Contents. Preface v. List of Contributors xv. Glossary xvii. 1 Introduction. 1. JOHN YOUNG. A. Preamble. 1 .... type II diabetic patients with hypertriglyceridemia. 5.
Lipids for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals Edited by
FRANK D. GUNSTONE Professor Emeritus University of St Andrews and Honorary Research Professor Scottish Crop Research Institute Dundee, Scotland
THE OILY PRESS An imprint of PJ Barnes & Associates Bridgwater, England
Published in association with Lipid Technology
Contents
Preface
v
List of Contributors
xv
Glossary
xvii
1 Introduction
1
JOHN YOUNG
A. B. C. D E.
F. G. H.
I. J. K.
Preamble The concept of functional food Definition of a functional food The history of functional foods Factors influencing demand for functional foods 1. Emerging consumer trends and attitudes relating to diet and health 2. Socio-economie trends 3. Policy initiatives 4. Pressure groups and thè media The market for functional foods Dairy produets Functional margarines and spreads 1. UK 2. Germany 3. France 4. Benelux 5. Finland 6. USA 7. Japan 8. Australia Bakery and cereal produets Soft drinks Functional food ingredients 1. Probiotics 2. Prebiotics 3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) 4. Phytochemicals vii
1 2 2 3 4
7 9 10
16 17 18
VÌii
2
CONTENTS
5. Vitamins and minerals 6. Fibres L. Factors criticai to thè success of functional foods 1. Safety 2. Proof of efficacy 3. Consumer education 4. Market positioning 5. Price 6. Health claims strategy M. Conclusions References
22 23
Carotenoids
25
19
Y A A K O B B. C H E M A N AND C H I N - P I N G T A N
3
A. Introduction B. Structure, nomenclature and chemistry C. Sources of carotenoids 1. Naturai sources 2. Synthesis of carotenoids D. Technological advances in carotenoid extraction E. Functional properties of carotenoids 1. Colour 2. Antioxidant activity 3. Disease prevention E Applications and stability of carotenoids in food produets G. Conclusions and future research References
25 26 28
41 45 46
Tocopherols, tocotrienols and vitami n E
53
34 36
W I L L I A M L. S T O N E AND A N D R E A S PAPAS
A. B. C. D.
Vitamin E is more than oc-tocopherol Vitamin E in food is different from vitamin E in most supplements Vitamin E and lipid peroxidation Vitamin E compounds differ in their reactivities towards reactive nitrogen species E. Vitamin E in animai fat and plant fat, and its health-related signifìcance F. Dietary factors influendng a- and y-tocopherol levels G. Cellular and biochemical differences in vitamin E compounds H. Vitamin E biodiscrìmination I. Vitamin E metabolism J. Nutritional genomics and tocopherols References
53 54 56 60 61 63 64 65 66 67 68
CONTENTS
4 Other naturai antioxidants - rice bran oil, se sa me oil, rosemary extract, flavonoids
ÌX
73
CLIFFORD HALL III
A. Introduction B. Rice (Oryza saliva) bran oil 1. General characteristics 2. Health benefits 3. Stability 4. Extraction using solvents 5. Supercritical fluid extraction 6. Refining 7. Antioxidant activity C. Sesame (Sesamum indicum) seed oil 1. General characteristics 2. Health benefits 3. Effect of processing on sesame seed oil components 4. Antioxidant activity D. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) extract 1. General characteristics 2. Health benefits 3. Extraction of rosemary components 4. Antioxidant activity E. Flavonoids 1. General characteristics 2. Health benefits 3. Effects of processing on flavonoid stability 4. Antioxidant activity F. Conclusions References
5 Diacylglycerols
73 73
83
90
97
101 101
113
HlROYUKI WATANABE AND NOBORU MATSUO A. Introduction B. Biochemical characteristics of DAG 1. Occurrence of DAG 2. Structure of DAG 3. Energy value of DAG 4. Absorption coefficient of DAG C. Nutritional functions of DAG as studied in animals 1. Identification of thè digestion produets in thè small intestine 2. Re-esterification rate 3. Anti-obesity effects of DAG in animai studies
113 114
118
X
CONTENTS
4. Long-term effects of DAG ingestion on thè proteins and enzymcs involved in lipid metabolism D. Clinical studies 1. Double-blind controlied study on thè effects of dietary DAG on postprandial serum and chylomicron TAG responses in healthy humans 2. Dynamics of postprandial remnant-like lipoprotein particles (RLP) in serum after DAG ingestion 3. Dietary DAG suppresses thè accumulation of body fat in men: a double-blind controlied trial 4. Long-term ingestion of dietary DAG lowers serum TAG levels in type II diabetic patients with hypertriglyceridemia 5. The solubilization of phytosterols in DAG instead of TAG oil improves their serum cholesterol-lowering effect E. Applications of DAG F. Conclusions References
6 Lipase-catalysed synthesis of modifìed lipids
127
143 144 144
149
UWE T. BORNSCHEUER, MAREK ADAMCZAK AND MOHAMED M. SOUMANOU A. Introduction B. Lipases C. Strategies for sTAG synthesis 1. One-step process 2. Two-step process D. Vegetable oils for thè synthesis of sTAG E. Fish oils for thè synthesis of sTAG F. Microbial and algal fat modification G. Milk fat modification H. Methods for sTAG analysis I. Future outlook References
7 Phytosterols
149 153 156
162 165 168 169 171 173 174
183
PIA SALO, INGMAR WESTER AND ANU HOPIA
A. Introduction B. Chemistry of plant sterols 1. 4-Desmethyl sterols 2. 4-Methyl sterols 3. 4,4-Dimethyl sterols
183 184
CONTENTS
XI
4. Triterpenes 5. Plant stanols - saturated sterols 6. Effects of different sterol groups on cholesterol absorption C. Dietary sources of 4-desmethyl sterols D. Commerciai sources of plant sterols E. Health effects of sterols 1. Cholesterol-lowering mechanism of plant sterols and stanols 2. Early studies of phytosterols 3. Clinical studies with unesterified and esterified sterols and stanols 4. Effects of background diet 5. Additive effect with cholesterol-lowering medication 6. Dose-response of esterified plant sterols and stanols 7. Short-term and long-term efficacy 8. Frequency of intake 9. Effects on plasma plant sterols 10. The benefits of sterol and stanol ester consumption F. The development of sterol-enriched foods 1. Foods or capsules? 2. What type of food is optimal as a plant sterol carrier? 3. Physical and technological properties of sterols and their fatty acid esters G. Commerciai applications 1. Oils and fats 2. Dairy produets 3. Snacks 4. Drinks 5. Others H. Summary References
216 218
Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids
225
190 191 193
210
213
Duo Li, ORTWIN BODE, HAMISH DRUMMOND AND ANDREW J. SINCLAIR
A. Introduction B. Physiological functions of n-3 fatty acids C. Metabolismof n-3 fatty acids 1. ALA metabolic pathways 2. How effectively is ALA metabolized to DHA? 3. EPA metabolic pathways D. Biological importance of n-3 PUFA in human health 1. Blood pressure 2. Plasma/serum and lipoprotein lipids
225 226 227
235
XÌi
CONTENTS
3. Thrombosis 4. Secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease 5. Cancers 6. Inflammation 7. Neuropsychiatric disorders 8. Obesity E. Why is there a need for n-3 fatty acids in functional foods? 1. Current intakes of «-3 PUFA 2. Dietary sources of n-3 PUFA F. Novel sources of long-chain n-3 PUFA G. Practical aspects of introducing n-3 fatty acids into foods 1. Stability of n-3 fatty acids 2. Antioxidants 3. Direct addition of n-3 PUFA oils to food produets 4. Addition of n-3 PUFA as microencapsulated powders to food produets H. Products based on n-3 PUFA in thè marketplace I. Bioavailability of n-3 fatty acids from functional foods References
9 Oils contai nìog oleic, palmitoleic, y-linolenic and stearidonic acids
243
246 249
252 253 253
263
BAORU YANG, FRANK D. GUNSTONE AND HEIKKI KALLIO
A. High-oleic oils B. Palmitoleic acid 1. Occurrence 2. Levels of palmitoleic acid in human and animai tissues and health conditions 3. Effects of palmitoleic acid on cancer 4. Effects of palmitoleic acid on hyperlipemia, hypertension and diabetes mellitus 5. Sea buckthorn (Hippophaè rhamnoides) oils 6. Enrichment of palmitoleic acid 7. Summary C. y-Linolenic acid (GLA) 1. Metabolic pathway of GLA 2. Occurrence of GLA in seed oils and microorganisms 3. Sources with higher GLA levels 4. Nutritional and medicai uses of GLA 5. Functional foods containing GLA D. Stearidonic acid 1. Dietary sources
263 266
272
280
CONTENTS 2. Preparation of stearidonic acid oils 3. Metabolism of stearidonic acid 4. Nutritional and health effects of stearidonic acid 5. Stearidonic acid and functional foods References
10 Conjugated linoleic acid
Xiii
284
291
CLAIRE E. FERNIE
A. B. C. D.
Introduction Potential health benefits CLA availability and functional foods CLA and animai husbandry 1. Ruminant CLA production 2. CLA manipulation in ruminant-derived produets 3. Poultry and egg production 4. Pig breeding 5. Aquaculture E. Commerciai synthesis and isomer enrichment 1. Production of CLA 2. Triacylglycerol formation 3. Isomer enrichment 4. Novel synthetic methods 5. Oxidative stability F. Commerciai availability and new produet development G. Safetyissues H. Conclusions I. Websites 1. Analysis and research 2. Commerciai companies References
