Light and Glachan, (1985) where the number of conflicts (disagreement about strategy and argument) of twenty 152

pairs of 8 year-olds working with 'mastermind', a computer game based on a code-breaking peg board were found to be decisive in a significantly better performance of subjects on a test. This evidence is then consistent with the idea that conflict offers a productive learning experience. The advantages of having a partner working at a computer, according to Light (1993) relies on the fact that this may be perceived by learners as being more fun and less threatening, they would pick ideas from one another and help each other to remember things. Discussion and hypothesis testing are also relevant in working in small groups with the computer. The saying that 'two heads are better than one' can be applied here in terms of 'two heads learn better than one'. 6.2.2.4. A Humanistic Approach to CALL Papert (1980) takes the humanistic approach to learning, such as that postulated by Rogers, (1961) and adapts it to the concept of computer-based learning. He considers that in a threat-free environment the individual learns to be free and is immersed in an ideal educational process in which the classroom becomes as effective as a clinic (Rogers, 1969). This kind of environment depends on the relationship between facilitator and client, having 3 significant qualities. The first is what Rogers (1961) calls 'a transparency on my part' and interpreted in the area of language learning, as a focus "...the goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning...learning to learn is more important than being 'taught' something" (Brown, 1980) (cited in Stevens, (1992:13). The second quality is that of the therapist or teacher which is 'unconditional positive regard for the client' and the third is the 'empathetic understanding: the continuous desire to understand the feelings, personal meanings and experiences of the client'. Recent development in CALL exemplifies humanist paradigms, for example, when people say that CALL is becoming more 'user-friendly it means that courseware tends itself these days to be more like what students want it to be than what a particular program designer may have originally intended it to be. This has led to recognise the computer (software and hardware together) as an aid to learning, as a learning tool, as an informant on language rather than a programmed instructor. The above consideration can be taken into account when we argue for the integration of CALL into the curriculum as a medium that allows students to experiment with concepts taught elsewhere. Besides, being part of any language course, CALL can also be considered as something that a student can employ on an ad-hoc or self-access basis without it being part of a set course of study (Benavides 1994, 1995). 6.2.3. Design In this part of the framework we will dedicate special attention to the roles of the teacher, of the learner and of the computer and try to relate them to the current views of learning in general and language learning as well as to visualise the relationship with CALL. 153

6.2.3.1. The role of the teacher In the view of Mercer, (1993) taking the Vygotskyan theory of language learning and teaching, the teacher in CALL is seen as having a crucial role in supporting the learners. The teacher then provides support in helping learners to convert their knowledge and understanding into a tool for gaining control of their situation, thereby progressively increasing the learning strategies and building autonomous learning. The teacher is then a very specialised and skilled person who will know when she has to intervene or not, reducing her interventions to a minimum in order to progressively promote learner independence. According to Mercer (1993), one of the attractions of the Vygotskyan point of view is the fact that he describes and explains not just learning but the process of teaching and learning. Fisher (1993), in accordance to Higgins, (1984, 1988) points out that the introduction of computers will contribute to change the teacher's attitudes to managing learning, that is, the teacher will have a more facilitating and less controlling style of working in order for the learner to explore and allow some degree of freedom. In addition, since it would be impossible that the teacher know in detail every program used for language learning and have answers for each of the activities, then, she becomes a co-learner, identifying herself with the learner and thereby approaching a position of the later. This would give her possibilities of understanding the learning situation from the learner's point of view. Still another ingredient in this situation is that the teacher could become a less threatening source of input. This presumably will be taken advantage of for more effective learning, since the teacher is deprived of the status of the master of knowledge. The contribution of the computer can certainly be regarded here as playing that part of the teacher's role as provider of input for the students to test their hypotheses. 

The pedagogue/magister dichotomy Higgins (1984, 1988) views the teacher ideally as the instructor directing students unilaterally, while the pedagogue is a slave following a step behind ready with a clue or answer when asked. The role of the teacher is diminished with respect to that of the student, in providing control over modalities for learning and in attempting to compensate for individual differences. Computer-Assisted Language Learning seeks ways to empower individuals to direct their own learning, rather than ceding control over learning to an authoritative entity, as in behavioural models. Below we can find Higgins' view of the difference between Magister and Pedagogue. Magister: Directs students' learning Has authority to evaluate, praise, censure Structures the order of events Explains rules, gives examples Repeats endlessly Pedagogue: Assists students' learning 154

Has no authority in censuring Provides no structure Answers students' questions Follows students' answers

At this point it is fair to clarify that Higgins is not against 'magisterial thinking' and he considers that teachers as part of the learning process are still very important, however he stresses the fact that when this 'teaching- oriented process' predominates learners may be discouraged from extending their learning through productive exploration and discovery. 

The role of the teacher as part of a learning community According to Vygotsky, what is important in learning is not only 'solo performance' but a wider social transaction different from what has traditionally been emphasised in the search for the development of individual knowledge and intelligence. This contrasts with Piaget's view of the roles of the teacher as a provider of 'rich learning environments'. However, what is especially interesting in Piaget's view of the role of the teacher is that of being considered as a facilitator in the learning process. Interestingly related to Piaget's view of learning is Higgins' consideration of the pedagogic role of the teacher in language learning as being the person (the pedagogue) who is always behind the learner, providing answers to his questioning in what has been regarded as a 'leading from behind' approach in the teacher's role. This is something completely different to the traditional overemphasised teacher-controlled approach where the teacher sets the pace, the content and the mode of every learning process. As we can see the most appropriate role for the teacher could be the one that limits his intervention in the learner's process of learning, as the learner progresses in the continuum of autonomous learning. For example, it is seen from experience that often times students’ performance is better (spontaneous, and natural) when the teacher in not present. The teacher as an organiser of the newly enriched learning environment has to approximate his educational goal of being an effective factor in the student’s cognitive development, especially when working with young learners. 

The teacher as an initiator of change in CALL Lian, (1992) points out that one of the tasks of the teacher in CALL deals with "how to bring about change in a pre-determined world". With this in mind, teachers have to be faced with the following needs. 1. The restructuring of ordinary courses to maximise the benefits of the CALL component. 2. The capability to make improvements in the degree and the quality of human support made available to learners, through trouble-shooting workshops or communication via electronic mail or computer-based news system. 3. The ability to make the most of the available software, i.e. to know how to recognise the value of software even though it cannot do all that might otherwise be required of it in an ideal world. 4. The strength to resist the temptation to use off-the-shelf software which is methodologically outdated and, instead, to set about developing their own computer programs. (Lian, 1992: 78) 155

However, in the last point, there seems to be emphasis on programming as a way to produce materials in CALL. This certainly sounds quite complicated for teachers to do and usually teachers as pedagogues recur to what is commercially available or even better to software developers to ask for programs which relate to the specific needs their classroom context. Obviously writing materials for CALL does not necessarily require teachers to become computer programmers. Nowadays, there are authoring packages which can be used creatively for the classes they are involved or the particular needs of the learners. 6.2.3.2. The role of the learner Higgins (1988) points out that the teachers will always need learners whereas learners could ultimately learn without teachers. However, it is often the case when learners do not learn well without a teacher especially at initial stages. In an extreme self-learning situation a person left alone with a task would have to be a teacher and learner at the same time thereby having more room for frustration. For a learner who will be expected to cast for a solution to a problem provided there are relevant tasks that demand the effort then the learner is progressively regarded as a subject evolving in a freer learning context. Another role that the learner may undertake is when he is involved in an authentic learning activity with the computer (authentic learning activity = authentic labour). These two roles, according to Higgins are often disregarded or ignored. Kemmis, 1984 (mentioned in Higgins, 1988) used the term 'emancipatory' to designate a lesson form in which the learner is a user of the tools (computer, software) at hand, thereby freeing him of unnecessary work (inauthentic labour). Copying the contents from the board in a school to the notebook is seen as inauthentic and would represent no real-life use of the language according to Higgins. Word processing, for example, in a self-access system can be considered as an emancipatory activity since it is part of a self-access system where teachers and students usually go to word process their papers. Initially the learner starts with a couple of sentences but later on and progressively he goes on constructing the text until getting the finished product. 6.2.3.3. The role of the computer Higgins (1988) suggests that the natural role of the computer is that of a pedagogue as opposed to as that of the master. In the first instance, the computer is seen as 'the slave who escorts the children [learners] to school'. It is supposed to 'answer the learner's questions, recite a poem, translate words, play games or give a test'. In viewing the role of the computer as a magister it is supposed to behave as an 'extremely bad teacher' [emphasis mine], who is excellent at asking questions, and correcting every mistake of the student's responses. Is the role of the computer, then, as a magister or a pedagogue? Perhaps in such programs where there is only one answer the computer is not completely acting as a magister since its use is initiated by the learner. In the case of close test or text reconstruction the computer presents a problem for the learner to solve and at the same time it gives him the context for learning to happen.

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6.2.4. Procedure In this part of the procedure we are concentrating on the types of activities generated by the computer and the different types of computer programs or software. Most of the results and advantages of Computer-Assisted Instruction in education have been attributed to the motivational power that it creates in students, that is its high face validity and novelty. This aspect can also be seen in the new activities that are available for the teachers and students, the type of computer-based activities supposedly different to the traditional drill-andpractice textbook-based activities. The implementation and development of new and completely different activities (from those considered traditional) for the language learner are available for use now. These activities, have been implemented from simple tasks such as word processor-based tasks to the new and sophisticated ones such as those available (not yet implemented, though) with the latest development of computer hardware and software, in other words multimedia. But more importantly, the consideration made here is whether computers can generate new types of activities, and if so, then new forms or work and different ways of learning might be possible. If we take for granted that different types of activities promote different types of cognitive development and consequently different types of learning strategies, then CALL-generated activities could constitute a slightly new learning environment. 6.2.4.1. Computer-based activities Since there is as yet no special CALL methodology, the effectiveness of the activities that the teacher can develop for the language learner have to be largely based on the way computers are used in the language learning setting and on what both teachers and students can do with them in a self-access system. Most of the activities now used by most teachers and students are a replica of the traditional activities developed with textbooks and other materials. However, there are some important differences in terms of what computers can do which cannot be done with the textbook or other types of materials. These differences come from the fact that computers can do things such as memorising, storing, stimulating, processing and manipulating information; providing immediate feedback to the students in their tasks, keeping records of their performance, and allowing easy and fast access to information by teachers and students which permits a more exploratory kind of work leading to discovery learning, supposedly resulting in more gains in terms of language learning. What computers can do for the students, however has to be considered as a part of the interaction established among teachers and students via the computer itself. Therefore, what the computer can do is only important when the interaction between teacher and student is considered. Since there is not 100% computer-based activity -and there is no need for such a thing yet, we have to seriously consider, as mentioned earlier for the sake of the development of a CALL 157

methodology, what the teacher, student, and computer can do within CALL-based activities. Therefore, it has been suggested, for example, that it is important to consider the work teachers and students can do before engaging in working with the computer (pre-computer work, i.e. the work done in the classroom), the work with the computer (computer work), and the work after working with the computer (post computer work, in a CALL situation). 6.2.4.2. CALL Communicative activities As a reaction against the type of Programmed Instruction activities in CALL there have been some attempts at introducing more communicative activities with computers. For example, activities like simulations have proved very successful as providers of communicative input among learners. These types of tasks are then regarded as valid, meaningful and entertaining which may be due to the social aspect of communicative language teaching. Learners would be able to exhibit the satisfaction gained from interaction together when engaged in a meaningful communicative activity in CALL. Working on the idea of the Krashen's 'Input Hypothesis' (1982) in which what is required for effective learning is a comprehensible input, we can assume that CALL programs that initiate activities in which the student is in control, will provide more chances for learning to happen. On the other hand, if the type of activities a program develops is that of the kind of formal or explicit instruction, then it only serves purposes no different from those of books. Underwood (1984) stresses the fact that communicative and noncommunicative aspects in CALL software can be incorporated as roles of materials (software) which in the end is what govern the computer. This distinction is in direct relation with the learning possibilities that the activities recreated with these kinds of materials will arise. Below, we can see the characteristics of communicative CALL and non- communicative CALL underlying language learning activities. Noncommunicative (programs recreating this type of activities) -Program incorporates grammatical sequencing -Program judges to inform students of their errors -Program is in control -Subject matter is irrelevant to students -Lesson is predetermined -Student perceives task as a required lesson -Student views task as identical to classroom activities

Communicative CALL -Program does not impose grammatical sequencing -Program judges more to provide helpful hints -Student is in control -Student relates to subject matter in a personal way -Student creates his own learning experience -Student perceives task as motivating supplement -Student views task as a novel activity. (Underwood, 1984) 158

Some of the CALL activities directed to promote communication among the students can be made possible taking Brown and Yule's (1983), categories of oral discourse, as shown below (cited in Esling, 1991). Brown and Yule's task types

CALL tasks

1. Describing an object or photograph

Describing images hypermedia

2. Instructing how to draw a diagram

Drawing/designing with computer software; with 'drawing' or 'painting' programs of graphics software Setting up the computer by reading operating instruction, doing 'process' exercises. Word processing with writing, formatting, printing, plotting programs Using interactive simulations with graphics programs

3. Instructing how to assemble a piece of equipment 4. Describing how a number of objects are to be arranged 5. Giving route directions

in

the

data

base;

using

6. Telling a story

Reading cloze texts; reading/completing previously written text files; describing a sequence of events depicted in visuals

7. Giving an eye-witness account

Playing computer simulations and recounting computer crashes or other experiences using written or oral reports.

8. Expressing an opinion

Evaluating with the computer using problem solving, questionnaires, surveys Engaging in noncomputer pedagogical application with role-play

9. Justifying a course of action

6.2.4.3. Program types Programs suitable for language learning are nowadays available from many sources. Some of the most useful for teachers are those labelled 'authoring programs' which enable them to adapt or produce pedagogically-sound materials according to current classroom practice and classroom needs. Non-authoring or well-known 'dedicated' programs commercially available like word processors, adventure games and simulations which are not specifically designed for language learning are also widely used for language learning. In the end teachers and students know how to make good use of them. Within the domain of CALL there exist a wide variety of software for recreating different types of activities for almost every language skill and linguistic aspect. CALL programs are available for grammar, vocabulary, reading and writing. However, there are no such programs for speaking or even listening, even though the technology seems to be developing fast enough to cope at low levels of speech recognition and speech production.

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Program types can be classified according to different criteria, that is, the skills they promote, or the type of activities they develop; however, the teacher is ultimately the person who will have to make a choice in terms of which criteria to choose to make the software available for the learners, as it is the case in a self-access system. Here the teacher will recommend suitable programs for the individual needs of the students. To give an idea of the availability of software we will concentrate on a very small part of program types for grammar and vocabulary. The following is a classification of CALL software according to the skill and the activity they promote. GRAMMAR For grammar there are gap-filling exercises like GAPIT or GAPFIL which may consist of single sentences in which the learner has to provide the missing word. Also, there are multiple-choice programs like CHOICEMASTER where the computer is programmed to guide the learner towards the right answer. MATCHMASTER is another type of program used for practice with grammar in which the learners have to match two dependent and independent clauses only by selecting the two parts. Activities generated by general-purpose programs like TESTMASTER in a multiple choice format can also be used to practice grammar or any other skills or linguistic aspect. VOCABULARY Jones (1987) gives some suggestions on how to use programs for vocabulary learning. This type of programs for vocabulary are often considered highly attractive and motivating for the learners since most of them introduce some sort of game-like format. The following are just a few of the most widely known vocabulary programs. CROSSWORD It is one of the most widely known programs and it works similarly to text-based puzzles. It depends on the ability of the teacher in creating puzzles with the target vocabulary for his classes. HANGMAN In this program the learner tries to discover the hidden word by entering different letters. This is one of the most popular vocabulary games for which there are as many versions as game writers and authoring teachers. WORDSPIN Used for word recognition and often considered as a 'speller trainer'. In this program the learners have to identify a word 'spinning' on the screen

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ALPHAGAME An alphabetical order game in which the learner has to 'guess' the word the computer is thinking of by typing words and finding out whether it is after or before in the dictionary based on the computer target. WORDSQUARES The learner has to extract words (up, down, across or diagonally) from a square which may be hidden among other letters. MINDWORD A more sophisticated type of program in which the learner has to guess the word the computer is thinking of by giving semantically contextualised hints on the word. SCRABBLE This is a very effective computer game which usually includes around 20.000 build-in words in its dictionary with the possibility of introducing other words and expressions for working as an authoring tool. There are of course many more possibilities for grammar and vocabulary learning with different types of programs especially with multimedia where the integration of sound, moving video, graphics, and text seems to provide more interactive opportunities for learning. Consequently, these types of activities recreated by the computer could develop different learning styles. ADVENTURE GAMES These are other types of computer-generated activity comprising adventure games which fall within the problem-solving domain. The player comes across different possibilities from which he has to choose the best in order to complete a task and achieve a given goal. Successful 'negotiation' with the information is within the game is very important. The motivating value of these types of programs is considerably high. One example of adventure games is LONDON ADVENTURE (Hamilton, 1986), where the player must 'interact' in London (ask directions politely to passers-by) in order to find guidebooks providing information on London transport and department stores to purchase 10 last-minute gifts items before it is time to catch the plane home (the program sets a clock at the start of play). The player is provided with certain amount of money in foreign currency, traveller cheques, for example, which he has to spend carefully. In this type of games, reading speed and comprehension is practiced in a variety of ways and purposes. In a self-access system, the learners can find different types of programs like the above mentioned, organised in such a way that they will be able to use them according to the skill and level involved. McDonough (1993) gives us an example of how this could be organised in a resource centre.

161

CALL programmes available for you to use! (level: E=elementary, I=intermediate, A=advanced.) 1. Vocabulary Practice -Crossword Challenge (1 or 2 players) -Vocab (which word or skullman) -Criss Cross Quiz (2 players) -Screentest First Certificate (word formation) -Screentest Proficiency (key words) -Cambridge First Certificate (gap filling)

I/A E/IA E/I/A I A I/A

2. Grammar Practice -Screentest First Certificate (sentence transformation) -Screentest for Proficiency (sentence transformation) -Choicemaster -Criss Cross Quiz (2 players) -Cambridge First Certificate (sentence requiting) -Reading practice -Storyboard Plus -Storyboard -Clozemaster -Speedread -Screentest First Certificate (space filling) -Screentest Proficiency (space filling) -Cambridge First Certificate (reading) Close passage

I A E E/I/A I/A E/I I/A E/I/A I I A A

4. Writing Practice -Screentest First Certificate (dialogue building, Sentence completion) -Screentest Proficiency (sentence completion) A -Cambridge First Certificate (letter/dialogue) I

I

(taken from McDonough, 1993: 253)

6.2.4.4. Evaluation of CALL Software The teacher and the learners are seen as active participants of the evaluation part in using computers in the classroom or in a self-access system. For example, the teacher will have to be concerned with the following questions in the checklist, (taken from Rendall, 1991: 35) if he is aware of his role as materials evaluator. The following is a checklist to evaluate CALL software and basically deals with how flexible a piece of software is to be worth trying for CALL. If the answers in the first part are mostly affirmative, it means that the program may not be very flexible to be considered for use. Conversely, if the answers in the second part are affirmative, then we may be dealing with a useful program. I. 1. Is there a long introduction before your get to the main menu? 2. Are extensive graphics and jingles used in the introduction? 3. Do they take up more than 5-10 seconds? 162

4. Does the program offer only one activity? 5. Is each activity restricted to one methodology? 6. Is the vocabulary limited to one topic? 7. Do you have to work through the first activity to get to the second one?

II. 1. Does the information with the software give full details of vocabulary/expressions covered in the program? 2. Can the introductory graphics/jingles be avoided on a re-run? 3. Are the instructions of the screen enough to be able to work through the program without reference to the instruction booklet? 4. Is there a main menu? 5. Can you list all the available files? 6. Can you easily return to the main menu from the end of an activity? 7. Can the program be given a time limit? 8. Can the program be given a content limit? 9. Can the program be used for all abilities? 10. Does the program offer more than one approach?

The teacher also needs to be concerned with these two questions 1. How well does the vocabulary/content cover work the class/pupil has been working on or is about to work on? -Don’t know -Quite well

-very well -authored to suit

2. Does the pupil have to have good keyboard skills to use this program? __only needs to use the arrow/cursor keys __only needs to use the number keys __only needs to use a restricted number of keys __must be able to type (know the keyboard) __must be able to use the Function Keys __must be able to use the SHIFT or CTRL + Function Keys

6.2.4.5. Pedagogical considerations The pedagogical considerations of using courseware and the type of activities they develop are very important before, during and after working with the computer. The questions addressed here are relevant for the teacher when doing the actual acquisition of the software. 1. Is the program designed for language learning? 2. What are the contributions of the program to language learning? 3. Does the language used in the instructions match the level of English in the class? 4. Is the program for classroom work or self-access? 5. Is it motivating? (Do the same students use it several times?) 6. Does it provide different types of feedback? 7. Is help available at different stages and levels of the program? 8. Do the students enjoy using the program? (From observation) 9. Does the program offer authoring capabilities for the teacher? 163

6.2.5. Interaction in CALL There are two metaphors for computer-student interaction. The first considers that the computer is an 'agent' which may be seen as analogue to the student-teacher system with the computer replacing the teacher. This is perhaps the system on which current research findings are based: The view that everything the teacher does can be done with the computer. The second view is that of the computer as a tool or medium and not as the machine which takes over the teacher's place. In this view the computer is seen as a medium which recognises interactions providing new environments for using somewhat different activities. Its importance lies on the fact that it would re-orientate the amount and quality of instruction in and beyond the classroom, perhaps going into developing collaborative learning where the teacher participates as a co-learner in the process. Shavelson et al. (1984), (mentioned in Mercer, 1993) shows how 60 primary and secondary teachers in their 'good computer use' performance integrated the content of microcomputerbased instruction with the on-going curriculum, co-ordinated microcomputer activities and changed their uses based on feedback from students through stressing cognitive and basic-skill goals. To meet their goals, they used a wide variety of instructional modes like drill and practice, tutorials, simulations, and games. The traditional computer-assisted instruction model has been contrasted with the Vygotskyan conceptual framework of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development). According to Griffim and Cole, (1987) the traditional approach tries to break the work down into pieces without taking into account the overall sequence and direction of the task, as a goal. Therefore, rote learning of its components is emphasised. In the ZPD approach the goal is being achieved interactively from the beginning. 6.2.6. Computers, teachers and the language lab Sometimes language teachers ask themselves whether computer use in language learning in going to be like language labs, a disappointing experience. One of the possible answers is that the language labs were not taken full advantage of and here what counts is the good use versus bad use of language labs. Another reason would be the fear of the machine itself. Fear to accommodate language learning to the technology available. Still another reason perhaps is that language labs were not enough understood (lack of training) or perhaps the work and commitment that the language lab demanded from the teacher was too much. Other possible reason is that a language lab was seen as a threatening machine for the teacher as it may be the case with other kinds of materials, like computers in the case of CALL. Higgins (1988) mentions a case of a teacher who banned dictionaries of any kind and confiscated them if they were brought into the classroom. Consequently the learners were only allowed to learn what this teacher taught them. Was this perhaps a case of a teacher being threatened by this type of materials? 164

In the case of CALL the danger of computers if the lesson of language labs is not assimilated is that they will probably run through a similar process. Fortunately, the use of computers is progressively becoming common place not only in education but also in almost every aspect of human activity. Teaching training and later trainer training here are seen as key factors to demystify the use of computers, to overcome technophobia, and clarify misconceptions of teachers who would normally feel threatened and sceptical about the introduction of computers in language learning. 6.2.7. The computer as a language teacher The model of the computer as a language teacher has recently been criticised since it is usually associated with magisterial teaching and the kind of drill-and-practice approach. However, this criticism seems to be addressed to certain types of programs but not to the model itself. For example, during the first stages of CALL the computer was working as an expensive pagerturner, not much different to the type of activities achieved with workbook material. This is in fact considered as a rather poor employment of the computer and consequently its subutilization is transparent. However, the belief that teaching in the sense of explicit metalinguistic teaching (language form emphasised) is never appropriate is far from being accepted. There must be room left for some form of explicit teaching through the computer that may be effective for learning, especially in some domains (like in writing) at initial stages. Recently, the computer has been taken as a stimulus provider for more communicative language use in which student-student interaction is more important than student-computer interaction. The later only serves as a context for language learning, provided there is what Krashen (1983) calls 'Comprehensible Input'. According to Long (1980), this input requires some sort of quality for the students to be able to negotiate meaning and therefore language learning has more probabilities to take place. It is still difficult to assert that the interaction studentcomputer leads to a full process providing negotiating quality of comprehensible input. Nonetheless, the computer can provide the context (i.e. problem-solving tasks) in which students working in pairs could negotiate meaning from comprehensible input. 6.3. Multimedia Multimedia is one of the latest developments in computer technology and it is the concept of integrating sound (included human voice, to high Q stereo), moving video, graphics and text. These different, yet complementary type of media con be obtained on a single CD-ROM inside an above average computer or stand-alone multimedia system. This revolution in new computer technology presents teachers and students with a number of opportunities opening up before them in terms of teaching and learning, however, these type of resources are not yet at the reach of every school or even university and there is still uncertainty of how effective and in what measure, this type of technology can really contribute to the enhancing of language learning. Multimedia language learning is still in its very beginnings and there is still no good pedagogically-based language courseware available from which to choose. However, there are 165

quite a few authoring programs with multimedia capabilities with which teachers can start putting these new high-tech available tools at the service of their pedagogical expertise. The advantage of the multimedia-based approach is that students and teachers can develop their own multimedia materials on a content-free authoring packages like TOOLBOOK, AUTHORWARE PROFESSIONAL, GENESIS III for Windows, OR LING WAY (for IBM compatibles) and Hypercard and Supercard (for Apple MacIntosh) Multimedia will make possible in the near future to adopt the complete digital language laboratory as opposed to the analogue cassette-based laboratory. At present, costs are still high and the most probable solution for the time being is to have a multimedia resource centre instead, until having multimedia technology as complete laboratories more affordable. Multimedia is the latest introduction of powerful educational technology as Information Technology in CALL, however, it is very important for teachers and learners not to distract their attention from the real educational goal and the role of technology, which is to support language learning allowing for more diverse, flexible and richer learning contexts. 6.4. CALL and self-access The idea of free-learning (open-ended learning) is a very powerful one since in the realm of CALL it can cope with a large variety of possibilities. The autonomous user is free to choose his own course, topics, and work at his own pace. However, in this approach high motivation may not necessarily mean learning efficiently. The student may not be very good at selecting his own learning strategy especially at the initial stages. This problem could be alleviated if the introduction to self-access learning, learner autonomy, flexible learning is done in a process where the learner is being trained to progressively go from a externally-directed-learning approach to a self-directed learning approach. One of the solutions for achieving autonomous learning could be to use a self-access system where the students can choose tasks and activities not necessarily assigned by the teacher. This would lead to a more flexible way of learning, in which learning contexts have to be made appropriate to the students’ individual needs, (provided there are the facilities, resources, materials and guidance available and organised in a resource centre). Thus the learners will be involved in meaningful tasks, problem solving, decision making, thereby promoting their responsibility for their own learning. This process by no means underestimates the role of the teacher. In the end, the ideal learner would be the one who at any stage in the process of education is less dependent on the teacher to sort out his own learning challenges. Similarly, the ideal teacher would be the one who can see the learner at any stage of the educational process as an independent and self-confident learner. We can see a self-access system in language learning to be more associated with the Vygostskyan view of learning rather than to the behaviouristic approach. In the behaviouristic operant conditioning teaching is central whereas for the constructivists and Vygotskyans learning is central and teaching is only 'vehicle for creating the conditions and contents for the 166

learners, in what Jones & Mercer, (1993) call 'self-motivated, self-directed learning'. Thus directed learning can be considered harmful in that it is not necessarily based on the learner's understanding. McDonough, (1993) gives a good example of how self-access work can be implemented in reading which can be implemented in CALL. Teachers do the planning and design, adaptation and even production of materials to be placed in the classroom as part of a 'reading laboratory' resource centre. Stoller, (1984), (cited in McDonough, 1993) outlines the features of such a laboratory: -Accommodate a wide variety of student reading levels -Have a large variety of reading selections at each reading level -Have a selection of high interest topics appropriate to the learners -Allow for systematic progression from one level to another -Permit students to progress at their own pace -Include a self-correction system -Include charts and graphs for easy record keeping -Include a placement test for accurate level assignment -Include exercises that require students to practice a variety of reading skills and strategies.

We need to take into account that self-access does not necessarily mean that the learner, especially at the beginning stages has to be let alone facing the computer. Again, this has been one of the strongest misconceptions in the traditional picture of CALL, where computer use implies the substitution of computer for teacher, that is, a complete self-access use with the machine without considering contextual, affective, social and developmental factors. In a selfaccess situation, CALL should be presented as a flexible and supplementary classroom aid, at an early stage in the process of reaching autonomous learning and learning independence. Such stage has to be planned and structured carefully. 6.5. Teacher training 6.5.1. Training and the new technology Teacher training in the use of technology in the classrooms is critical. And today's teachers are progressively facing the real fact that they will find themselves face-to-face with students, ranging from elementary to university level who know more about computers than their teachers. This could appear threatening for some teachers since they are supposed to be the highest authority in the classroom. Consequently, it is by no means impossible nowadays to see a child explaining about computer use to an adult. This may also constitute an evidence of today's new realities with the use of technology, and teachers should realise that some sort of change might be necessary to cope with today's educational needs. To overcome problems of inappropriate introduction of computers in education, teachers have to be acquainted with some basic sort of computer literacy. For example, the advent of multimedia technology might lead us to believe that the use of computers for language learning will only be limited by the imagination of the user (teachers and students included). However, 167

this may not be accurate even though it might sound terribly good for teachers, students, administrators and parents as well. Faster, more powerful machines are only one part of the whole picture which also includes computer-literate teachers. Therefore, buying and introducing technology in the schools without training may result in a great deal of frustration and a stock of underused equipment which in turn will affect the learners' and teachers' credibility in technology as a provider of better tools for supporting language learning. Computers in language learning can constitute a very powerful learning tool for learners and teachers, but for the uninitiated, fearful and technophobic teacher, getting acquainted with how to use the technology will require good pedagogical and permanent training as well as a good deal of encouragement. In other words, teachers in CALL are a key factor, since computers cannot do anything by themselves. 6.5.2. Teacher training in CALL Teachers have almost always been thought of as recipients of techniques, and training courses usually containing a series of techniques addressed for the trainee to master. However, the trainee in CALL, as anywhere else, has to know when a technique is appropriate or not. In a CALL context the teacher may learn more from observation than from instruction, since it is very important to see the reaction, involvement and interaction between learner-learner, computerlearner and learner-teacher. Discussion after the observation period should be encouraged to analyse patterns of behaviour in the classroom. In the era of the language laboratory very little pre-service training was given to teachers and efforts were concentrated for in-service in an unsystematic way. Therefore, teachers and students often underused or misused the language laboratory which was mostly used for listening purposes, that is the language lab becoming a very expensive listening device. In the context of CALL, computers are widely available in schools and universities compared to language labs and we must make sure that the first to become acquainted with the new educational technology are the teachers. The majority of universities are including computer courses in pre-service training courses in the old and new programs. These courses should be the initial step towards computer literacy and initially they should deal with the handling of the computer through self-access software like word processing programs. Therefore, wordprocessing skills are seen as one of the most useful for trainees at initial stages since they will find them everywhere in their professional activities. Many trainers in CALL are attracted by following a pedagogical model of teacher training for it is within this model that the real advantages of putting computers to work can be seen at work. Then a good way to consider improvement in language learning contexts is by having pedagogical support in the use of technology. Many authors such as Schmid, (1990) see a danger in considering the trainee as a teacher whose conception of being trained in CALL is to 168

become a computer expert. The real concern of the teacher trainer and trainee should be 'to see CALL as a pedagogically-sound learning scenario'. As we have seen before, the teacher should learn how to use the new technology and be critical of it and not to be absorbed or dominated by it. If the latter happens then we will probably have thousands of underused machines in our classrooms, frustrated trainees, and learners who will have a distorted view of the use of technology and CALL as providers of new insights for the improvement of language learning. Consequently, teachers should be trained in how to use the computer and how to make creative and appropriate use of CALL materials, even if the software are not specifically designed for language learning (Benavides, 1993). 6.5.3. Pedagogical Issues for the trainer The relationship between trainer and trainee is usually seen as the one we find in the classroom situation between teachers and students, where the former is the owner of knowledge and the latter, the recipient. The worst thing that can happen in teacher training courses in CALL is having in the trainer the role of the computer expert who usually appears to know too much. This obviously leads to hindrances in the effectiveness of training since; the trainee would feel to know too little (if not anything) or feel stupid in the worst of the cases. Another area of concern in CALL training courses is the unfamiliarity of trainees with the technical terminology, the actual basics of how to operate a computer, and misconceptions of the use of computers in education and particularly in CALL. These factors should be considered at the beginning of a course as the introductory part or it and most importantly as the stratagem for breaking psychological barriers created by the introduction of new technology in education with which teachers and learners sooner or later will have to deal with. Based on the above, a CALL training course could comprise the following ingredients to keep in mind at 5 stages. 1.

-Contextualise the use of new technology in education. -Contextualise the use of computers in CALL -Clarify misconceptions about the role of the teacher and the role of the computer.

2.

-Show how to operate the computer and its parts (restricting to the basic constituents of the computer) -Introduce the new technological terminology especially dealing with the machine and the programs (hardware and software) when possible, restricting it to a minimum during the first stages. -Demonstrate how to use a program (the basics) -Expose the trainees to a variety of general purpose programs, such as word processors, spreadsheets, databases, etc. -Make sure the learners work at least in pairs with one computer, but no more than five.

3.

-Make use of clear worksheets, guides (discovery, content or mixed guides) -Allow trainees guided 'interaction' with CALL programs -Build teachers confidence in approaching the computer and operating it with the software. -Encourage questions from the audience, even those questions which may be seen as 'silly'. At this stage 169

every little detail is of great importance for the trainees. 4.

-Introduce good and bad CALL programs. -Encourage criticism from the teachers about the software in use. -Provide a context for evaluating the programs demonstrated and worked. -Insist in the role of the teacher, as the person who has to cope with the new demands in this field.

5.

-Introduce work with authoring programs -Promote and suggest ways of discussion -Encourage and suggest ways for follow up activities and project work.

6.6. Computer literacy 6.6.1. Attitudes towards computers The arrival of the information revolution and the development of technology have prompted teachers to think about the possibilities of using technology-based tools for language teaching and learning. Teachers who traditionally used books, charts, chalk and boards or more technical things like tape recorders, projectors, video and language labs, now have been called upon to use computers for language practice in and off classroom bases. This sudden change has led to scepticism among educators in general who often question the value of the newly introduced technology. Since computers started being used for scientific purposes, many people probably have the wrong idea of their use and the incidence in classroom behaviour. In the area of CALL teachers usually link the use of computers with the Programmed Instruction era of CALL in which the computer was used for drill-and-practice tasks not much different from text-based activities. The learners in a CALL scenario are usually seen working individually with one computer during drill and practice exercises, fairly similar to some extent to the activities that lead to the decline of language labs (students left alone listening in language lab booths). Unfortunately, language labs during the sixties and seventies were directly linked to audiolingualism (and this may be one the reasons for their decline). Computers and CALL on the other hand have the initial advantage of being compatible with a wide variety of approaches, methods and techniques in language teaching and learning. 6.6.2. Computers and the language teacher The idea of the machine replacing the language teacher is not new. During the fifties and sixties the teachers striking idea was that language laboratories were to replace them. This perhaps was understandable since teaching practice reflected the behaviouristic model in which the role of the teacher was a nearly-perfect-answer elicitor for the sake of practice and consequently the language lab was seen in this model as a drill-and practice setting. However, the arrival of new methodologies like communicative language learning, community language learning, and Silent Way to the field had widened the scope teachers had about language teaching. This has given the teacher a more humanistic and creative role to which computers alone cannot cope with. Contrary to what teachers fear about technology-based learning, there is a lot more to do than ever for the teachers as long as the teacher role is not associated to that of the computer. 170

6.6.3. Technophobia Language teachers are also afraid of the introduction and use of technology for people may see them as technicians or computer experts and not as teachers. Some of these fears are based on the approach of having an engineer, or systems expert introduce these materials in language teaching contexts, especially where very little or no teacher training has been considered. Teachers are to be concerned with the practical and creative use of computers not too much about learning mathematics, programming, computer science, or engineering. The real pedagogical use of the new technology in language teaching and learning has to be considered first. Another area of concern that leads to technophobia is the fact that CALL is not problem free, technically speaking. Teachers may find problems in using computers or in seeing computers being used. Although most of the time it is not the machine to be blamed but its misuse. Fortunately, appropriate teacher training in CALL will provide teachers with experience for solving these problems. Dogmatism within CALL therefore would not be appropriate if we as teachers are considering the potential of the machine to improve teaching and learning, seeking not for a unique way of using computers in language learning but using it as a flexible resource that may fit different teaching and learning contexts and approaches. It is here where the teacher recovers importance as the organiser, provider, and supporter of learning contexts by using CALL, thus enriching his role as a 'teacher'. Consequently, the work in CALL should not be regarded as an end in itself but as a means to achieve more and better opportunities for learning. The teacher, therefore, plays a crucial role in CALL, as we have seen previously, especially in the beginning stages of the introduction of CALL to achieve more learner independence, and learner autonomy through collaborative learning, exploration, and self-access. Finally, it may also constitute a danger to consider CALL as a solution to all problems in language teaching and learning, as well as considering CALL wholeheartedly as a method without reflecting on its use; its capabilities and limitations, and especially the creativity for classroom work and flexibility for self-access learning the teacher has to provide for. 6.7. Computer-assisted language learning: a proposal This initial proposal aims at suggesting one way in which Information Technology in the form of CALL could be integrated into the foreign language curriculum of the licenciatura programs in Colombia. This task can be carried out as the sub-project within the COFE project in order to support and improve the learning and teaching of English which is one of its main objectives. 6.7.1. CALL in the language curriculum At international level we know that many English programs -as well as Native language programs- have introduced some form of CALL in their curricula. This implies that there has to be some kind of organisation, planning and structure of this new academic element. Planning, course design, materials design, testing, evaluation, assessing as well as a good doses of knowledge in computers has to be taken into account for this type of implementation. 171

There is a world-wide trend to initiate the first steps into what is called technologically-based aids to learning, and therefore we can suggest a pedagogically oriented CALL, that is, a variety of innovative language-learning activities. We can get to know new tools and new environments for learning, and consequently new language learning strategies. This has to lead to changes in terms of learner independence, since CALL can start as part of classroom work. Then CALL could be well found in language learning centres or resource centres. In CALL we can also combine teaching with research on learning in this new field keeping track of what learners do in order to get to know more about the learning process. We need to understand in what ways technology-based materials, can facilitate language learning. And this is a task that might be undertaken by teachers, administrators and students since most of the reports on CALL are basically anecdotal and do not have an empirical basis. There is a wide range of interdisciplinary research in this area and we can take advantage of the research experiences on second and foreign language acquisition and learning in the 60's and 70's in order to make a more consistent and profitable work. 6.7.2. CALL, Self-Access, and Autonomous Learning One of the ways of enriching and supporting the language curriculum and promoting independent learning is through the appropriate use of Information technology represented in CALL as in or out of classroom. However, it is important to consider that technology-based learning, whether it is integrated into the language curriculum or used as a self-access system is not to be taken as a panacea or even worse as a complete substitution of classroom instruction. It has to start as supplementary work of what is done in the classroom, and this is especially considered during the first stages of CALL introduction into the language curriculum. The concerns and questions to be asked before thinking of introducing new technology in the language curriculum are, among others: -How and to what extent can Information technology be introduced into the language curriculum? -To what extent can it be introduced to support educational goals? -What is the most appropriate technology? -How is the new technology going to be used? -How effective is it for language learning?

6.7.3. Appropriate technology and effective learning Another area of concern not only for teachers but for curriculum developers, course designers and course evaluators is the effectiveness of CALL. So we can start asking ourselves How and to what extent can IT in the form of CALL contribute to enriching the language curriculum and therefore enhancing and improving language learning? The answer to this question will have to be dealt in the process of before, and during the process of introduction of CALL. In general terms we can say that an appropriate integration of CALL into the language curriculum would be able to achieve the following goals: -Provide the means for achieving some degree of computer literacy for teachers and students 172

-Familiarise teachers and students with the demands of IT in language learning as part of the education scheme -Give ownership to teachers and students to the use of computers for language learning. -Provide teachers with different modes for language teaching. -Provide students with different modes for language learning. -Provide teachers with the context for doing research in language learning through CALL.

6.7.4. Conditions for CALL integration into the language curriculum In order to achieve the above-mentioned goals and for the successful implementation of CALL there are some conditions that must be fulfilled. 1. Resources: In order to achieve educational goals in IT, there must be a minimum of resources available. These include physical facilities as well as the hardware (computers) and the software (computer programs). 2. Training: Teacher training is a key factor in approaching a successful CALL implementation into the language curriculum. As we have seen throughout this document, teachers are the first to be acquainted with the good use of Information Technology so that their learners can learn from them. 3. Funding Funds are necessary not only to implement the resource centres (hardware, software and materials acquisition) but also to promote materials production and research in the near future. The 'Secretarías de Educación', ICFES, ICETEX, and the Colombian Universities involved could fund the initial implementation. This could be done to enrich the new Resource Centres created by the COFE project. 6.7.5. CALL in the Colombian foreign language programmes An important area that deserves especial attention comes from the new Colombian Constitution from 1991. It contemplates that every member of society has the right to access information and therefore the right to access education (Colombian Constitution, art. 67). However, education and therefore some forms of accessing information have somehow been changed by the information revolution in terms of how it is handled and used. We are probably facing in education something similar to what happened during the industrial revolution where the means of production and the concept of the very production were changed. In Colombia there are some institutions of higher education that have initiated some sort of introduction to "computers in language teaching and learning" with their new language programs. This is not only true for the language program but also for most of the careers and specialisation at undergraduate and graduate levels in the country. However, most of the programs consider this introduction as a part of the knowledge that future professionals need to have in order to deal with their future computerised activities. For the sake of language teaching and learning the use of computers have to serve a different purpose: to constitute a 173

pedagogical and learning-based platform. Some of the reasons and justification for setting up a CALL-based component in the language programs are the following, among others. In the first place, the technological requirements are already available. Almost every university in Colombia has a computer room which can be used as a first instance to apply CALL in an introductory stage. However, the language departments in each institution in the near future will have to consider the implementation of a computer laboratory, a specifically designed room as a self-access centre where learners will have to cope with the technologically-based pedagogy. Second, the government and its new policies of openness and change in education will have to facilitate the introduction of this type of Educational Technology, not only for the language programs but also for the majority, if not all, of the basic areas in education. Third, learners seem to be enthusiastic (according to my experience using CALL materials: their reactions and performance) about the possibility of using computers to satisfy their learning needs and interests. Computer-aided activities have been beneficial elsewhere in order to facilitate the first contact with the computer, and computer programs are, contrary to widely held beliefs, not at all limited to drill and practice approaches but can be fitted into a communicative approach to language learning. Four, there is a wide range of materials production in the realm of CALL. Teachers and students will have to learn at least an authoring language, if not the basics of a programming language, in order, to develop materials for their students. Not all what is commercially produced is pedagogically sound for applying to language teaching and learning. Therefore, future teachers will have to become proficient in handling a computer language to accommodate their materials with their students’ needs. 6.7.5.1. Justification Much of the justification for introducing new technology in the language curriculum comes from the relative success other areas in education have experienced in using it. Other curricula like math, engineering, physics, etc. have included the use of computers as part of the teachers and students work. Also, in other areas at university level, computers have been used for demonstrations, presentations and workshops as classroom work for instructional purposes. Furthermore, we can find that in other fields of human activity, like business, and administration, computers have widely and progressively been used. But most importantly, the demands of using computers for educational purposes come in the form of the pressure from the very society at large. It is by no means unknown that many people whether at work or at home, for educational or professional reasons use computers to some degree. Children, teenagers and young adults are familiarising and integrating their daily 174

activities with computers at home and therefore getting acquainted with some form of computer literacy. Therefore, computers are involved in the Information Technology (IT) in almost every aspect of human activity included education. Thus the availability of the technology in education means that one of its subsets, that is, the language curriculum will have to include the use of computers as a support in language teaching and learning: CALL. 6.7.5.2. Objectives The main objective of this process will be to support and improve language learning and language teaching in the language curriculum. Other, more specific objectives are: -To introduce the component of Computer-assisted Language Learning in our language programs and make courseware available for teachers and students. -To develop more autonomous learning activities with CALL as a supplement of classroom work and towards selfaccess learning. -To train the future language teachers into the pedagogically-appropriate use of IT and CALL. -To evaluate the use of CALL and its materials. -To do research as the basis for pedagogical practice of CALL.

6.7.6. Stages within the CALL project This project is intended to introduce CALL in the Colombian language programs and can be proposed in three steps: the introductory stage, the operational stage and integrational stage. 6.7.6.1. The introductory stage Before introducing CALL in the language programs, not only for pedagogical purposes but also for empirical research, we need to convince our colleagues of the importance of considering CALL as an alternate and supplementary form of language learning and autonomous learning. This can be done by means of conferences, seminars, workshops, and demonstrations. Teachers and administrators are to be the first ones in getting to know about CALL. Furthermore, we need to contact more people interested in this area by means of a periodical publication which will serve of channel of communication among teachers and the community at large. 6.7.6.2. The operational stage This stage will start once teachers and administrators at their institutions are aware of the need to explore the potential of computers for language learning. The fact that there is no dogmatic prescription saying that CALL has to be done in any certain way can open up the possibility for some systematic attempts at exploring CALL in our system. 6.7.6.3. Objectives of this stage -To enhance the pedagogical strategies used by the teacher. -To develop new learning strategies. -To serve as a point of reflection in terms of the way we want our educational system to change using technology appropriately. -To do exploratory research in foreign language learning. 175

-To form links with other institutions, teachers, students and researchers, reporting on weaknesses and strengths of the process.

6.7.6.4. The integrational stage This stage will arrive when all the previous aspects of CALL are put into practice within the curricula with the language programs, and a unified and systematic approach of implementation of CALL can be agreed upon. At this stage the first attempts at doing research will be consolidated. Research and experimentation will be the basis for enriching the pedagogical field of CALL. 

Centre and working bases The project can be initially a centralised process, each base located in each University which will be involved in the project and which will report to the centre base. 

Resources Centres Each base at each university will have a resource centre, where computers, software, and personnel will be available for working and directing the CALL component. These resource centres will have two functions: -Teacher training bases in the use of computers for language learning. -Vehicles of transformation of the members of the community interested in CALL activities.

6.7.6.5. The project's committee Since there has to be some kind of organisational structure, the project could be operated by a committee which will be in charge of starting the work at each institution or base, that is, at each university (language department, faculty of education, language school etc.) Some of the tasks of this committee are, among others: -Collect and compile information (research and experiential literature) about CALL -Provide technical expertise on aspects related to CALL -Schedule seminars, conferences, workshops and demonstrations about CALL -Inform the community about the progress of the project by means of a periodical publication (i.e. CALL newsletter) -Get informed about possible acquisition of CALL resources -Collect and organise reference books, articles, periodicals, software and guides for information.

CONCLUSION There is always a danger when considering the introduction of new technology in education and in any particular area. Here, a real danger is that speed and apparent inevitability of the technological invasion will persuade teachers that they no longer have a stake in decisions about the future of schools and education. This is however far from accurate. It can be argued with considerable force, as we have tended to demonstrate throughout this document that teachers must continue to see their role as that of shaping and directing both the pace and the direction of the pedagogically-oriented introduction of computers in the classroom and off176

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CHAPTER VII: THE USE OF VIDEO IN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND TEACHER TRAINING Video is to the spoken word what the book or newspaper is to the written word. (Coleman, 1990)

7. 1. Introduction It cannot be denied that technology at present times is everywhere, including schools, and that our generation is turning into a generation of technology. Youngsters' generations are computer or video technology driven. We are beginning to understand its dangers and its potentials. As our understanding of technology evolves, and the nature and power of the technology available to children develops, we will be more able to judge how to best employ it in supporting students learning. Changes in education demand that instinctive and implicit modes of teaching become more planned and explicit, that is to say, refocused. Activities can be much the same as before, but there is the need for teachers to look at them with different eyes. There is the need to plan opportunities to assess and to plan for focuses on specific modes of language at various times and to plan for progression, the need to use and provide experience with technology. Technology is an additional aspect which teachers need to consider in planning for learning. Technology is commonly defined as the systemic application of usually scientific knowledge to achieve a particular purpose. The term educational technology is at one extreme used to refer to the application of hardware such as filmstrip or slides projectors, audio-lab, OHP, audio or video cassette recorder, or computers to education. The film strip today seems to have become more like a museum piece with the advent of more advanced media such as interactive video or multimedia (Thomas 1987). This concept is still rather limited. It implies the application of the products of other technologies, namely electronics, to education rather than the application of knowledge to the systemic design of education. Video as an audio-visual is then considered as an element of educational technology. In this section of working document 5 we will deal with the use of video; the implications and effects it may have in language teaching, teacher and In-service training. We will also look at the potential of using authentic, satellite television and films, as the current major sources for video materials in English language teaching. We intend to treat Video as an integrative audio-visual aid. Integrative used in several ways. Firstly, because it integrates the visual image, audio and movement; this makes video a more motivating teaching aid. The richness of the coloured visual images along with movement adds potential to attract learner's attention and increase motivation, leading her to feel at ease in the language production stage. Secondly, it can be used as a means for natural and unconscious integration of the four language skills and a variety of sub-skills. Thirdly, it can serve the purpose of integrating language and subject areas, too, for instance PE & language, Science and language or language and Maths. The main issues for the selection of video as part of the project framework are feasibility, availability, scope and potential of the use of technology for language teaching purposes in the implementation of the project in Colombia. Currently the use of video is more feasible in the 180

Colombian educational system. It is now possible to obtain some commercially published video materials, most of which include teacher and student video guides. Moreover, several cities and some major towns have access to either or both satellite and cable television. Video playing facilities are more accessible in households and educational institutions, owing to the fact that rapid development of technology has resulted in lowering cost too. The fact that the satellite and cable channels broadcast some programmes in English makes video more accessible not only for classroom work, but also as self-access material. Having these points of view in mind, we now proceed to present a rationale for the use of video in English language teaching and teacher training. 7.2. Definition of the term video The term video is nowadays widely used by different people to refer to different things (Pennington, 1991). The basic reason for using the term video with different connotations is the videocassette format. On this format today we can find anything related to sound-visual image from a mere few seconds home video to a commercial clip announcing a product, a feature film, and to an educational programme which could yet last up to an hour. The general public refers to Video to mean video entertainment movies or even the playback equipment. Educators to segments ranging from a few minutes or even seconds to up to fifteen minutes or a maximum of half hour duration and to video cassette material supporting textbooks or that can stand on its own. Publicists, show-business people and businessmen refer to video as an extremely short video clip or the video that accompanies a song; that promotes an artist or a commercial product. Video clips are also used in a diversity of campaign types and are also referred as video. For our purposes, video is used in the broad sense, which even includes its interpretation as a feature film, but being used in short segments or sequences for teaching purposes. 7.3. Rationale The perspective that in the 1990's technology is at a turning point (Hawkridge, 1991) is, by no means, far from Colombian reality. The changes introduced during the previous government established a new national constitution which has therefore enforced interesting and challenging changes and adjustments in all domains of society. The Ley General de la Educación among other things encourages the teaching of information technology and foreign languages, in accordance with today's view that individuals should be literate in information technology (Computers and the like), and at least in one foreign language to compete professionally in an era of open markets and change. Learning takes place through the different senses. Teaching aids combining sound and visuals have been given the name of audio-visual aids because they are associated with hearing and sight. In language learning, learners receive and perceive information and knowledge, basically through the sight and hearing senses. It is for this reason that in language teaching there has always been a tendency to use audio-visual aids. Given this context, we will be referring to Video, as an important audio-visual aid somewhat associated to broadcast media technology. It 181

offers great potential for English language work associated with modern views of learning that consider learning as a means of developing cognitive and linguistic processes, developing more independent and creative learners. Developing cognitive process because by means of the moving visual image and sound, video stimulates process that require the learner to apply previous knowledge of the world and his mental interaction to interpret what is heard or seen. In the development of linguistic processes, it helps the learner to distinguish and match what language forms are more appropriate according to social interaction contexts presented in the video sequence. Video helps develop a creative learner in that by using inferences and predictions, he can elaborate on possible situational outcomes, by means of applying and associating previous life experience and knowledge. Audio-visual aids such as tape/slide presentations originally derived from behaviourist assumptions of the 1960'. But with the advent of a wealth of multimedia technologies modern teaching aids have more to offer to both teachers and learners (Haven, 1993), although they can distract attention from its true role, which is to enhance and support learning. According to some authors current books and materials on educational and information technology have led to a certain degree of confusion among educators about the roles of educational technology and the roles of teachers and learners. Technology aids are simply powerful resources that should be harnessed to meet curriculum needs and achieve specific goals. They should be seen as ‘servants’ (Hagen, ibid) of the curriculum rather than its masters, and their place in the curriculum is to respond to the learners' interests and needs. They help raise motivation, introduce variety and innovation and above all, they provide authentic real language situations contextualising socio-cultural aspects of the target language. Aids are intended to help teachers and instructors carry out their job more efficiently and creatively. It is an interesting fact to note here that the effects of instruction through different media and technologies are not the same for all types of learners. Basic research carried out in relation to the effectiveness of different types of materials and instructional technology argues that most teaching aids can perform many instructional functions (See Jane Willis 1883, Ellington and Race 1993). Some aids are better at achieving certain objectives than others. For instance, in showing aspects of socio-cultural differences such as acceptable social behaviour and language in action, video is more meaningful than a still picture or slide projection. Techniques such as close up make meaning more relevant to the learner in explaining biological or chemical processes or movement of mechanical parts (Coleman, 1990). Research has shown that no single medium is best for all purposes, regardless of learning tasks, individual learner traits, curriculum or learning setting. Ellington and Race (ibid) quoting Clark and Salomon (1986) argue that wherever possible more than one aid should be used, and that the instructional task should be matched with the appropriate aid. After outlining the rationale and defining the given to the term video, we now move to analyse some of the sources of video materials. 7.4. Sources of video materials 182

TASK 1 1

IF YOU WERE TO MAKE A SELECTION OF SOURCES OF VIDEO MATERIALS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING PURPOSES, YOU WOULD CHOOSE: (TICK YOUR CHOICE) TV Programmes Commercially produced video Own made video-recordings Other Specify:

2

____ ____ ____ ____ ____

GIVE SOME REASON FOR YOUR CHOICE (S)

In this section we will look at some of the different sources of video materials, such as commercially made teaching videos, satellite and cable TV programmes, and films. Video has become an important teaching aid, of great appeal among language teachers for several reasons. Firstly, there is now reasonable amount of materials in the market while the availability of supporting teacher and student video guides is on the increase. Secondly, the competition in the ELT publishing market has brought prices down and improved quality. Thirdly, the rapid development of telecommunications has brought satellite and cable television broadcast alternatively in English and Spanish to many households in the country. There are basically three ways of obtaining video materials for language teaching and training: Commercially made, off-air, and films. 7.4.1. Commercially made video Published videos are designed mostly to accompany or reinforce course book work. Now, however with the decreasing cost there is a reasonable amount in the Colombian market. In previous years it did not make them very accessible neither to schools, teachers nor to individuals. Materials in this category are probably the handiest for classroom work. These materials aim at presenting functions in context and developing the 4 language skills. They come with practical guides for the teacher and workbooks for the student. Others are language video courses themselves. The language in most of these materials is generally not considered authentic because it has been scripted to suit specific teaching purposes. Although there are several series in the market, especially in the ESP field that are based on authentic television programmes such health, science or the environment. Lavery (1984), Allan (1985) and Strange & Strange (1991) have made extensive reviews of existing ELT video materials, most of which can be bought in Colombia. Strange et al is the most recent one hence the most comprehensive. 7.4.2. Off-air or authentic television materials. 183

This kind of materials is perhaps the easiest and cheapest to have access to in Colombia because telecommunications are rapidly improving through satellite, making it easier to access satellite and cable television broadcast from foreign countries at many households around the country. With the variety of channels, it is possible not only to receive broadcast from other Latin American countries, but also from the United States and Europe. This means that some channels like Disney, Discovery, HBO or Cinemax, for example, can be watched in English or even in French (TV5). Some of the programmes in these channels offer the advantages of subtitles either in English; such is the case of the Disney channel programmes, or in Spanish like HBO, the Movie Channel or Cinemax. When these kinds of programmes are recorded for later classroom use, they are called off-air materials. For the purpose of language teaching these are authentic materials. 7.4.3. Films Not long ago films were referred to as 16 mm, super 8 and 35 mm according to their format, and also to the length of presentation. Now, with the wave of technological gadgetry, the era of Betamax, VHS and Camcorders, the distinction is not as clear as it used to be before. Today, a film soon after its release to the cinemas can also be obtained on videocassette format. In this document they will be considered as a video. For educational and language teaching purposes, films carry most of the same characteristics of television, thus their potential as authentic video materials. By using material taken from authentic television programmes the learning process may be enhanced by the fact of their topicality, and feeling of involvement of the learner in what is actually taking place in the world around us. Satellite television also promotes and international perspective on life, broadening horizons, building cultural bridges between nations and bringing a closer possibility of a transnational learning community (Pinnington, 1992). There are other kinds of materials that although not easy to obtain suit language teaching purposes; specialised materials either from satellite, cable or industry. These are becoming more and more popular, especially through demonstration, although the language used in these ones is authentic. They may be obtained from industry, Embassies or information or cultural offices, or the producing company itself as National Geographic, for instance. These programmes are usually structured in format and style, appearing to be more static in its development of action than a television programme. The language format followed is usually narrative and descriptive The effective use of authentic (television) materials is largely a matter of teacher presentation. Hill (1991) argues that the value of these materials is increased when the task demands a more active interface between the learner and what goes on on the screen. The visual elements provided by television have to become a support to comprehension with their seductive, sometimes distracting elements filtered out. Viewing television is leisure and relaxing activity. Thus the activities designed to exploit a television programme in the language classroom have the need to re-tune the learner's focus on what is said and seeing in order to undertake the linguistic exploitation of the programme. The key to successful exploitation of any mediums lies 184

in the way in which the material is used and is not directly related to the content and presentation of the programme. A mediocre television programme may be turned into an effective learning tool or vice versa. 7.5. Advantages of using authentic television as video material

TASK 2 IN YOUR OPINION, WHAT ARE SOME OF THE FEATURES THAT AUTHENTIC TELEVISION OFFERS FOR THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOM?

During the last 10 years several writers have referred to the value of having access to authentic television as video materials and its advantages. Among them we could mention: Bouman (1986, 1990), Allan, (1985), Cooper et al (1991). All of them have contributed to build up a check list of advantages. Stempleski et al (1990, 1992) have also contributed to build up the list found below * It is attractive and motivating due to the factor that it combines the visual moving image and sound, creating a sense of participation in the learning process _____ * It is more in accordance to current educational syllabuses because its topicality. _____ * Its topicality fosters involvement in what is currently taking place in the world around us_____ * It promotes international perspective of life, broadening horizons, building cultural bridges between nations.____ * Brings closer possibilities of a transnational learning community. ______ * Has become a useful tool in bringing language learning to life. ______ * Provides great potential for a wider range of skills exploitation ______ * Provides paralinguistic cues essential to comprehension and accurate understanding. ______ * Contextualises visual socio-cultural characters of a target country, hence of the target culture. ______ * Helps teachers maintain their own linguistic skills. ______ * Ensure teacher's familiarisation with political, socio-economic cultural development in the country where the language is spoken ______

TASK 3 CLASSIFY THE PRECEDING LIST OF ADVANTAGES OF AUTHENTIC TELEVISION INTO THE 3 FOLLOWING CATEGORIES: CULTURAL, LANGUAGE LEARNING, LINGUISTIC. ADD ANY OTHER CATEGORY YOU FIND USEFUL

7.6. Advantages of video over other types of audiovisual aids In outlining the advantages of authentic television we listed a number of characteristics of television. These characteristics are common to video, in the sense that we are using it here. 185

Video, as an audio-visual aid used in language teaching can stand on its own. It offers a great potential to promote and develop language concepts in a variety of ways. Examples will be described in the section approaches to video. The multi-sensory implications of sound and moving images together combine the power of both to create a 'mental picture' in the learner and to attract and hold an audience's undivided attention. It also makes the learner more ready to communicate in the target language, becoming a crucial element in language and oral communication development and production (Zuluaga, 1992). What we consider most valuable of the use of video is that it provides opportunities for the exploitation of the 4 language skills such as listening as well as the development of cognitive skills e.g. inferring, analysing, and linguistic skills .Moreover, video facilitates the integration of language subjects in the curriculum; the four skills can be practised through each one of the three phases described below. It can be used at all levels, and with a variety of approaches. It can trigger more receptive and productive activities than any other medium. Current research has identified that the use of video lessens tension attitude towards the teacher and materials, enhancing classroom language acquisition. The visual element of video provides uniquely full information. On the speakers, the communicative context and the non-verbal or paralinguistic elements of exchange-posture, gesture, facial expression, the visible lip movement add information for maximum comprehensibility. Some aspects to consider when using video are: room size and location of the screen are very important. The room should not be either very long or very wide, unless a beam projector is used, otherwise the screen image may not be big enough to the viewer. Make sure before showing it on the equipment to be used that the quality of copies or home-made produced material are technically suitable for viewing (sound and image). Loose wiring or wrong plugging may cause equipment failure to operate appropriately. All of the above mentioned factors should be looked after for a motivating, relaxed and effective viewing. 7.7. Approach to the use of video in language teaching

TASK 4: 12-

THINK OF SOME WAYS IN WHICH VIDEO MAY BE USED IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM AND MAKE A LIST OF THEM. BASED ON YOUR LIST WHICH 3 POSSIBLE ACTIVITIES MAY BE CARRIED OUT AND WHICH SKILLS YOU THINK ARE PRACTISED WITH THEM?

We now move on to present an approach for using video in the English language classroom, in teacher and In-service training. 186

The most commonly known approach to the use of video in the classroom (see e.g. Williams, 1984) it’s his three phases approach to language teaching: Pre-, While- and Post-phases. Currently this approach is extensively applied to language teaching materials for each one of the four skills. During each one of the phases or stages the skills development aims may vary, and there is a broad scope of possibilities for language work on individual or integrated skills and sub-skills. It can be followed to its `full extend when using video, too. With the power of the visual moving and coloured image and sound video already offers three possibilities of work: playing it with or without sound and a combination of the two. A combination of the possibilities provides a wealth of activities and involvement on the part of the learners, allowing opportunities for work and development of bottom-up and top down processing strategies (Nunan, 1991: 4). The former focus learners on individual components of spoken or written messages; that is, phonemes, graphemes, individual and grammatical elements, which need to be understood in order to decode these messages. The latter focus learner's attention on macro-features of the text such as the writer's and speaker's purpose, the overall structure of the text, the topic of the message and so on. Another consideration that should be taken into account when using video is the length. Using short segments or sequences is the most recommended procedure by video users. Watching the video in sequences no longer than 3 to 5 minutes is most advisable. Careful selection of segments, using the pause, rewind and fast forward facilities of the video player permits the teacher and the learner himself to extensively work on elicitation, prediction, inference and brainstorming; actively involving the learner in analysis, interpreting presupposing the actions, situations and possible outcomes. In doing so the learner is required to go through the process of associating, comparing and contrasting real life previous expediencies with what is seen and heard in the video. In the case of a documentary or feature films, longer segments are probably more adequate, but again, it depends of the objectives set for watching the video. 7.7.1. Pre-viewing. Pre-viewing is the stage at which activities are carried out before the viewing of the video actually starts. These activities generally centred on the title and other visual marks. They can be aimed at developing either anyone or several of the four skills. This stage in basically motivational; to make the learner feel interested in what he is going to see; to find out how much the learner knows about the topic of the video. Finally, it is a pre-teaching vocabulary and key content, concepts or language introduction stage. During this phase speaking and writing may be practised as well as the following sub-skills: predicting, brainstorming, guessing, describing among others. These activities may be aimed at either to developing speaking and or writing, through which the learner puts into practice previous language concepts and develops the need for new concepts, in which case the teacher has the opportunity to provide him with the new language needed, reinforce or review previously taught concepts.

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7.7.2. While viewing During this stage the activities take place once the viewing of the video has started. During this stage, listening as a macro skill is added to the practice and work done, on speaking and possibly writing, during the pre-viewing phase. Focus is perhaps more centred on the combination of receptive (listening) and on productive (speaking) skills. The sub-skills practised here may be: debating, discussing, watching for information, note-taking, critical thinking, justifying, information transfer, matching, arranging, re-arranging, discriminating sorting information, descriptions, sequence of events and processes; close and gap filling exercises, evaluating along with the other ones. 7.7.3. Post-viewing At this phase the activities take place after viewing the video. They serve the purpose of expanding, elaborating, complementing or consolidating the exploitation phase. It could be said that during the last stage of this approach, focus may be on speaking, and writing as while reading may be introduced in more depth. This last stage can be made the most productive one depending on the purpose set for the use of the video. Work here can be centred on sub-skills like: researching for project work (see e.g. Zuluaga, 1993) as an expansion and reinforcement activity. It may also serve to integrate not only skills but language and subjects of the curriculum through projects. Several sub-skills related to writing may be listed here: writing the story or creating a similar one, writing summaries, writing to ask for information (letter writing), and composition on a related topic. In regards to speaking, the video viewing may aim at organising debates, forums, presentations derived from the topic, in order to foster construction of knowledge as Arévalo et al (1994) in WD4 propose. One could say that post-viewing activities stimulate the transfer of skills to a deeper extend (Coleman, 1992). If we go back analysing the three phases approach to the use of video, we can conclude that during each one of the phases more than one activity or a combination of several of them may be carried out, and that this work can be focused on exploiting one or several of the skills. To summarise this section we will attempt to classify a number of the activities mentioned in the description of the three different phases, according to the four skills: SPEAKING Anticipation Prediction Debating Eliciting Contrasting

LISTENING Sorting Ranking Discriminating Inferring Retelling

READING Matching Concluding Researching

WRITING Applying Synthesising Summarising Contrasting

These of course are not all mutually exclusive; summarising for example could be based purely on speaking skills.

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TASK 5 CAN YOU THINK OF OTHER ACTIVITIES TO ADD TO THE PREVIOUS CLASSIFICATION?

Some technical a) and methodological b) suggestions on selecting and using video can be made now. a) Technical/organizational: * Familiarise with equipment and make full use of counter, freeze frame, rewind and fast-forward, sound on/off facilities. * Keep a card attached to the videocassette case with notes on exercise type, activates, brief description of language structures and content. * Have video set right at the starting point. Locating it once the class has started shows lack preparation and loses learners' potential motivation b) Methodological * Vary the activities from class to class, and use video 1 in 4 classes. * Follow a regular class framework: pre/while and post activities. * Vary the programmes in use. Soap operas always follow the same framework making comprehension easier. Adverts for instance provoke imaginative exercises. * When using video bear in mind the learners' interest and abilities, and your own teaching objectives. * Keep length of video clip (segment) to a maximum of 3 minutes for an hour's work. * Think of: What is the video on use good for? What skill is most suitable to be exploited? What activities can you carry out? What's the degree of complexity in language and content according to the age group? What language functions and notions are presented? Stylistic variation: formal/informal To what degree it contributes to introduce, support or further consolidate conceptualisation and language production? Combine the use of your ideas with the one suggested by the teachers guides. (Adapted from: Coleman, 1990, & Allan, 1985)

During the last ten years there has been a wider concern for introducing video in language teaching, leading to the publication of several books and articles. The bibliography included at the end of this section is quite comprehensive, but anyone wanting to know the all about video should be familiar with Lonergan, Willis, Allan, Cooper et al, Gueddes, and Stempleski et al. ELTJ and English Teaching Forum magazines carry at least one or two article a year. Stempleski et al (1990) and Cooper et al (1991) are good sources of ideas for a large variety of activities. The former a recipe book while the latter views video from three different angles: What to do with video, Video-taping the Course book and making your own videos.

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ASK 6: DRAWING ON THE ANALYSIS SO FAR MADE IN THIS DOCUMENT ON THE USE OF VIDEO IN ELT: 1 2 3

WHAT DO YOU THINK THE ROLE OF VIDEO IN TEACHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING? WHAT SOURCES OF VIDEO FOR TEACHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING CAN YOU THINK OF? THINK OF ONE OF THESE SOURCES; HOW DO YOU CONSIDER IT CAN BE USED IN TEACHER TRAINING?

7.8. Video in teacher training In the preceding sections we have attempted to analyse what prospects video offers for the language classroom, its characteristics and sources. Now we will be looking at its roles in teacher education and in teacher development, in-service. For language teaching purposes, video can be used through the language component of the 'Licenciatura Programmes' or pre-service stage following the 3 phases approach described in the previous section. By doing so two goals may be achieved. One is that the trainee teacher is familiarised with a way of using video in the classroom. The second will be more in accordance with the proposal of introducing the methodology component at early stages made in Discussion document 1 by Bastidas et al (1991). In the case of pre-service the methodology component may be systematically introduced by holding classroom discussions at the end of the lessons. This discussion-analysis should focus on rationalising on the procedures and activities carried out during the language teaching phase. This activity then becomes a multi-purpose activity. Firstly, it is aiming at familiarising the student with a methodology he will be expected to use in his future career. Secondly, the discussion analysis provides opportunities for further practising the language and getting to know the terminology of the field, and the underlying principles of language teaching and aims of activities and techniques they will be able to use in different kinds of lessons. In this way they start getting familiar with the know-how of the profession. The mirror effect is seen here in that skills such as analysing, discussing, evaluating, sequencing, predicting, matching classifying presented in the approach to the use of video are reflected through this activity. At more advanced stages, video can be used during observation sessions. The observation courses are aimed at familiarising the student teacher with situations he is most likely to encounter when she enters the profession. In other words it plays the role of awareness raising (Ellis, 1990: 27). At this stage video facilitates opportunities to look at a variety of teacher personalities and teaching styles. It serves as data for evaluation of practices and procedures in the light of experiences of other teachers in similar situations (Laycock & Bunnag, 1991). It becomes an objective tool in that the video may be paused and be replayed as many times as needed. Here there is another possibility of the use of video: self-awareness and self-access. Video helps to develop not only student teacher's know-how, but also to develop understanding 190

of particular issues through reflection and evaluation (Cullen, 1991). It provides trainee teachers, in pre-service and in-service, with opportunities to access a range of classrooms they could not otherwise enter. It facilitates the sharing and discussing the same experience by a number of observers, any number of times (Ellington & Race, 1993; Block, 1993), the latter especially in the case of INSET. In this way a video recording makes up for first-hand experience being available to an extremely reduced number, since one cannot have a large number of trainees sitting at the back of a class, such is the case of pre-service education.

TASK 7 LOOK BACK AT THE PREVIOUS SECTION AND MAKE A LIST AT LEAST 5 ADVANTAGES FOR THE USE OF VIDEO IN TEACHER TRAINING. THEN ADD ANY OTHERS THAT YOU THINK MAY BE INCLUDED AND ARE NOT LISTED.

Now the teacher trainer is surely faced with the problem of how and where to get video recordings for both pre-service and INSET, if she is to do so? Let us look at some possibilities before going into a more detailed description of what and how it can be done. There are a few published series in the ELT market, which are not normally in stock at popular book shops. Specialised book shops are not abundant in Colombia either. This type of published video training material consists of BBC, British Council or USIS 1video classes for ESL/EFL training on topics such as Classroom management, error correction, motivation, using aids, introducing dialogues and vocabulary, communication games. Other titles, -Anglo-school teach English and Primary English teaching are available. The latter is the most recent one of all. Some of them have been specifically prepared for the British Council use in teacher training. Block comments on arguments of teacher trainers and trainees that these kinds of films are decontextualized. They are usually selective, heavily edited and above all the camera does not look at a scene as a human would do. A second category is video not specifically made for language teaching training purposes, but may be for training in general. They can also be excerpts from television programs and films where classroom scenes take place (Block, op cit. 51). They may be useful in analysing attention-gripping, interpersonal relations or group management for instance. In the case of films excerpts, he goes on saying that other arguments are a feeling of artificiality; they do not represent the environment of real classroom situation familiar to trainees, besides they too are short and the development of the class cannot be seen entirely. The third category are the type of materials described by Cullen whereby recordings are made in the country or region with the specific purpose of collecting data for teacher training purposes. His proposal is based on a teacher training project in Egypt. He suggests that films of local teachers facilitate training 1USIS: United States Information Service.

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purposes and favours trainees identifying themselves with the teacher on the film, and with the familiar situation on display. Films of local teachers can be a way of demonstrating that success is open to anyone regardless of limited English or superficial pedagogical training; video examples should not be taken as models to copy by trainees, but rather as an example of reasonable good practice to be analysed and discussed. The following are suggestions for a procedure of how to go about making your local video: Deciding on how to make the recording will consist of basically two aspects: equipment, and the subject(s) teacher(s) to be recorded. As for the equipment your institution (university or Resource Centre) is most likely to have this facility. Otherwise a Camcorder (video-camera) may well do the job. You may have to do the recording yourself or get someone else to do it. Considerations such as lighting and sound are very important. Who to focus on, the teacher, a group of students or an individual student are important considerations as well. As for the teacher, this stage needs preparation and planning. Find (a) teacher(s) you are aware of having some reasonable good teaching characteristics. Build trust in relation to the forthcoming situation. Discuss lesson planning, programme, familiarise with his expertise and classroom environment as a whole; students’ names, seating plan and build up trust. You may need to get involved in some peer teaching to be able to collect all these data. Have trial filming with no cassette to lessen tension for real recording. Decide on recording date. When recorded, check it and do your planning for exploiting the video.

In 7.7 an approach to the use of video was discussed based on activities or tasks development through each one of the stages proposed. The task approach based on the three phases may also be applied to a video in teacher education of any of the three types of video sources above described. Activities or tasks such as ranking, analysing, evaluating, predicting, matching, sequencing, comparing, classifying, for instance, take the form of 'operations' (Ellis, ibid) which the teacher educator can ask the trainee teacher to perform based on the video recording. 1 Classifying: Which activities were directed to e.g. teaching vocabulary, developing language skills? 2 Predicting: how is the teacher going to introduce the lesson, what materials he is going to use, what question may he asks 3 Sequencing: sets of activities that took place. 4 Evaluating: how effective were the techniques and materials used, how the teacher introduced the new vocabulary, what was the students’ attitude, the student-teacher interaction, use of question types, variation of activities. 5 Comparing: a lesson plan with what went on in the video

The following is a sample of an activity. It includes an excerpt of a worksheet the teacher used in an intermediate level class with young adults using a video segment on animals.

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7.8.1. Sample activity worksheet.

TASK 1: Activity 1. Read through the worksheet for the pre-viewing activity prepared by the teacher. Pre-viewing activity Task 1. You are going to watch a video segment on animals. Work in groups of 3-4, and then carry out the following activities: Activity 1. Individually, make a list of the places, things and possible topics you expect to see or hear about in the video segment in relation to animals. Activity 2 Compare your list with your group members. Then, as a group, draw only one list. Discuss your reasons for your choice and come to an agreement.

Task 2: Activity 1 Watch the video segment for the pre-viewing activity and make notes on things you consider interesting in the development of the class. Activity 2. Discuss your with a colleague and draw conclusions. Activity 3. Based on the conclusions drawn with your colleagues, evaluate the class using the following check list. 1. Learner's participation 1.1 Learner challenge 1.2 Class involvement 1.3 Learner language using time 2. Awareness of learners 2.1 Listening to learners 2.2 Checking 2.3 Response and feedback to learners 2.3 Flexibility 3 Content management 3.1 Appropriacy of stages 3.2 Sequencing of stages 3.3 Variety 4.Teacher language 4.1 Teacher talking-time 4.2 Clarity of instructions 4.3 Level of English 193

High ____ ____ ____

Fair ____ _____ ____

Low ____ ____ ____

____ _____ _____ ____

____ ____ ____ ____

___ ___ ___ ____

___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___

4.4 Balance of Spanish to English 5. Teaching support 5.1 Blackboard 5.2 Visuals others than the video 5.3 Appropriacy

___

___

___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ (Adapted from Laycock and Bunnag, 1991)

It has been considered that a reasonable way of doing observation is by means of checklists. We expect that the ideas presented in this paper are practical and feasible to bring into practice through the use of video in teacher training and language teaching. But it is also important to note that the video models are not intended to be adopted as blue prints; rather they should be taken as examples of perfection because in teaching as in arts perfection is highly subjective and probably unattainable. They are a means of confronting trainees with a model for looking at the effect of evaluating one's own opinion and experience. The objective in observing a video should not be to imitate the teaching style or blindly copying procedures seen, but to analyse from the point of view of what is actually seen. Each teacher is an individual, the demonstrator's style of teaching may or may not be relevant to the different latent styles of trainees. 7.9. Video and self-access So far this document has discussed the feasibility of and access to video materials in English by means of technological developments in telecommunications, especially satellite and cable television. Video playback facilities have, in the meantime, become more widespread not only at household level but at educational institutions too. These factors go hand-in hand with the increasing concern in the teaching profession about self-access or individualised learning. The concept is an attractive one. It implies that learners work at their own pace and make their own choices about what and how they will study. Self-learning is not easy. If our students have access to video, they need some guidance on the teacher’s part on how to use the material independently, in order to be able to take advantage of the opportunity to increase their control of the language they are studying. Learners may have access to video viewing facilities outside the classroom, and this may happen in their own school, the school library, audio-visual unit or own home. But at self-access facilities or centres the activity of the learner is more likely to be centred on developing listening comprehension skills while in the classroom the activities are more directed to support and integrate all four skills. As an individual, a learner can derive the same benefits from an expository video sequence as could a large group, with the additional advantage of being able to stop and start the sequence at will, and replay parts of it whenever this is necessary or useful (Ellington & Race, 1993). One way the teacher can help the lone viewer (Allan, 1985:93) is by suggesting some of the techniques he has used in the classroom, trying to make her aware of the value of becoming an active viewer. Some of the suggestions may include: 194

* Playing the video in short sequences with and without sound. * Writing down predictions on the content, the situations she expects to be contained in the video; the relation between the title and the content. * Rewinding the video to check on the predictions made in earlier. * Rewinding the video to check on the pronunciation of a specific word, sentence or verb tense. * Taking notes while the video is played. * Reconstructing the video argument based on the notes taken * Pausing the video to ask him what the programme is about.

Another way in which a learner may be helped to work in a place where there are self-access facilities is: * By having summary cards attached to the videocassette case in which there is a comment on the content of the video, main language functions and notions used. * having worksheets to work based on the video, based on identification of the notions or functions, sequence of events, matching, sorting or discriminating information, for instance.

Conclusion We hope to have contributed with some ideas on the use of video both in language teaching and teacher training. We are aware of the willingness and needs of many teachers, especially those working at the Secondary school, in introducing new ideas and activities to enlighten the classroom performance and to make their teaching more effective. With the approach presented here we expect to help everyone reading the document and those in charge of teaching future training courses. The ideas have been tried out by people in different places. We are sure they will work in the Colombian medium too. Recommendations Many teachers during seminars have asked the question, what would you recommend? Where can I get a good video for my class.? The best way to overcome the problem is to get in touch with other teachers and do your best to keep in touch with people who constantly attend seminars and conference. That is a way of establishing contacts and exchanging ideas and materials participating in ASOCOPI activities. Be an active participant in the different interest groups. The Video interest group is one of them. It is a good way to continue your professional growth

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CHAPTER VIII: RESOURCE CENTRES AND OTHER LEARNING FACILITIES In previous chapters we have stressed the importance of learners' autonomy and the advantages of preparing them for self-directed learning. In this chapter, we will discuss appropriate ways of establishing self-access facilities where students can have the opportunity to engage in independent learning activities. Since new resource centres for English teachers are being created in Colombia, we will try to make useful recommendations that will help decision-makers to set up the most convenient facility for self-access in each institution. 8.1. Types of resource centres Before the resource centre is established, it is important to have a clear idea about the role it will have to play in a particular institution. Self-access centres can be loosely defined as 'any system which makes materials available to language learners so that they can choose to work as they wish, usually without a teacher or with very limited teacher support' (Sturtridge, 1992). Within this general definition, important differences may be established in the role the centre will play and, consequently, in the types of resources available. Sturtridge (1992:4) identifies four types of centres according to the roles they play in promoting learners' independence: a) The instruction centre. The focus of this type of facility is a set of well designed, programmed materials to be used by the learner in his own time, but with very little choice of content or flexibility in the methodological approach. Packages of materials are prepared in such a way that all activities are pre-planned, including testing. A teacher is not necessary, as well-produced materials will have keys and explanations for both staff and students. b) The practice centre. In this type of facility, the student is involved with work that is an extension of what is covered in class. The materials usually relate closely in grammatical and lexical level and content to the work covered by the teacher in the regular classroom. Although the student has some element of choice in terms of vocabulary or grammar, he is never allowed to wander away from a recognisable framework which gives him a sense of direction and security. c) The skill centre. This type of facility responds to the need to reinforce one particular language skill (listening, reading, for example) and will provide resources only in the skill identified as a priority for institutional development. This is the case of centres set up to cater for a large ESP population, for example. d) The learning centre. This facility is versatile enough to allow the learner to make decisions beyond what is being done in the classroom. In fact, it may be used by all kinds of learners not necessarily registered in formal courses. This type of place must provide extensive banks of materials for developing both oral and written skills, with a wide choice of exercises for all levels and different types of topics from which learners can choose according to their own interests. This type of centre is the most appropriate to promote the learner's capacity to analyse his own learning needs, to set up his learning objectives, to select adequate materials, and to practice self-evaluation. A careful choice of materials, technologies and other supporting systems is essential to ensure effectiveness in enhancing the language learning opportunities of the user.

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Another type of classification of resource centres is offered by Miller and Rogerson-Revell (1992), who describe four types of facilities, according to the organisational system they employ: a) Menu-driven. In this type of centre, all materials are classified and the information is stored electronically or in hard copy. Materials are classified according to skill, level, function, topic, etc. and are often cross-referenced. The student requires a certain amount of pre-training and practice to become an efficient user of the system. b) Supermarket. In this modality, the materials are displayed under clearly marked categories and are usually colour-coded according to level. The learner can easily gain visual access into the system and freely select materials directly from the shelves according to his needs or interests. c) Controlled-access. The learner is directed by his teacher to materials closely related to work covered in class and classified in similar ways. Learners have no control over the types of activities they have to carry out as a complement to their class. d) Open-access. This type of centre is usually part of the main library. Materials can be used by the general public besides English learners. The self-access material may be separated from the main library or it may be integrated into it, alongside materials in other languages. The user can normally gain access to the system through the library classification system or by browsing.

8.2 Setting up a resource centre It should be clear by now that, before setting up a resource centre, an institution has to make an informed decision about what type of system is most suitable for its particular situation. When planning for such an innovation, it is important to think in terms of some potential problem areas: (adapted from Sturtridge, 1992) -Where did the idea originate? If the idea has been imposed from outside or from the top, to what extent and in what way were members of staff involved in the decision-making and discussion processes? -How many of the staff will be involved in the development of materials? Teachers must be briefed as to the objectives of the centre before they can produce appropriate materials. In the modality of learning centre, for example, the amount and the variety of materials required will demand a lot of dedication from a well prepared group of teachers who must share not only the philosophical principles of the unit, but also the pedagogical principles involved in flexible learning.

Other related problems to take into consideration in the planning stages include the following questions: (adapted from Miller and Rogerson-Revell, 1991) -How will the centre affect classroom teaching? A careful evaluation must be carried out on the effect the resource centre will have on institutional policy. By providing an enriched environment for learning, a resource centre can offer a wider and more flexible range of opportunities for language use that is provided in most classrooms. On the other hand, because learners are left to work on their own, the centres can also be seen as providing language learning at a low cost, potentially substituting for direct teaching operations. There is a danger in considering a learning facility as a way of reducing costs, as a form of teacher substitute, instead of seeing the role of the teacher in a different perspective. -Does the institution have enough resources available for the type of system it wants, or can it get more resources? Starting a centre with some initial allowance of resources may be easy; making it really functional and maintaining its usefulness towards the future needs careful planning and a realistic consideration of costs. 197

-What materials have to be bought and produced for the centre? Decisions about the types of materials to be included in the unit have to do, on the one hand, with pedagogical reasons and, on the other hand, with financial availability. Buying and adapting published materials can be extremely costly; producing in-house materials requires a lot of teacher-time, which is also costly. Each institution must be able to balance the convenience of one possibility against the other. -What type of layout should the centre have? Decisions in this area will have to take into account the purpose of the centre, the role it plays in the learner's process, as an open facility or a controlled-access one, the types of materials and technologies it is going to provide. An open-access learning centre, for example, will normally include different areas to cover reference materials, listening corner, general reading area, newspapers and magazines, banks of specialised materials, audio, video and computer facilities, storage and reprographic area, secretarial and staff facilities.

We shall try and respond to some of the above preoccupations in terms of the Colombian situation. Some general recommendations will be made to facilitate the development of resource centres, but specific institutions will have to develop their own strategies for a successful operation of the facility. 8.2.1. Users A detailed needs analysis of the potential users must be carried out by means of questionnaires before the centre starts operating. Two types of learners will be likely to be the potential users in the Colombian context: 1) Initial English Teacher Trainees in undergraduate programmes. These students will probably use the centre to reinforce language competence and professional competence. A large variety of materials will be needed at several levels: grammar and vocabulary exercises, listening-speaking, reading and writing activities, reference books and dictionaries, graded readers, background readers on literature, linguistics and cultural studies. 2) In-service teachers. Besides materials for continuing language development, teachers will need to have access to supporting teaching materials, tips for teachers, teaching packages for the primary and secondary levels. If the centre is also going to be used for INSET courses and workshops, a wide variety of classified materials to support these courses will be needed. 3) Special users. In some cases there may be other types of users, as in the case of universities with a large number of students enrolled in EAP reading courses. A skill corner will then be needed with a good collection of materials selected by topic to cover different subject areas and language strategies.

8.2.2. Services Careful planning will help determine the types of services the centre will provide from the outset and others than can be incorporated as the facility grows. Usually, the centre will provide services for people in situ, but if a large number of users live far away, it may be necessary to provide a lending service of at least some types of materials. For local users there should be an adequate supply of a variety of worksheets to be used with the support of audio, video or computer systems available in the centre. 8.2.3. Resources 8.2.3.1. Learning materials. 198

The following is a list of learning resources that must be considered when setting up a centre (adapted from Rowntree, 1994) Printed materials. -Dictionaries, encyclopaedias. -Books already published for background areas -Textbooks and manuals, already published, or specially written for the centres users. -Specially written study guides to go with material already published -Specially written self-teaching guides, or 'tutorials-in-print' in the form of worksheets -Worksheets for use with printed materials. -Worksheets for use along with audiotape or videotape or computer material. -Briefing notes for untutored group activities-e.g. discussions or role-plays -Project guides, notes on assignment requirements, reading lists, etc. -Newspapers, journals and periodicals -Realia, in the form of maps, charts, photographs, posters, pamphlets, to be used as authentic material for study packages -Graded readers accompanied by audio cassettes, videos, etc. Audio-visual and technology-based material -Audio cassettes, CDs, discs -Slides -Video cassettes, interactive video packages -Computer-based training and learning packages -Multimedia (CD-based) packages

The difference between the types of materials to be found in a flexible learning centre and those used in the everyday classroom is that learning packages are designed with a specific learning purpose in mind. They will be aimed at specific learners, specific objectives, and specific competences. If they consist of more than one item, each will have a specific and separate role to play. Even if there is only one item (e.g. a worksheet), support staff may be expected to help the learners in certain specified ways. If already existing textbooks or videos or other types of materials are used, staff will customise those materials by adding a study guide that helps learners relate them to their specific needs. (Adapted from Rowntree, 1994). It is important, at this point to elaborate in a more detailed way on the different sources from which learning materials are drawn to be incorporated in the resource centre. Commercial materials. Many publishers produce books for self-study with masters that can be photocopied. Additionally, buying two copies of the same book and cutting up and laminating one of them to create individual working units, can be a fast way to make a large amount of materials available in a short time. Some texts can also be adapted to satisfy specific needs and can be used totally; or partially with accompanying worksheets. Each learning centre, however, is designed within a particular cultural and pedagogic context. There may not be suitable commercial materials available for all the areas to be covered. A reasonable alternative in these cases is to produce in-house specific materials for the centre. 199

In-house produced materials. This is a costly but desirable activity. Staff can contribute to the production of materials with their expertise and knowledge of contextual variables. They can also involve students and in-service teachers in the process. Students are not usually thought of as potential contributors to the pedagogy of the centre, although they are often involved in peripheral activities, as assistant librarians, as helpers and as caretakers of the facilities. Holec (1985) lists three requirements for self-access centres: a) an infrastructure of appropriate materials and resources; b) teachers trained in providing support and c) effective means of informing potential users about the system. Learners can be involved in these activities, thus becoming more self-reliant and responsible, more aware of their own needs and the needs of others as learners. In-house materials, besides being sometimes more appropriate for users of a particular centre than ready published materials, offer the learner the security of having something custommade, with worksheets designed for their special needs. From the perspective of design and presentation, the following features should be considered when producing in-house materials: (adapted from Carvalho, 1993: 10) -Presentation, size of page, layout format, house style, artwork, typeface. The appearance of in-house materials, with clear, well identified worksheets, with specification of level, type of activity, etc., creates a professional effect that helps identify the centre and generates a feeling of ownership in the user. -Aims. A clear statement of aims for each worksheet. This will help students decide if that particular task is suitable for their purpose -Rubric. Clarity of instructions, statement of specific objectives, general advice on the language learning activity. Instructions should be clear and standardised to help students to become familiar with them. If appropriate, there should be recommendations on how to carry out the task to improve possibilities of success. -Content. Usefulness of exercises, meaningful language input, variety of activities, sense of progression, appropriateness. Some questions that the writer may ask herself when preparing materials are: - Is the material suitable for students working on their own? - Is the exercise useful for the purpose it was created? - Is there enough variety of activities? - Will the learner feel a sense of progression? - Will he have clear feedback on his performance? - Is there a clear indication of what to do next? -Record-keeping. Student record, teacher record, material record. Student records can be in the form of diaries or record sheets that can be designed according to a pre-arranged study programme suggested by the teacher, proposed by the student, or agreed upon by both through a contract. Teacher records can take the form of logs where entries are made every time the student reports the completion of a task or a set of tasks. -Feed-back. Answer keys, motivation, follow up activities. Answer keys can be provided at the back of the worksheet for questions that require a fixed answer. When the questions proposed require an open-ended answer, one way of giving feedback is to provide model answers or approximate answers, or by having the students reflect on the process and assess their own performance, thus creating at the same time a greater sense of responsibility. Yoke and Brown (1994) propose a checklist for assessing a speaking activity that requires open-answers: 200

Feedback for individual work Listen to your recording. If there is no recording, reflect on what you have said and answer the following questions: 1. Was it difficult to do the activity? 2. Could you keep talking without a lot of pausing? 3. Did you have problems with pronunciation? 4. Were there any words that you didn't understand?

Feedback for pair work Listen to your recording. If there is no recording, reflect on what your partner said and answer the following questions: 1. Could you understand what your partner said? 2. Did your partner pause a lot when talking? 3. Was it difficult to understand your partner's pronunciation? 4. Did your partner use the right words?

-Practicalities. Classification systems, master files, record of what is being used. The classification system must be simple and consistent for everyone to follow. Levels can be indicated by colour, types of activities by symbols, initials, etc.

From the pedagogical perspective, it is convenient to have clear guidelines for producing materials. At a macro level, Rowntree (1994) proposes the following route map for materials preparation that can be used for open distance and flexible learning situations: Stage 1

Profile your learners

Planning Agree aims and objectives Outline the content Choose your media Plan learner support

Consider existing materials

Stage 2 Preparing for writing

Weigh up resources and constraints Sequence your ideas Develop activities and feedback Find examples Think ghraphics Decide on access devices Consider physical format

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Stage 3 Writing and rew riting

Start your first draft Complete and edit your first draft Write assessment material Pilot and improve your materials

At a micro-level, working in a situation where staff have a lot of constraints in terms of availability of time, Yoke and Brown (1994) propose a simple framework for producing a variety of materials from one piece of source material that can be recycled several times for several purposes. Input

Skill

Level

Exercise/activity

Source material (e.g. text, picture, tape, etc.

Listening Speaking Reading Writing Grammar Pronunciation Others

Elementary Intermediate Advanced

1.Multiple choice 2.True/false 3.Yes/no 4.Gap-filling 5Matching 6.Listing 7.Sound discrimination 8.Shadow reading 9.Sequencing 10.Cloze exercise 11.Completion exercises 12.Parallel writing 13.Letter writing 14.Report writing 15.Written Composition 16.Simplification 17.Transformation exercises 18.Summary 19.Communicat.activities 20.Open-ended questions

According to the type of students, level, skill to be practised ant topic, different possibilities will arise for applying the framework. This framework is particularly useful in a non-English speaking country, like Colombia, where it may be difficult to find authentic materials to adapt in a learning centre. One single text or other source material may be converted into different types of tasks for different types of students and levels.

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Audio and video materials In chapter 7, the use of video has been extensible treated as a tool for developing communicative competence in the classroom In the self-access centre, audio and video facilities can be easily incorporated into working packages that will allow students to get used to the media as an important source of authentic material. Carvalho (1993:30) suggests ways in which the news can be used on a permanent basis as a source of material. Teachers or students can record radio or satellite TV broadcasts to be kept in the centre. Listening or watching the recordings will facilitate discussion, reading, writing and speaking activities. Carvalho suggests the use of ‘universal’ worksheets that can be used when listening or watching any broadcast because the questions are general and therefore relevant to all situations. Feedback can be provided, as in the case of open-ended questionnaires, by promoting reflection on the process, by discussing answers with a teacher or tutor or with other students. The following is an example of a 'universal' worksheet for use with an audio recording (Carvalho 1993:32) Listening to the news

Elementary/intermediate

1. Read all of this worksheet before listening 2. Use the sections below to help you to write down the main points of the news. You can listen as many times as you need to and you can use the pause button to give you time to write things down. 3. Listen to the tape without stopping it, do not write anything yet. How many stories were there? 4. Now listen a second time, stopping if necessary, and complete section (a)-(c). Use the other side of this worksheet, if you need extra space. a) Write down any names of people you can remember b) Write the names of the places c) Write down what has happened 5. What kind of stories are they? Tick the boxes below. Politics Economics Crime Military People Sport Environment Weather Other 6. Now listen to another news tape. Is there any similarity in the order of the type of news? If so, why do you think that is? 7. Is the type of news on the radio different in your country? If so, how is it different and why do you think that is?

Computer materials In chapter 6 a detailed account has been given to the use of computers in general and of CALL in particular, to improve the development of cognitive strategies in language learners.

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A well-equipped learning centre should have word-processing facilities and learning programmes in computer form. Games and simulations are also excellent tools for language learning since they encourage interaction between participants sitting at the same computer. Multimedia is a new development in language learning which combines audio, video and computing facilities in the same program. It is one of the most powerful uses of computers in education at present. 8.2.3.2. Equipment. Even if the setup of the centre is unpretentious, there must be some basic equipment from the very beginning. General furnishings for the office and working areas should be functional and appropriate to use in each case. Special shelves for storing books, newspapers and magazines, spacious working areas for leisure reading, reference, listening, video and computers, attractive boxes to file learning packages are all elements that should be carefully selected and distributed in the centre for a most effective use of the premises. The choice of these elements will depend, to a great extent, on the availability of funds. Equipment should be carefully selected and prioritised according to the needs and to the resources available. The following are some suggestions for selecting equipment: (adapted from McCall, 1990: 20-21) Audio - Select cassette recorders on the basis of durability, maintenance and simplicity rather than 'high tech' features. - Decide whether to provide audio-active comparative machines. These are useful for the practice of speaking and pronunciation skills and can be set up either for individual work or pair work. - Make sure headphones can be fitted to all machines for individual use. It may also be possible to fit equipment for pair work - Consider wall-mounted or desktop machines. These, in turn, can be set into worktops or free-standing. The decision will depend on individual circumstances. Make sure there is extra desk space for written work. - If the instructions for use are not self-explanatory, produce additional guidelines and label machines clearly.

Video and television - Decide whether equipment is for individual use, viewing in groups, or both. For individual use provide headphones to reduce noise distraction - Make sure that the work surface depth is sufficient to accommodate a monitor and recorder, and that there is sufficient space to sit back from the monitor to view - Make sure that storage and display for videos and supplementary written materials are near to the AV equipment. - Decide whether TV programmes are to be watched live or recorded for future use. - Remember that AV support staff will be needed.

Computers - Choose between stand-alone or networked micro-computers. Your choice may depend on the organization to which your centre belongs. - Check disk capacity. Ensure the system chosen has the required capacity at the outset and will be able to support the planned rate of development - If necessary, plan for installations to take place in stages. 204

- Remember that support staff is needed for day-to-day administration and maintenance. - Establish the terms of external support from suppliers. - Look at the availability of commercial language programs. - Consider writing your own materials for self-access using special 'authoring' programs designed for this purpose - Consider the provision of supplementary materials such as worksheets and explanatory guides and manuals. Place these close to the computers, together with clear instructions for using the system and advice on emergency measures when 'error messages' appear on the screen.

8.2.3.3. Staffing resources. Adequate staffing of the centre is essential to its success. Each type of self-access system requires several types of personnel. Miller and Rogerson-Revell (1992) suggest the following list of possible human resources and their functions: Key human resources

Functions

Language specialist

Resources, materials development system, classification, adviser to end-user

Computer consultant

Computer system classification, set up and development

Librarian

System classifier and manager

Materials development expert

Materials development

Administrator/clerical assistant

Administration, reception

Technician/AV specialist

AV preparation, maintenance

Even though it may be utopic to think of starting a centre with such a complete set of personnel, careful consideration should be given to the types of persons that should necessarily be involved in the Centre from the beginning, either on a full-time or part-time basis. Some of the functions that appear in the table may be carried out by teachers in their spare time, others by students, but most of the functions must be carried out by full-time staff. 8.2.4. Management Infrastructure 8.2.4.1. Storage and display of materials In order to use space effectively and create attractive displays, the following factors may be taken into consideration: (adapted from McCall 1992:24-25) -The variety of formats of materials. -The volume of stock and expected rate of growth. -The needs of users to access and browse -The needs of staff to maintain the system -The classification system selected -Whether materials are to be open-access or for issue only.

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Some of the ways materials can be stored are: Books, in adjustable shelves for different book sizes Audio and video tapes, in special display panels to enable access without disturbing the display. Master tapes can be stored in drawers with pull-out trays. Worksheets, best stored in open boxes of easy access by learners. Also in wall-mounted display pockets Newspapers, in news racks stands and stick holders Magazines, current issues in face-on display units; old issues, in boxes or in compartments behind display shelves Authentic materials such as maps, pamphlets, timetables, photographs, etc. can be stored in box files.

Visual presentation and attractive displays are necessary to make the centre more user-friendly. In general, a lot of imagination and creativity will be needed to utilise existing commercial display equipment or to have it custom made or adapted from cheaper, locally available materials. Some recommendations for having effective displays are given by McCall (1991:27): -Think about the position of displays. Place them in appropriate areas, preferably at eye level. -Change displays frequently. People will stop noticing them if they remain static. -Remember that items out on display will not be in their normal classified shelf order. -Plan displays to draw attention to new materials, specific sections or themes. -Use free-standing sloping display stands, single or double-sided and place them in tiers on existing shelf units, tables, desk-tops etc. -Use individual display stands for individual items. You can buy various sizes of inexpensive wall-mounted racks made of wire, plastic or wood. -Use floor-standing display stands (static or rotating). Locate these in prominent eye-catching positions.

8.2.4.2. Cataloguing Even in the smallest self-access facility an adequate system of keeping record of materials will be necessary. McCall (1991:31) describes three procedures involved in cataloguing: accessioning, classification and indexing. Accessioning. This is represented by a sequential numbering system to record all items held in the centre. It can be done in a traditional way by entering each item in a large notebook or loose-leaf binder. It can also be done in the computer, including all or some of the data that will be registered in catalogue cards: accession number, title, author, date of publication, edition, series, ISBN, price, number of copies, classification code, and date of acquisition. Classification. This will provide a 'simple framework which enables materials of similar content to be kept together in a logical sequence in the shelves, irrespective of when the item was acquired' (MacCall, 1992: 33). In some cases, the classification system used by the main library can be used, but in most cases, an 'in-house' system may be used to allow for sub and cross classifications. In any case, this should be done with the advice of a librarian and the system should be kept simple, meaningful, easy to understand and easy to operate for the person in charge of the facility. Indexing. This procedure is required when it is necessary to access resources in more detail and when materials can be classified under different headings. This is a time-consuming, complex 206

procedure which starts by setting up a list or thesaurus of categories and sub-categories to be used to index the materials and provide the search terms for their retrieval. This allows for a lot of cross referencing and the possibility of searching materials from different search patterns. It is convenient, as the resource centre grows, to establish the indexing system in the computer to allow for a fastest, more accurate and reliable retrieval system. Sheerin (1989) proposes one of the most comprehensive systems of indexing, as used by the Bell School in Cambridge. 8.2.4.3. Access Under ideal conditions, it would be desirable to have long opening hours and open access to all the resources. However, due to possible limitations of funds and resources, some restrictions must be established. The first consideration is with respect to the number of potential users and probable times to visit the centre. Some of the questions to be solved will be: (adapted from McCall 1992:37) -Will the centre be opened to students and teachers only or to the general public? -Are students likely to come on their own or in groups, or accompanied by teachers as a complement to their regular classes? -What will be the most likely hours when students will need to use the centre? -What is the best timetable for in-service teachers who may want to use the centre? -If the potential number of users is high, are the facilities adequate to accommodate large numbers of students simultaneously? -Will it be necessary to establish special timetables for specific groups? -What are the best times to offer workshops, seminars on INSET courses and other extracurricular activities? -How many hours a day or a week is the centre going to be opened? Is it going to open on weekends?

The second consideration has to do with determining what level of access will be offered to users: -Open-access. All the resources are on open shelves for users to browse and select -Limited access. Certain items are kept aside for issue only -Issue only. All stock is only available on request

The third consideration is with respect to lending systems. If the centre does not have an extensive collection of resources, it may decide not to have a lending service. Materials will, in any case, be classified to indicate whether they are for reference use only or to be used in the premises or if they can be given on loan. A lending system may be established by adopting the main library system or by designing a different, simpler one. 8.2.4.4. Regulations All administrative procedures affecting the running of the centre with respect to the resources, the staff and the users must be established in the book of regulations of the centre. This can be posted on the bulletin boards or published in a booklet available to everybody involved.

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8.3. Preparation and training The concept of self-access represents a view of learning that requires adjustment on the part of the teacher and a long process of becoming conscious of his learning processes on the part of the learner. As we have proposed in chapter 5, this process should start in the classroom in order to be effective and become a way of life for the student. The use of the self-access centre implies well prepared teachers and learners or it may fail to fulfil its purpose of leading the student progressively towards independence. 8.3.1. Teacher preparation The role the teacher takes on in the centre is that of facilitator and adviser. In a learning centre, the student is not 'taught' in a traditional sense. The teacher helps the students recognise their needs and advises them on an approach, a work programme or materials. A teacher facilitator may be doing some or all of the following: (adapted from Sturtridge, 1992: 11) -Helping learners to recognise their own responsibility for their own learning. -Helping learners to know their own individual language levels on entry -Helping learners to decide upon their own individual objectives -Helping learners to recognise their own individual learning strategies and to make suggestions -Directing learners to particular materials or activities -Helping learners to become aware of what particular exercises are really teaching them -Making suggestions about more efficient ways of practice or monitoring -Making notes of rates of progress and comparing them with the learners’ own ratings.

As a useful resource in the form of an informant, the teacher must be familiar with the working and organisation of the centre. She must also be familiar with the material from a professional viewpoint. Besides being aware of the materials available, she must also know how to relate them to an individual learner's preferred way of learning. She must be able to help the student establish his own pathways to reach a learning objective and to monitor himself in the process. O'Dell (1991) designed a procedure for training teachers at a language school in Cambridge, which is worth describing. She identifies three problems to be solved: 1) Teachers need to have a reasonable knowledge of what the centre contains. 2) Teachers need to know what to do when they are in the resource centre both with their classes and as counsellors in self-study time. 3) Teachers need to feel confident to work in the self-access centre.

The solutions proposed by O'Dell are: -Induction materials. The teacher is presented with a folder containing the most useful basic information about the centre. This is accompanied by a workshop where materials in the folder are discussed, among others a list of simple lessons the teachers can do in the centre without much preparation. -Learning centre lessons. With the teachers' cooperation, a bank of lessons is prepared to provide a range of learning activities around a topic or language point. These lessons are prepared with specific groups in mind and are often improved later as new resources are added or new needs are identified. 208

Some of the lessons are designed to introduce the learner to the use of the centre and they involve the students in consulting dictionaries, encyclopaedias or using other resources in the centre. -Counselling materials. These are useful tips for answering typical questions asked by the students; lists of recommended readers for students at different levels; pathways to lead the students in stages to a specific goal; packages that deal with specific topics; skills sheets and, in general a series of supporting packages that can help the less experience teacher. -Counselling for examinations. These are sheets suggesting which particular units of specific books can help students who need guidance and practice to take standardised examinations. -Seminars. Teachers are offered on-going training in learning centre use by way of periodical seminars, which may take one of the following forms: New materials update seminar Workshop sessions to prepare learning centre materials Discussion seminars where problems in counselling are shared with other teachers.

As we can see, maintaining motivation and teachers' interest in the centre requires a lot of training and dedication to produce positive results in the long-term goals established for the facility. 8.3.2. Learner preparation Some of the users of the centre may have gone through a period of learning how to learn in the classroom (see chapter 5, a proposal). It should be relatively easy for them to undertake work on their own in the self-access centre. For other students, or for in-service teachers who may want to use the centre on a regular basis, it is convenient to prepare some materials to facilitate a better integration into the new learning modality The procedure could follow similar steps as the preceding, but in a more condensed and direct manner. The following stages are usually recommended to encourage learners' awareness (adapted from Barnett and Jordan ( ) 1) Learning questionnaire. To measure motivation and positive attitudes towards independent study and to raise awareness of the responsibility involved. Results of the questionnaire can be discussed with the learners individually or in groups before taking them through an orientation programme. This can consist of a guided tour by a member of the centre staff, followed by some first-hand experience on how to use some of the materials. Worksheets on different ways of accessing materials can also be prepared for this purpose. 2) Needs analysis. To identify needs related to their present situation or their future work prospects. Also to identify weaknesses and strengths in language use as perceived by the learner himself. 3) Definition of objectives. It may be difficult for the learner to identify achievable objectives. Appropriate guidance from a teacher may help him formulate language learning objectives that are realistic for his particular situation. 4) Study plans. To give direction and meaning to the learner's efforts. The study plan should be derived from the needs analysis and aimed at achieving the learning objectives proposed.

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5) Monitoring and evaluating progress. To encourage learners to reflect on the value of what they have done. Students can be made aware of their progress by means of forms and questionnaires and by periodical meetings with tutors and other students to reflect on the learning issues at hand. 6) Task-oriented materials. By providing a variety of exercises in worksheets, we demonstrate that there are different ways to focus attention on the different segments of language selected for study. 7) Strategy training. If the user has not taken the course proposed in chapter 5 or a similar one, he may have difficulties in identifying useful learning strategies. A 'learning strategies' section can be created in the centre, with special exercises arranged according to specific strategies being stressed. 8) Messages. The easiest way to reach users is by making comments on exercises. Messages can be used to suggest alternative ways of using materials or to have users reflect on different aspects of their own learning. 9) Newsletters, poster, bulletins and other devices can be used to attract the user's attention to specific activities or new materials available in the centre.

8.4. Final considerations It should be clear by now that setting up and maintaining a successful self-access centre is a difficult task where all parties involved must accept and adopt new roles and new responsibilities. As Surtridge puts it: 'If helping the student to work well in the self-access centre is seen as a continuing process, motivation is maintained and a high drop-out rate can be avoided. It must be recognised that for learners the road to autonomy is a long one. However magnificent the self-access provision may be, they will need a great deal of support and help to develop their own independence' (1992: 17). BIBLIOGRAPHY Allan, M. (1985), Teaching English with video, Harlon, Longman. Arevalo, G. A. Campo, I. Cardenas, R R., Forbers, O., Garcia, R.M., Lopez, L. S., Restrepo, M.C. Rivas, C. E., Santos, D. Document 4 (1994) A proposal for a frameworks for the teaching of English in the Colombian Licenciatura Programme. Ealing, London, Thames Valley University. Bastidas, J. A. Alvarado, L. H. Vanegas, L. E., Ruiz, G. A, Ossa. C. E. Document One. (1991). A proposal for a framework for the teaching of English in the Colombian B.A. Programmes. Ealing Polytechnic of West London. Block, D. M. (1993) 'Authentic video and classroom observation' System, 21,1, 49-67 Bouman, L (1990). Veni, video, venci, English teaching forum, XXVII, 2 Coleman, J. A. (1990) 'Starting with satellite: a basic guide to using off-air video recordings in language teaching. ‘Language Learning Journal, 2, 16-18. Coleman, J. A. (1992) 'Project-based learning, transferable skills, information technology and video’. Language Learning Journal, 5, 35-38 Cooper, et al. (1991) Video: Resource books for teachers, OUP Cullen, R.(1991). 'Video in teacher training: the use of local materials'. ELTJ, 45, 1, pp 33-41 Ellis, R. (1990) 'Activities and procedures for teacher preparation', in Richards & Nunan eds. Hagen S. (1993) Using technology in language teaching. London CILT 210

Hawkridge, D. (1991). Challenging technology. ETTI2, 28, 2 , 102-110 Hill, B. (1991). Making the most of satellites and interactive video. London, CILT. Laycock, J, Bunnag, P. (1991) Developing teacher self-awareness: feedback and the use of video. ELTJ, 42/1, 43-53 McGovern, J.(1983). Video applications in English language teaching, ELT documents 114. Pergamon Press-The British Council. Nunan, D. (1991) Language teaching methodology: a textbook for teachers. New York , PHI. Pinnington A. (1992). Using video in training and education. London, McGraw-Hill training series. Richards, J.C. Nunan, D. (1990) Second language teacher education, Camabridge, CUP. Stempleski, S. Tomalin, B. (1990). Video in action, New York, Prentice Hall. Stempleski, S. Arcario, P. (1992) eds. Video in second language teaching: Using, selecting and producing video for the classroom. TESOL, Washington, D.C. Strange, J, Strange, D. (1991). 'Survey: video materials'. ELTJ, 45, 4. , .35-339 Thomas, R. M (1987) 'The nature of educational technology, in Thomas & Kobayashi, eds. Thomas, R. M Kobayashi, V. N. (1987) Educational technology: its creation, development and cross cultural transfer. Pergamon. Wallace M. J. (1981) 'The use of video in EFL teacher training’. ELT Documents 110: Focus on the teacher. The British Council. Williams, E. (1984) Reading in the language classroom. Macmillan, ELTS Willis, J. (1983). 'Ways to use video', in McGovern, 1983. eds. Zuluaga, O. (1992). 'Video: Communication & language development across the curriculum'. Paper-workshop delivered at XXVII National ASOCOPI Conference, Universidad del Valle ______, (1993). 'Curricular projects in the language class through video segments'. Paperworkshop delivered at XXVIII National ASOCOPI Conference, San Andres -Colombia.

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