Management through continuing education by institutions of higher learning. L. M. CHOU. Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent ...
AQUATIC CONSERVATION: FRESHWATER AND MARINE
ECOSYSTEMS. VOL. 4,
179-184 (1994)
VIEWPOINT
Living coastal resources of Southeast Asia: Management through continuing education by institutions of higher learning L. M. CHOU Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 0511 ABSTRACT 1. Development pressures in Southeast Asia have been increasing rapidly over recent decades, much at the expense of living resources. 2. Living coastal resources play important biological, ecological and economic roles, but such values, particularly the first two, are difficult to quantify in simple cash terms. Development of built-up infrastructure on the other hand, enables tangible and usually substantial projected economic gains to be calculated, and these often overshadow estimated benefits of natural habitats through traditional use. 3. This issue has to be addressed, and it can be done through continuing education for all sectors of the population. Institutions of higher learning have a great part to play by packaging research information on living coastal resources for different target groups. 4. Increasing scientificinvestigations have resulted in a vast amount of knowledge and understanding of the importance of these habitats. Further research can proceed along directions aimed at providing data that will enable better and reliable quantification of biological and ecological benefits. 5. Such information, when made widely available to all, will result in a society that is more appreciative and protective of living coastal resources, and also with a greater understanding of their long-term significance.
INTRODUCTION
Southeast Asia is known for its rich and diverse living coastal resources. With more than 70% of its rapidly increasing population located in the coastal area, dependence on these resources has also increased significantly (Chou, in press). The total population of 181.6 million in 1950 increased to 443.8 million in 1990 and is projected to reach 724.4 million in 2025 (World Resources Institute, 1992). The annual marine catch, for example, of 7.9 million metric tonnes in the late 1980s represented a 42% increase over the late 1970s (World Resources Institute, 1992). In addition, development pressures contribute to the loss of coastal habitats and further degradation in many places throughout the region. Wilkinson et al. (1993) predict that most of the region’s coral reefs will be exterminated within the next 40 years. While growing concern has been expressed by environmentalists, this has not been acknowledged by developers who continue to pay insufficient attention. However, among traditional users of coastal resources, education has been shown by resource scientists to be effective in making the users realize that improperly managed coastal habitats cannot provide sustained benefits over a long term. Throughout the region, many policy makers require justification in terms of monetary values of these resources. A greater understanding of the biological and ecological functioning of these habitats should CCC 1052-7413/94/020179-06 01994 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 13 January 1993 Accepted 3 March 1994
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enable more reliable quantification of these values. Here is where institutions of higher learning can contribute to the proper management and protection of living coastal resources. There are two ways by which such institutions can achieve this aim. The first is to support research efforts on coastal ecosystems. The second is to interpret the results and make them available to all levels of society, In order for the information to be disseminated effectively throughout society, it has to be packaged and presented in different ways for specific target groups. Decision makers may require stronger justification to be convinced of the longterm benefits of managing these resources, and they see less need in protecting them when faced with development priorities, or in spending time to develop sustainable development management strategies. Target groups such as school children and the public are more receptive to such information and, when concerned, can be effective as pressure groups in persuading for a more positive management approach. LIVING COASTAL RESOURCES OF SOUTHEAST ASIA
The region stretches over a wide geographical area of 9 million km2, and its seas cover 2.5% of the earth’s marine surface. Containing numerous islands, the region is located between the Indian and the Pacific oceans and between the continents of Asia and Australia (Figure 1). Indonesia and the Philippines are two of the largest archipelagic nations in the world. With an extensive total coastline length of 92 500 km, the region is characterized by the large variation of coastal habitats as well as the high biodiversity supported by these habitats. The ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations comprising Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand) region alone contains an estimated 30% of the world’s coral reefs, and 26% of the world’s mangroves (Chua, 1991). It also contains many other
Figure 1. Map of Southeast Asia.
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important coastal ecosystems such as seagrass beds, estuaries, soft-bottom benthic habitats and various types of seashores. The ecological significance of these major living coastal resources is well known and extensive documentation on the region’s utilization and dependence on them is available (White, 1987; Pauly and Chua, 1988; Fortes, 1989; Gomez ef al., 1990; Paw and Chua, 1991; Wong, 1991). Coastal resources of the region support a wide range of economic activities covering maritime commerce, fishing and tourism. The region’s expanding population particularly in coastal areas will impose additional pressure on coastal resources and intensify the problems of over-exploitation, environmental degradation, and resource use conflicts. These can be minimized by effective planning through an integrated management approach, so that development can be balanced with living resources protection. Integrated coastal area management which involves planners from different disciplines as well as representatives of all sectoral users is a recent development throughout the region. While awareness among decision makers on the importance of coastal resources management is evident (Chua and Scura, 1991), particularly since the 1980s, implementation of integrated management action plans has been slow. Among the many reasons that can account for this rate of response are: (a) the past lack of information on the roles, significance and therefore values of living coastal resources, and (b) the present lack of an adequate mechanism within existing institutional arrangements that allows for an integrated management approach in planning and implementation. Institutions of higher education have been active in addressing the first problem and while the second is beyond their control, the information generated may help to induce changes within the country’s institutional framework. THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING
Appropriate departments within institutions of higher learning can contribute positively towards the management and protection of living coastal resources by designing research programmes to provide the kind of information required not only by decision makers but also by all levels of society. It is an educational process which such institutions can easily fulfil. The institution must first of all be convinced of the importance of research on living coastal resources, and provide the necessary support to its researchers. It must be fully aware that the research output is of benefit to society and of importance to decision makers. Researchers from tertiary level institutions in the region have contributed significantly towards increasing the level of knowledge on coastal habitats. There is now a greater understanding of the functioning of these resource systems and further research will provide more answers. What remains lacking is an effective method to quantify these resources in monetary values. Policy makers need to have the ecological and biological values translated into cash values on which decisions can be made. This is particularly true of the region where development pressure to strengthen an economic base is great. Intangible benefits are difficult bases for justification. Thus efforts have been made to compare, for example, the cost of constructing a breakwater that would provide the same level of protection given by a reef. This kind of simple comparison has to be made more realistic by adding to it, the life sustaining value of the coral reef which includes lesser known variables such as how much life does a reef generate, how fast and how productive. These need to be determined through more research. In a case study on the value of logging against fisheries and tourism in Palawan, Philippines, Hodgson and Dixon (1988) showed that the loss in benefits from fisheries and tourism caused by sedimentation as a result of logging far outweighed that generated through logging. There is clearly a need for further research into the basic aspects of biology and ecology of living coastal resources as well as the multidisciplinary aspects of socio-economics and environmental management. Institutions of higher learning can play a vital role by serving as the information centre from which reliable data can be obtained. They also need to protect the data to different levels of society. The information has to be packaged differently in order to be meaningful to the various target groups.
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INFORMATION DISSEMINATION TO TARGET GROUPS Information aimed at policy and decision makers must include the needs of all users and an economic assessment of the resource. This requires careful thought by a multidisciplinary team of researchers and institutions of higher learning are in a position to organize such teams from among its academics. Information aimed at the traditional users must convince them of the importance of effective management. Excessive exploitation can only result in short-term gain and long-term degradation of the resource on which they are dependent. Coastal communities which make use of living coastal resources are more receptive to plans which they themselves can implement, and which can provide for sustainable use. This communitybased management concept has reportedly met with success in the region. Vande Vusse (1991) describes a project in the Central Visayas (Philippines) that developed a resource management system through community organization where artisanal fishermen have a direct role as resource managers. Their involvement makes them realize that they themselves can significantly improve the situation by managing the resources on which they are dependent. Direct community participation in managing coastal living resources has also been reported to reduce effectively illegal and destructive fishing practices and change the community’s attitude towards killing of dugongs in some of Thailand‘s fishing communities (Nateekanjanalarp and Sudara, 1992; Sudara and Nateekanjanalarp, 1992). Proper management of privately owned coastal resorts has also demonstrated the importance of protecting living coastal resources in attracting tourists, while in other places, the frantic scramble to develop coastal tourism facilities without environmental protection planning has resulted in deterioration and permanent loss of coastal and marine life (Wong, 1991). Two other large and important target groups are school children and the public. Information prepared for these groups should include good colour illustrations for added impact and which will immediately gain attention. Posters, pamphlets and simple guide books which draw attention to the interestingand diverse life present in coastal habitats, as well as the importance of these habitats, are effective in educating both groups and raising their awareness and appreciation. Such educational materials should be made widely available to the public, and distributed free to schools and other government agencies. The funding for the publication of these materials is usually available from large commercial corporations which normally set aside a budget to support community awareness projects. The Reef Ecology Study Team of the National University of Singapore, for example, has in the past 5 years produced a series of wall charts and pamphlets for free distribution to schools and the public, all of which were fully sponsored by commercial organizations. Planning a long-term (over 10 years) strategy on information dissemination is important in ensuring that large segments of society including decision makers receive the message repeatedly over the years.
WAYS TO EDUCATE THE PUBLIC Institutions of higher learning can work closely with reputable non-governmental organizations which are good sources of available manpower for large survey and monitoring programmes. An example from Singapore involved the organizing of 150 volunteer divers to carry out a survey of 65 locations on 41 reefs which was completed within 15 months (Chou, 1991). This included training the divers on the survey methodology. The project, which was meant to assess the condition of the country’s reefs and to identify the better reefs for conservation, was carried out by three non-governmental organizations with the expertise provided by researchers from the University. Volunteer divers from all walks of life were put through a simple course on coral reef biology in addition to the survey methodology. Training, conducted both in the class and field, was aimed at familiarizing volunteers with the reef organisms. They were then tested for accuracy in recognizing the organisms and only those with high scores were permitted to undertake field surveys. Personal involvement with something useful to the environment served as a strong motivating factor and keen enthusiasm was exhibited by all participants. Feedback from the majority indicated that they enjoyed learning about coral reefs and are now in a better position to appreciate the value of the habitat.
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The desire by the public to know more about coral reefs or other coastal habitats was thus identified, and two of the non-governmental organizations, with the collaboration of university researchers, went on to prepare and organize a ‘coral reef appreciation’ course for members of the public. Four courses have since been conducted in 1992 for 65 members of the public and a long waiting list has ensured the continuation of this programme over the next few years. These courses are financially self-supporting as participants pay a fee to cover course materials and instruction time. Non-governmental organizations can secure the funding for large survey projects and a mutual collaboration between them and the university researchers would only be to everybody’s advantage. Institutions of higher learning can boost this symbiotic relationship further by recognizing the linkage. Researchers from the institutions of higher learning must, however, exercise discretion in selecting only the responsible non-governmental organizations to work with. As an authority, the researcher must take a balanced view between development and conservation, and be ready to counter inaccurate statements from either side. As a form of continuing education, many types of activities can be organized to disseminate the information to the public. Exhibitions and talks provide excellent opportunities. Non-formal courses such as that described earlier are effective as an extension of formal teaching programmes in the institutions of higher learning. Researchers can make use of the media for efficient transmission of information. Seminars aimed at school children and the public have also shown to be a popular avenue in educating them on issues related to living coastal resources.
CONCLUSIONS Management of living coastal resources is imperative in view of the region’s rapid development and growing population. Living coastal resources of the region are diverse in terms of habitat type and species. An integrated management strategy can reduce the present rate of coastal habitat degradation and minimize the unnecessary loss of these habitats. Tertiary institutions have a positive contribution to make towards the effective management of living coastal resources. Research programmes can be designed to provide a better understanding of these resources and allow for a better interpretation of their roles and significance. Such information is important and useful to decision makers. The institutions must also make this information available to all other sectors of society as a form of continuing education. Its researchers can implement joint research or informal teaching programmes with responsible non-governmental organizations in order to reach out effectively to school children and the public. A better informed society with a higher level of appreciation and concern for living coastal resources can be effective in the realization of sustainable development. REFERENCES Chou, L. M. 1991. ‘A reef conservation project involving sport divers in Singapore’, in Coastal Zone ’91:Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Coastal & Ocean Management, 8-12 July 1991, Long Beach, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1990-1994. Chou, L. M. in press. ‘Marine environmental issues of Southeast Asia: state and development’, Hydrobiologia. Chua, T. E. 1991. ‘Managing coastal resources for sustainable development: the ASEAN initiative’, in Chua, T. E. and Scura, L. F. (Eds), Managing ASEAN’s Coastal Resourcesfor Sustainable Development: Roles of Policymakers, Scientists, Donors, Media and Communities. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 30, Department of Science and Technology; Department of Agriculture; Department of Environment and Natural Resources; and Department of Tourism, Philippines; and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, 21-35. Chua, T. E. and Scura, L. F. (Eds), 1991. ‘Managing ASEAN’s coastal resources for sustainable development: roles of policymakers, scientists, donors, media and communities’, in ZCLARM ConferenceProceedings30, Department of Science and Technology; Department of Agriculture; Department of Environment and Natural Resources; and Department of Tourism, Philippines; and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, 125 p.
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Fortes, M. D. 1989. ‘Seagrasses: a resource unknown in the ASEAN region’, ICLARM Education Series 5 , International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, 1-46. Gomez, E. D., Deocadiz, E., Hungspreugs, M., Jothy, A. A., Kuan, K. J., Soegiarto, A. and Wu, R. S. S. 1990. ‘State of the marine environment in the East Asian Seas region’, UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 126, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, 1-63. Hodgson, G. and Dixon, J. A. 1988. ‘Logging versus fisheries and tourism in Palawan’, Occasional Papers No. 7, East-West Environment and Policy Institute, Hawaii, 1-95. Nateekanjanalarp, S. and Sudara, S. 1992. ‘Dugongs and a plan for their management in Thailand’, in Chou, L. M. and Wilkinson, C. R. (Eds), Third ASEAN Science and Technology Week Conference Proceedings, Vol. 6, Marine Science: Living Coastal Resources, Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore and National Science and Technology Board, Singapore, 459-462. Pauly, D. and Chua, T. E. 1988. ‘The overfishing of marine resources: socio-economic background in Southeast Asia’, Ambio, 17, 200-206. Paw, J. N. and Chua, T. E. 1991. ‘An assessment of the ecological and economic impact of mangrove conversion in Southeast Asia’, in Chou, L. M., Chua, T. E., Khoo, H. W., Lim, P. E., Paw, J. N., Silvestre, G. T., Valencia, M. J., White, A. T. and Wong, P. K. (Eds), Towards an Integrated Management of Tropical Coastal Resources, ICLARM Conference Proceedings 22, National University of Singapore, Singapore; National Science and Technology Board, Singapore; and international Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, 201-212. Sudara, S. and Nateekanjanalarp, S. 1992. ‘Economic aspects and examples of successful conservation program from ASEAN-Australia: living coastal resources project’, in Chou, L. M. and Wilkinson, C. R. (Eds), Third ASEAN Science and Technology Week ConferenceProceedings, Vol. 6, Marine Science: Living Coastal Resources, Department of Zoology, National University of Singapore and National Science and Technology Board, Singapore, 447-45 1 . Vande Vusse, F. J . 1991. ‘A community-based resource management approach to address Philippines coastal resource degradation and overfishing’, in Chou, L. M., Chua, T. E., Khoo, H. W., Lim, P. E., Paw, J. N., Silvestre, 0.T., Valencia, M. J., White, A. T. and Wong, P. K. (Eds), Towardsan Integrated Management of Tropical Coastal Resources, ICLARM Conference Proceedings 22, National University of Singapore, Singapore, National Science and Technology Board, Singapore; and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines. 387-393. White, A. T. 1987. ‘Coral reefs: valuable resources of Southeast Asia’, ICLARM Education Series 1 , International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, 1-36. Wilkinson C. R., Chou, L. M., Gomez, E., Ridzwan, A. R., Soekarno, S. and Suraphol, S. 1993. ‘Status of coral reefs in Southeast Asia: threat and responses’, Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health. Hazards and History. Case Studies for Colloquium and Forum, 5-11 June 1993, Miami, University of Miami, Florida, 533-539. Wong, P. P. 1991. ‘Coastal tourism in Southeast Asia’, in ICLARM Education Series 13, International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, 1-40. World Resources Institute. 1992. ‘World resources 1992-93’, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 385 p.
