2008 - 2014
NUSA PENIDA
Lessons Learned in the Development and Establishment of the Nusa Penida Marine Protected Area
This report captures the key lessons learned in the development and establishment of the Nusa Penida MPA, from 2008 to 2014.
Coral Triangle Center Jalan Danau Tamblingan No.78, Sanur Bali – Indonesia Telp. +62-361-289338 Fax. +62-361-289338
Production date:
September 2014
Produced by:
Eleanor Carter (Consultant), Marthen Welly (CTC) and Wira Sanjaya (CTC)
Lay out:
Eleanor Carter (Consultant)
Photos:
Marthen Welly (CTC) (unless otherwise stated)
Recommended Citation: Carter, E., Welly, M. and W. Sanjaya (2014) Lessons Learned in the Development and Establishment of the Nusa Penida Marine Protected Area, 2008 – 2014. Coral Triangle Center, 46 pp.
Since 2008, the CTC Nusa Penida Program has been supported by USAID ASIA, The Coral Triangle Support Partnership (CTSP), Margaret A Cargill Foundation (MAC), Marine Protected Area Governance program (MPAG), and Give2Asia.
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Executive Summary Nusa Penida Marine Protected Area (MPA) is situated ~20 miles (32 km) off the South-East coast of Bali island. It was established as an MPA in 2010 and covers an area of 20,057 hectares, managed under the District Government of Klungkung, Bali, Indonesia. The MPA is host to highly diverse coral ecosystems (with 296 species of coral and 576 species of reef fish, including five species previously unknown to science), and is home to marine megafauna, including the mola mola (ocean sunfish) and manta rays. As a popular tourism destination the MPA receives approximately 200,000 visitors annually. The work to design and develop the MPA began in 2008, and involved a wide range of governmental and non-governmental agencies, community representatives and wider stakeholders. Through the process of design and development numerous step-wise activities were undertaken – from preliminary community consultation, to participatory zoning design, the development of a management plan, the establishment of a management unit, right through to the design of a sustainable financing mechanism. Along the way numerous lessons learned, insights and experiences were gained. Most notably these included: The critical role of the community (at all stages of MPA design, development and management); the importance of utilizing both science and traditional knowledge & practices to support MPA development; the challenges and opportunities of implementing an integrated design for livelihoods in the development of the MPA; the challenges tackled in following step-wise approaches to government policy processes; and the importance of (and mechanisms for) securing sustainable financing long-term. This report explores the experiences of the past six years of MPA development and establishment, the successes, the challenges, the paths to achievement and the obstacles tackled along the way. It provides a thorough and insightful look at the practicalities of MPA establishment in Indonesia, from an onground perspective, and shares the lessons learned in a transparent and open fashion, in support of MPA practitioners across the region who are travelling similar paths.
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Contents Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................... 3 1.
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 5
2.
Setting the Scene - Nusa Penida ........................................................................................................... 5 2.1. The Ecology and Environment of Nusa Penida .................................................................................. 6 2.2.
The People of Nusa Penida ........................................................................................................... 9
2.3.
The Economy of Nusa Penida ....................................................................................................... 9
3.
Agencies, Institutions and Stakeholders involved in the MPA Development..................................... 11
4.
Outline of the MPA Development Process ......................................................................................... 12 4.1. Timeline of activities and key steps in the MPA development process .......................................... 12
5.
Key Insights & Lessons Learned .......................................................................................................... 18 5.1. The Critical Role of the Community ................................................................................................. 18 5.2. Utilizing both Science and Traditional Knowledge & Practices to support MPA development ...... 22 5.3. Implementing an Integrated Design in the Development of the MPA ............................................ 24 5.4. Securing Sustainability through a Step-wise Approach to Policy Processes .................................... 25 5.5. Designing for a Sustainable Future .................................................................................................. 28
6.
Results & Replication Potential ........................................................................................................... 31 6.1. Results to date ................................................................................................................................. 31 6.2.
7.
Replication Potential ................................................................................................................... 37
Moving Forward / Next Steps ............................................................................................................. 38 7.1.
Operationalizing the Management Unit and associated management activities ...................... 39
7.2.
Developing Nusa Penida MPA as a Learning Site........................................................................ 40
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 43
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1. Introduction Nusa Penida Marine Protected Area (MPA) is situated ~20 miles (32 km) off the South-East coast of Bali island (approx. 30 minutes by speedboat from the Balinese coast). It was established as an MPA in 2010 and covers an area of 20,057 hectares, managed under the District Government of Klungkung, Bali, Indonesia. The MPA is host to highly diverse coral ecosystems (with 296 species of coral and 576 species of reef fish, including five species previously unknown to science), and is home to marine megafauna, including the mola mola (ocean sunfish) and manta rays (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012). As a popular tourism destination the MPA receives approximately 200,000 visitors annually (Welly et al, 2011). From the mid to late 2000’s considerable preparatory design and planning work, led by the Klungkung District Government, enabled the formalization of the site as an MPA in 2010, and today work continues to take the site from concept and design phase, through planning phase and into implementation phase. The Coral Triangle Center (CTC) has been supporting the design, development and management planning of the MPA since 2008, a time when the area was recognized as critical for marine biodiversity through a Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA) that was conducted, and when the area was identified as a site with a high livelihood dependency on marine resources. CTC is also a Training and Learning center for the Coral Triangle region, and as such understands the importance of capturing and sharing lessons learned and insights that come from hands-on practical implementation experience, to share with wider practitioners, students and other stakeholders who are looking to replicate such approaches in other areas. This report explores the experiences of the past six years, the successes, the challenges, the paths to achievement and the obstacles tackled along the way. It provides a thorough and insightful look at the practicalities of MPA establishment in Indonesia, from an on-ground perspective, and shares the lessons learned in a transparent and open fashion, in support of MPA practitioners across the region who are travelling similar paths.
2. Setting the Scene - Nusa Penida The Nusa Penida MPA surrounds not only the main large island of Nusa Penida, but also two smaller adjacent islands of Nusa Ceningan and Nusa Lembongan (see Figure 1). Historically Nusa Penida was a location for incarceration of prisoners under the Majapahit ruler of the Balinese Gelgel dynasty in the early 18th century (Auger et al., 2005). In the 20th century, during the second world war, the islands were the location of an historic confrontation between the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Allied Forces, known as “The Battle of Badung Strait” that took place between the islands of Nusa Penida and Nusa Ceningan in February 1942 (Klemen, 1999).
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Today the islands are host to biodiverse marine and coastal ecosystems, and home to nearly 48,000 permanent residents who depend on fisheries, seaweed farming, and marine tourism as their main sources of income (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012). Figure 1: Map of Nusa Penida, Nusa Ceningan and Nusa Lembongan
2.1. The Ecology and Environment of Nusa Penida Nusa Penida has a dry climate, with low levels of rainfall annually. Dry season is from June to September, and rainy season is from October to February. The island are host to diverse ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds and marine megafauna (including manta rays, dugongs, turtles and migratory whales, dolphins and mola mola). Coral Reefs The predominant type of reef found in Nusa Penida is fringing reef. A survey conducted in 2009 (by the Australian Institute of Marine Science - AIMS) found 296 coral species present in the waters of Nusa Penida. And in 2011 surveys conducted by CTC and the District Fisheries office found the percentage of Live Coral Cover (LCC), including both hard and soft corals, to range from 70 – 75% with an average Live Hard Coral Cover (LHCC) of ~ 40% (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012). 6
Reef Fish Nusa Penida is host to ~ 576 species of fish (according to a rapid assessment undertaken by Dr. Gerry Allen and Dr. Mark Erdmann in 2009), including five species not previously known to science. In the 2011 survey conducted by CTC and the District Fisheries Office fish biomass was measured at an average of ~ 92 kg / ha and fish abundance at an average of ~ 183 individuals / ha. Common species observed included those from the herbivorous families: Acanthuridae, Scarinae & Siganidae, and the carnivorous or predatory fish families: Caesionidae, Carangidae, Haemulidae, Kyphosidae, Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, Mobulidae, Scombridae, Serranidae and Sphyraenidae (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012). Marine mega-fauna Nusa Penida is well known for the seasonal sightings of Mola mola (Sunfish), which can generally be seen in the waters of Nusa Penida between July and September each year. In addition to this, regular sightings of Pilot Whales, Whale Sharks, bottlenose dolphins and spinner dolphins are observed, and some of the beaches are host to nesting Green and Hawksbill turtles. Figure 2: Mola mola in Nusa Penida © Marthen Welly
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Oceanography Figure 3: Showing Indonesian Through-flow (Source: David Picel, 2013)
The Nusa Penida waters are notorious for their strong currents, as the site is located between the Badung Strait and the Lombok Strait, a part of what is known as the ‘Indonesian Through-flow’ (ITF). This phenomenon was first observed by the oceanographer Klaus Wyrtki in 1957 (Wyrtki, 1961). The source of the ITF is the Philippines Sea and the West Carolin Basin, where the perpetual Trade Winds and the currents that they generate, entrap water from the great expanse of the Pacific. In addition to this the Pacific Ocean northeast of the Indonesian archipelago is above the average sea level, while the Indian Ocean is below average. This differential sets in motion vast tracts of water (Pickell & Siagian, 2010). The ITF is so powerful that it is measured in a unit called ‘Sverdrup’ (named after the Norwegian scientist Harald Sverdrup). One Sverdrup is equal to the flow of one million cubic meters of water per second.
Figure 4: Bathymetry map of Nusa Penida waters (Source: Bakorsurtanal, 2009)
Scientist estimate the ITF flows at around 15 Sverdrup, and the impact of this movement of water is not only one of the causes of such high levels of biodiversity in the region, but also impacts oceanographic conditions and climate globally (Pickell & Siagian, 2010). Water temperatures around Nusa Penida range from 14°C – 31°C (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012).
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Mangroves Thirteen (13) species of Mangroves can be found in Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan (Pokja KKP, 2012). The largest stand can be found in Lembongan, and covers an area of ~ 230 ha. These mangroves provide not only important habitat for many species, but also local income, through the development of mangrove tours for visitors to the islands, led by community representatives. Seagrass Based on a survey conducted by the University of Udayana and CTC, eight (8) different species of seagrass can be found on Nusa Penida, covering a combined area of ~ 108 ha (Pokja KKP, 2012).
2.2.
The People of Nusa Penida
Nusa Penida and its neighboring islands are home to nearly 48,000 permanent residents spread across 16 villages and 40 sub (traditional) villages. The residents living along the coastline depend on fisheries, seaweed farming, and marine tourism as their main sources of income (with in-land residents working predominantly in agriculture (corn, peanuts, coconuts) and animal husbandry (the Balinese cow). The majority of people are ethnic Balinese Hindu’s. A range of traditions can be found unique to the Penidan people, including the art of Sanghyang Gerodog which is an authentic trance type performance developed in Nusa Lembongan, and the Rejang Renteng traditional dance from Nusa Penida. The art of Sanghyang Gerodog was thought to have been lost for over 30 years before it was revived in 2012 (MTCE, 2013). Traditional hand-woven fabrics found only on Nusa Penida are called Cepuk, and the food of Ledok is a culinary produce from these islands (MTCE, 2013). In addition to this the Penidan people traditionally hold an annual ritual as homage to the sea, known as Nyepi Segara. On one day each year, generally in October time, all activities on the sea are stopped, and no boats are allowed into or out of Penidan waters. It is a chance to give thanks and respect to the sea as a provider of life and livelihoods (De Suriyani , 2011).
2.3.
The Economy of Nusa Penida
The economy of Nusa Penida is very much interwoven with the ecology of the islands, and people predominantly derive their incomes from the following activities: Seaweed Farming Two types of seaweed are commonly grown in Nusa penida: Euchema Cottony and Spinosum Sp. Farmers generally grow the seaweed on wood called a tongak which is tied to a rope (a ris). The seaweed can generally be harvested every 35 days, with Eucheme Cottony fetching a higher price than Spinosum sp. (sold at ~ 4– 5,000 IDR/ kg, and ~ 2– 3,000 IDR/kg respectively), (Pokja KKP, 2012). 9
Figure 5: Seaweed farming is a common form of revenue generation for livelihoods in Nusa Penida © Marthen Welly
“Being fortunate enough to have village elders that recognized the pitfalls of bomb and cyanide fishing, years ago the local economy was directed towards seaweed farming leaving the reefs in pristine condition, and luckily the underwater life is teeming.” (Community Leader Statement)
Fisheries There are about 850 known fishermen in Nusa Penida operating predominantly subsistence and local sale fishing practices (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012). Fishing boats are generally small (under 5GT) and therefore do not require licensing, and are generally powered with 15HP outboard engines. Fishing takes place not only off the coast of the islands themselves, but also in further water, in the Badung and Lombok straits. Commonly caught fish species include grouper, snapper and tuna. According to the data from the EPF Klungkung, the total catch by Nusa Penida fishermen is ~ 226 tons / year. 10
Marine Tourism Nusa Penida is renowned as a marine tourism destination in Bali. With clear blue water, stunning reef systems and sandy beaches, more than 200,000 tourists visit the area each year (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012). Key marine tourism activities include diving, snorkeling, sailing, surfing, and other water sport activities. There are 20 dive sites located in the waters around Nusa Penida, and a range of lodging facilities exist, predominantly on Nusa Lembongan Island (see section 5.3 for more information). Agriculture and Livestock For the people living in the interior of Nusa Penida livelihoods are commonly centered around agricultural products such as corn and cassava. Cows are also grazed inland on the island and are thought to be the only pure-bred Balinese cows still existing today (Pokja KKP Nusa Penida, 2012).
3. Agencies, Institutions and Stakeholders involved in the MPA Development A wide range of agencies, institutions and stakeholders have been, and continue to be, actively involved in supporting the Klungkung District government in the development and establishment of the Nusa Penida MPA, including:
Wider Klungkung District Government agencies (fisheries, planning, tourism departments etc) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), including: The Coral Triangle Center, Aquatic Alliance, Nusa Wisata Foundation Community leaders, representatives and CBOs (community based organizations) Traditional village police (Pecalang) Tribe council of Nusa Penida (Majelis Alit). Local fishermen groups The Indonesian Navy The Indonesian Police unit stationed in Nusa Penida
. In addition to this, funding support has been provided directly by the Klungkung District government, and a range of donors, including the Margaret A Cargill Foundation (MAC), Give2Asia Foundation, USAID, The Coral Triangle Support Partnership (CTSP) and Marine Protected Area Governance program (MPAG).
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4. Outline of the MPA Development Process The MPA development process began in 2008 and is on-going to date. Figure 7 shows all the key steps in the MPA development process graphically. As the figure shows, activities began with the undertaking of biophysical surveys that showed the area to have high biodiversity value and to be of strategic importance for the establishment of a marine protected area. Concurrently preliminary community meetings were undertaken that led to support from the local communities for the establishment of an MPA (see section 5.1) after which the legal and policy processes for establishment got underway, concurrently with the various stages of MPA design and planning.
4.1. Timeline of activities and key steps in the MPA development process 2008 It was in this year that The Nature Conservancy (TNC) was invited by the Klungkung District Government to explore the possibility of, and support the development of, the Nusa Penida MPA. Baseline biophysical data was gathered and preliminary community meetings were undertaken to explore the potential for MPA establishment, and to gain support for the concept of MPA development (see section 5.1 for more information). 2009 Based on input and support from the communities, and initially under the management of the District planning department (BAPPEDA) a Nusa Penida Task Force was established to manage communications to promote the development, design and establishment of the MPA. (The Task Force included representatives from the local district fisheries office (DKP), local planning agency (BAPPEDA), transport and communication department, forestry department, environmental agency, support NGOs (TNC), community representatives, CBOs, seaweed farming forum members, fishermen forum members, and tribes council members). Concurrently a community center was established on Nusa Penida; a mangrove seed bank and rehabilitation program was initiated; and a coral rehabilitation program got underway involving a wide range of community members and associated stakeholders. Also in this year an ecological monitoring protocol for the future MPA was developed, and an annual surveying system was established.
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Figure 6: Coral rehabilitation in Nusa Penida MPA © Marthen Welly
Figure 7: Timeline showing the key steps undertaken in the development of Nusa Penida MPA
2008
2009
2010
2011
TNC invited to support MPA development by Klungkung District Government Preliminary community socialization – MPA concept
Baseline biophysical data gathered
Annual Reef Health Monitoring (RHM) initiated
= community focused activities = Governance = Key milestones
Ecological monitoring protocol developed
Communities declare support to the establishment of MPA
2012
2013
2014
NGO support transferred from TNC to CTC Nusa Penida MPA decree (12/2010) for formal establishment of MPA issued by Klungkung District government
MPA zoning design process initiated and management planning underway Draft Management Unit structure developed and agreed
Management Unit (MU) established & operational District regulations drafted & submitted to Parliament for sustainable financing system
Supporting documentation for acquiring a Ministerial decree submitted
MU infrastructure established
Perception monitoring initiated
Ministerial decree is signed (24/ 2014)
Sustainable financing mechanism launched
Nusa Penida ‘Task Force’ is established and operational. Management led by: BAPPEDA
BAPPEDA
DKP
Community meetings focused on MPA design and management planning Coral rehabilitation program initiated
RHM
Community center established Mangrove seed bank developed RHM
= recurring survey systems launched
= Awards
= goals for 2014
= Mangrove focused activities
Monthly Resource Use Monitoring (RUM) survey work initiated Willingness to Pay (WTP) study undertaken for sustainable financing research
DKP Zoning plan finalized
= Marine focused activities RHM
Management plan formalized through government decree 137/2013
20 year management plan finalized
Sustainable financing mechanism (through tourism fee) formalized - district decree 3/2013 Management Unit formalized - decree 30/2013
RHM MMAF declares Nusa Penida MPA as a ‘Blue Economy’ project site NP MPA awarded for management effectiveness by MMAF RHM & RUM
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BAPPEDA
Community meetings focused on finance development & site management
RUM Training provided to management unit
DKP
Mangrove based community center established Patrols expanded to promote enforcement Community meetings focused on MPA compliance
2010 Through the work of the Task Force and through support from local communities and associated stakeholders, the Klungkung District Government formalized the establishment of the Nusa Penida MPA through District Executive Decree No.12/2010, with the designated MPA covering a total area of 20,057 hectares. From this time the community meetings and consultations began to shift focus from the establishment of an MPA in principle, to the next level of MPA design, zoning and thinking forward for management of the site. Also in this year CTC replaced TNC in facilitating the Nusa Penida MPA establishment process in collaboration with the Klungkung District Government.
Figure 8: Installing Mooring Buoys, 2011 © Marthen Welly
2011 The activities in this year focused on the design of the MPA zoning system. Through the Nusa Penida Task Force (now under the leadership of the District Fisheries Office, DKP) extensive consultation, biophysical and social research was conducted to identify the appropriate locations for the various zoning categories. The result is shown in figure 9, and the zoning system consists of four zones with seven sub-zones. These are: core zone, traditional fisheries zone, marine tourism zone, sacred zone, special marine tourism zone, seaweed farming zone and harbor zone. Through this zoning system nearly 2,000 ha of the MPA is designated as ‘No Take’ (i.e. no extractive utilization is permitted). Also in this year, mooring buoys were established at various key sites around the MPA where boats regularly moor (for diving activities and fishing); to provide secure anchorage for boats and to avoid potential anchor damage to the reef substrates of those key areas. Additionally in 2011, the structural design for the future Management Unit (UPT) was drafted, and future management unit staff were identified and initial training undertaken. Monthly Resource Use Monitoring (RUM) surveys were also initiated in this year, and continue to be conducted monthly, with the aim of gathering information on fisher and tourism boats operating in the park, and to assess the levels of user compliance with the MPAs Zoning system. Also in this year investigations got underway exploring future financing mechanisms for the MPA. To this end a ‘Willingness To Pay’ (WTP) study was undertaken in relation to the tourism operations and resource users in Nusa Penida to guide and inform potential future revenue generation activities for sustainable financing.
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Figure 9: The final zoning plan of Nusa Penida MPA
2012 In 2012 the Management Unit for Nusa Penida MPA was formally established by the Head of Klungkung District under a Head of District decree (No. 30/2012). This unit, responsible for overall management of the MPA, is under the district’s Office of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, and to date is supported by a range of agencies, including (i) a joint patrol team, (ii) biophysical monitoring experts, and (iii) a socioeconomic monitoring team. Figure 10: The joint patrol active (i) The joint patrol team consists of in Nusa Penida MPA © Marthen Welly representatives from: Klungkung District government, traditional village police (Pecalang), fishermen groups, the Indonesian Navy, the Indonesian Police unit stationed in Nusa Penida, and associated NGOs and Community groups (CBOs). In this year the joint patrol team developed draft standard operating procedures (SOP) and has since this time conducted patrols on a monthly basis in and around the Nusa Penida MPA. 15
(ii)
(iii)
The team of biophysical monitoring experts supporting the unit includes s cientists from the Coral Triangle Center (NGO), volunteer university students, local dive operators and local community members who have been trained on Reef Health Monitoring. Biophysical surveys to assess the level of reef health (including coral cover assessments and fish biomass and abundance assessments) are conducted annually by this team, in order to assess the impact of conservation interventions on the biota of the MPA, and to inform and support adaptive and responsive management processes. The socio-economic monitoring team is comprised of District Government Representatives, socio-economic specialists from the Coral Triangle Center, members of the community based organizations (CBOs), tribe council representatives, and management unit members. Formal surveys to assess community perceptions towards the MPA have, from this year, been conducted every two years by this team. Through these surveys concerns and questions from communities can be captured and followed up upon through the regular informal consultative meetings, to ensure continued stakeholder input and sharing of information.
Through this management unit the Nusa Penida MPA zoning plan and overall 20 year management plan was also approved in this year and prepared for official endorsement. The overall objective for Nusa Penida MPA stated in the plan is “To protect the marine biodiversity of the area, support sustainable fisheries, marine tourism, and the welfare of local communities”. At this time the consultative community meetings started to shift focus to the next phase of MPA implementation and management. Concurrently a sustainable financing system was developed based on the results of the WTP study, and district regulations were drafted and submitted to district parliament for review and approval in relation to a tourism entrance fee system for the MPA. 2013 In this year the Nusa Penida MPA zoning plan and overall 20 year management plan was formally endorsed (under Bupati Klungkung letter No. 137/2013). Concurrently the Nusa Penida MPA team completed and submitted all documents and requirements for the declaration of the MPA at a higher Ministerial level. The Management Unit was also formalized through District decree (30/2013. Additionally in this year the planned sustainable financing system was endorsed by District decree (3/2013) and Nusa Penida was awarded for MPA management effectiveness by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, and was announced as a recognized ‘Blue Economy’ site by the Government. 2014 (Present Day) In this year the higher Ministerial decree recognizing Nusa Penida as a Marine Protected Area was signed (24/2014), and community meetings started to shift focus towards the issue of MPA compliance. The management Units focus of activities in this year has been towards the establishment of infrastructure to support the management units activities, including plans for a permanent office base 16
on the island, with two permanent staff based on site; the installation of a mangrove based community center, and the expansion of patrol systems to promote greater enforcement of MPA regulations. At the time of writing it is also anticipated that the sustainable financing mechanism developed for the MPA will be launched (see section 5.5 for more information).
Figure 11: The Mangrove Community Center in Nusa Penida MPA © Marthen Welly
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5. Key Insights & Lessons Learned Through the processes to date in establishing the Nusa Penida MPA a great number of lessons have been learned that can provide insights for, and guidance to, fellow MPA practitioners. These are shared here in the spirit of open sharing and learning, as MPAs throughout the region experience similar challenges and opportunities.
5.1. The Critical Role of the Community The importance of engaging and involving local community members from the beginning of MPA design, development and establishment cannot be overstated. In Nusa Penida community consultations began in 2008, prior to MPA establishment, and were conducted via key stakeholder meetings that included representative fishermen, seaweed farmers, tourism operators, tribe council members and wider parties. At these preliminary meetings representatives from Klungkung District Government and support NGO (The Nature Conservancy at the time) shared the results of baseline surveys that had been conducted in the area, to show the Penidan community members the impressive levels of biodiversity observed, and to initiate discussions on how such marine biodiversity plays a role in peoples’ lives. Importantly, these discussions took place in a language that the communities could understand; not only linguistically, but also by drawing parallels and metaphors that commonly exist in people’s lives, by avoiding jargon and scientific terms, and by holding the meetings in a style familiar to the communities concerned (through their village leaders and associated key influencers in the society). Such an approach was found critical to the success of the meetings, as it enabled people to feel relaxed, comfortable and on familiar territory, while at the same time introducing new concepts and ideas without confusion. These early meetings also involved discussions about the threats to the area that communities were experiencing at the time, and invited solution-focused ideas to be generated by the community as to how these threats could be reduced. Critically such discussions took place before any suggestion of a marine protected area was posited, so that community members could, instead, develop ideas and solutions themselves, without bias or being led by the agencies concerned. Through such approaches, and through a series of these informal consultations, consensus was reached that the effective management of the resources and preservation of the foundational biodiversity of the area was critical to undertake in order to support the long-term livelihoods of the Penidan people. This then led to the next phase of meetings exploring how to implement those solutions and ideas. A range of suggestions were discussed regarding how to manage and preserve the biodiversity in the area. The idea of using purely community based natural resource use management (CBNRM) approaches was discussed. However, many of threats present in Nusa Penida at the time were from factors outside of the area (i.e. from fishers from other districts, tourist boats from Bali causing anchor damage and waste pollution etc), and concern was raised by the communities that without government involvement the communities would not have the necessary authority to regulate, control, exclude or 18
promote adaptation of practices by people from outside their own community structures. At the same time the communities did not want to have top down district government intervention without their involvement; therefore there was consensus that whatever management options were implemented, they would be done jointly; between community members and the district government. It was at this point that the concept of a marine protected area (MPA) was introduced; and the meetings became larger in size, including increased numbers of representatives from both communities and district government. Through these meetings the Nusa Penida Task Force was established, and included representatives from: Klungkung District Government (Development Planning Agency, Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Tourism, Transportation, Environment, and the Head of Nusa Penida Sub-District); Tribes council leaders; NGOs (the Coral Triangle Center and Nusa Wisata); Community based organization (CBO) representatives and Satya Posana Nusa (SPN); and local Dive Operators (who later went on to form the Lembongan Marine Association, LMA). The task force was formalized through a Buppati decree, making it a legal entity to ensure multi-stakeholder engagement and avoid any sectoral divisions as communications continued regarding the potential establishment of an MPA. (The task force would go on to lead and facilitate all communications, planning and design steps up over the following years). It was through this work, and after a total of thirty-three task force led meetings, that a written pledge was produced by all parties expressing commitment to establish an MPA in Nusa Penida. Some of the keys to success of the Task Forces’ approach were:
Long-term and open dialogue facilitated (over many years). Lessons learned from other MPAs’ experiences around the world has shown that short-term preliminary engagement and dialogue approaches can be effective at achieving preliminary buy-in to an idea, but to really engage people in actively supporting concepts and contributing towards finding solutions to challenges, the combined stakeholder teams needed to work together over a long-term period; discovering challenges together, and finding solutions together. This approach has, and continues to, work well in Nusa Penida; and such an approach can be particularly important in many areas where, like Nusa Penida, there are other development related initiatives that may be concurrently underway. Communities faced with ranging agencies inviting them to input into local planning development may give short-term, somewhat non-committal yet positive responses. If such responses are taken at face value as ‘approval’ to proceed with an intervention, work can get underway before communities are really ready for it, or before they have had the chance to assess the benefits and costs and long-term implications of the interventions concerned. In such cases, interventions generally fail, as initially positive indications can quickly turn negative when people feel actions are taking place without their full knowledge and engagement.
Consistent and repeated messaging in communications. People’s lives are complex, and everybody has a myriad of factors influencing and informing them of wide ranging issues in their daily lives. This can be especially true in places where development initiatives, as mentioned in the previous point, may be underway and supported by a range of agencies. Understanding what is happening can get confusing, and messages can get mixed and lost. Therefore it was 19
critical for the task force to remain consistent, and employ repetition in all of its meetings; to remind and reinforce the agreed steps being undertaken, and to ensure that communities input to future steps was appropriately informed and acquired without being misleading or incomplete in information.
Being positive and solutions focused. Throughout the meetings undertaken the task force remained at all times positive and solutions focused. This is important, as challenges and disagreements between stakeholders inevitably occurred, and it can be all too easy in such situations to spiral towards a stalemate, or to lose momentum and support towards the overall goal. Remaining positive, and always tackling any disagreements with a proactive seeking of solutions and compromise between parties, has been, and continues to be, critical to the success of the work.
As with any collaborative approach, the contentious issues mentioned above were at times particularly challenging. Some of key hurdles encountered by the Task Force through the collaborative mechanism being utilized at the site were the following:
Gaining understanding and agreement on the placement and physical presence of the MPAs outer boundary. This topic caused particularly intense discussions amongst community representatives. Initially, and understandably, the concept of having some sort of boundary in the water was difficult for many to fathom. After all, what does it mean? How can a wall be built in the ocean? Secondly, where should this imagined barrier be placed? In early meetings many of the community members wanted the ‘barrier’ to be placed far out to sea, to ensure fishers from other areas that would be excluded from the traditional fishing grounds within the MPA could not enter even close to the area, and to maximize the protection of the fauna and flora enclosed. Such desires, while understandable, were not however factoring in the logistical considerations of managing such a vast area; and without a clear understanding of what the outer boundary ‘barrier’ referred to, discussions became challenging. It was through this particular issue of contention that Task Force representatives realized they had reached a point where some greater capacity in the understanding of the general principles of MPA development was needed; not only for community members, but also for Task Force team members themselves who were beginning to find it difficult to respond to the more challenging questions posited. In response to this the Task Force members then attended training provided by TNC (at the time), to better understand boundary delineation considerations, boundary marking techniques (buoys, natural markers, beach posts etc), and MPA development steps (as outlined in PERMEN no.2/2009 decree). Equipped with this knowledge further meetings took place, and greater understanding of options and considerations could be relayed to community members to address their concerns and questions.
20
Through these further meetings consensus was reached that the outer boundary should be 1nm (~1.8km) from the shoreline, as this would include all the critical habitats of concern (reefs, seagrass, mangrove areas and key species sites such as manta cleaning stations and turtle nesting habitat) and would at the same time be more manageable in size.
Gaining consensus on the zoning plan draft. As is common at many MPA sites, this issue was particularly challenging to address and created some of the more hotly disputed areas of contention in the MPA development process. Task force members initially developed preliminary zoning drafts considering the biophysical data gathered through surveys over time, as well as social data gathered, and incorporated traditional knowledge of the area (see section 5.2) to start to plan where zones should and could be placed in the MPA. As a collaborative group, the task force included fisher representatives from local communities, and it was at this point that the concept of establishing no-take zones (core zones) became a bone of contention amongst the group, with fisher representatives desiring to maintain all of their fishing grounds and suggesting that the communities would never agree to an all-out ban of fishing in any particular area. To resolve this, wider task force members once more discussed at length the very principles for establishing an MPA to support the livelihoods of local people. By establishing the MPA approx. 17,000 ha would become traditional fishing zone (accessible only by the Penidan community and excluding outside fishers) – thus the all-out ban of fishing in the no take zones would be directly benefitting the fisheries of the area exclusively fished by local people and ultimately protecting the people’s own brood stock. But it would require everyone to be on board to comply with the NTZs for everyone to, in turn, benefit. Through such discussions compromise was finally reached, and the discussions moved on to negotiating the positioning and sizes of the NTZs (instead of the mere ‘presence’ of the NTZs). Once agreed (and with all data explored and expressed) a final zoning plan was drafted, and was ready to share with wider community representatives.
Gaining buy in for zoning across all community members. Once the preliminary zoning plan had been drafted and agreed it was now time to take it to all community members to receive feedback and approval. However, there was concern that while task force members had received training to better comprehend the role of zoning in MPA development, wider community members may not fully understand the various considerations that had already gone into developing the area to maximize fishery productivity and biodiversity conservation, and the compromises already implemented to date to ensure fishing access to some of key areas. Therefore decision was taking to provide further training to wider community members themselves, prior to the initial release of the zoning plan draft for discussion. To this end MPA101 training events were conducted for communities across the islands, involving wide ranging participants (including community members from past meetings who had been noted as key influencers amongst their societies, and / or persons whose opinions were commonly brought to bear and respected locally). 21
Having this stronger foundational understanding of the role of zoning, and the importance of zoning categories, a series of 24 focus group discussions (FGDs) were held throughout the communities to share and discuss the zoning plan drafts, through which final agreement of zoning plan was reached and communities issued a written statement of support. Today (2014) work continues to be in collaboration with local communities, who remain involved and engaged at each step of the process (see section 6). As these early insights and lessons learned show, the role of the community at each and every step of MPA development is critical - from the initiation stage, through the design and development stage, and ultimately into implementation stage (as discussed further in section 6).
5.2. Utilizing both Science and Traditional Knowledge & Practices to support MPA development In the process of designing and developing the Nusa Penida MPA it has been critical to utilize both the more formal sciences (biophysical and social sciences) and the existing traditional knowledge and practices of the area. This has been undertaken in various ways and to address various facets of MPA design and development:
Incorporating traditional knowledge into zoning plan design. As mentioned in section 5.1, having tribe council leaders and fisher representatives on the task force drafting the preliminary zoning plan was critical to ensuring the inclusion of traditional knowledge in the zone designs. This included identification of the key fishing areas, and in particular the negotiation (and compromise) over the size and location of No Take Zones (NTZs). For example, it is widely accepted in the international conservation community that an MPA should ideally have between 20 and 30% of its critical habitat protected, with NTZs being of a recommended size of 1,000 ha. At the same time Indonesian policy ‘requires’ that at least 2% of an MPA area be classified as ‘core zone’ (NTZ). However, based on the traditional knowledge provided regarding the key spawning areas, fishery areas of importance to local communities vs areas that outsiders use (with outsiders generally utilizing more industrial techniques), NTZs were finally agreed that cover 10% of the MPA, while at the same time capturing the most vital areas of relevance.
“This is an example of how the latest science in tropical marine conservation can be combined with bottom-up collaborative processes to achieve a common goal; a sustainable MPA that provides long term benefits for people.” (Ibu Rili Djohani, Executive Director, Coral Triangle Center)
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The inclusion of ‘sacred zones’. In Nusa Penida there are four temples based on the coastline. Pura Penataran Ped Pura Ulakan Pura Batu Medauh Pura Candi Kuning Through the request of the tribe leaders a zone was added in front of each of these temples to exclude any mooring activities, so as to ensure that tourism and fishing activities do not disturb the temple practitioners in their activities. These zones also became no take, but under the classification of Zona Parawisata (tourism zone), with exclusion of mooring (though people may moor outside and dive into the area, mooring is excluded, to ensure people who are skimpily dressed cannot be observed by praying practitioners and the like). The incorporation of this desire, and recognition of these areas in the zoning design, contributed greatly to the overall buy-in and support of the zoning plan process.
Figure 12: Puri Batu Medauh temple overlooking the sea
The enabling conditions of cultural nuances. Understanding, recognizing and respecting the cultural nuances existing in any area is critical to the effective design and development of an MPA. In Nusa Penida there are several particular cultural nuances that have provided an essential enabling environment for the adoption and support of MPA principles. Trihitakarana. In Nusa Penida (as in Bali) there is a tradition of Trihitakarana. This is the balance sought between three elements: People, God and Nature. In meetings and throughout the MPA design and planning process, the concept of Trihitakarana was repeatedly raised by community members, aligning well with - and providing a critical enabling environment for - the adoption of MPA principles and support to MPA development. Nyepi Segara. Likewise the tradition of Nyepi Segara (as outlined in section 2) has long been carried out in Nusa Penida, where all sea based activities stop for one day in order to pay homage and give thanks to the ocean for her richness. This recognition that cessation of activities is respectful, and the existing link in understanding between activity limitation and ocean recovery, provides a strong foundation for understanding the more technical elements of set-aside areas, refuge principles and the need for reductions in extractive pressures. Lembongan traditional limitations. In Lembongan traditional law is already in place that forbids the cutting of mangroves, the mining of corals or the catching of birds. Again, such traditional systems already show the value placed in protecting and respecting nature; and contextualizing discussions about MPA development in the same vein as traditionally respected limitations has been, and continues to be, vital in gaining support and compliance with MPA regulations. 23
5.3. Implementing an Integrated Design in the Development of the MPA From the beginning of MPA development it has been important to plan for the area not only in terms of biodiversity conservation and fishery productivity, but also with wider socio-economic considerations incorporated into design and planning. To this end, concurrently with wider MPA development activities, the Nusa Penida task force and partners have implemented a range of activities to support and integrate wider socio-economic concerns. These include:
The development of community based mangrove ecotourism activities. According to a survey conducted by CTC in 2011, tourists were increasingly interested to explore the protected mangrove forests in Nusa Lembongan, especially during the high season (between June and September). Therefore to support the development of community based mangrove ecotourism activities, the Nusa Penida task force provided training to local community members on how to conduct surveys to identify mangrove species and support was provided to promote a ‘mangrove tour’ (including the development of posters, trekking maps, outreach materials and tree tagging).
Figure 13: Mangrove tours in Nusa Penida MPA © Marthen Welly
During the high season months that were assessed, ~ 600 tourists joined the community based mangrove trips, with fees for renting a canoe and local guide costing IDR 70.000 (~ $7 USD). The program has provided a win-win opportunity for all concerned. The community are gaining an important extra income (in addition to their main income derived from seaweed farming), and the mangrove forests are being effectively protected as the communities have become more committed to protecting this biological asset. The commitment has been so great that through community interest the size of the protected mangrove area was increased from its original designation of 202 ha to 230.7 ha, providing a clear success story for bottom-up engagement and support of MPA management. More recently a mangrove information center has been established (in 2014)
Support to marine ecotourism entrepreneurship. Divers from around the world come to Nusa Penida to see the Mola-mola (Ocean Sunfish), enjoy reliable Manta ray sightings, and experience the island’s abundance of coral reefs. Through this marine tourism local communities are gaining not only through the local lodges and homestays that have been established, but also through the wider local businesses providing a range of local goods and services required to 24
accommodate tourism activities (including provision of mooring buoys for which dive boats pay a fee to the local communities – see section 5.5). Concern exists over the increased prevalence of mass ‘package’ tourists that tend to use only international service providers (with benefit flows not reaching the Penidan people); and benefit streaming to local communities has not been optimal to date. However, the implementation of a Tourism User Fee (TUF) system by the Nusa Penida MPA management unit is anticipated to tackle the mass tourism issue to some extent (see section 5.5) and to further promote local entrepreneurship for marine related tourism opportunities.
Support to sustainable seaweed production and marketing. Nusa Penida is a prolific producer of seaweed, and contributes a large proportion of the total seaweed harvests recorded each year from across Bali (which was ~150,000 tons in 2010). The spinosum type of seaweed grown on Nusa Penida is particularly valuable and rare in the region, and affects the livelihoods of nearly 80% of Penidan people. Therefore in order to support maximal productivity and reduction of potential wastage, the District Marine Affairs and Fisheries Office provided communities with 295 units of seaweed drying equipment in 2010.
Figure 14: Seaweed farm in Nusa Penida MPA © Marthen Welly
Integrating such livelihood concerns into MPA management has been essential to ensure a holistic approach to resource management on Nusa Penida.
5.4. Securing Sustainability through a Step-wise Approach to Policy Processes The legal and regulatory processes required for establishing an MPA in Indonesia are complex, and can be confusing and challenging at all levels and for all stakeholders. For the development and establishment of Nusa Penida MPA the following laws, regulations and guidelines provided the framework to follow:
Decree no.2 / 2009 Tata Cara Penetapan Kawasan Konservasi Perairan (set-up procedures for MPAs) – Provides a legal framework for the establishment of an MPA under MMAF. While this decree did not provide guidelines per se for the steps required for establishment, it provided the overarching regulatory framework within which to operate.
Decree 30/2010 Rencana Pengelolaan and Zonasi Kawasan Konservasi Perairan (Management planning and zoning for MPAs) – This decree provided stepped guidelines and expectations for the development of zoning systems within MPAs and requirements for management planning.
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The Guide for Improving Marine Protected Area Management Effectiveness in Indonesia (Carter et al, 2011) – While not a formal government publication, this MPAMES guide provided more detailed insight and generic step-wise approaches to achieving effective management in MPAs.
KKJI Decree (Kep.44/Kp3k/2012):Technical Guidelines For Evaluating The Management Effectiveness Of Aquatic, Coasts And Small Islands Conservation Areas (E-Kkp3k) – This decree, designed to guide the measure of effectiveness of MPAs (building on the MPAMES and other effectiveness tools), at the same time provides MPA managers clear anticipated steps and processes to follow in order to reach an institutionalized and independently functioning effective MPA under MMAF regulations.
In addition to following the above regulations and guidelines, the development of Nusa Penida MPA looked to the experiences of other MPAs, and their lessons learned to date. One element that became clear from the beginning was the critical need to engage communities (as outlined in section 5.1 above) to ensure transparent and collaborative management approaches and to avoid potential future conflicts between agency leads and local communities (that had been experienced in other sites in Indonesia). The Nusa Penida task force also benefitted from various training events (such as the MPA technical working group training for the CTI) through which lessons were learned about the importance of adaptive management planning and the link between planning for the future and reflecting on the past to evaluate progress, and adapting the processes as they go forward. Through this work the following key regulatory steps were achieved:
2009: The Task Force was formally established 2010:Klungkung District Government formalized the establishment of the Nusa Penida MPA through District Executive Decree No.12/2010 2012: Management Plan and Zoning plan completed 2012: Management Unit for Nusa Penida MPA was formally established by the Head of Klungkung District under a Head of District decree (No. 30/2012) 2012: Standard operating procedure (SOP) developed for joint patrol team developed 2013: Nusa Penida MPA zoning plan and overall 20 year management plan formally endorsed (under Bupati Klungkung letter No. 137/2013) 2013: The planned sustainable financing system was endorsed by District decree (3/2013) 2013: Nusa Penida was awarded for MPA management effectiveness by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, and was announced as a recognized ‘Blue Economy’ site by the Government 2014: The higher Ministerial decree recognizing Nusa Penida as a Marine Protected Area was signed (24/2014)
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“With this declaration, Nusa Penida MPA is officially functioning at full scale, including the implementation of the zoning system, the long term management plan, eco-tourism code of conduct, and soon the entrance fee for tourists,” (Klungkung head of district, I Nyoman Suwirta, following the 2014 official declaration of Nusa Penida as a Marine Conservation Area based on the issuance of the Ministerial Decree No. 24/2014)
Another key element in the step-wise implementation of processes to establish the Nusa Penida MPA was the integration of traditional local laws at each stage, to support and promote the formulation and adoption of the formal laws. This was achieved through the holding of meetings in both the formal villages (Desa Dinas) and traditional villages (Desa Adat) in the MPA; where minutes were taken (in written form) and all attendee’s to the meetings signed against their name. Such signed documents provided the evidentiary and documentary records for the agreements made, and provided the enabling environment to move forward with the formalization processes with full support. Of course despite the successes of these approaches, it can be seen from the timeline of the MPAs development (outlined in section 4) that all of these steps were time consuming, and there were lengthy gaps between each of the processes. These delays were caused by wide ranging factors, and provide important insights for other MPA managers facing similar step-wise challenges. Some of the key causes of the delays were:
Lack of clear guidelines from the start – as outlined above, the various guidelines and frameworks for the establishment of MPAs were being produced concurrently with the time frame of Nusa Penida’s establishment. Therefore the Task Force and wider stakeholders were ‘learning along the way’ regarding each step required; and could not necessarily plan for it in advance, as new decrees were issued / new guidelines published.
Government processes can be inherently time consuming - Under MMAF the MPA establishment processes are new, and are not necessarily yet well understood by the department staff and management responsible for approvals / signing off on various processes. There is also a strong culture of hierarchy prevalent across Indonesia that can inhibit individuals to follow formal agreed paths of approval, without full and clear approval and guidance from their own leadership (even where such approval is not necessarily legally required). Such factors often lead to processes becoming delayed or languishing in wait for more formal approval from higher officials, whom are not necessarily the persons required formally for each and every step, and / or do not have clear lines of authority for moving forward.
Challenges of coordination between divisions – as a new area of work, the establishment of MPAs requires several departments and divisions to provide approvals / decrees and such like. Oftentimes delays in one division can cause knock-on effect delays in other divisions; and / or unclear coordination between divisions can slow a process considerably. 27
Personalities – Ultimately some delays may be experienced through the politics of personalities; where personal rifts or disagreements between governmental actors can become manifest in delayed actions and responses. Many sectors experience such challenges, not only conservation, and not only in government circles. However it does highlight a need for clear systematic guidance and paths of responsibility to be established in order to support individuals to better understand their own vital roles and the impacts that delays can cause.
The delays experienced in Nusa Penida (and other MPA sites across Indonesia) can have serious deleterious effects on the sites development. One of the most challenging knock-on effects of these delays for Nusa Penida was the loss of momentum and the periodic waning of support from the communities. Once community agreements were in place regarding particular issues, the communities were keen to move forward with the actions agreed. However support for activities could not be forthcoming until formal approval had also been received, which was often months, if not years, down the line. This was disheartening for the communities, and the task force and wider partners needed to maintain regular communication, updates and encouragement to avoid the potential back-lash of lost support that the delays could have caused. At each stage the causes of any delays was shared with the communities, and on some occasions it was the communities themselves who then took the issues up with their own parliamentary representatives (elected officials). Through this mechanism the formal approvals were often speeded successfully; once more reiterating the critical role the community has to play in supporting an MPAs establishment.
5.5. Designing for a Sustainable Future From the very beginning of the MPAs development there was recognition that the long-term management of the site would likely require resources and revenue beyond that available from the District government and central Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. While financial resources are annually provided to the site from these agencies, the levels are lower than required for MPA management. A study conducted in 2006 by the Ministry of Environment suggested that optimal funding for all protected areas in Indonesia was approximately $135 million USD, while in the same year only ~ $53 million USD was budgeted in government funds, leaving a shortfall of nearly $82 million USD (De Longcamp, 2010). Therefore, from the start of MPA planning, options were explored that might provide long-term, consistent revenue for the site to operate effectively into the future. To that end, discussions took place early on with operators and stakeholders on the island regarding the potential to implement a ‘Tourism User Fee’ (TUF) system in the MPA. At this time an informal user fee system was already operational in some areas, where local communities have installed mooring buoys for dive boats to use, and were (are) already charging each boat 15,000 IDR for mooring. The existing system however is only used in high volume areas, and is implemented through the government
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regulation (UU No.28 / 2009) related to ‘Retribusi”.1 The money is retained directly with the community collecting it, and supports the costs for maintaining the buoys and a range of community based activities. The funds collected do not contribute directly to MPA management beyond this, and the fee level charged (15,000 IDR) was somewhat arbitrarily set. Therefore in 2011 a full ‘Willingness To Pay’ (WTP) study was conducted (Tania et al., 2011) to assess the willingness of visitors to Nusa Penida to pay a fee to support MPA management. WTP studies assess the willingness and ability of the users of products and services to pay optimally for those products / services that are being enjoyed (Wedgwood and Sansom, 2003). WTP can be used to determine the appropriate price for a product / service, and such studies have been widely implemented to determine appropriate TUF price structures in numerous protected areas around the world, including: Komodo National Park in Indonesia (Walpole et al., 2001), St. Eustatius Marine Park in the Netherlands (Riley et al., 2006), Marine Sanctuaries in the Philippines (Arin and Kramer, 2002), and the Skaftafell National Park in Iceland (Reynisdottir et al., 2008). Data is collected by using a questionnaire and the study also unearths demographic and associated information about the target audiences that is important when designing any TUF system. In Nusa Penida, the WTP study showed that: • •
• •
•
• •
•
The majority of tourists visiting Nusa Penida come from Europe (50%) Tourists are most commonly aged between 26-30 years, with 74% of all tourists being between 21 and 40 years old, and nearly all (99%) are in the age range of productive labor (15-64 years). The majority of visitors to the MPA have a college degree (53%), with nearly 20% holding a Masters’ degree or higher qualification. The majority of tourists (36%) had an income range of $35,000 to $100,000 per year (considered high bracket earners based on Thompson and Hickeys scale, 2005); with only 14% of visitors early between $15,000 and $35,000 USD (middle incomes) and only 16% having incomes under US $ 15,000 / year (largely due to a high student presence on the islands). The key reason given by tourists for why they are visiting the islands is “snorkeling and scuba diving” (33%), with the desire to learn more about local lifestyles and culture also being a draw (8%), and for some surfing is also a key reason to visit (5%). The majority of tourists (61%) who visit Nusa Penida only stay for between 1-3 days. There was some concern expressed that the numbers of visitors to the island was becoming ‘too high’ for the area (with the site potentially losing appeal to higher end clientele as ‘mass tourism’ appeared on the horizon). When questioned as to whether marine conservation was important for Nusa Penida, 95% of tourists stated that it was important; however when asked whether they would be willing
1
Through this system, communities have the legal right to collect small payments related to particular services that the community provides (in this case, the installation and maintenance of mooring buoys). The retribusi regulation was designed primarily in relation to anticipated services such as parking fee’s or access to particular areas of interest and the like.
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•
•
to pay an entrance fee to the MPA to support area management, only 83% of tourists stated their willingness to pay. Explored further, 38% of the tourists who declined their willingness to pay an entrance fee stated that they consider conservation to be the responsibility of the government, 28% did not want any additional costs due to the high costs they had already spent to visit the location, and 20% stated that they did not trust that the money would be used for conservation. Of the tourists who expressed a positive willingness to pay, 85% expressed a desire to pay ‘per Arrival’ (i.e. each time they visited) rather than have some sort of annual fee system. The amount of money that people were willing to pay varied, with the most common responses (25%) falling in the range of 35,000 to 53,000 IDR (~$3.5 to $5.3 USD). With regards to who, or what organization, tourists felt they would trust to manage these funds, 29% put their confidence in the local community and 20% recommended an NGOs be in place to manage the funds. 16% suggested a cooperative group (with various stakeholders from government, community, NGOs and private sector representatives). Only 12% of people recommended the government manage the funds, and only 8% recommended the private sector lead the fund management.
Therefore, the study showed clearly that the marine resources being managed through the MPA are integral to the tourism operations taking place on the islands, and that the majority of visitors would be willing to pay in order to support the management of these resources. Concurrently with the WTP study, a financial feasibility assessment was also conducted. This showed that annual running costs of the MPA would be between 2.6 billion IDR (minimum estimate) up to 4 billion IDR (full estimate) per year (equal to ~ $260,000 up to $400,000 USD / year) (2011 figures). The reason for these wide ranging estimates is in part a product of the consideration of existing retribusi payments. It was recognized that if a TUF system were implemented the existing retribusi payments of 15,000 IDR per mooring boat currently collected by some communities would need to cease (to avoid overpayment and disgruntlement from operators). Thus the higher estimate includes calculations of compensation to communities for lost retribusi fees. Based on these studies, support for the development of a formal tourism user fee (TUF) system for Nusa Penida was achieved, and endorsed by District decree in 2013 (#3/2013). At the time of writing the system itself is now in development, and range of potential operating systems are being explored. Due to existing limitations in legal and regulatory frameworks, the collection of TUFs are not yet explicitly permitted in protected areas in Indonesia; therefore it seems likely at this time that the system will continue to be based on a ‘retribusi’ approach (in line with UU No.28 / 2009), but implemented for revenue generation for MPA management, with associated payments to communities for the continued maintenance and management of mooring buoys. The modus operandi for fee collection, and level of fee, is still in discussion at the time of writing. One of the challenges encountered with the use of the ‘retribusi’ legislation is the limitation on fee level, which is currently set at only 4,000 IDR, and is permitted to increase by only double (maximum), allowing a maximum fee of 7,999 IDR in theory. Investigation has shown however that this fee limitation is 30
alterable through Buppati decree, and it is hoped that such a decree will enable the collection of a 70,000 IDR fee level. This fee level is slightly higher than the range shown by the WTP study, and has been recommended by various stakeholders as an appropriate price because: (a) this higher rate may deter the further development of the low-end ‘mass tourism’ market on Nusa Penida, about which concern has been expressed by communities and stakeholders, and through which the carrying capacity for activities on the islands could be breached; and (b) even with a potential deduction in tourism volume on the island (through fee deterrence and through any potential unforeseen future events that can negatively impact tourism arrivals, such as terrorist threat or global financial crises) the fee of 70,000 IDR would meet management costs.
“This new MPA will provide an abundance of relevant information for the worldwide sustainability and conservation of many underwater plants and animals, and the development of a long-term funding mechanism that can ensure local ecological and economic resources continue to enrich the region's people and protect the amazing wildlife.” (Aquatic Alliance)
6. Results & Replication Potential Ultimately the success of Nusa Penida MPA will be seen in the achievement of its overarching objective: “To protect the marine biodiversity of the area, support sustainable fisheries, marine tourism, and the welfare of local communities”.
To achieve this the MPA needs to be fully operational, and functioning effectively. The many and varied steps so far undertaken (as outlined in the previous sections) are only a part of the story; and work continues to be on-going to get the Nusa Penida MPA to the stage of fully operational.
6.1. Results to date Measuring the extent to which Nusa Penida is achieving both its overarching objective (above) and specific management objectives as outlined in the NP Management Plan, has – and will – require longterm monitoring of both the biophysical environment and the trends in socio-economic impacts and perceptions. In addition to this, the monitoring and surveillance of compliance with MPA regulations has been, and will continue to be, critical long-term.
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Since 2011 the Nusa Penida Task Force has been undertaking Resource Use Monitoring (RUM) surveys on a monthly basis, to assess and document the range of resource use activities taking place in the MPA. These surveys were undertaken by representatives from: Klungkung District government, traditional village police (Pecalang), fishermen groups, and associated NGOs and Community groups (CBOs). In 2012 these surveys were expanded and complemented by monthly Patrols that were undertaken by the above representatives alongside the Indonesian Navy and the Indonesian Police unit stationed on Nusa Penida (a team collectively known as the ‘Joint patrol Team’). The data available from these surveys and patrols shows that on average ~97% of resource users operating in the MPA are complying with MPA regulations, which is greatly encouraging (see Figure 15). And as table 1 shows, the common violations that have been observed are (a) hookah compressor (illegal) fishing techniques, (b) fishing in core zones and tourism zones (which are both forms of ‘No Take’ zones), and (c) fishing in sub-tourism zones outside of the permitted times (in these zones fishing is only permitted between 4pm and 8am).
Figure 15: Number of boats observed per survey / patrol, and number of violations observed. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
No. of boats obs'd
Mar-14
Feb-14
Jan-14
Dec-13
Nov-13
Oct-13
Sep-13
Aug-13
Jul-13
Jun-13
May-13
Apr-13
Mar-13
Feb-13
Jan-13
Dec-12
Nov-12
Oct-12
Sep-12
Aug-12
Jul-12
Jun-12
May-12
Apr-12
0
No. of violations obs'd
However, due to resource limitations (both financial and personnel related) such patrols for compliance are currently only being undertaken one time in each month. More frequent and varied approaches to full Patrol, Surveillance and Enforcement (PSE) operations will be required in order to effectively manage the MPA. This issue is well understood by the MPA Task Force and Management Unit, and expansion of the PSE systems in the MPA are anticipated once the Management Unit is established on a permanent basis on the island (anticipated at the end of 2014).
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Table 1: Violation observations documented from RUM surveys and Patrols (April 2012 – March 2014) Sortie ID
Patrol Date
No. of boats obs'd
No. of violations obs'd
1
19/4/2012
37
1
2
18/5/2012
50
3
22/6/2012
4 5
Types of violations observed Fishery related
Diving related
Sport fishing related
Hookah Compressor
-
-
3
Hookah Compressor (3)
-
-
39
0
-
-
-
31/7/2012
46
0
-
-
-
13/8/2012
69
0
-
-
-
6
28/9/2012
50
1
-
-
7
13/10/2012
60
1
8
8/11/2012
41
1
Zoning violation
-
-
9
30/1/2013
48
1
Hookah Compressor
-
-
10
19/4/2013
30
2
Hookah Compressor (2)
-
-
11
23/5/2013
31
0
-
-
-
12
29/6/2013
44
0
-
-
-
13
12/7/2013
39
0
-
-
14
29/8/2013
52
3
15
25/9/2013
54
3
failing to adhere to restricted fishing time failing to adhere to restricted fishing time
16
31/1/2014
51
2
17
25/2/2014
51
3
18
25/3/2014
46
3
Hookah Compressor -
Hookah Compressor Fishing in core zone Hookah Compressor (1) and fishing in tourism zone (2) Zoning violation (3)
-
Standing on corals Feeding Fish
Zoning violation
snorkeling in core zone
-
-
-
-
-
Exploring the most recent data of 2014 it is also possible to see that, on average, nearly 50% of all vessels operating within the MPA come from Nusa Lembongan (within the MPA itself), with outside fishers coming from a wide range of areas in Bali (see table 2). Biophysical surveys have also been regularly conducted in the MPA since 2008, with the overall average percent of benthic hard coral cover and soft coral cover (combined) across the MPA showing increases from 2008 to 2013 (at both 3 meter depths and 10 meters depths) (see figure 16). For management purposes however it is critical to understand what is happening in the marine habitats present at different sites. While the biophysical surveys began several years prior to the zoning design and associated regulations (2008 and 2011 respectively), figure 17 showing the trend in live hard coral coverage over the years, and indicates that different locations are experiencing different levels of impact and recovery respectively. This information has been critical in guiding and supporting patrol design and management actions.
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Table 2: Origin of vessels operating with the MPA (April to June 2014) Origin of vessels
Apr-14
May-14
Jun-14
Batu Nunggul/ Suana
1
3
0
Benoa
9
7
8
Ceningan
1
0
0
Jungut Batu/ Lembongan
27
14
24
Nusa Dua
3
0
0
Padang Bay
2
2
2
Sanur
7
6
9
Toyapakeh/ Ped
2
0
1
Penida
1
2
2
Serangan
1
0
1
Figure 16: Linear trend showing the average % cover of hard coral and soft coral combined in Nusa Penida, at 3 meter depth and 10 meter depth (2008 – 2013)
Average percent Hard and Soft coral cover combined
80 70 60 50 Linear (3 meter)
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Linear (10 meter) 30 20 10 0 2008
2009
2010
2011
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2012
2013
Figure 17: Linear trends of Live Hard Coral Cover (LHCC) benthic percentages at four key sites in Nusa Penida MPA (at both 3m and 10m depths), 2008 – 2013
Tanjung Samuh location (Core Zone)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
80 70 60 50
% LHCC
% LHCC
Mangrove Location (Special Tourism Zone)
40 30 20 10 0
2009
2010 Linear (3m)
2011 2012 Linear (10m)
2013
2009
Crystal Bay location (Tourism Zone)
Ceningan location (Tourism Zone) 80 70 50
% LHCC
% LHCC
60 40 30 20 10 0 2009
2010 Linear (3m)
2011
2012
2010 2011 2012 2013 Linear (3m) Linear (10m)
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2009
2013
2010 Linear (3m)
Linear (10m)
2011
2012
2013
Linear (10m)
With regards to fish abundance, surveys from 2010 have shown that for the key (av.) 10 most commercial important species of fish2 there has been a generally increasing trend in numbers; from 1,915 ind./ha in 2010 to 2,568 ind./ha in 2013 (see figure 18). Highest levels of fish abundance have been recorded at Sakenan site (Zona Pariwisata / No Take Zone) with 4,448 ind./ha recorded in 2012; and Gamet site (a special tourism zone with restricted fishing access) with 4,030 ind./ha recorded in 2013.
2
These commercially important fish species are from the families: Siganidae, scarinii, Acanthuridae, Carangidae, Haemulidae, Labridae, lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, Serranidae, and sphyraenidae.
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Figure 18: Average Fish Abundance observed in Nusa Penida (2010 – 2013)
No. Individuals / Hectare (av.10 key commercial species)
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2010
2011
Average Ind./Ha
2012
2013
Linear (Average Ind./Ha)
In addition to the biophysical survey data available for Nusa Penida, there is considerable ‘casual observational’ information available that supports the view that Nusa Penida is host to a healthy and vibrant ecosystem. Numerous dive operators and visitors have commented on the diversity of species observed and the integrity of the habitat, through a wide range of communication channels and fora. Blue Season Bali divers have stated on their website that “Over the last six years *they+ have maintained over a 95% success rate of Sunfish *Mola Mola+ sightings” (2014). Manta Rays are also a key attraction for divers. Bottles Up Diving states on its website that “The diving around Nusa Penida is spectacular and here you can see Manta Rays all year round.” Other operators have observed that many of the Manta’s present are large (they can grow up to 670cm wing to wing) and are easily seen at Manta Point and Manta Bay in the MPA where they feed on the accumulated plankton close to the surface (Big Fish Diving website).
“Diving or snorkeling with mantas, and money spent on related industries is estimated to generate approximately $100 million / year worldwide3, which is exponentially more than the estimated $11 million / year generated by slaughtering rays for their body parts.… a single manta ray can bring in an estimated $1,000,000 over its lifetime to tourism affiliated businesses, … in Indonesia it has been proven that an organized effort to protect and create a manta ray tourism industry could really boost annual income if utilized and managed in a proper manner. Luckily, some of the first steps are in place with the creation of the Nusa Penida Marine Protected Area” (Aquatic Alliance) 3
Latest figures now suggest that manta ray related tourism now generates ~ $140 million USD annually, with only 10 countries accounting for almost 93% of the global revenue estimate, specifically: specifically Japan, Indonesia, the Maldives, Mozambique, Thailand, Australia, Mexico, United States, Federated States of Micronesia and Palau (O’Malley et al. 2013)
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Figure 19: Manta Ray in Nusa Penida MPA © Marthen Welly
6.2.
Replication Potential
With regards to replication potential, this report has been developed specifically to share the Nusa Penida teams’ experiences amongst the MPA community, so that wider practitioners may benefit from the lessons learned and approaches undertaken to overcome the various challenges encountered to date. Of course every MPA is different, and each will have their unique challenges, opportunities and nuances. An approach that has worked well at one site will not automatically work the same at another site. Nonetheless there are many similarities and many common experiences and insights that are enormously valuable to share; both for new MPA managers and staff, and existing practitioners. Four of the most important lessons learned by the Nusa Penida team that are likely highly transferable and relevant for all MPAs, are: I.
Be Inclusive And Collaborative: The development (and future success) of any MPA will rely on support and buy-in from the local community, resource users and associated stakeholders. Engage them early, often and consistently. The designing, planning and development of the MPA needs to consider and represent stakeholders input, and not be based on any pre-assumed concepts / models and the like. Managing an MPA is ultimately about managing people; so it is vital those people are part of the process from the beginning.
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II.
Show Respect At All Times: When dealing with wide ranging stakeholders and community members, different and opposing views and opinions will inevitably be encountered, and it is vital that the drivers of an MPA process (whether they be government staff, NGO support agencies, CBO groups or whomever) remain respectful at all times. Respect proffered needs to be relevant to the local culture and context. When stakeholders do not feel comfortable, or feel they are not being respected, buy-in and support diminishes very quickly. Ultimately the challenges facing biodiversity conservation are largely related to human behavior – exemplify the behavior you expect to see in others.
III.
Never Make Promises: It can be tempting to gain support and buy-in by assuring people that what they want can and will be delivered. It is critical in any negotiation or planning and development process to avoid making any promises that you may not be able to deliver on. People have long memories, and if you fail on a promise you may find you fail on your mission.
IV.
Maintain Integrity At All Times: MPA development and establishment processes in Indonesia are fraught with bureaucratic hurdles and challenges. Additionally some of work required (such as ensuring wide stakeholder engagement and inclusion) can be repetitive and tiring to undertake. It may sometimes become tempting to bypass the appropriate channels / mechanisms in order to speed processes along or get to the next stage of the process (especially where funding concerns may be pushing for earlier results and the like). Additionally there will be times when you may be witness to others in the society around you gaining ground or moving forward through circumventing or cutting short the appropriate channels and mechanisms, making submission to temptation all the more easy. Don’t give in to temptation. Maintain integrity at all times. It will be seen, noted and respected.
“Nusa Penida is now a best practice for other MPAs.” (The Hon, Minister for Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Sharif Cicip Sutardjo , 2014 declaration)
7. Moving Forward / Next Steps In the months and years ahead the Nusa Penida Management Unit and support NGO (the Coral Triangle Center) will be focusing on two key actions intended to take the Nusa Penida MPA from the development and preliminary implementation stage to fully operational status. I. II.
Operationalizing the Management Unit and associated management activities Developing the Nusa Penida MPA as a Learning Site
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7.1.
Operationalizing the Management Unit and associated management activities
The Nusa Penida MPA Management Unit was established by the head of Klungkung District (under a Head of District decree No. 30) in 2012. Once established, the responsibilities previously held by the Nusa Penida Task Force were transferred to this management unit. However, in the process it was seen that the considerable commitment, experience and insights held by Task Force members was at risk of becoming lost. These Task Force members had been a driving force for the MPA for several years, and have critical institutional memory of all the work undertaken to date. It was therefore decided that in addition to the Management Unit, a Steering Committee would be developed made up of previous task force members, to help guide, advice and support the management units’ work.
Figure 20: Framework of support the Nusa Penida Management Unit
This has led to a collaborative management approach formalized through the district government, with steering committee members including representatives from the village tribes council, CBOs, fisher groups, seaweed farmer collectives and NGOs. In addition to the steering committee a range of support teams also remain as part of the collaborative management arrangement, namely: the Joint Patrol Team, RUM team, RHM team and associated social survey teams. These teams are coordinated through the management unit and their work directly supports and informs management of the MPA. To date the Management Unit has only two (2) full time staff however, and until the sustainable financing mechanism is fully operational resources will continue to be limited to ensure further staffing provision. Therefore in the coming months / year the collaborative management teams will also be exploring the possibility of turning the current framework (as shown in figure 20) into a more formalized Local Public Service Board (Badan Layanan Umum Daerah – BLUD)4. These are units that can be situated within government institutions but can include non-civil servant members as staff. They have the legal remit to provide services to communities by applying business practices (including 4
Under regulation No. 61/2007 Ministry of Home Affairs (Peraturan Menteri Dalam Negeri Nomor )- Guidelines for Technical Management of Local Public Service (Pedoman Teknis Pengelolaan Keuangan Badan Layanan Umum Daerah)
39
semi-autonomous financial management systems) for the betterment of society. In Indonesia BLUDs currently predominantly exist in the field of health services, however increasingly marine conservation practitioners are exploring this mechanism to support conservation management practices, revenue generation and collaborative management frameworks (for example such an approach is also being explored to support the Raja Ampat MPA Network in Papua). By upgrading the current management unit into a BLUD the management could more formally include community members, and would provide an appropriate institution through which to manage the revenue generated under the tourism user fees. However, exploration into this potential approach moving forward is still preliminary at this time. In the immediate terms plans are underway to hire one more additional staff person on the management unit team (to support administration) and to focus on the continued implementation and expansion of management activities, including:
7.2.
More frequent patrols with the presence of a law-keeper (whether from fisheries police or Navy) on each patrol The development of an SOP for use of all equipment Training on data management (so that the management unit can readily analyze data available and ensure adaptive management approaches based on the information learned) The development of protocols for data sharing (so that researchers can work directly through the management unit rather than through support NGOs)5, and to ensure research conducted is maximally of benefit to MPA management. Further training to community members to participate in the various support teams
Developing Nusa Penida MPA as a Learning Site
At the time of writing the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) through the decentralized District Departments of Fisheries, have established eighty-nine (89) MPAs (KKPDs) across Indonesia. These MPAs are at various stages of development, with the vast majority in the very initial stages of preliminary design and planning. Many of the staff and associated stakeholders engaged in developing these MPAs are new to this area of work, and there is a great need for capacity building and practitioner support. To address this issue a number of training activities are being supported through the Ministry’s human resource department (BPSDM) and associated training centers across Indonesia, and a wide number of NGOs provide training and support to particular geographies or management themes (Carter et al., 2014). The Coral Triangle center (CTC) has a portfolio of twenty-four (24) training courses available to support MPA practitioners, 5
Considerable research is conducted on Nusa Penida by international and national students. At the time of writing active research is taking place by 10 BSc students, 4 MSc students and 3PhD students.
40
and as the long-term partner to the development of the Nusa Penida MPA CTC also recognizes the importance of utilizing existing sites to serve as living laboratories, to observe, learn, and gain from field experiences related to marine conservation, MPA establishment, and resource management. To this end MPA ‘Learning Sites’ are a core component of CTCs strategic framework, with the Nusa Penida being the first site developed for this initiative.6 These ‘Learning Sites’ are onsite training platforms for managers and practitioners, government officials, community groups, scientists, and NGOs to gain hands-on experience, and to enable learning exchanges among practitioners and between sites in the Coral Triangle and beyond. By connecting learning sites within countries and across the region, stakeholders can learn from a broad spectrum of MPAs with different ecological, economic, social, and geopolitical characteristics.
Box 1: Of the 24 training courses available from CTC, those that provide on-site complementary training on Nusa Penida commonly include:
Principles of MPA Management Marine Conservation Action Planning Introduction to Basic Marine Ecology Training for Teachers on Marine Conservation Marine Resource Use Monitoring Dive training and introduction to Marine Biological Monitoring Reef Health Monitoring Spawning Aggregation Site Monitoring Marine Biological Surveying and Observational Monitoring Boundary Marker Installation Training for MPAs Patrol & Surveillance for MPAs Sustainable tourism development within MPA zoning classifications in Indonesia
The development of Nusa Penida as a Learning Site has been an organic process undertaken over several years. Through CTCs engagement in the MPA design, development and management processes, the range of lessons learned that are utilized for on-site training initiatives are taken from the early steps of establishing Nusa Penida as an MPA through to the experiences of current management actions and future planning. Such on-ground, hands-on training supports others who are engaging in similar tasks across the region. Through site-based training events and exchanges, practitioners can learn in-situ about MPA planning and management processes. Learning institutions in marine conservation throughout the region can benefit from field exchanges, internships, and on-site study experiences on a variety of topics. In addition to the training support provision, the Nusa Penida Learning Site also provides a location for advanced research opportunities, internships and volunteer opportunities, that both support the capacity building of the researchers, students and volunteers, and also supports the management objectives of the MPA.
6
A second learning site under development is the Banda Islands MPA network in Maluku.
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The MPA is excellently positioned as a learning site due in part to its location (easily accessible from Bali – a main hub for travel through the region), size, collaborative management approach, and its progressive stages of development as an MPA. Following the early realization of Nusa Penida’s value as a Learning Site a focused attempt has been made to develop the skills of the people and materials on site to deliver targeted and responsive training to meet practitioners’ needs from across the region. CTC staff and key stakeholder representatives have prepared practical sources of information, including study packs and informal scripted talks on a range of learning themes. Visits to the site are tailored to the audiences’ key interest areas, and materials are drawn as required from an ever growing central library of materials, both on site and at the CTC offices in Sanur, Bali. Locations within the MPA for on-site training are determined based on focus topics being addressed, and include: underwater sites of interest (for qualified scuba diving participants, and / or experienced snorkelers only), the mangrove areas, seaweed farming sites, areas where coral transplantation activities are taking place, as well as the community center situated within the MPA and sites of high tourism activity. On-site training can be, and often is, complimented by pre, and / or post training held at the CTC offices in Bali, depending on the focus topic of interest.
“[Nusa Penida] is becoming an excellent learning platform for various stakeholders from around the world, easy accessible with best practices on community participation, marine spatial planning, management and MPA governance.” (Ibu Rili Djohani, Executive Director, Coral Triangle Center)
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REFERENCES Auger, T., Sin, C.L., Lui, T.S., Ascui, S.H. and M. Seow (2005) Bali and Lombok Eyewitness Travel Guide. Didier Millet, Singapore, 251 pp Arin, T. and R.A. Kramer (2002) Divers’ willingness to pay to visit marine sanctuaries: an exploratory study. Ocean & Coastal Management (45): 171 – 183. Carter, E., Soemodinoto, A. & A. White (2011) Guide for Improving Marine Protected Area Management Effectiveness in Indonesia. Bali, Indonesia: The Nature Conservancy Indonesia Marine Program, xi + 49p. ISBN: 978-602-97788-1-6. Carter, E., Sukoyono, S., Hardcastle, J. and R. Djohani (2014) Meeting the Competency Needs for Effectively Managed Marine Protected Areas in Indonesia (Part I and Part II). CTC/MMAF/IUCN. 26pp. and 119pp. respectively De Longcamp, M. (2010) An initial sustainable financing scoping exercise for MPAs in the Sulu - Sulawesi Seas Marine Ecoregion - Indonesia. Starling Resources: WWF / SSME TRI De Suriyani, L. (2011) Nusa Penida fishermen will stay ashore for Nyepi Segara. The Jakarta Post, Article, October 12 2011. KKJI (2012) Decree Of The Director General Of Marine, Coasts And Small Islands Number Kep.44 /Kp3k/2012, Concerning Technical Guidelines For Evaluating The Management Effectiveness Of Aquatic, Coasts And Small Islands Conservation Areas (E-Kkp3k). KKJI. 39 pp ISBN : 978-602-98450-8-2. Klemen, L. (1999). The Capture of Bali Island, February 1942. Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. McClanahan, T. R., Graham, N. A. J., MacNeil, M. A., Muthiga, N. A., Cinner, J. E., Bruggemann, J. H. and Wilson, S. K. (2011). Critical thresholds and tangible targets for ecosystem-based management of coral reef fisheries. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(41), 17230-17233. MTCE (2013) Nusa Penida Festival: Rare Cultural Performances and Superb Diving. Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy, Republic of Indonesia. O’Malley M.P., Lee-Brooks, K., and H.B. Medd (2013) The Global Economic Impact of Manta Ray Watching Tourism. PLoS ONE 8(5): e65051. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065051 Pickell, D. and W. Siagian (2010) Diving Bali: The Underwater Jewel of Southeast Asia. Tuttle Publishing; 2nd Edition, 240pp Pokja KKP Nusa Penida (2012) Rencana Pengelolaan Kawasan Konservasi Perairan Nusa Penida, Kabupaten Klungkung, Propinsi Bali. Kabupaten Klungkung 43
Reynisdottir, M., H. Song, and J. Agrusa (2008) Willingness to pay entrance fees to natural attractions: An Icelandic case study. Tourism Management (29): 1076 – 1083. Riley, E., A. Northrop, and N. Esteban (2006) A Willingness to Pay Study for Park Fees: Quill/Boven National Park.. St Eustatius Marine Park.. St Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles. 29 pp. Tania, C., Welly, M. and A.H. Muljadi (2011) Wilingness to Pay Study, Kawasan Konservasi Perairan Nusa Penida, Kabupaten Klungkung, Bali. Coral Triangle Center (CTC). vii + 27 pp. Thompson, W. and J. Hickey (2005) Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon. 672 pp. Walpole, M.J., H.J. Goodwin, and K.G.R. Ward (2001) Pricing Policy for Tourism in Protected Areas: Lessons from Komodo National Park, Indonesia. Cosnservation Biology (15): 218 – 227. Wedgwood, A. and K. Sansom (2003) Willingness-to-pay surveys - A streamlined approach: Guidance notes for small town water services. WEDC, Louborough University, UK. Welly, M., W. Sanjaya, D. Primaoktasa, I.P. Putra, and M.J. Tatas (2011) Profil Wisata Bahari Nusa Penida, Kabupaten Klungkung, Propinsi Bali. v + 22 pp. Wyrtki, K. (1961) Physical oceanography of the southeast Asian waters. NAGA report, vol. 2, 195 pp., Univ. of Calif., San Diego, 1961
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For more information about Nusa Penida MPA, please contact: The Coral Triangle Center Jl. Danau Tamblingan No. 78, Sanur, Bali, Indonesia,80228 T: +62 (0) 361 289 338 45 E:
[email protected] Website: www.coraltrianglecenter.org
