Management of urban green spaces in the Buffalo City Metropolitan ...

Management of urban green spaces in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality Green infrastructure in the greater Nahoon Point Nature Reserve - a case study

Jonathan D. Craik September 2012

Common Component submitted for the degree of Master of Landscape Architecture University of Copenhagen

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Management of urban green spaces in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality Green infrastructure in the greater Nahoon Point Nature Reserve - a case study

In fulfilment of the requirements for the Common Component of a Master degree in: Landscape Architecture - Green Space Management Department of Forest and Landscape University of Copenhagen

Jonathan Craik

Under supervision of Prof. Dr. Cecil Konijnendijk University of Copenhagen September 2012

[Cover photo, The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve] -3-

Abstract Green infrastructure is a relatively new approach to the management of landscape resources and offers spatial planners the opportunities to meet ecological, economic and social challenges. The development of a set of central principles provides green infrastructure research with a multi-layered understanding of the changing nature of landscape resources. This paper considers green infrastructure and the status of green space planning, management and conservation in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Municipal structures responsible for the strategic management of urban green spaces were found to lack the vision, expertise and funding required to successfully develop a green infrastructure plan as well as the human resources needed to implement such a plan. Geo-spatial data, historical fact-finding and empirical interviews have been carried out and analysed in order to comprehend the value of the natural resources within an isolated case study – the greater Nahoon Point Nature Reserve. With only a fraction of the reserve itself, a viable world heritage site candidate, currently benefiting from authorised protection, the opportunities and constraints concerning this potential network of urban green spaces have been explored and a proposed green infrastructure plan put forward. The ecosystem service – ecotourism - is taken into account and related to the case study. This paper argues that conserving the multitude of natural resources and incredibly significant archaeological and paleo-anthropological discoveries in this area is an innovative answer to a demanding urban environment. Finally, a discussion is entered into, where green infrastructure in the South African context is measured against that of Western countries.

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Foreword This paper was written so as to fulfil the requirements of a Common Component – a self-study assignment – which forms part of a Master of Landscape Architecture degree at the University of Copenhagen’s Department of Forest and Landscape. This component contributes 15ECTS towards a total of 120ECTS required for successful completion of the degree. It contains an analysis of: urban green space management within the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, the ecosystem service ecotourism, and the results of field research carried out in East London, South Africa during the fourth block of the 2011/2012 academic year (i.e. April - August 2012). Urban green space management is a responsibility of government which is gaining importance at a time where sustainable development and biodiversity conservation are in stark contrast to the exponential growth of challenges caused by worldwide urbanisation.

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Acknowledgments I would like to thank a number of people for their valued assistance in writing this paper. Firstly I would like to thank my supervisor and professor at the University of Copenhagen’s Department of Forest and Landscape - Dr. Cecil Konijnendijk – whose invaluable instruction and expert advice guided this work and whose professionalism is second to none. Secondly, to Dr. Kevin Cole of the East London Museum, who made the time to impart some of his immense knowledge on the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve and Leigh-Anne Kretzman, manager of the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve, for the time she took to meet me and for the technical information she provided. The city of East London is fortunate to have specialists of their calibre working selflessly to protect an area so incredibly rich in history and natural beauty. Finally, to Annemarie Fish and the ladies at the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality’s GIS unit for their patience in answering all my questions, and whose help was crucial in completing this paper and to Catherine for proofing much of the text.

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Table of Contents

1. 2. 3.

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 8 Green infrastructure ............................................................................................................................ 9 Case study description .........................................................................................................................11

4.

Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 12

5. 5.1 5.1.1 5.2 5.3

Results .................................................................................................................................................... 13 Green infrastructure planning in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality ............................ 13 Observations of the attributes of the East London component of BCM’s MOSS plan ................ 14 A potential network of green spaces in East London ...................................................................... 15 SWOT analysis ......................................................................................................................................17

5.4 Opportunities ....................................................................................................................................... 18 5.4.1 The South African National Biodiversity Institute and the green infrastructure network ............. 19 5.4.2 Wildlife of the green infrastructure network ................................................................................... 20 5.5 Constraints ............................................................................................................................................ 21 5.5.1 The disconnection of wildlife corridors ............................................................................................ 22 5.6

Proposed green infrastructure plan ................................................................................................... 24

5.7 Ecosystem services ............................................................................................................................... 26 5.7.1 Ecotourism ............................................................................................................................................ 26 5.7.2 Ecotourism plan ................................................................................................................................... 27 6. 6.1 6.2 6.3

Discussion ............................................................................................................................................. 30 The need to establish a conservation department within local governmental structures .......... 30 The need to promulgate and implement policies in line with green infrastructure strategies .. 30 A brief comparison between green infrastructure in the Global West and South Africa .......... 30

7.

Reference List ........................................................................................................................................ 32

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1. Introduction

Southern Africa is the most urbanised sub-region in Africa with 61% of its population living in urban areas (UNHabitat 2010 as cited by Schäffler & Swilling 2012). South Africa is the region’s most urbanised country (UNHabitat 2008). The Eastern Cape Province is located on the south-eastern seaboard of South Africa and is the second largest and third most populace province in the country (Illustration 1). Although it is exhibiting significant human out-migration patterns (StatsSA, 2011), there is also a substantial movement of people migrating from rural to urban environments. This trend continues to produce ever-larger cities

South Africa Eastern Cape Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality

[Illustration 1, Locality plan 1]

Bradshaw et al (2000) state that according to the 2001 census, 68% of people living in the Eastern Cape live below the national poverty line with 30% of households lacking basic services such as potable water and sewage. This infrastructure predicament, coupled with problematic service delivery (Foster, 2012) has resulted in the Provincial government focussing on so-called ‘grey infrastructure’ networks of energy and material supply systems (Weisz and Steinberger, 2010 as cited by Schäffler and Swilling, 2012) and have neglected the value of ‘urban biophysical networks’: green assets or green infrastructure (Schäffler and Swilling, 2012). East London, originally founded as a harbour city (Tankard, 2009), is the second largest city in the province with a population of approximately 400, 000 and is one of the province’s main centres of urban growth (Lehola, 2006). It is situated within the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality (BCM) (Illustration 2), which is part of the Amatole District of the Eastern Cape Province (Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, 2002).

Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality

City of East London

City of East London

Proposed green infrastructure network


[Illustration 2, Locality plan 2]

[Illustration 3, Locality plan 3] -8-

2. Green Infrastructure

There are many definitions for green infrastructure and of those provided in academic research, most relate directly to the focus of individual studies. Green infrastructure can be viewed in different ways: from the perspective of a conservationist, in terms of policy formulation or through recreation development (Mell, 2010). However, there are shared ideas which underlie each of them. As conservationist authors, Benedict and McMahon’s (2006) definition is applicable to my case study. They characterise green infrastructure as a specific landscape resource - a component of a wider resource - or as a concept. They appreciate that the term green infrastructure has these different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. They comprehensively define green infrastructure in two grammatical forms. Used as a noun, the term refers to an “interconnected green space network that is planned and managed for its natural resources and for the associated benefits it confers to human populations” (pg.3) i.e. a component. Used as an adjective, they describe it as “a process that promotes a systematic and strategic approach to land conservation on a national, [provincial], regional and local scale […]” (pg.3) i.e. a planning concept and ‘lens’ through which to view urban landscapes and green spaces. This paper is aligned with the noun’s definition because it considers an isolated, localised urban area which, because of its attributes, demonstrates the possibility of securing a controlled network of green spaces. However, some variation exists when defining exactly what constitutes a potential green urban space. Sandstrom (2008) loosely defines green infrastructure as “all non-hardened and undeveloped land” (pg.17). He does however provide examples of these which include greenways in the form of green wedges, streaming water, avenues, green promenades (or other, more or less, linear habitats) which occur in or penetrate into the urban landscape and link together the parks and other urban green spaces with each other and the city’s surroundings. Schäffler and Swilling (2012) provide a similar definition when citing Kambites and Owen (2006); they describe green infrastructure as the “connected network of multifunctional, predominately unbuilt space, that supports both ecological and social activities and processes” (pg.2) and too offer parameters for their definition which include: street trees, private and public gardens, parks, riparian zones along urban drainage lines, undeveloped ridges, and a variety of urban agricultural spaces such as food- and community-based gardens.

[Photo 2, The suburb of Quigney and Eastern Beach in the foreground with the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve in the background] -9-

Each separate green space within the potential network of green infrastructure that this paper addresses has been evaluated and decided on according to individual qualities and principles of green infrastructure (as outlined by Mell, 2010). Accessibility, connectivity of networks, multi-functionality, multiple benefits, planning, scale and sustainability – the core principles of green infrastructure - have all been considered when evaluating the status of the network of green spaces that this paper proposes. Sandstrom (2008) divides a city into four categories: (1) buildings, (2) streets and squares, (3) technical structures (e.g.: electricity supply and water or sewage systems), and (4) green structures (i.e. parks and other green spaces). He believes that in order to meet new challenges, planners should rethink and expand the concept of urban green spaces to that of green infrastructure. He believes that this will assist in ensuring a balanced proportion of green structures to the other three structures. This paper endorses this and is in agreement with Hellmund and Smith (2006) when they state that protected spaces should remain on “equal grounds with grey infrastructure” (pg.2). Lafortezza (2011) states that green infrastructure should be “designed and managed as a multifunctional resource, capable of delivering a wide range of environmental and quality of life benefits for local communities”. In his hypothesis pertaining to green infrastructure frameworks in European cities, he theorises that in a multifunctional approach, two major spatial and temporal components - ecosystem services and human wellbeing - should be mutually dependant, while a ‘give and take’ correlation should exist between these and biodiversity, social cohesion and sustainable development. Because of the nature of the potential green infrastructure system, this paper deals with the ecosystem service ecotourism. Extremely valuable natural (significant wildlife species and highly sensitive vegetation types) and historical resources exist within the proposed boundaries and it is in the interest of government to protect these valuable assets.

[Photo 3, The Nahoon River with Estuaries Nature Reserve on the far bank] - 10 -

3. Case study description

StatsSA (2011) estimates South Africa’s population at 50 million. Although East London is only the country’s tenth largest city, it is the centre of urban growth in the Eastern Cape Province; with approximately 400, 000 residents, this number continues to steadily rise largely because of rural to urban migrations. The analysis is based on a specific case within this coastal city (Illustration 3). It is a potential green infrastructure network which measures 414Ha in size and is located between the city’s two major rivers, the Buffalo and the Nahoon. The core area is a broad band of coastal forest which flanks the seashore. The remainder of the network is made up of four green corridors which extend inland between suburbia. These are the greenways of the minor Blind and Ihlanza Rivers and southern banks of the Nahoon River. For five years (1996-2000) the author lived in the neighbourhood of Stirling, along the banks of the small, degraded Ihlanza River (Uys, 2004). This river passes through the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve (NPNR), uniquely located in the centre of East London and home to the world’s oldest known humanoid footprints (Cole, 2012). Certain sections of the fragmented forest which extend inland from the coast are ecologically degraded and, as a result of their unprotected status, have become safe havens for bush-dwellers, vagrants and criminals (Kretzman, 2012). Peculiar anomalies such as water treatment works, golf course and driving range exist within the unofficial boundary of the NPNR – a national reserve. Upon commencement of this assignment the author approached the City’s planning officials with the knowledge that he would identify a potential green infrastructure network within the city. The potential network identified in the aforementioned paragraph was a plausible choice given the author’s past proximity to it but was also confirmed and recommended by Raymond Foster, the City’s Forward Spatial Planner, as an ideal case study given the existing opportunities and constraints.

[Photo 4, Nahoon Beach in the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve with the City of East London in the background]

This proposed network of green spaces includes many of the components offered in various description of green infrastructure. Riparian zones form links for wildlife species traversing between different parts of the city. A variety of public parks and gardens, well used by local citizens, are present. Other elements such as a golf course, driving range, cemetery and caravan park which are utilised by specific user groups, present particular opportunities and constraints. This proposal also encompasses the NPNR, itself an important and protected green space within the city. This paper proposes an ambitious green infrastructure plan - one which if ever were to be realised would require a lengthy application process, driven from within local governmental structures. It serves as an initiative which aims to open a dialog regarding the amalgamation of ecosystem services, green space resources and the conservation of important historical assets into one multi-layered system. If such a plan were ever to be accomplished, a team of specialists would need to be brought together in order to link their diverse planning and environmental disciplines. - 11 -

4. Methodolgy

The research which this paper puts forward has been conducted applying a qualitative methodology and a number of methods were used for this. Firstly, several semi-structured interviews were held with stakeholders directly connected to Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality’s green space conservation; because of the number and variety of interviewees, objective observations were able to be made. Interviewees included representatives from:

Qualitative Methodology Semi-structured interviews GIS mapping Empirical observations [Table 1, Qualitative methodology]

• The Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality • Kamva Qwede: Manager of the Integrated Environmental Management Planning (IEMP) unit • Raymond Foster: Forward Spatial Planner • The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve • Leigh-Anne Kretzman: River Control Office of the Nahoon River (but in practice, the General Manager of the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve) • The East London Museum • Dr. Kevin Cole: Leading natural scientist and head of the NPNR’s Management Committee From these I was able to gain a considerable overview of green space management within the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality and a broad understanding of the history of the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve and surrounding green spaces. I spent a number of weeks working with Annemarie Fish, the municipality’s GIS Manager. Full access to the municipality’s GIS database allowed me to fully explore the Metropolitan Open Space System (MOSS) plan, census records, South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) assessments as well as any other relevant geospatial data, and compare this to the proposed network of green spaces that this paper puts forward.

[Photo 5, The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve with The City’s water treatment works in the background] - 12 -

5. Results 5.1 Green infrastructure planning in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality

The Integrated Environmental Management Planning (IEMP) unit is a division of the Directorate of Community Services in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality and is responsible for driving environmental management and sustainable development (Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, 2012). It is a strategic planning department which focuses on strategy development and policy formulation related to environmental management (Qwede, 2012). With only two members, this unit is highly under-staffed. In 2008, with funds acquired from the European Commission, the IEMP unit began to develop a Metropolitan Open Space System (MOSS) plan. This was based on the Protected Areas Act (57 of 2003) of South Africa which is concerned with environmentally sensitive ecosystems that require protection (Qwede, 2012). The MOSS plan is a result of this legislation coupled with the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality’s Spatial Development Framework (SDF), a “desirable future pattern of land use and development” (Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, 2002. pg.141). With the aid of a private service provider who conducted desktop studies and ground proofing, this plan was developed to a detailed, sub-cadastral level and in 2009 was approved by council (Qwede, 2012). However, three years later and seemingly contrary to claims by the IEMP unit that top management are being trained in the use of the MOSS plan, senior forward planners at the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality are still unaware of the document’s ratification (Foster, 2012; Qwede, 2012). Self admittedly, this lack of coordination stems from the IEMP unit’s failure to communicate with other planning departments (Qwede, 2012). The Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality’s MOSS plan closely resembles a green infrastructure plan. Both are networks of open space conservation and recreation areas, linked by open space corridors with the aim of preserving ecological diversity and enhancing living environments (Durban Metropolitan, 1999). The MOSS plan indentifies and compiles an inventory of open space ‘assets’ and allocates each space with a land use title and a conservation, cultural, recreational and productivity value. Levels of degradation and vegetation type are noted and recommendations for each parcel of land are made (GIS-1). Although some of the indirect benefits which result from sound green space planning are fully recognised (e.g.: climate change mitigation), the IEMP unit of BCM is unfamiliar with the holistic concept of green infrastructure (Qwede, 2012) and the level of worth placed on identified assets is unclear. A green infrastructure plan has not been implemented within the BCM.

[Photo 6, The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve with the Footprints MBSA Coastal Visitor Centre] - 13 -

5.1.1 Observations of the attributes of the East London component of BCM’s MOSS plan MOSS plans are not unique to the BCM. Other South African municipalities (e.g.: Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Municipality and the City of Durban’s Municipality) also currently utilise this framework (Qwede, 2012). Future projections of the economic significance of particular areas set the criteria for the privatisation of [urban green] spaces within BCM (Qwede, 2012). With large tracts of undeveloped urban land within East London’s urban growth boundary, green open space is not in short supply. It is concerning that the environmental welfare of highly sensitive and severely threatened ecosystems, and the continual depletion of biodiversity within these areas, is not an issue of central importance to the IEMP unit.

Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality City of East London boundary Metropolitan Open Space Systems (MOSS) Plan [Illustration 4, BCM’s MOSS plan] High

Valuation type Size (Ha)

Medium

% of MOSS plan

Size (Ha)

Low

% of MOSS plan

Size (Ha)

Not allocated

% of MOSS plan

Size (Ha)

% of MOSS plan

Conservation value

1063.1

18.2

1985.4

34.2

220.1

3.8

2548.9

43.8

Recreational value

424.6

7.3

1123.4

19.3

2089.9

35.9

2179.6

37.5

Cultural value

none

none

175.3

3

3462.7

59.5

2179.6

37.5

Productive value

38.2

0.3

562.7

9.8

3037.1

52.3

2.79.4

38.5

[Table 2, Valuation of the MOSS plan and the potential green infrastructure network]

Table 2 illustrates the conservation, recreation, cultural and productive value allocated to the BCM’s MOSS plan within the East London boundary as indicated by Illustration 4 (GIS-2). A large percentage of land (between 37.5% and 43.8%) has not being allocated a valuation status which may indicate an inconsistency in data processing. That which remains has been classed as: High, Medium or Low. The statistics expressed by these attributes of the MOSS plan are of crucial importance in valuing ecosystem services. The valuation of cultural land is concerning. An absence of high value cultural land and the insignificant percentage of medium value cultural land are notable and may signify inadequate worth placed on important heritage areas/assets.

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5.2 A potential network of green spaces in East London The potential green infrastructure network is predominantly located in an area called Nahoon, named after the nearby Nahoon River. It then extends inland between central city suburbia. 95% of the proposed area is municipal-owned land (GIS-3). However, certain land including the golf course and driving range are currently under lease (14 years). Illustration 5 shows the different elements located within the potential network of green spaces.

[Illustration 5, Individual elements within the proposed green infrastructure network]

This coastal green belt has long since been recognised as an important recreation and conservation zone, but in recent decades has been subjected to continual pressures caused by urbanisation (Cole, 2012; Kretzman, 2012). As early as 1904, Edward the 7th – the king of England at the time – handed over a section of crown land (a large portion of the proposed network) to the then municipality. As shown in Illustration 6, this had surveyed cadastral points and was deemed to be protected as park and recreation land (Cole, 2012; Edward the Seventh, 1904). - 15 -

On this valuable ecological land are a number of developments whose presence, function, qualities and status must be taken into account while assessing the possibility of a green infrastructure network. These can be roughly divided into two groupings – those which share the ecological and environmental goals of green infrastructure, e.g.: the golf course, cemetery and public park, and those which do not, e.g.: water treatment works, vehicle parking areas and sports fields (Benedict & McMahon, 2006). Functionality of these developments is assessed through the activities which take place on them and the level of public and wildlife accessibility.

[Illustration 6, Crown land handed to the then Municipality - Cropped and rotated from original document]

Table 1 below illustrates a) those lands altered for human use and those which are native landscapes (i.e. “lands that function naturally” - Benedict and McMahon, 2006; pg. 283), b) the size of each and the percentage of that element which is also covered by the MOSS plan, and c) the level of public and wildlife accessibility categorised as high [H], medium [M] or low [L].

Lands altered for human use

Public Accessibility

Wildlife Accessibility

Size (m²)

Size (Ha)

% covered by MOSS plan

Caravan Park

17 358

1.7

0

Cemetary

91 280

9.1

93.8

Driving range

78 794

7.9

100

x

860

0.1

100

x

Golf course

381 218

38.1

99.3

James Pearce Park

34 113

3.4

88.1

x

x

Little Mauritius picnic area

3 552

0.4

100

x

x

MBSA Coastal Visitor Centre

H

36 354

3.6

90.1

x

20.0

62.3

x

988

0.1

85.8

3.2

100

Tennis club

12 676

1.3

100

Vehicle parking area

8 903

0.9

100 100

Water treatment works

36 743

3.7

Total

934 425

93.4

Native Landscape

Size (m²)

Size (Ha)

% covered by MOSS plan

Seashore

509 616

51.0

64.2

M

x x x x

x x x

x

x

x x

x

x

x x

Public Accessibility H x

M

x

Wildlife Accessibility L

H

M

L

x

2 687 443

268.7

94.9

x

x

Degraded green open space

12 198

1.2

58.6

x

x

Estuaries

2 661

0.3

93.7

x

x

Total

3 211 918

321.2

Grand Total

4 146 343

414.6

Coastal forest

L x

x

199 972 31 614

H

x

Marina Glen picnic area

Roads and road reserves

L x

Municipal mowed lawn areas Other buildings

M

[Table 3, Land use, size, comparision to the MOSS plan and levels of public and wildlife accessibility of elements of the proposed green infrastructure network] - 16 -

5.3 SWOT analysis

Strengths (internal) Governmental / Legislative • Full conservation of some urban green spaces (within the proposed green infrastructure network) does exist i.e. the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve • The IEMP unit exists within local government and is tasked with the strategic planning of urban green spaces • National Acts, provincial legislation and local bylaws, all protecting sensitive (urban) green spaces, exist • The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve has a (independent) management committee which serves to advise The City Natural • An area of high natural beauty • Established species of antelope, other small mammals and birds • Sensitive coastal shrub vegetation type Other • A number of extremely important archaeological and paleo-anthropological discoveries - all specialist fact-finding indicates that the area is highly archeologically rich and many more discoveries are expected to be made

Weaknesses (internal) Governmental / Legislative • Insufficient funding allocated to the IEMP unit from the national treasury • Insufficient human resources staffing the IEMP unit and NPNR i.e. a lack of capacity • Lack of a dedicated conservation department within local government/BCM, responsible for overseeing the implementation of strategic urban green space planning • Outdated local bylaws • The official protection of only a minor portion of the land - NPNR Illegal activities • Squatters and bush dwellers with resultant environmental degradation • Thoroughfare from Nahoon beach to Orient beach brings with it vagrant activity • Presence of violent crime and a strong criminal element especially from the Orient beach side • Cutting of wood for fires • Removal of indigenous plant material (for sale) Other • Lack of planning foresight e.g.: zoning of the water treatment works, golf course, driving range • The NPNR is an open reserve and is not ring fenced therefore access can be gained anywhere and at anytime • The majority of the general public is unaware of the NPNR’s status as a reserve (lack of signage) • Zones of high human traffic in archeologically rich areas - e.g.: Marina Glen

Opportunities (external) • • •

A green infrastructure network World heritage site status A profitable and sustainable ecotourism industry

Threats (external) • • • • • •

Extension of the golf course and driving range lease Developments along Nahoon beach (e.g.: housing) More grey infrastructure being built e.g.: extension of the water treatment works Polluted waters from the Blind and Ihlanza rivers (informal settlements, general pollution, etc.) Alien / invasive plant species Illegal dumping sites - 17 -

5.4 Opportunities At the core of this potential network lies the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve, a small protected reserve measuring approximately 16.5 Ha (Phase 1). In recent times, highly significant archaeological and paleo-anthropological findings have been discovered within the NPNR such that it warrants national heritage site status (Cole, 2012). The most significant of these are the Nahoon Footprints discovered in 1964 and believed to be 124 000 years old; the world’s oldest human (Homo sapien) trace fossil footprints (Cole, 2012). Dr. Kevin Cole (2012), a natural scientist at the East London Museum, states that “spectacular” discoveries have continually been made over the past decade, confirming the heritage assets of the area. Despite the inherent wealth of this and surrounding natural areas, impending development threatens ecological networks and archeologically rich ground. In 2004, through public meetings, a working group of community representatives was set up because of a common, vested interest in the NPNR. Subsequent to this, 2009 saw the establishment of a non-funded Management Committee. Headed by Dr. Cole, this committee’s role was to advise the Municipality, whose level of competency regarding a project such as this was insufficient (Cole, 2012). It was established that only a binding commitment from the BCM could realise the potential of the area and secure the future of this prime ecological network. An extension of the NPNR, the boundary of which closely resembles that of the green infrastructure network that this paper puts forward, was proposed and is currently in the process of proclamation. Deliberations between the Management Committee and the BCM have been difficult (Cole, 2012).

Proposed green infrastructure area Nahoon Point Nature Reserve Phase 1 boundary

[Illustration 7, The proposed green infrastructure boundary and the NPNR Phase 1 boundary] - 18 -

5.4.1 South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and the green infrastructure system SANBI lead and coordinate research, and monitor and report on the state of biodiversity in South Africa (SANBI, 2012). The institute provides knowledge and information and gives planning and policy advice to government. South Africa’s rich biological diversity is home to 10% of the world’s plant species, 7% of reptiles, birds and mammals and 15% of known coastal marine species. SANBI coastal areas assessments and allocated zoning have been compared to the proposed green infrastructure network. Many of the green spaces that this paper identifies and proposes have been recognised by government (SANBI layers, MOSS plan, etc.). However, with the proclamation of the extension to the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve pending, there is no formal commitment from the land owner to secure the future of this area. No-Go Areas No-go areas as specificed by SANBI.

[Illustration 8, SANBI No-go ares within the GI network]

Coastal Protected Areas Coastal protected areas can support local economic development through providing jobs and opportunities for ecotourism and conservation-related industries (SANBI, 2012). Protected areas attract foreign and domestic tourists, provide ecosystem services, and safeguard the environment for future generations. [Illustration 9, SANBI Coastal protected areas within the GI network]

Heritage Sensitivity Midden Site This midden, the site of the Nahoon Footprints discovery, is the only midden along this portion of coast that has been recognised by SANBI. However, this coast is in a state of geological erosion and this will lead to dune slumping and resultantly present other middens, thereby exposing bones, stone tools, pottery, etc. (Cole, 2012). [Illustration 10, SANBI Heritage sensitivity midden site areas within the GI network]

Nature Reserves

SANBI have recognised the extended NPNR which is currently in the process of proclamation. The whole of this area is, however, not yet officially protected.

[Illustration 11, SANBI Nature reserves within the GI network]

Marine Protected Areas This is a proclaimed area and is managed very differently to terrestrial protected areas. This particular area is classed as a ‘take’ zone where recreational and subsistance fishing is allowed (SANBI, 2012).

[Illustration 12, SANBI Marine protected areas]

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5.4.2 Wildlife of the green infrastructure network There are established communities of animals within the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve and in pockets (often isolated) of green spaces which extend into suburbia. These include bush buck, blue and grey/common dyker, rock dassies, mongoose, porcupines, large-spotted genets, Natal black snake and others. Regarding animal movements, there are buck that swim across the Nahoon River. These buck traverse between the northern banks (Estuaries Nature Reserve) and the southern banks (Nahoon) and then move through the fragmented forest (Cole, 2012). The area is also vegetated by indigenous coastal forest, primary and secondary dunes with sandstone headlands and caves which are home to the only coastal bats in South Africa (Kretzman, 2012). Porcupine

Hystrix africaeaustralis

Small-spotted Genet

Genetta genetta

Rock Dassie

Procavia capensis

Bushbuck

Tragelaphus scriptus Common Duiker

Sylvicapra grimmia

Blue Duiker

Philantomba monticola

[Illustration 13, Selected wildlife species of the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve and surrounding pockets of urban green open space]

Fragmentation and corridor effect threaten the specific environment required by these animal species. The multitude of fences and other barriers which isolate them from adjacent green open spaces are numerous. The fence lines and barriers (e.g.: roadways, houses, etc.) have been mapped and are illustrated in the Disconnection of wildlife corridors section on page 21. - 20 -

5.5 Constraints Budget restrictions have resulted in the understaffing of the NPNR; there are currently only two permanent rangers available to patrol and four general staff members. The reserve requires a minimum of 10-12 rangers, a general foreman and an environmental education officer to operate efficiently and provide a safe and healthy environment (Kretzman, 2012). The NPNR is an open reserve which is not ring-fenced; this means that there is open public access anywhere and at anytime. A lack of commitment from the land owner, coupled with pressures caused by increased levels of urbanisation, has directly and indirectly led to numerous constraints on the proposed green infrastructure network area. Some of the consequences of not protecting/conserving (and the resultant lack of required staff for) the potential green infrastructure network include: • Vagrants with associated environmentally detrimental activities e.g.: litter, making of fires, etc. • Bush dwellers, either those sleeping there temporarily or those erecting shack structures, with associated environmentally detrimental activities e.g.: wood cutting, making of fires, litter, etc. • Violent crime, especially coming from Eastern Beach side (Kretzman, 2012) e.g.: rape, muggings, theft, etc. • Illegal dumping • Wood cutters, especially from the Eastern Beach side. • Removal of plants for sale as pot plants (Cole, 2012) e.g.: Dracaena aletriformis (‘Large-leaved Dragon Tree’) • Lack of awareness of the Reserve’s (1) existence, and (2) rules and manner of conduct. • Drinking of alcohol, playing loud music and braaing (cooking fires), especially at beach parking areas. However, this has largely been discontinued due to the efforts of existing rangers within the NPNR (Kretzman, 2012). Other constraints which the potential green infrastructure network is experiencing include: • Highly polluted water from the Blind and Ihlanza Rivers (Uys, 2004). • Invasive plant species caused in part by fragmentation of habitats e.g.: Anredera cordifolia (‘Madeira Vine’),

[Photo 7, Invasive exotic Anredera cordifolia]

[Photo 8, Pollution in the degraded Ihlanza River]

[Photo 9, Government notice: new backup rising main line - water treatment works]

[Photo 10, the Marina Glen picnic area - an environmental disaster zone and source of wood cutting within surrounding urban green open - 21 -

5.5.1 The disconnection of wildlife corridors Physical, man-made barriers are responsible for disconnecting wildlife corridors, and thereby contribute to less biodiversity and decreased long-term genetic viability (Benedict and McMohan, 2006). These corridors are needed by some species but an expanding urban growth boundary, a network of minor and major roads, private property fences/walls, and municipal fences/walls threaten their survival. These barriers criss-cross through urban green spaces, riparian zones and, to a limited extent, the reserve, fragmenting the habitats of wildlife species and creating small, isolated areas which are poorly suited to maintain ecological functionality. Benedict and McMahon (2006) identify two components or results of habitat fragmentation: 1) the reduction in total habitat area, which affects population sizes and increases extinction rate, and 2) the redistribution of remaining area into disjointed fragments, which affects dispersal and decreases immigration rates. The illustration below identifies where the numerous barriers that prevent the free and natural movement of wildlife species are located. These include municipal and private fence lines, residential homes’ property boundaries/walls, wildlife-friendly fences (within the NPNR), major and minor roadways and areas of high wildlife activity.

Municipal and private fence lines

Major roadways

Residential home’s property boudaries/walls

Minor roadways

Wildlife friendly fences

Wildlife ‘hotspots’

Delapidated fence lines


[Illustration 14, Physical man-made barriers within the proposed green infrastructure network] - 22 -

[Photo 11, Wildlife friendly fences - NPNR]

[Photo 12, Electric fences - the golf course]

[Photo 13, Concrete wall - the Stirling Municipal Nursery]

[Photo 14, Fences enclosing James Pierce Park]

One of the major concerns of the NPNR management is that the area is an open reserve, and is not ring fenced. Anywhere along the reserve’s boundaries and at any time of day, access to the reserve/area can be gained. This is the case for many of the public green open spaces in the case study. If a strategically planned ring fence was constructed around the reserve and all green open spaces, users entering into these environments would realise that it is a conserved area and, with the aid of rangers on the ground, a certain compliance of behaviour could be achieved (Cole, 2012). The removal of all internal barriers will open these spaces up and alleviate habitat fragmentation. A ring fence will also mitigate against vagrants entering and causing ecological damage by making fires, cutting down forest vegetation for fuel wood, trapping wildlife, etc. The NPNR has made compromises in the construction of their internal fences e.g.: gaps were inserted into newly constructed fences which cross the major routes used by bushbuck, dykers and other species so as not to hinder their movements (Cole, 2012). Another method of mitigating against fragmentation when constructing fences is to overlap them e.g.: in an area where buck species were utilising portions of forest in the golf course, they used a route which went towards the water treatment works. A fence was constructed which tapered out while an overlapping golf course fence tapered out in the opposite direction (Cole, 2012).

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5.6 Proposed green infrastructure plan By collectively conserving a wide variety of natural and restored ecosystems and landscape features in a system of hubs, links and sites, a network of green open spaces can be achieved (Benedict and McMahon, 2006). These have been considered for both the wildlife and the people who use the spaces. Lafortezza’s (2011) definition for these corresponds with Benedict and McMahon’s (2006, pg. 13-14) basic green infrastructure layout (Illustration 15): • Hubs anchor green infrastructure networks and provide space for native plants and animal communities, as well as an origin or destination for wildlife, people, and ecological processes moving through the system. • Links are the connections which tie a system together and are critical in maintaining vital ecological processes and the health and biodiversity of wildlife populations. • Sites are smaller than hubs and may not be attached to large, interconnected communities and regional conservation systems but can contribute important ecological and social values.

Hub Site Link

[Illustration 15, Adaptation of Benedict and McMahon’s (2006) basic green infrastructure layout]

[Illustration 16, Proposed green infrastructure network: pedestrians]

Eight user hubs and twelve sites (three are existing) are proposed (Illustration 16). These correspond to areas with existing significant human activity (e.g.: Footprints MBSA Coastal Visitor Centre, Nahoon Beach Lifesavers Shack, James Pierce Park, Marina Glen picnic park) and four other geographically logical locations. By zoning and developing user hubs at these positions, the functioning of the green infrastructure network as a whole can be tapped into and the potential of the area, unlocked. Access between these major hubs and minor sites, and the hierarchy of passages, is dictated by the level of usage (i.e. the numbers of people using the link) and the type of usage (i.e. what is the link being used for and by whom e.g.: nature enthusiasts such bird watchers or those commuting to and from work and using the links as a thoroughfare). - 24 -

[Illustration 17, Proposed green infrastructure network: wildlife]

A key finding of SANBI’s National Biodiversity Assessment (2011) is that 47% of marine and coastal habitat types are threatened - many because of a limited spatial extent. The report also notes that 40% of South Africa’s marine and coastal habitat types are not represented in the Nation’s Marine Protected Areas. This is true for the majority of the proposed green infrastructure network. The NPNR is covered by the 6% of well protected coastal habitats. Illustration 17 shows an expanded habitat for the threatened wildlife component of the urban green spaces in the suburb of Nahoon. Roadways form major barriers for these species and isolate pockets of green open space. However, by connecting many adjacent areas by removing fence-lines and other physical barriers, the fragmentation of wildlife can be mitigated against.

[Photo 15, NPNR]

[Photo 16, Traffics calming in areas of high wildlife activity] - 25 -

5.7 Ecosystem services

This paper supports the case that rapidly expanding cities, such as East London, “urgently need to consider the importance of green assets as part of their broader infrastructure development programmes” (Schäffler and Swilling, 2012, pg. 2). A social-ecological systems approach is crucial in unlocking the potential ecosystem services of urban green spaces. Schäffler and Swilling (2012) cite Folke, C., Carpenter, S.R., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Chaping, T., Rockström (2010) when defining social-ecology as an “integrated system of ecosystems and human society with reciprocal feedbacks and interdependence – the concept that emphasises the humans-innature perspective” (pg. 2). Benedict and McMahon (2006) sum this up by simply stating that green space in cities is not just something that is “nice” to have, but is something that cities must have (i.e. essential for cities). This is certainly pertinent for the case in point. The network of green spaces which this paper proposes presents the opportunity to become a highly valued attraction with multiple features of worth. The size of the proposed area dictates that a green infrastructure could be created at a community level e.g.: greenways connecting public parks. The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve is an incredibly important green asset to the city of East London and has benefitted from only a limited recognition of this; only a relatively small piece of land currently enjoys conservation status (aprox. 16.5Ha). However, the abundance of archaeological, paleo-anthropological and geomorphological wealth confirms the value of the greater area (Cole, 2012) and the proposed rezoning and consolidation of existing, fragmented portions, seeks to take the reserve to “the next level” where it can be promoted on an international platform.

5.7.1 Ecotourism

Ecotourism, as described by Benedict and McMahon (2006), is tourism based primarily on natural and archaeological/historical resources. They expand on this by stating that it is the “segment of tourism which involves travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of admiring, studying and enjoying the scenery with its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural features, both past and present” (pg.281). Benedict and McMahon (2006) then outline the two fundamental initiatives of ecotourism: (1) protecting and linking parks and other green spaces for the benefit of people (recreation, health, aesthetics and urban design), and (2) preserving and linking natural areas to benefit biodiversity and counter habitat fragmentation (protecting native plants, animals, natural processes, and ecosystems). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, an initiative of the United Nations and a “monumental work involving over 1300 scientists” (pg. 643), classifies ecosystem services into four categories (Fisher, Kerry Turner & Morling, 2008). Ecotourism falls under the category of a supporting ecosystem service where the others are regulating, provisioning and cultural. This is the most widely used and accepted classification of ecosystem services. Many notable discoveries have been made within the proposed network of green spaces over the past eight decades. The most famed and celebrated of these was made in 1964. The planet’s oldest human trace fossil footprint was unearthed. This has been dated at 124, 000 years old (Cole, 2012). The significance of this find is immeasurable. In 1935, a human femur was found in the Blind River; the location of this site does not fall within a conserved boundary. In 2011 another fossilised human femur was located; this time the bone had been completely replaced by the mineral constituents of the surrounding sandstone. Even more recently a mammal track was found on the roof of an overhanging cove. The latest find from the area is what is believed to be the bone of a buffalo, and if proven so, will be the only one of its kind in the Eastern Cape region (Cole, 2012).

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In the past, the NPNR has profited from funding originating from both local and international NGO sources. The MBSA Coastal Visitor Centre – commonly known as ‘Footprints’ and the hub of the reserve – was developed as a joint initiative and in part funded by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and Mercedes Benz South Africa. Further potential funding, originating both nationally and internationally, has not been accessed and capitalised on, largely due to a lack of commitment from the land owner, the BCM, to secure the conservation of the areas surrounding the NPNR (Kretzman, 2012).

5.7.2 The Ecotourism Plan The Ecotourism Plan produced by the state of Queensland (2003 – 2008) in Australia has been used to guide this plan. It upholds many of the objectives that I believe would successfully transport this case study into the future. The potential of the network of green spaces to become a leading ecotourism destination in the Eastern Cape Province is palpable. With government and industry working in partnership with the local community, this green infrastructure network could lead the way in South Africa by offering visitors unique and exciting tourism experiences that promote an appreciation of the natural and cultural heritage that this area offers. By providing visitors with an opportunity to experience attractions in both terrestrial and marine environments, positive contributions can be made to local communities and the conservation of natural and cultural legacies.

Stakeholders A wide range of stakeholders represent the ecotourism industry, with each group playing a role in developing and managing of this area. They include

The tourism industry Tourism East London could provide a supporting and complimentary framework for the ecotourism of this case study by providing services such as transport, accommodation, marketing, sales and booking services. A mutually beneficial relationship could be established where the tourism industry could work with ecotourism operators, where ecotourism activities become a standard attraction for East London’s visitors. The ecotourism industry A developed industry would need to be established where high quality experiences and supporting services are provided. This would promote and represent the interests of operators and ensure that staff is properly trained and educated. Importantly, this industry could work with govern-

Visitors Visitors are the main reason for an ecotourism industry. They contribute both, directly and indirectly, to conservation management and by providing feedback, could improve the quality and satisfaction for future visitors. - 27 -

Local Government Local government would have to play a key role by working in partnership with, and providing direction to the ecotourism industry.. Natural area managers Natural area managers are those responsible for the planning and management of the land and waters of the case study and include the NPNR Management Committee and the NPNR central management itself. They are accountable for sustainably managing areas under their control and consulting with the ecotourism industry when developing plans and policies. Conservation groups Conservation groups who have a direct interest in the case study area can become involved in the ecotourism setup by working with other stakeholders to develop guidelines, and promote ecologically sustainable practices. They can also provide expertise and protection to the natural and cultural environments that exist. Local communities Local communities could work with the ecotourism industry to maximise the benefits and minimise potential negative impacts of ecotourism in their community.

Outdoor recreation groups Outdoor recreation groups include formal associations (e.g.: the Wave Council), interest groups and independent participants. They make use of many of the same sites as those used by the ecotourism industry. Educational and research institutions Universities, colleges, schools and tourism training organisations as well as specialist research organisations could make positive contributions to this ecosystem service by ensuring that appropriate training, education and research opportunities are available.

Key objectives Environmental protection and management A key objective is to recognise the importance of this part of East London’s natural environment and ensure the protection of the entire network of green spaces presented by this case study, making certain that their status is proclaimed. This will guarantee that key natural attractions, which form part of the ecosystem service ecotourism, will benefit from formal protection.

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Action Plan 1 Ensure that the green spaces that are proposed are protected by regional and local land-use plans Action Plan 2 Ensure that the ecotourism and management of protected areas respects the rights of all stakeholder groups Action Plan 3 The formulation and implementation of visitor management strategies Action Plan 4 Incorporate strategic marketing initiatives into protected area management Action Plan 5 Develop visitor codes of conduct

Action Plan 6 Examine and assess the ecological, cultural, social and economic influences of ecotourism to improve planning and decision-making

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6. Discussion 6.1 The need to establish a conservation department within local governmental structures

The Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality (i.e. local government) does not have a conservation unit. What exists is the IEMP unit which operates on a strategic planning level and operational ground officials who implement strategies. A void exists between these and as a result there is no department driving conservation issues and championing causes such as green space preservation on a local government level (Kretzman, 2012). Former stalwarts – high level municipal environmentalists – who once advocated the process of conservation and fostered this “jewel of the city” have since left the services of the Buffalo City Municipality (Cole, 2012). Conservation, as a department, needs to stand alone (as opposed to being positioned within a planning department) where it can table its own agenda (Kretzman, 2012).

6.2 The need promulgate and implement policies in line with green infrastructure strategies Within the national sphere of government, legislation managing green space conservation is weighted towards coastal zones and historically there has been a deficiency in that which manages inland, terrestrial zones (Qwede, 2012). Kretzman (2012) states that the National and Provincial legislation which is concerned with the conservation of coastal zones includes: • • • • • •

The National Environmental Management Act (62of 2008) The Integrated Coastal Zone Management Act (24 of 2008) The Protected Areas Act (57 of 2003) The Biodiversity Act (10 of 2004) The National Forests Act (84 of 1998) The Conservation Environmental Ordinance (19 of 1974)

Local bylaws fall short of environmental issues (Kretzman, 2012). Many of these pertain to repealed legislation and are therefore outdated (Qwede, 2012). These were submitted for modification several years ago but have not yet been amended (Kretzman, 2012).

6.3 A brief comparison between green infrastructure in the Global West and South Africa Research into, and planning around environmental issues in general in contemporary South Africa, a developing country with particular dynamics that characterise Southern African cities, is in their infancy (Simon, 2010). de Lange et al (2009) pin point a broad predicament by explaining that global sustainable development depends on the capacity of natural, social and economic systems to adapt to external stimuli but that building this adaptive capacity in the context of sub-Saharan Africa will require investments in these systems which most countries cannot afford. However, in South Africa, it is not simply a lack of funding which stymies governmental efforts to tackle sustainable development. The country is seemingly trapped in a cycle characterised by the interrelated problems of unsustainable population growth, poverty, environmental degradation and political instability (de Lange et al, 2009) and more pressing matters such as service delivery deficits and economic exclusion surpass environmental concerns (Schäffler and Swilling, 2012). There is widespread concern that much of the urban development in South Africa is occurring where natural areas are being consumed by built forms without “greenways, natural urban drainage systems, or riparian zones” (de Lange et al, 2009 as cited by Schäffler and Swilling, 2012 pg. 3) but Schäffler and Swilling (2009) raise the question as to if (and how) green infrastructure is being valued as an asset worth building and maintaining in the fabric of fast-growing cities, both from an ecosystem service and economic development perspective. - 30 -

To the West we see a very different picture. Greenway planning in North America has a long history of research (Mell, 2010) e.g.: Boston’s Emerald Necklace – 1887, Minneapolis’s system of parks – 1890’s. It is now discussed as an essential component of the North American planning systems (Fabos, 2004 as cited by Mell, 2010). Historically in Europe, forests, parks and other open spaces have long been a part of urban planning as well, evident in England’s garden city movement and compact cities such as Amsterdam, Helsinki and Copenhagen. Studies have shown that accessibility to urban green spaces is important to both residents and visitors, and as well as increasing stress-related illnesses (e.g.: mental fatigue, headaches) (Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2003) a lack of these is a main reason for people moving out of cities (Caspersen, Konijnendijk & Olafsson, 2006). Local governments in the Netherlands, Spain, Finland, Denmark and others have heeded this evidence. Cities in these countries have green corridor projects which have been created and developed the urban fabric in conjunction with areas of high quality green space (Beatley, 2000 as cited by Mell, 2010). Although the emphasis and proposed holistic planning role green infrastructure is attributed to in North America differs from that in Europe (Mell, 2010), a well-established appreciation for the value and conservation of urban green spaces exists in both. This is not the case in sub-Saharan Africa. South Africa has a unique combination of first and third world development. Whilst still developing as a nation, government has the opportunity to shape both the façade and the manner in which urban environments expand. The pressures which affect planning of built environments demand tailored design of towns and cities. Much can be learnt from past successes and failures both at home and abroad, and although emulation of Western planning systems is not apt, adaptations to appropriate planning and management structures must be considered.

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7. Reference List

Books and Scholarly Journal Articles

Benedict, M.A., McMahon, E.T., 2006. Green Infrastructure: Linking Landscapes and Communities, 1st ed. Island Press. Caspersen, O. H., Konijnendijk, C. C., Olafsson, A. S., 2006. Green space planning and land use: An assessment of urban regional and green structure planning in Greater Copenhagen. Danish Journal of Geography 106(2): 7-20. de Lange, W.J., Wise, R.M., Nahman, A., 2009. Securing a Sustainable future through a New Global Contract Between Rich and Poor, Sustainable Development. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Fisher, B., Turner, K., Morling, P. 2009. Defining and classifying ecosystem services for decision making. Ecological Econom ics 68, 643–653. Gill, S.E., Handley,J.F., Ennos, A.R., Pauleit, S., 2007. Adapting Cities for Climate Change: The Role of the Green Infrastruc ture. Built Environment 30, 115–133. Grahn, P., Stigsdotter, U. A., 2003. Landscape planning and stress. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 2, 1-18. Hellmund, P.C., Smith, D., 2006. Designing Greenways: Sustainable Landscapes for Nature and People. Island Press. Sandstrom, U.G., 2008. Biodiversity and Green Infrastructure in Urban Landscapes: The Importance of Urban Green Spaces. VDM Verlag. Schäffler, A., Swilling, M., 2012. Valuing green infrastructure in an urban environment under pressure — The Johannesburg case. Ecological Economincs. Simon, D., 2010. The challenges of global environmental change for urban Africa. Urban Forum 21. Tzoulas, K., Korpela, K., Venn, S., Yli-Pelkonen, V., Ka´zmierczak, A., Niemela, J., James, P., 2007. Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using Green Infrastructure: A literature review. Science Direct 81, 167–178.

Newspapers and Magazines

Kimberly, M., 2011. New protected marine zones for Eastern Cape. Daily Dispatch. Mgwtyu, X., 2010. Ancient animal tracks found near Nahoon’s Bat’s Cave. Times Live. Prince, S., 2011. Human fossil found near Nahoon Beach. Daily Dispatch.

Government Documents

Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, 2002. The Integrated Development Plan. Durban Metropolitan, 1999. Environmental Management in the Durban Metropolitan Area. Lehohla, P. 2006. Provinicial Profile 2004: Eastern Cape ( No. 00-91-02 (2004)). Statistics South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa. Queensland Government, 2002. Queensland Ecotourism Plan 2003-2008: Sustainable Tourism in Queensland’s natural areas.

Other Reports

Bradshaw, D., Nannan, N., Laubscher, R., Groenewald, P., Joubert, J., Nojilana, B., Norman, R., Pieterse, D., Schneider, M., 2000. Estimates of Provincial Mortality 2000: Eastern Cape Province. Burden of Disease Research Unit. SANBI, 2011. National Biodiversity Assessment 2011: Technical Report. Volume 4: Marine and Coastal Component. South Africa National Biodiversity Institute. UN Habitat, 2008. The State of African Cities 2008: a framework for addressing urban challenges in Africa. United Nations Human Settlements Programme. - 32 -

Uys, M.C., 2004. A river rehabilitation planning pilot trial : The Ihlanza River, East London, South Africa : Based on the Aus tralian river rehabilitation guidelines. Water Research Commission, Gezina, South Africa.

Doctoral Dissertations and Masters Theses

Derkzen, M. L., 2012. Experiencing the Urban Green Space: An exploratory study of visiting behaviour, perceptions and pref erences in the urban green spaces of São Paulo, Brazil Mell, I., 2010. Green infrastructure: concepts, perceptions and its use in spatial planning. Tepper, J., (n.d.). Reconciling Urban Spaces in post-Apartheid South Africa Glimpses of Cape Town’s ‘liberated’ landscape.

Manuscripts and Archival Material

Edward the Seventh, 1904. Government Letter No. 3538.

Oral References

Cole, K., 2012. The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve. Foster, R., 2012. Urban planning of the Buffalo City Municipality. Kretzman, L.-A., 2012. The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve. Qwede, K., 2012. Green infrastructure within the Buffalo City Municipality. Lafortezza, R., 2011. Green Infrastructure in Europe.

Geospatial Data

GIS-1. Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality. [computer map]. Environmental Database. East London, S.A.: GIS Unit, 2012. Using ArcMap (GIS software). Version 10. East London, South Africa, 2012 GIS-2. Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality. [computer map]. Environmental Database. East London, S.A.: GIS Unit, 2012. Using ArcMap (GIS software). Version 10. East London, South Africa, 2012 GIS-3. Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality. [computer map]. Environmental Database. East London, S.A.: GIS Unit, 2012. Using ArcMap (GIS software). Version 10. East London, South Africa, 2012 Web Pages Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, 2012. IEMP Unit Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality [WWW Document]. URL http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/dir_communityservices.stm ESRI, 2007. An Overview of Spatial Analyst [WWW Document]. ArcGIS 9.2. URL http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/ index.cfm?TopicName=An_overview_of_spatial_Analyst StatsSA, 2011. Mid year population estimates 2011 [WWW Document]. Statistics South Africa. URL http://www.statssa.gov. za/publications/P0302/P03022011.pdf The Municipality: How it works [WWW Document], 2012. . Buffalo City Metro. URL http://www.buffalocity.gov.za/municipality/index.stm Protected Areas Act South Africa - Google Search [WWW Document], 2012. . URL http://www.google.com/search?q=protec ted+areas+act+south+africa&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-ZA:official&client=firefox-a Tankard, K., 2009. East London History 1847 - 1914 [WWW Document]. The New Labyrinth of East London Lore. URL http://www.eastlondon-labyrinth.com/history/east-london-00.jsp South Africa [WWW Document], 2012. . UN Habitat. http://www.unhabitat.org/categories.asp?catid=234 - 33 -

Photos:

[Cover photo, The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve] Photographer: Alan Carter

Tables:

[Table 1, Qualitative mathodolgy) [Table 2, Valuation of the MOSS plan and the potential green infrastructure network]

[Photo 2, The suburb of Quigney and Eastern Beach in the foreground with the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve in the background] http://tntunleashed.blogspot.dk/2010/05/east-londonbeachfront-in-1994.html

[Table 3, Land use, size, comparison to the MOSS plan and levels of public and wildlife accessibility of elements of the proposed green infrastructure network]

[Photo 3, The Nahoon River with Estuaries Nature Reserve on the far bank] http://www.ecdc.co.za/fromabove/photo-images-of-theeastern-cape.asp

Illustrations:

[Photo 4, Nahoon Beach in the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve with the City of East London in the background] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

[Illustration 2, Locality plan 2] Authors illustrations - GIS maps



[Photo 5, The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve with The City’s water treatment works in the background] Photographer: Alan Carter

[Illustration 4, BCM’s MOSS plan] Authors illustrations - GIS maps

[Photo 6, The Nahoon Point Nature Reserve with the Footprints MBSA Coastal Visitor Centre] Photographer: Jean Paul Veaudry

[Illustration 5, Individual elements within the proposed green infrastructure network] Authors illustrations - GIS maps

[Photo 7, Invasive exotic Anredera cordifolia] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012 [Photo 8, Pollution in the degraded Ihlanza River] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

[Illustration 6, Crown land handed to the then Municipality - Cropped and rotated from original document] Adapted from an original document provided by Cole, K. & Kretzman, L. 2012

[Photo 9, Government notice: new backup rising main line - water treatment works] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

[Illustration 7, The proposed green infrastructure boundary and the NPNR Phase 1 boundary] Authors illustrations - GIS maps

[Photo 10, the Marina Glen picnic area - an environmental disaster zone and source of wood cutting within surrounding urban green open spaces] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

[Illustration 8, SANBI No-go ares within the GI network] Authors illustrations - GIS maps [Illustration 9, SANBI Coastal protected areas within the GI network] Authors illustrations - GIS maps

[Photo 11, Wildlife friendly fences - NPNR] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

[Illustration 10, SANBI Heritage sensitivity midden site areas within the GI network] Authors illustrations - GIS maps

[Photo 12, Electric fences - the golf course] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012 [Photo 13, Concrete wall - the Stirling Municipal Nursery] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

[Illustration 11, SANBI Nature reserves within the GI network] Authors illustrations - GIS maps

[Photo 14, Fences enclosing James Pierce Park] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

[Illustration 12, SANBI Marine protected areas] Authors illustrations - GIS maps

[Photo 15, NPNR] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012 [Photo 16, Traffics calming in areas of high wildlife activity] Photographer: Jonathan Craik, July 2012

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[Illustration 13, Selected wildlife species of the Nahoon Point Nature Reserve and surrounding pockets of urban green open space] Scanned and adapted from the book: Smithers, R. H. N., 1986. Land mammals of Souther Africa. MacMillan Publishers, South Africa. [Illustration 14, Physical man-made barriers within the proposed green infrastructure network] Authors illustrations - AutoCAD drawing [Illustration 15, Adaptation of Benedict and McMahon’s (2006) basic green infrastructure layout] Adapted from the book: See Reference List - Books [Illustration 16, Proposed green infrastructure network: pedestrians] Authors illustrations - AutoCAD drawing [Illustration 17, Proposed green infrastructure network: wildlife] Authors illustrations - AutoCAD drawing

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Addendum

Principles of green infrastructure A multitude of urban and rural planning disciplines have formed theories, ideas, research and conclusions regarding green infrastructure with the conservation of natural areas being at the core of many of these (Benedict and McMahon, 2006). Green infrastructure is rooted in the development planning of dynamic urban (and rural) environments and the impact that it has on green spaces. By assessing a set of principles, the optimal use of land for a) support of the natural processes which exist and b) the infrastructure & recreational needs of the people who live there, can be understood.

Accessibility, mobility and the connectivity of networks

A fundamental principle of green infrastructure and ecological networks is connecting landscapes. Although protection of individual sites with important natural and cultural resources is imperative, linking these where possible is an essential function of conservation biology i.e. natural wildlife systems. The strategic planning and connection of ecosystem components is vital in retaining the values and services of natural systems (Benedict and McMahon, 2006). Mell (2010) cites Peltonen and Hanski (1991) when he expands on what connectivity can achieve; by connecting landscape features, mobility and the “transfer of capitals” (pg. 55) (i.e. increased asset value) can be made available to a wider range of users. This can lower the possibility of species extinctions by creating conditions for ecological colonisation and diversity. Linking of elements is one side of the connectivity coin, with mobility of ecological and human populations through these systems being the other (Farina, 1998 as cited by Mell, 2010). The development of networks within landscapes increases the potential accessibility of both users and wildlife.

Multi-functionality and multiple benefits

Multi-functionality in green infrastructure is a way in which to ensure better quality environments. Although subjective, Mell (2010) states that this is achieved through interaction and integration of existing governance and planning structures; working with planners and decision-makers is undoubtedly necessary in achieving multi-functionality. In order to understand and achieve landscape diversification in multi-functional spaces, the ecological, economic and social influences which promote this must be recognised (Kambites and Owen, 2007 as cited by Mell, 2010). Results of multi-functionality are multiple ecological, economic and social benefits (Blackman and Thackray, 2007 as cited by Mell, 2010); the need to develop urban landscapes which cater for multiple demographic user groups has been widely promoted.

Context and scale

A keystone of green infrastructure is understanding and predicting changes in what Benedict and McMahon (2006) term native landscapes (i.e. those unaltered for human use) – the biological and physical factors. Strategic conservation planning must consider how natural resources contribute to, interact with and are influenced by neighbouring ecosystems. A green infrastructure approach can be implemented at any scale. Benedict and McMahon (2006) identify the parcel, local community, state (or provincial in the South African context) and multi-state (mul-

Planning theory and practice

Various disciplines have contributed to the concept of green infrastructure, with resultant and everevolving theories, ideas, research and conclusions. Benedict and McMahon (2006) recognise experts in the fields of conservation biology, landscape ecology, urban and regional planning, landscape architecture, geography and civil engineering whose combined contributions are needed to successfully design and implement a green infrastructure system. By drawing from a variety of professions, a balance to ecological, cultural, social and practical considerations can be achieved.

Sustainability

Green infrastructure requires long-term commitment and planning documents should be capable of continual adaptation in order to accommodate evolving land use. Planning which outlasts political change can help ensure that green infrastructure has staying power (Benedict and McMahon, 2006). Green infrastructure should be funded in the same way as a nations built infrastructure i.e. as a publicly financed primary budgetary line item (Benedict and McMahon, 2006).

Biodiversity and fragmentation

Mell (2010) points out that biodiversity is a vital element when preserving or rehabilitating ecological networks and establishing green infrastructure networks; the principle recurs throughout research literature. Green infrastructure provides the ‘resources and networks’ (Mell, 2010, pg. 55) which promote the processes of connectivity and mobility. The integrity of existing ecological resources and biodiversity needs to be maintained and enhanced in a green infrastructure approach to planning. Fragmentation exists as a result of the influence humans have on the landscape. A cardinal principle in biodiversity conservation is to mitigate against fragmentation and corridor effect i.e. the more uninterrupted open green space, the better long-term viability of the space (Cole, 2012). Increased urbanisation raises levels of green space isolation and by creating a network of systems, pressure exerted on the environment by development can be alleviated.