13th Arctic Ungulate Conference Yellowknife, Canada 22-26 August, 2011
Brief Communication
s in northern Traditional ecological knowledge among Sami reindeer herders in northern Long-term patterns of vascular abiotic drivers of mosquito activity within summer Sweden about plants grazed by reindeer ranges of Northern Alaska caribou herds (1979–2009) 1 2 Berit Inga & Öje Danell
Archana , Vladimir A. Alexeev , Robert G. White , Don E. Russell , A.ofDavid McGuire 1 Sciences, SE-901 83 Bali Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 5 1,3 & Gary P. Kofinas Sweden Umeå, Sweden; Ájtte, Swedish Mountain and Sami Museum, Box 116, SE-962 23 Jokkmokk, Sweden (
[email protected]). 1 2 School of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Fairbanks, AK, 99775, USA of AgriculUniversity of AgriculReindeer Husbandry Division, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, Swedish University (Corresponding author:
[email protected]). tural Sciences, Box 724, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden (
[email protected]). 2 International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Fairbanks, AK, 99775, USA. 3 Institute of Abstract: Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Fairbanks, AK,forage 99775, USA. was expected to be crucial to reindeer e crucial to reindeer Traditional knowledge about how reindeer utilize resources 4 Yukon College, Box Seventeen 10038, Whitehorse, YT, Y1A 7A1, mebyar” in Swedish) herders. Sami reindeer herders inCanada. four reindeer herding communities in Sweden (“samebyar” in Swedish) U.S. Geological Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlifeto Research Unit, University of Alaska Fair fic literature. 5Among were Survey, interviewed about plants species considered be important reindeer food plantsFairbanks. in scientific literature. Among banks, 99775, they were grazed by AK, 40 plantUSA. species, which the informants were asked to identify and indicate whether and when they were grazed by pecies that were used reindeer, they identified a total of 21 plant taxa and five plant groups. They especially recognised species that were used Key words: barren-ground change; mosquito activity; NARR etailed knowledge of as human foodcaribou; by the climate Sami themselves, but certain specific foragedata. plants were also identified. Detailed knowledge of pasture resources in a vascular plants at the species level was surprisingly general, which may indicate that knowledge of pasture resources in a knowledge that Sami detailed species level is not of vital importance. This fact is in sharp contradiction to the detailed knowledge that Sami Rangifer, 33,snow Special Issue No. 21, 2013: usible explanation is people express for example about reindeer (as an animal) or (as physical element). The 173–176 plausible explanation is reindeer pastoralism, that observations of individual plant species are unnecessarily detailed information in large-scale reindeer pastoralism, because the animals graze freely under loose herding and border surveillance. 1,3
2
3
4
3,
ure; Sami reindeer Key words: forage; pastoralism; range management; reindeeracross husbandry; pasture; Sami reindeer Introduction tial conditions entirereindeer summer ranges etation. herders; scientific knowledge; Sweden; TEK; traditional knowledge; vascular plants; vegetation.
Harassment by mosquitoes is an important fac- or long-term inter-annual variability, as well caribou (Rangifer tarandus) ac- as the present conditions. Additionally, there fer, 32 (1):tor 1 - influencing 17 Rangifer, 32 (1): 1 - 17 tivity and movement patterns during summer are concerns regarding how warming summer White et al., 1975; Russell et temperatures (Wendler et al., 2010) might case Sami (Kelsall, which 1968; used in the daily work, in this casein-Sami which Introduction al., 1993). Incidence of mosquito activity, and fluence the conditions conducive for potential minology for deLike other traditional subsistence uses of is known for its extensive terminology for deharassment to caribou spatially mosquito results in harassment to (e.g., Ruomena (e.g.,consequently Runatural resources, reindeeris husbandry is part- activity scribingthat many natural phenomena and temporally dynamic response to temper- ecological caribou within summer Therefore, 984; Eythorsson, ong, the 1964, 1968; ranges. Collinder, 1984; Eythorsson, ly based on ainbody of traditional ature and wind (Thomson, 1971; White et al., long-term estimates of mosquito activity that Helander2001; Helanderknowledge (TEK). TEK often tends to be per- 1993; Jernsletten, 1997; Ryd, 2001; 1975; Dau,ceived 1986). Our knowledge pertaining are spatially represented within the entire sumas qualitative and categorical in charac- Renvall, 2007). mosquito for northern Alaskan mer range a herd are warranted. Objectives with reinaction withtoreinof their long interaction terharassment and with significant detailed knowledge of of Because herds is limited tophenomena the studies done within the(e.g.ofBerlin, this study were (1) assess changes have in po-an intimate have an intimate central or occurrences deer, thetoSami undoubtedly ranges of Central Arctic herd from 1973–74 tential mosquito activity in response to climate animals and their 1992; Berkes, 1999; Berkes et al., 2000; Usher, knowledge about reindeer as animals and their (White 1975)such and as 1982-83 (Dau, 1986), over spaceand andmovements time in northern the landscape at et al., 2000), snow conditions and variability charac- behaviour in the landscape at the Porcupine from 1984–85 (Nixon,of reindeer Alaska, anddifferent (2) compare Aronsson, and 1991; teristics herd of animals in the context spatial projected scales (e.g.intensity Aronsson, 1991; 1991). These assessments were done more than of potential mosquito activity across the four that the othesized that the husbandry. Phenomena that have not been Storli, 1993). It could be hypothesized quarter of a century ago in only a small portion Alaskan barren-ground caribou herds of Arctic sive reindeer pasimportant for human survival are described in change from hunting to intensive reindeer pasthese herds’ summerless ranges. Consequently, aine, 1994)ofmay significantly details. The richness ofAlaska. details toralism 4-5 centuries ago (Paine, 1994) may those results may not be representative of spaanimals towards is often tied to the culture-bearing language have altered the focus from animals towards 1 Rangifer, 32No. (1),21, 2012 Rangifer, 33, Special Issue 2013
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Table 1. Algorithm for computing Mosquito Activity Index (MAI) are adapted from Russell et al. (1993). MAI is computed for every 3-hourly period using instantaneous surface air temperature and wind speed data from the North American Regional Reanalysis (NARR) gridded climate dataset using this algorithm.
Mosquito Activity Index MAI = TI × WI, Traditional ecological knowledge among Sami reindeer Where TI is Temperature Index (range between – max 1), Sweden about vascular plants grazedmin by0reindeer and WI is Wind Index (range between min 0 – max 1) 1 2 Berit Ingatemperature & Öje Danell If instantaneous T > 18° C k TI = 1
herders in
If T < 6° C k TI =Studies, 0 1 Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Swedish University of Agricultural Scien If 6° C ≥Umeå, T > 18° C Ájtte, Swedish Mountain and kSami TI =Museum, 1 – ((18-T)/ 13)SE-962 23 Jokkmokk, Swede Sweden; Box 116, (
[email protected]).
If instantaneous wind speed W > 6Department m/s k = 0Nutrition and Management, Swedish Univer 2 Reindeer Husbandry Division, of WI Animal If W ≤ 6tural m/s Sciences, Box 724, SE-750 07 Uppsala,kSweden WI = (
[email protected]). (6-W)/6
Abstract: Traditional knowledge about how reindeer utilize forage resources was expected to be cruc herders. Seventeen Sami reindeer herders in four reindeer herding communities in Sweden (“samebya were interviewed about plants species considered to be important reindeer food plants in scientific lite 40 plant species, which the informants were asked to identify and indicate whether and when they Methods one, where zero is absence of mosquito activity reindeer, they identified a total of 21 plant taxa and five plant groups. They especially recognised species We used the North American Regional Re- themselves, and onebutiscertain the highest potential as human food by the Sami specific forage plantsfor weremosquito also identified. Detailed vascular plants species levelactivity was surprisingly general, which may indicate that knowledge of pastur analysis data (NARR, Mesinger et at al.,the2004), if mosquitoes are present. detailed species level is not of vital importance. This fact in sharp contradiction to the detailed know a long-term, gridded (0.33°latitude/longitude) To meet the firstis objective, we computed people express for example about reindeer (as an animal) or snow (as physical element). The plausible climate dataset to estimate patterns in abiotic spatially explicit, long-term trends in MAI for that observations of individual plant species are unnecessarily detailed information in large-scale reinde drivers of mosquito activity overthespace and time To border address the second objecbecause animals graze freely northern under looseAlaska. herding and surveillance.
in northern Alaska. NARR surface air tempera- tive, we averaged the MAI over all grids within ture and wind speed dataKey were usedforage; to estimate the range entiremanagement; summer range of husbandry; each herd,reindeer and pasture; S words: pastoralism; reindeer herders; scientific knowledge;within Sweden; TEK; traditional knowledge; vascular plants; potential mosquito activity within the summer each season (1 June to 31 August) for vegetatio ranges of four caribou herds: Western Arctic every year to compute an annual mean, and we herd (WAH), Teshekpuk caribou herd (TCH), compared the annual patterns of MAI betweenRangifer, Central Arctic herd (CAH), and Porcupine car- the herds. used in the daily work, in this case Introduction ibou herd (PCH). Like other traditional subsistence uses of is known for its extensive termino We computed a “Mosquito Activity Index natural resources, reindeer husbandry is part- scribing many natural phenomen (MAI)”, a theoretical measure of mosquito ly based on a body of traditional ecological ong, 1964, 1968; Collinder, 1984; harassment potential based on instantaneous knowledge (TEK). TEK often tends to be per- 1993; Jernsletten, 1997; Ryd, 2001 air temperature and wind speed (Russell et al., ceived as qualitative and categorical in charac- Renvall, 2007). 1993; Table 1). We applied this relationship ter and with significant detailed knowledge of Because of their long interactio between mosquito activity and its abiotic drivcentral phenomena or occurrences (e.g. Berlin, deer, the Sami undoubtedly have ers to every grid cell in the study region using 1992; Berkes, 1999; Berkes et al., 2000; Usher, knowledge about reindeer as anim 3-hour climate data, for every day of an a priori 2000), such as snow conditions and charac- behaviour and movements in the defined season (i.e., 1 June to 31 August) for evteristics of animals in the context of reindeer different spatial scales (e.g. Aron ery year over our 31-year study period (1979– husbandry. Phenomena that have not been Storli, 1993). It could be hypothes 2009) to compute daily MAI for each grid. We important for human survival are described in change from hunting to intensive r used the software GrADS Ver 2.0 (Doty, 2011) Fig.richness 1. Average for northern for theago (Paine, significantly less details. The of annual detailsMAItoralism 4-5Alaska centuries to visualize and manipulate the climate dataset. period 1979–2009 showing regions of high (dark) and low is often tied to the culture-bearing language have altered the focus from anim The MAI is represented on a scale of zero to (light) potential mosquito activity.
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Rangifer, 32 (1), 2012
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mean annual MAIs, although differing in magnitude (Fig. 2). The lowest 31-year average annual MAI was for the TCH (0.21 ± SD 0.04); followed by the WAH (0.31 ± 0.06) and PCH (0.31 ± 0.06); and CAH (0.33 ± 0.08). The s in northern Traditional ecological knowledge Samiforreindeer in northern loweramong MAI values the TCHherders are primarily attributed consistently higher winds in the Sweden about vascular plants grazed bytoreindeer summer range for this herd. The highest range Berit Inga1 & Öje Danell2 of inter-annual variability in MAI was for the CAH. 1 Sciences, SE-901 83 Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Mean summer temperature (June-July-AuFig. 2. Mean annual activity (dailyMountain MAI averSweden Umeå, mosquito Sweden; Ájtte, Swedish and Sami Museum, Box 116, SE-962 23 Jokkmokk, Sweden aged for every (
[email protected]). season over 92 days, and entire summer gust) was more variable than mean summer 2 range) from 1979–2009 for WesternDivision, Arctic herd (WAH), ofwind speed among (Fig. 3). Changes in of AgriculUniversity of AgriculReindeer Husbandry Department Animal Nutrition and years Management, Swedish University Teshekpuk laketural caribou herd Box (TCH), herd Sweden Sciences, 724,Central SE-750Arctic 07 Uppsala, (
[email protected]). temperature contributed most to overall inter(CAH), and Porcupine caribou herd (PCH). annual variability in the magnitude of MAI for e crucial to reindeer Abstract: Traditional knowledge about how reindeer utilize forage resources was expected to be crucial to reindeer all reindeer four herds from 1979–2009. Variability in in Swedish) mebyar” in Swedish) herders. Seventeen Sami reindeer herders in four herding communities in Sweden (“samebyar” wind morereindeer relatedfood to plants the spatial aspects fic literature. Among were interviewed about plants species considered to bewas important in scientific literature. Among they were grazed by 40 plant species, which the informants were asked and indicate whether when they were grazed by Results suchtoasidentify distance from the coastand and topograpecies that were used reindeer, they identified of 21depicts plant taxa and plant They especially species that were used The long-term average of dailya total MAIs phy,fiveand atgroups. any given locationrecognised wind patterns etailed knowledge of as human food by the Sami themselves, but certain specific forage plants were also identified. Detailed knowledge of the spatial patterns of potential mosquito activ- were more constant than temperature over the pasture resources in a vascular plants at the species level was surprisingly general, which may indicate that knowledge of pasture resources in a ity,Sami over thedetailed 31-year period Northern Alaska entire In our analysis dif- that Sami knowledge that species levelin is not of vital importance. This factanalysis is in sharpperiod. contradiction to the detailedthe knowledge (Fig. is1), and highlights the regions of reindeer average(as an ferences spatial patterns the dif-explanation is usible explanation people express for example about animal) in or snow (as wind physical element).drove The plausible reindeer pastoralism, thatMAI observations individual plant species areferences unnecessarily detailed information large-scale reindeer high and low duringof1979–2009. Overall in magnitude of MAIinamong the four pastoralism, because the animals graze freely under loose herding and border surveillance. the coastal regions experienced the lowest MAI herds for any given year. while regions south of the Brooks Range expeure; Sami reindeer Key words: forage; pastoralism; range management; reindeer husbandry; reindeer pasture; Sami reindeer rienced relatively higher MAI. Comparison of Discussion etation. herders; scientific knowledge; Sweden; TEK; traditional knowledge; vascular plants; vegetation. MAI among herds’ summer ranges shows simi- Our analysis indicated a marked variability in patterns in peaks and troughs in mean seasonal MAI among the Rangifer, fer, 32 (1): lar 1 - temporal 17 32 (1): 1 - 17 31 years and
the relative magnitude of this variability was used in the this case Introduction consistent among the daily four work, herds. inOverall theSami which is known for its extensive terminology for deLike other traditional subsistence uses TCH of summer range hosted the least conducive natural resources, reindeer husbandry weather is part- conditions scribing for many natural phenomena mosquito activity. This (e.g., Ruong, 1964, 1968; 1984; ly based on a body of traditional ecological was due to coastal proximity, Collinder, where cooler tem-Eythorsson, 1993; Jernsletten, Ryd, While 2001; Helanderknowledge (TEK). TEK often tends toperatures be per- and higher winds 1997; prevailed. Renvall, 2007). ceived as qualitative and categorical in TCH characand CAH summer ranges are very similar action with reinBecause their longtointeraction ter and with significant detailed knowledge of in characteristics, withofproximity coast and with reinhave an intimate central phenomena or occurrences (e.g.absence Berlin, of deer, the Sami undoubtedly have an intimate upland habitats, the wind patterns animals and their reindeerhigher as animals 1992; Berkes, 1999; Berkes et al., 2000;within Usher,the knowledge CAH rangeabout experienced sea- and their the landscape at 2000), such as snow conditions and sonal characbehaviour and movements in the landscape at variability; hence the difference in overall Aronsson, 1991; teristics of animals in the context of reindeer different spatial scales (e.g. Aronsson, 1991; MAI values for the two herds (Fig. 2). othesized that the husbandry. Phenomena that have not Although been Storli, 1993). It couldwere be hypothesized the MAI estimates based on that the sive reindeer paschange from hunting to intensive reindeer pasimportant for human survival are described in a theoretical model derived from empirical reaine, 1994)Fig.may significantly less details. The richness of details toralism 4-5 centuries ago (Paine, 3. Mean temperature and mean wind speed for the pe- lationship between abiotic drivers of mosquito1994) may animals towards theregion culture-bearing have etaltered the focus from animals riod 1 June tois31often August tied for thetostudy (1979–2009). language activity (Russell al., 1993), the potential “hot towards
case Sami which minology for deomena (e.g., Ru984; Eythorsson, 2001; Helander-
1 Rangifer, 32No. (1),21, 2012 Rangifer, 33, Special Issue 2013
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spots of mosquito activity” (i.e., the areas showURL: “http://www.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/ ing highest mean MAI in the summer ranges mmb/rreanl/narr_bams.pdf ”http://www. for 1979–2009), and the potential “mosquito emc.ncep.noaa.gov/mmb/rreanl/narr_bams. relief areas” (i.e., areas of low MAI that we idenpdf (Accessed on 26 March 2011). tified), warrant further verification with field Nixon, W.A.C. 1991. Group Dynamics and Bedata. Our analysis demonstrates a novelecological way for havior of the Porcupine Herd During Traditional knowledge amongCaribou Sami reindeer herders in using climatology datasets to model long-term the Insect Season. M.S. thesis. University of Sweden about vascular plants grazed by reindeer spatial and temporal distribution of potential Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks. 109pp. 2 Berit Inga1 We & Öje DanellRussell, mosquito harassment for caribou. suggest D.E., Martell, A.M. & Nixon, these results could be useful in understanding W.A.C. 1993. Range ecology of the Porcu1 Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Scien seasonal distribution and movement of herds, pine caribou herd in Canada. — Rangifer Umeå, Sweden; Ájtte, Swedish Mountain and Sami Museum, Box 116, SE-962 23 Jokkmokk, Swede implications for energetics and body condition Special Issue 8: 1-167. (
[email protected]). from year to year, and 2comparison of relative B.R. 1971. WildandReindeer ActivReindeer Husbandry Division,Thomson, Department of Animal Nutrition Management, Swedish Univer tural Sciences, Box 724, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden (
[email protected]). effects on different herds. ity, Hardangervidda, July-Dec. 1970. Report of Norwegian IBP. Status viltundersokelser, Abstract: Traditional knowledge about how reindeer utilize forage resources was expected to be cruc Acknowledgements herders. Seventeen Sami reindeer herders Trondheim, Norway. in four reindeer herding communities in Sweden (“samebya Archana Bali was funded by George Schaller Wendler, G., Shulski, M. &reindeer Moore, B.plants 2010. were interviewed about plants species considered to be important food in scientific lite plant species, the informants were in asked identify of andthe indicate whether and when they Fellowship through Liz 40 Claiborne andwhich Art OtChanges thetoclimate Alaskan North reindeer, they identified a total of 21 plantand taxa and groups. They of especially recognised species tenberg Foundation, CARMA (Circum-Arctic Slope thefive iceplant concentration the adjaas human food by the Sami themselves, but certain specific forage plants were also identified. Detailed Rangifer Monitoring and Assessment Netcent Beaufort Sea. — Theoretical Applied Clivascular plants at the species level was surprisingly general, which may indicate that knowledge of pastur work) and NSF’s Heterogeneity and level Resilience 67-74. detailed species is not of vital matology importance.99: This fact is in sharp contradiction to the detailed know of Human-Rangifer Systems: A Circumpolar White, Thomson, B.R., Skogland, T., The plausible people express for example about reindeerR.G., (as an animal) or snow (as physical element). that observations of individual species are unnecessarily detailedHolleman, information in large-scale reinde Social-Ecological Synthesis Project (OPP Proj- plant Person, S.J., Russell, D.E., D.F. because the animals graze freely under loose herding and border surveillance. ect #0531200). International Arctic Research & Luick, J.R. 1975. Ecology of caribou at Center at UAF provided support and facilities Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. — In: Brown, J. (ed.) Key words: forage; pastoralism; range management; reindeer husbandry; reindeer pasture; S for data analysis. Ecological Investigation of the Tundra Biome in herders; scientific knowledge; Sweden; TEK; traditional knowledge; vascular plants; vegetatio the Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska, pp. 151-202. References Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, Rangifer, Dau, J. 1986. Distribution and Behavior of Special Report Number 2. 215pp. used in the daily work, in this case Introduction Barren-ground Caribou in Relation to Weather other University traditional subsistence uses of is known for its extensive termino and Parasitic Insects. Like M.S. thesis. natural resources, of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks. 149pp. reindeer husbandry is part- scribing many natural phenomen ly based a bodySysof traditional ecological ong, 1964, 1968; Collinder, 1984; Doty, B. 2011. Grid Analysis andonDisplay knowledge (TEK). TEK tem, Version 2.0 (1988-2011). Institute of often tends to be per- 1993; Jernsletten, 1997; Ryd, 2001 as qualitative and categorical in charac- Renvall, 2007). Global Environmentceived and Society (IGES). ter and with significant Because of their long interactio URL: http://www.iges.org/grads/ (Accessed detailed knowledge of on 14 August 2012). central phenomena or occurrences (e.g. Berlin, deer, the Sami undoubtedly have 1992; Berkes, 1999; Berkes et al., 2000; Usher, knowledge about reindeer as anim Kelsall, J.P. 1968. The Migratory Barren-ground 2000), such as snow Caribou of Canada. Canadian Wildlife Ser-conditions and charac- behaviour and movements in the of animals in the context of reindeer different spatial scales (e.g. Aron vice, Monograph No.teristics 3, Queen’s Printer, Othusbandry. Phenomena that have not been Storli, 1993). It could be hypothes tawa. 340pp. for human Mesinger, F., DiMego,important G., Kalnay, E., et al.survival are described in change from hunting to intensive r less details. 2004. NCEP North significantly American Regional Re- The richness of details toralism 4-5 centuries ago (Paine, is often tied to the culture-bearing language have altered the focus from anim analysis. American Meteorological Society.
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This journal is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License Editor in Chief: Birgitta Åhman, Technical Editor Eva Wiklund and Graphic Design: Bertil Larsson, www.rangifer.no
This journal is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unporte
Rangifer, 33, Special Issue No. 2013 Editor in Chief: Rolf Egil Haugerud, Technical Editor and 21, Graphic Design: Bjørn Hatteng, ww
