Mapping donors' skills development strategies and ...

2012/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/26

Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2012

Youth and skills: Putting education to work

Mapping donors’ skills development strategies and programmes Frances Hunt 2012

This paper was commissioned by the Education for All Global Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2012 report. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the EFA Global Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012, Youth and skills: Putting education to work” For further information, please contact [email protected]

Mapping donors’ skills development strategies and programmes Frances Hunt 2011 Abstract The report provides an overview of the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors’ skills development activities with a particular focus on strategies that expand employment opportunities for young and/or marginalized people. The objectives of the paper are twofold: to provide a general overview of DAC donors’ skills development activities and to offer a more in-depth analysis of programmes and projects funded by three key donors. The report shows donors’ different strategic approaches to skills development and the range of countries targeted. A more in-depth analysis of selected projects and programmes highlights project objectives, implementation channels and the diversity of training providers used. The report has been written as a background paper to support UNESCO’s Global Monitoring Report 2012, which has Skills Development as its theme. It responds to a particular set of questions.

Contents 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 3 2

3

Overview of DAC donors’ skills development activities .................................................................. 4 2.1

Importance of skills development in overall aid strategies ...................................................... 4

2.2

Location of skills development in donor strategies ................................................................. 5

2.3

Key elements of recent skills development strategies ............................................................ 5

2.4

Main objectives of the approach ............................................................................................. 9

2.5

Evolution of skills strategy over time ..................................................................................... 10

2.6

Key recipient countries of skills development programmes .................................................. 10

2.7

Main fund channeling and implementation mechanisms ...................................................... 13

2.8

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 13

In-depth analysis of projects and programmes funded by key donors ......................................... 13 3.1

Australia ................................................................................................................................ 14

3.1.1 3.2

Switzerland ............................................................................................................................ 23

3.2.1 3.3

Selected Projects: Australia .......................................................................................... 17

Selected projects: Switzerland ...................................................................................... 25 World Bank ............................................................................................................................ 30

3.3.1

Selected projects: World Bank ...................................................................................... 32

4

References .................................................................................................................................... 37

5

Annex One: Terms of Reference .................................................................................................. 46

6

Annex Two: Donations to countries 2002-2009 US$ millions ....................................................... 50

1

7

Annex Three: Donor Analysis Table ............................................................................................. 54

List of Tables Table One: Total amounts disbursed on vocational training 2002-9 per donor country US$ Table Two: Key elements in donor-funded skills development programmes Table Three: Donor funding to countries 2002-9 (US$ million): most funding in terms of US$ Table Four: Donor funding to countries 2002-9 (US$ million): least funding (selected) in terms of US$ Table Five: Most funded countries in terms of numbers of donors funding vocational training

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1

Introduction

This report provides an overview of the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors’ skills development activities. It provides detail on donors’ current and historic skills development initiatives and locates skills development within the donors’ aid programmes, and in relation to other areas of focus. It also looks in more detail at some projects and programmes of selected donors. The report has been written as a background paper to support UNESCO’s Global Monitoring Report 2012, which has Skills Development as its theme, and an emphasis on strategies that expand employment opportunities for marginalized young people. This paper therefore has a particular focus on skills development initiatives which focus on both formal and informal routes to employment for youth and marginalized groups. The report’s specific objectives are twofold: • •

Objective One: To provide a general overview of 24 1 DAC donors’ skills development activities. Objective Two: To offer a more in-depth analysis of programmes and projects funded by three key donors.

Both objectives respond to a specific set of questions highlighted in Annex One (terms of reference). Objective One provides responses to the identified DAC donors’ skills development strategies and activities. Specifically it outlines where skills development fits within aid strategies, the importance placed on skills development, the key objectives and elements of the approach towards skills development. It also highlights donors’ country focus and how skills development strategies and initiatives have changed over the past ten years. Objective Two focuses in more tightly on three selected donors (Australia, Switzerland and the World Bank) and provides detailed insight into selected projects and programmes with an emphasis on skills development for youth and marginalized groups. The paper offers a general overview of donor approaches and activities in the field of skills development. Data has been collated from a range of sources, including: donor agency websites, the OECD-DAC CRS aid projects database, donors’ general aid strategies and education/skills development strategy documents, annual reports and project/programme information. Country-specific information focuses on bilateral aid, whereas sections on World Bank, EU, AfDB and AsDB will give further information on practices of multilateral donors. The paper comes with some caveats. Due to time (and at times language 2) constraints not all relevant documentation could be accessed. Moreover the documents that were accessed were often scanned for meaning and data rather than read in detail. As a result there may be gaps in information. The paper is also dependent on the quality of data available. While some donor skills strategies and website configurations are clear and easy to navigate, others are less so. In this case interpretations had to be made about the donor’s skills development approach and strategy. In some cases, there were discrepancies between data sources. Having said this, what this paper hopes to do is provide a generalized 1 The review includes all bilateral members of the DAC minus Japan, South Korea and Germany. The World Bank, the European Commission, the African and Asian Development Banks are also included. 2 I was only able to read accurately documents in English. Some documents from some countries (e.g. Italy, Spain and Sweden) were not available in English. In terms of Spain and Italy internet translation devices were used to translate the websites from Italian and Spanish as there were no English-version websites available.

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overview of donor approaches to skills development, with detail to be clarified and enhanced in potential future studies. The paper is not a literature review as such and does not engage with many of the key academic debates in the skills development field. The paper is divided into two analysis sections (Sections 2 and 3) which respond to the two objectives.

2

Overview of DAC donors’ skills development activities

This section responds to Objective One: to provide a general overview of 24 DAC donors’ skills development activities. Detailed information at country-level is located in Annex Three. The following text highlights trends according to question headers given. 2.1

Importance of skills development in overall aid strategies

Most donors have a range of strategic priorities which form the basis of their activities. Poverty elimination is often the overall goal with donors having between two and thirteen thematic priorities. Within these priority goals skills development is rarely mentioned (Luxembourg and the African Development Bank being exceptions). For many donors, skills development is located within a sub-section of a main priority area, e.g. under Education, Health and / or Economic Development. So skills development for most donors is of importance, but other thematic areas take precedence. All donors fund some skills development work, but there are some where skills development, both strategically and in monetary terms is of lower priority. For some donors, while skills development is seen as strategically important, in reality there might be less evidence of this in projects funded. Table One provides some insight into the range of funding levels for skills development initiatives by donor. Data was taken from the CRS database (OECD-DAC, 2011) which focuses on vocational training. Some skills development initiatives might not be included in this data source. For further information about donor funding patterns see: Annex Three and Section 2.6. Table One: Total amounts disbursed on vocational training 2002-9 per donor country US$ Donor

Australia

Total amount disbursed 2002-9, US$ million (2009 constant prices) 134.1

Austria

32.2

Belgium

138.2

Canada

101.2

Denmark

32.9

Finland

12.3

France

245.3

Greece

12.4

Ireland

6.5

Italy

47.3

Luxembourg

74.9

4

Netherlands

87.6

New Zealand

14.2

Norway

35.4

Portugal

4.8

Spain

341.4

Sweden

12.6

Switzerland

107.7

United Kingdom

18.4

United States

41.5

(Data source: OECD-DAC, 2011). 2.2

Location of skills development in donor strategies

Most donors place high importance on achievement of the MDGs and for some donors the focus is on primary education enrolment and retention over skills development. There is less reference to Education For All (EFA), whose goals provide a wider skills development remit (in terms of adult literacy, life skills for young people and adults). This focus on MDGs, rather than EFA goals might mean that strategically skills development is prioritized less by some donors. For many donors skills development is located in more than one place within their overall aid programmes. In policy / strategy terms skills development is more likely to be highlighted as a priority area under Education (12 donors); Economic Growth / Employment and Income Generation (3 donors) and both Education and Economic Growth / Employment Generation (6 donors). Skills development initiatives might also be seen under Health, Governance, Local / Community Development, Human Rights, Conflict and Gender strands. For some donors where skills development sits is not always clear. 2.3

Key elements of recent skills development strategies

Most donors do not seem to have an overall strategy for skills development so donor ‘approaches’ to skills development have been compiled from a range of sources including strategy papers, websites and information on projects funded. In some cases skills / human development is a goal in itself, whilst in other cases skills development is the means through which the overall goal may be achieved and beneficiary reached. USAlD, for example: promotes human capacity (skills) development both as a developmental end in and of itself and as a means for reducing or eliminating other key development problems (USAID, 2001: 30).

Beneficiaries therefore (with the exception of vocational skills training activities) tend not to be those being trained. Table Two provides oversight into key elements in donor funded skills development initiatives. While acknowledging the evidence used is not comprehensive (information was gathered from websites and annual reports), it does provide some interesting insight. Indeed, donors seem to focus on five main ‘types’ of skills development work:

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• • • • •

vocational skills development / TVET for youth, un/under-employed and disadvantaged women (both formal and informal sector); business development; professional training for those already in employment (often to help reach MDGs); higher level skills development – mainly academic skills development for students / academics; skills development for donor agency staff.

This indicates that much of the training is not of the young and disadvantaged, but of professionals and educated (often those already in employment), with the intention of improving the living standards for others either directly or indirectly. Moreover, while donors are keen to present skills development in terms of poverty reduction and achievement of MDGs, the beneficiaries of skills development can be wider than one might initially suspect. For example, a number of skills development initiatives benefit the donor country institutions and individuals, as well as those in recipient countries. Table Two: Key elements in donor-funded skills development programmes Group training

receiving

Skills development

Overall beneficiary / aim

Disadvantaged communities Women

Life skills (e.g. literacy, numeracy) District school facilitators;

Youth

Vocational skills, TVET; often tourism training Vocational skills, small business

Individual, local community development; improve employability Gender empowerment, getting women involved in politics Economic integration of young people into labour market Economic integration of adults into labour market Economic integration of women into labour market; empowering effects. Economic growth

Unemployed / disadvantaged adults Disadvantaged women SMEs Business managers businesses

/

Finance bankers Teachers

/

workers

Health professionals

Civil / public servants Lawyers / judges

Vocational skills, small business Small business training, entrepreneurship Language skills; business education; business partnerships / mentoring Finance training; market economies Teacher training

e.g. midwife training, training in vaccinations, training of doctors and nurses Public admin; N-S partnerships Human rights; human trafficking; violence against women

Known number of donors in this 3 area 94 35 19 6 12 7 13 8 79

Trade (often with donor country); Economic growth; private sector development.

5 10

Economic integration for countries in transition; modern financing methods. MDG and wider benefits that education brings; getting more girls into school; improving VET teaching / adult education MDG and wider benefits that good health brings.

5 11

Good governance; improve growth; economic integration

8 14

economic

17 12 15 13

6 15

3

It is not possible at this stage to provide a breakdown of skills development initiatives in monetary terms. Canada, Ireland, Luxembourg, Spain, Sweden, Switz, UK, USA, EU; 5 AusAID, Norway, Sweden 6 AusAID, Austria, Belgium, Canada; Denmark, France, Italy, Luxembourg, NZ, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switz, UK, USA, EU, AfDB, AsDB, WB 7 AusAID, Canada, Italy, Luxembourg, NZ, Norway, Sweden, Switz, UK, EU, AsDB, WB 8 AusAID, Belgium, Finland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switz, UK, EU, AsDB, WB 9 Italy, Luxembourg, NZ, Sweden, USA, EU, AfDB 10 Belgium; Denmark; France, NZ, Norway 11 France, Greece, AfDB, AsDB, Luxembourg 12 AusAID, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, NZ, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switz, UK, EU, AsDB, WB 13 AusAID, Canada, Denmark, France, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, NZ, Norway, Sweden, UK, USA, EU, AsDB, WB 14 Belgium, Greece, Ireland, Norway, Switz, UK, USA, AsDB 15 AusAID, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, UK, EU 4

6

Agricultural workers Maritime workers Engineers Workers in water sector, environmental health Police

Military Fragile communities

Customs officers Journalists Electorate Various Young leaders Professionals

Post graduate students

Academics

Donor country population Staff of development agency

Various agricultural techniques; Sea faring skills, fisheries; antipiracy Training in road safety Water and sanitation, waste management Gender sensitization; human trafficking; violence against women; anti-terrorism Security issues, anti-terrorism

Improve agricultural productivity. Improve fisheries income; water management etc. Improve roads Improve water and sanitation, waste management Stop drug trafficking; police awareness of gender issues/ human rights;

10 16 4 17

Improve security

2 21

Mine clearance; peace building; conflict resolution; disaster relief; good governance Customs control Media training Political awareness; election / democracy training Environmental issues

Improve community safety rebuilding communities

Cultural understanding programmes; leadership training Work-based attachments / training; mid-career fellowships (in either recipient or donor country) Academic skills / subject knowledge through scholarship programmes Academic skills / subject knowledge through links programmes / fellowships Development education; internships Range of skills e.g. gender mainstreaming, PCM,

and

peace;

3 18 2 19 7 20

5 22

Drug trafficking Support to democracy Support to democracy

1 23 2 24 3 25

Raise awareness of climate change, sustainable development etc. Improve future country relations and understanding; develop future leaders Improve ….

2 26

Student / recipient country development capacity.

All donors.

Academics / recipient country development capacity.

12 29

Improve awareness of development issues; support to development issues. Aid beneficiaries

Most donor countries. Most donors countries

2 27 4 28

Looking in more depth at skills development with a focus on routes to employment, we can see that most donors run some sort of vocational skills training programme to encourage labour market participation for youth and / or marginalized groups (often poor women, unemployed, etc.). The scale and scope of these programmes differ enormously (for the purposes of this analysis it was difficult to differentiate) depending factors such as donor, scale of funding, local labour market needs, employment practices and training facilities available. Both technical vocational education and training (TVET) and vocational skills training are a main focus of donor support to skills development. In terms of TVET, donors often work directly with Ministries of Education or national training providers. For example, the World Bank has tended (in the 2000s in particular) to support formal skills provision, with the aim to make TVET demand-driven and responsive to labour market needs (in countries such as India, Mozambique and Zambia). Similarly, in the former 16

Belgium; Finland, Ireland, NZ, Norway, Switz, UK, USA, EU, AsDB NZ, Norway, EU, AsDB, AusAID, EU, WB 19 France, Italy 20 AusAID, Norway, Portugal, Switz, UK, USA, EU 21 Portugal, USA 22 Austria, Ireland, Italy, Norway, USA 23 AusAID 24 Ireland, Norway 25 Norway, Sweden, USA 26 Ireland, WB 27 USA, AfDB 28 Netherlands; NZ; Sweden, USA 29 Australia, Austria, Finland, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Portugal, UK, USA, EU, ADB; WB 17 18

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CIS and Eastern Europe where the TVET system is more entrenched, enhancement of college-based learning is often the norm. While youth tend to access formal TVET programmes, the very marginalized or disadvantaged often do not. In some contexts access to formal TVET programmes is via the schooling system, with TVET seen as a route for those deemed ‘less academic’. If this is the case, participants will already have had a number of years of schooling, which indicates (in many countries) that they would not be the most marginalized or economically disadvantaged. While scholarships are often available, cost of transport and opportunity costs for trainees might also inhibit access for the poor. Donors directly fund colleges, college programmes or specific sectors of industry in a recipient country. AusAID for example, funds three Australian organisations to manage Australian TVET qualifications programmes in the Australia-Pacific Technical College at various locations in the Pacific. And Lux-Development supports college-led training in the hospitality and tourism sector (perceived as sectors that generate growth) in countries such as Laos, Cape Verde, Nicaragua and Vietnam. Donors also fund vocational skills support in the informal sector, often with the aim of catching those more marginalized groups of the population who are not accessing formal routes to training. Beneficiaries of such programmes might be disadvantaged youth living in urban slums, agricultural workers, school drop outs or the unemployed. Often projects target women. Most aim to improve access to the labour market and possibilities for income generation (some aid re-entry into school). In addition to learning a craft or vocational skill, trainees can be taught entrepreneurial and business and / or life skills (including literacy and numeracy), with some projects having an empowerment aim. Training is often on-the-job, apprenticeship style training with some element of class-based study. And, while many such programmes have traditionally have been run by NGOs, local colleges or training providers, the (F) Franchising-Skill programme in Nepal (funded by SDC), for example, franchises training out to private providers, with the aim of better accessing rural locations. Evaluation evidence suggests that routes to employment and income generation are often enhanced through participation on donor funded vocational skills programmes (see evaluation evidence in Section 3). But, there are few long term studies to measure impact over time. Business development is an important part of donors’ skills development initiatives. This might include a range of activities including, support to SMEs, language training for business managers, mentoring programmes etc. Often skills development initiatives for business encourage donor country as well as recipient country income generation and trade, with linking programmes frequently used. The Matchmaking Programme (funded by Norway) establishes joint ventures between Norwegian companies and recipient country companies in order to transfer technology and exchange management and business-skills. And the Application Based Support programme (again funded by Norway) aims to stimulate Norwegian businesses to initiate and develop commercial co-operation in the ‘south’. The USA-funded New Beginning Initiative promotes deeper ties between business leaders, foundations, and entrepreneurs in the USA and countries with significant Muslim populations. Most donors run programmes where those already employed (often in a professional capacity) are trained in an area which supports wider socio-economic development. Often

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these programmes directly support the MDGs. Teacher training and the training of health workers are the most prevalent of these, but civil servants, bankers and judges are also recipients of skills development projects and programmes. Postgraduate scholarship programmes, higher education support and donor agency training for staff are not a focus of this paper. For further debate on donor-funded postgraduate scholarship programmes (often tied to donor-country universities and at high cost) see Norrag (2011). 2.4

Main objectives of the approach

This section looks at donors’ objectives in skills development approaches. This is not always straightforward. Donors’ objectives are not always clear and strategic objectives can differ from objectives within projects / and programmes funded. Some donors have multiple objectives while others have one. The most evident objective is linked to employment, skilled people being ‘productive’ members of society and generating income. Linked to that the economic benefits and growth a skilled workforce will bring to wider society as a whole is also highlighted. Almost all donors describe this in some form. Poverty alleviation and the disadvantaged working their way out of vulnerability are also prominent. The AsDB (along with the World Bank and Lux-Development) is one of the few donors to outwardly focus on the mismatch between labour market needs and the graduates from training providers. It states: on the whole ... training and skills development experiences are ill equipped to produce graduates with competencies that are aligned to the needs of the labour market … and countries need to improve the 'labour-market relevance of skills being taught’ (AsDB, 2010).

Lux-Development also states: training systems (in countries where they work) are not seldom very successful. Constructed in the past along the lines of existing systems in developed countries, they have proved very expensive and difficult to finance from the national budgets. The training courses that have been established are long and not diversified enough. … On completion of these (three year) courses, young people cannot find work, because the content taught is no longer current and is not tailored to the skills needs of small enterprises, which are the main source of jobs in countries where the per capita income is lower than 1000 USD per year (Lux Development, 2009).

Making skills development initiatives more demand-driven and relevant to the needs of the labour market is therefore a focus of many donor-funded projects and programmes. Around a third of donors use the MDGs as the aim of skills development. This seems low given the practical focus many donors have on health and education training, which at times outstrips the employment / income generation focus. Education and Health MDGs are prioritized more than other MDG targets in skills development terms.

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Other areas are less evident in statements of skills development objectives. These include the development of higher-order skills (highlighted by USAID, African Development Bank 30); skills development as a means of integration into a global workplace (skills development is more likely to be in traditional industries); and skills development to promote private sector development and competitiveness (highlighted by Denmark and France). 2.5

Evolution of skills strategy over time

Based on a comparison 31 of current and older documentation and analysis of the CRS database (OECD-DAC, 2011), there seems to have been some shifts in skills development strategies and activities over the past ten years. These findings are indicative and further research would be needed to provide greater clarity. •

•

•

•

•

2.6

Education and skills agendas have become more prominent in strategies and activities for some donors, possibly a result of international agendas, such as the MDGs, EFA etc. This includes donors such as the EU. Overall funding for vocational training (OECD-DAC, 2011) increased almost threefold between 2002 and 2009. In 2002 donor distributions were at US$232.3million, while in 2009 this went up to US$668.6million (down on 2008 at $703.5m). Some ‘skills’ seem to have less prominence in terms of donor funding, than ten years ago. There appears to have been a move away from literacy / numeracy projects32, more towards projects that focus on income generation and skills for employment. There also seem fewer projects developing computer and ICT skills. There is a sense that some donors are focusing down on target countries and aims (e.g. Denmark, the Netherlands). Whereas in the past these donors might have taken a wider remit and geographical focus, recently they have taken more shape and focus. This means in some instances skills development initiatives have been enhanced, in others skills have become less of a priority (e.g. the Netherlands). Geographically there seems to have been some small shifts in donor emphasis. For example, funding has largely stopped (or reduced substantially) for Turkey, Botswana, Pakistan and Indonesia. While funding for Mali, Kenya, Bolivia, Angola, Liberia and Kosovo has increased. Surprisingly funding for some countries that have made economic progress over the period remains fairly constant or in some cases has increased e.g. India, China, Argentina and Brazil. Key recipient countries of skills development programmes

In order to identify recipient countries of skills development programmes by donor 33, the CRS database (OECD-DAC, 2011) was used to identify funded vocational level support by (bilateral) donor and recipient country. Numbers of donors funding projects and amounts funded were compiled and analysis generated. While this approach is not comprehensive (it only includes projects identified as vocational training on the CRS database), it does provide information about countries being funded and by whom (see Annex Two for full list).

30

Evident in the funding of higher education scholarships – but seemingly less evident within statements of donors’ skills development objectives. 31 Where possible documents from 2001-2 where looked at (usually annual reports) and the strategies / projects and programmes were compared to more recent initiatives. 32 Some of which may be captured in ‘education’ programmes. 33 Only bilateral donors were included in this analysis, not multilateral.

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Donors fund skills development in a range of countries over SSA, North Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe, the Middle East the former CIS, the Pacific and Asia. Table Three shows the countries known to have received most bilateral funding: Table Three: Donor funding to countries 2002-9 (US$ million): most funding in terms of US$ Number of bilateral donors

Total amount disbursed 2002-9, US$ million (2009 constant prices)

Mayotte

1

68.6

Oceania, regional

64.1 57.4

32.1

Bolivia

2 12

Tunisia

8

56.9

7.1

Senegal

9

51.8

5.8

Morocco

10

51.6

5.2

Nicaragua

10

45.8

4.6

South Africa

14

43.1

3.1

Peru

8

42.2

5.3

Viet Nam

13

38

2.9

Mozambique

14

35.2

2.5

Wallis and Futuna

1

33.4

33.4

Iraq

7 8

32.4 29

4.6

Country

Ecuador

Average amount across donating countries US$ million 68.6 4.8

3.6

(source: OECD-DAC, 2011). Whereas other countries with less donor funding on vocational training can be seen in Table Four. Table Four: Donor funding to countries 2002-9 (US$ million): least funding (selected) in terms of US$ Country

Number of bilateral donors

CAR

4

Total amount disbursed 2002-9, US$ million (2009 constant prices) 2.4

Average amount across donating countries US$ million 0.6

Tonga

1

1.8

1.8

Sierra Leone

6

1.4

0.2

Egypt

6

1.2

0.2

Niger

4

1.1

0.3

Malawi Chad

10 4

1.1 0.7

0.1 0.2

Eritrea

4

0.6

0.2

Yemen

2

0.5

0.3

Kazakhstan

3

0.2

0.1

Lesotho

1

0.1

0.1

(source: OECD-DAC, 2011).

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What seems initially apparent from Table Three and Four are the huge differences in funding levels between countries (some discussion to follow). Table Five also highlights the most funded countries in terms of the number of donors funding vocational training: Table Five: Most funded countries in terms of numbers of donors funding vocational training Number of bilateral donors


India

14

23.6

Average amount across donating countries US$ million 1.7

Mozambique

14

35.2

2.5

South Africa

14

43.1

3.1

Viet Nam

38 57.4

2.9

Bolivia

13 12

Brazil

12

17.1

1.4

Kenya

12

7.3

0.6

Uganda

12

4

0.3

O. Palestinian T.

11

14.9

1.4

Serbia

11

11

1.0

United Republic of Tanzania

13 24.7

1.2

Bangladesh

11 10

Burkina Faso

10

20.8

2.1

DRC

10

25.1

2.5

Country

4.8

2.5

(source: OECD-DAC, 2011). A range of factors appear to influence where many donors fund skills development activities as seen in Tables Three, Four and Five. These include: •

•

•

Geographical proximity of donor and recipient country – for example Australia and New Zealand focus activities on the Pacific and South East Asia; Austria funds many activities in South–East Europe; and Greece funds in South-East Europe and the Mediterranean. History of engagement with recipient country – former colonial powers often fund skills development activities in their former colonies and overseas territories. In this sense, the UK funds skills development activities in Anglophone Africa and South Asia; France in Francophone Africa and its overseas territories; Belgium in the DRC; Portugal in the Portuguese-speaking world and Spain in Latin America. France and Spain are large bilateral donors in terms of vocational training, which means that many of those countries with higher levels of donor funding (see Table Three) are former colonies / territories of France and Spain. Other former colonial powers fund vocational training to a lesser degree (e.g. UK, Portugal), which means that their former colonies tend not to be included in the ‘most funded’ category. Table Four indicates that less stable (and possibly less ‘donor-friendly’) countries have less access to donor funding in skills development. Donors seem more willing to fund countries that are reasonably stable (with some exceptions) and with generally higher socio-economic indicators (see Table Five). Many of these countries

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•

•

•

might be called ‘donor darlings’, which brings funding, but also problems of coordinating donor efforts. Migration patterns within donor and recipient countries – funding goes towards helping retain capacity in recipient countries and assisting those who do migrate to integrate better into countries. For example, a Swiss-funded project in Bosnia and Herzegovina gives practical training to educated youth to prevent their migration; Spain provides training in migrants’ countries of origin, to help improve labour market integration and mitigate the need to migrate; And New Zealand funds skills training for seasonal workers, e.g. in English, leadership, literacy, numeracy, financial literacy to help them integrate into NZ during their short-term contracts within New Zealand and for home-country appropriate skills development. Countries rebuilding after recent disasters, wars and political change – this could include countries such as Haiti, Afghanistan, Iraq, Sri Lanka; countries in Eastern Europe and former CIS. The types of projects covered depend on the country-context and include skills development in mine clearance, economic transitions, teacher training, peace building, democracy, vocational skills and health. Strategic location of recipient country – this may be in terms of strategic military importance, potential of criminal activity, terrorism and / or possible future fragility. The USA seems to be particularly aware of these concerns, putting US$27.7million of funding into Iraq in 2005 and promoting a range of projects that increase cultural understanding and encourage good relations between the two countries.

Geographic patterns in funding might be interesting to follow up in future studies. Questions also might be asked about the differences in funding allocation to countries. 2.7

Main fund channeling and implementation mechanisms

It is difficult to get an overall sense of funding channels and implementation mechanisms as data is not always readily available. Donors adopt a range of strategies depending on a range of factors (e.g. political context, government stability, civil society). These include: direct support to local recipient country NGOs; working with donor country organisations and local in-country support; teaming recipient country universities with donor-country universities; direct budgetary support; and working with government departments. 2.8

Summary

Information provided in Section Two and Annex Three gives a general overview of DAC donors’ skills development activities. It provides detail on donors’ current and historic skills development initiatives and locates skills development within the donors’ aid programmes, and in relation to other areas of focus. The information has a particular focus on skills development initiatives which focus on both formal and informal routes to employment for youth and marginalized groups. In the following section more detailed analysis of projects and programmes by selected donors is provided.

3

In-depth analysis of projects and programmes funded by key donors

This section responds to Objective Two: To offer a more in-depth analysis of programmes and projects funded by a few key donors. It provides a detailed skills development strategy review for Australia, Switzerland and the World Bank, including summary information about 13

their donor funded projects and programmes. Evidence is based on a small number of relevant projects and programmes and while claims can be made from these samples, larger patterns are more difficult to ascertain. 3.1

Australia

AusAID (the Australian Agency for International Development) is responsible for managing Australia's overseas aid programme. Skills development is aligned with two strategic policy goals ‘promoting opportunities for all’ and ‘sustainable economic development’ (AusAID, 2011e). Under promoting opportunities for all one objective involves ‘empowering women to participate in the economy, leadership and education’ and under sustainable economic development there is a focus on ‘improving incomes, employment and enterprise opportunities for poor people in both rural and urban areas’ (AusAID, 2011e). The main focus of education and skill development investments seems to be on schoolbased/aged support, with TVET receiving around 6% of AusAID’s estimated spending on education in 2009-10. In comparison, scholarships for overseas students to Australian institutions receive 24% of education funding (AusAID, 2010), suggesting that in monetary terms higher-level skills development plays a prominent role. Skills development work is funded under education programme funding. As skills development is aligned with two strategic policy goals that include Sustainable Economic Development, there is a possibility that initiatives may be implemented under Economic Growth in the future (AusAID, 2011f). Skills development projects and programmes are offered in a range of areas, including TVET, vocational training for disadvantaged groups, training of health, education (and other) professionals, training in post-conflict areas and scholarships for overseas students to study in Australia. The geographic focus is on the Pacific and Asia, but also covers other locations. In terms of funding for vocational training, Oceania (regional), Indonesia, China, PNG, the Philippines and Vanuatu have received the most money since 2001 (OECD-DAC, 2011). However, with the exceptions of Oceania (regional) and possibly Vanuatu, all of those countries have seen dramatically decreased funding since 2007. AusAID, for example, stopped funding skills development / VET projects in China at the end of the Chongqing Vocational Education and Training project in 2007. The bulk of skills development project support now goes to the regional Australia-Pacific Technical College, which was established with AusAID funding in 2007, with other countries such as Vanuatu, Kiribati, Timor Leste, Tuvalu, Nauru and Tonga also receiving funding to support skills development. AusAID will also invest in skills development in Kiribati and Nauru (with emerging plans for support in the Solomon Islands, Samoa and PNG). AusAID funds and has funded a number of projects and programmes that focus on support for marginalized groups, including youth. These are highlighted in Section 3.1.1 34. The most prominent of these projects is the Australia-Pacific Technical College which provides Australian-standard TVET qualifications in a range of industry areas from campuses in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu. Students are drawn from 14 Pacific Island countries. APTC has graduated 3,170 students to June 2011 and aims to graduate an additional 3,450 students by June 2015. While many of those receiving training are already 34

As project information was not held centrally in Australia and records could not be found on some relevant projects (information was gathered from field officers where available). 14

in employment (employees of 520 mainly private sector companies had been trained by 2009), around 65% 35 of those attending the college claimed some sort of scholarship. AusAID offers equity scholarships (generally for young women, people living in regional and remote areas, students with disabilities and those from very disadvantaged backgrounds). On a smaller scale, AusAID funds other skills development work focusing on youth. These include training to help reduce poverty and encourage income generation for young people. In the selected projects the focus on disadvantaged and marginalized groups (as opposed to youth) is less evident. By using formal training system as the main provider (apart from the Cambodia livelihoods), AusAID tends to cater more for trainees who have already been part of the formal education system. Only the Vietnam Training for Employment Programme primarily caters for disadvantaged adults (often ethnic minority), via the formal state system. Training takes place in a range of industry areas, depending on perceived labour market needs, e.g. carpentry, agriculture, electronics, tourism, hospitality, fisheries and hairdressing. In terms of implementation the role of Australian companies (both private sector and NGOs) and partnerships with local institutions and enterprises are prominent. In the selected projects only the Timor Leste YEPP project was not contracted to an Australian organization (but rather the ILO). The APTC is, for example, managed by an Australian organisation, with training delivered by two Australian training providers in partnership with national training institutions and local enterprises in the four campus countries, in order to provide Australian recognized qualifications. The role of government is evident in most of the highlighted projects (Timor Leste YEPP, Vietnam Training for Employment, Chongqing Vocational Education and Training in China and IAPSD in Indonesia), where government departments and agencies are involved in implementation, provision and/or guidance. In some cases this might be a result of morecentralised training system, but also the type of institutions used to provide training. Most selected projects (with the exception of Sustainable Livelihoods Training in Cambodia) focused on formal training providers, e.g. state VET schools. Possibly as a reflection on the training providers used, training appears to be / have been largely classroom-based, although the APTC delivers a significant proportion of training and assessment (which is competency-based) in the workplace. Where direct beneficiaries were not the youth and marginalised, but government agency staff and industry associations (i.e. in IAPSD programme), training initiatives seemed more innovative. IAPSD approaches included: counterpart participation, short course training, formal training conducted by Australian trainers in Australian certified courses, on-the-job work placements, mentoring, study tours and Fellowships in Australia. Evaluated projects show improvements of target groups’ engagement with the labour market and better opportunities for income generation. More detail on selected AusAID projects relating to skills development can be found in Section 3.1.1 and Annex 3. In the future AusAID’s forthcoming Education Policy Note may bring changes to the focus of the education programme (AusAID, 2011f).

35

58% in MTR. 15

AusAID works towards skills development for the poor to participate in the economy and become more productive citizens. This is particularly the case for its work with disadvantaged groups on income generation projects. However, by working with formal training providers the more marginalized may not always be included.

16

3.1.1

Selected Projects: Australia

Recipient country

Programmes/project name

Time

Basic description

Main objectives

Funding source and implementing partners

Type of skills programmes aim to support

Cook Is, Fiji*, Kiribati, Micronesia, Nauru, Papua New Guinea*, Samoa*, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Marshall Is, Niue, Palau and Vanuatu*

Australia-Pacific Technical College

20072015

The AustraliaPacific Technical College trains Pacific islands youth in a range of industry sectors to Australian standards.

APTC has three goals: training, employment and productivity. The overall purpose is to increase supply of skilled workers in Pacific and encourage economic growth.

Funding source: AusAID.

Courses in 8 industry sectors: health, automotive, manufacturing, construction, engineering, tourism, hospitality and community services sectors.

Training of youth in Bac Kan province by assist income and employment opportunities. Support to Bac Kan Centre for Employment Services of the Dept of Labour.

To reduce poverty among targeted rural youth, especially ethnic minority youth, in Bac Kan province by providing basic adult vocational training.

Funding source: AusAID (via Nova NGO programme).

* Campus country Vietnam

Training for employment Bac Kan Province

20025

Implementing partners: one Australian organisation to manage, two Australian training organisations to deliver training; and a variety of industry partners to host training delivery.

Implementing partner: Australian NGO.

Agro-forestry, carpentry, electronics and mechanics.

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) Pacific island youth, including girls. About 65% of students received some sort of scholarship funding 200711. Beneficiaries also include those already in employment receiving training. No real focus on urban slums or agricultural productivity in rural areas. Focus on rural youth, especially ethnic minority youth.

Delivery arrangements (provision and governance)

Delivery arrangements (financing)

Impact/ effectiveness

Delivery in formal training institutions and in local enterprises in four countries.

Total project costs: AusAID provided AUD $149.5 million 2007-11 and AUD $152 million 2011-15 (AusAID, 2011d).

Demand for APTC training is strong. Australian assistance has helped 3,172 students graduate (AusAID, 2011d). Evidence suggests future employment and promotion prospects of these graduates enhanced by APTC training (Schofield et al, 2009). Too early to map impact on labour market.

Managed by a CEO and Leadership Team. An Advisory Group provides advice and oversight.

Delivery via government department (Department of Labour, War Invalids and Social Affairs, DOLISA). Vocational school-based training.

Average annual AusAID spending 2007-11 (based on 4 years): AUD$37.375m.

Total project cost: AUD$ 739,853. Average annual AusAID spending: AUD$211,000 (based on 3.5 year project).

Evaluation indicates positive localized results – which in places exceeded objectives. 917 men and 897 women trained in employment / income generating vocational skills. 98% of trainees were from poor households and ethnic minorities made up 85%. Overall 49.19% of household who were interviewed for the evaluation had

17

Recipient country


Time

Basic description

Main objectives



Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural)




escaped from ‘poor household’ category attributed to the project. Agroforestry ex-trainees’ income increased an average of 87.4% before and after training; electronic ex-trainees increased 88.9%; and mechanic graduates 66.7% (Michaels, 2005). China

Chongqing Vocational Education &Training

20027

The goal of the project is to promote the reform of China's Vocational Education and Training (VET) system through demonstrating alternative, demand driven approaches to VET in schools, institutions and industry in the Municipality of Chongqing

Develop demand driven Vocational Education and Training across 5 industry sectors in pilot schools and assist with wider replication in partner schools. Strengthen planning, monitoring and review capacity at Municipal To enable VET policy and resource allocation to better incorporate

Funding source: AusAID. Implementing agency - an Australian consultancy company working government department (MoE) (Tippett & Simmons, 2007).

Competencybased approach. Five industry areas were identified to support future development of Chongqing: Electronics; Hospitality and Tourism; Ebusiness; Automotive; Construction. These were expanded towards the end of the project.

Youth. No real focus on urban slums or agricultural productivity in rural areas

Delivery via Ministry of Education. Training in 53 formal training institutions.

Total project cost: AUS $19,223,753. Average annual AusAID spending: AUS$3,845,000 (based on 5 year project).

Final quality rating 5 (on a scale of 1-6) (Tippet & Simmons, 2007). Some impacts can be seen, but need later study to see real impact. These impacts include: influence on policy at national level; local industry linked improved and sustained; 53 institutions involved in project; links between Australian and Chinese institutions developed; advances in approaches to teaching, learning, assessment methods and materials arising out of the project; a total

18

Recipient country


Time

Basic description

Main objectives






innovation and greater industry participation (Tippett & Simmons, 2007).

Indonesia

Indonesia Australia Partnership for Skills Development (IAPSD)

19982005

Strengthening the capacity of government agencies and industry associations with responsibility for planning and delivering competencybased training, relevant to the needs of Indonesian industry (AusAID, 2004).

The overall intention of the IAPSD was to improve the skills of the Indonesian workforce by improving the quality of VET. This was to be achieved by improving the relevance of VET through increasing the influence of industry within the VET system and

Funding source: AusAID and Indonesia government. Implemented by: Australian consultancy company (AusAID, 2004).

Wide range of capacitybuilding approaches, e.g. counterpart participation in the implementation of the Program, to short course training, formal training conducted by Australian trainers in Australian certified courses, to onthe-job work placement mentoring,

Principal recipients and beneficiaries comprised: central office personnel of each of the partner agencies in key directorates and subdirectorates (e.g. standardisation and curriculum); industry associations; and training institutions of the partner

Delivery through formal VET system e.g. government agencies and industry associations with responsibility for VET.

Total project cost: AUD$36million plus Indonesia Rp2.140.449.000 (Fuller, 2011). Total from AusAID AUD$35,983,124. Average annual AusAID spending: c. AUD$5,143,000 (based on 7 year project).


of 7,404 students attended projectsupported courses, with an additional 80,395 attending non-project courses that used the new CBT approach and delivery methods. c.1400 VET trainers trained. Achieved outcomes against logframe components. Project delays at some stage, but made up time in second phase (Tippett & Simmons, 2007). The Independent completion report found the IAPSD Program was successful and worthwhile and rated it overall as fully satisfactory. The program assisted its partners lay the foundation for a new Indonesian VET sector and national human resource management system (Fuller, 2011).

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Recipient country


Time

Basic description

Main objectives


improving quality and efficiency in technical and vocational education and training in Indonesia, based on partnerships between stakeholders (Fuller, 2011). Timor Leste

Youth Employment Promotion Programme (YEPP)

20082012

Help create short-term employment opportunities and establish VET for up to 70,000 young people (AusAID, 2008). Also supports the development of a national TVET strategy and piloting selfemployment activities in the districts, predominantly for women (AusAID, 2011f). Four main components development of Youth

Increased employment opportunities for youth. Long term social and economic stability for East Timor (AusAID, 2008).


study tours and Fellowships in Australia.

Funding source: AusAID and Government of TimorLeste. ILO is the implementing agency working with government department (AusAID, 2011e).

Careers guidance and counselling.

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) agencies, (including teacher and instructor upgrading centres).


Focus on helping youth as high levels of youth unemployment (18.4% nationally and 35.0% in urban areas) (Wheelahan, 2010). There is a safety net for disadvantaged in rural areas, but no evident focus on urban slums.

Delivery through government department (Secretariat of State for Vocational Training and Employment SEFOPE).


Overall budget of US$18,023,735. Total AusAID spending: US$13,056,783 (AusAID correspondence, 2011) and includes $2.25m through AusAID-ILO Pacific Partnership Agreement.


MTR states: 'Overall progress towards planned objectives has been positive if somewhat fragile and there is good evidence to expect that end-of-Program Outcomes are likely to be achieved' (Wheelahan, 2010).

Gov. Timor Leste spending US$7,212,633. Average annual AusAID spending: c. US$3.26m (based on 4 year project).

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Recipient country

Cambodia


Sustainable Livelihood Training in 7 Provinces and Phnom Penh

Time

20026

Basic description

Employment Policies; promotion of a supportive environment for successful school-towork transition; creation of Short-Term Employment opportunities; establishment of the Labour Force Development Institute (Wheelahan, 2010). Vocational education, gender awareness, literacy and lifeskills training to upgrade livelihoods of rural and urban poor.

Main objectives





Reduce poverty in targeted communities by providing vocational education and life skills, through quality proven programmes.

Funding source: AusAID (possibly other donors, Apheda, 2011).

Included fish farming technology, vegetable growing, textiles & design, hairdressing & wedding outfitting, welding, motorbike repair, electrical repair, hospitality, office skills and computer. Literacy was included for rural women and

Focus on disadvantaged, mostly women. Some focus on agricultural productivity in rural areas and urban areas.

Provision generally via informal training providers e.g. women’s groups, TVET training centres and NGOs.

Implemented by: Australian NGO.


Project cost: AusAID funds-AUD$1,198,200 (Hean, 2011). Other donors funds: AUD$217,000. Average annual AusAID spending: AUD$300,000 (based on 4 year project).


5,445 disadvantaged people, of whom the majority were women, completed training. Impact assessments show that 90% of those who took part in the vocational and agricultural training were able to earn an income from their skills (Apheda, 2011).

21

Recipient country


Time

Basic description

Main objectives







STD/HIV/AIDS and nutrition in all training.

22

3.2

Switzerland

The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) is responsible for managing Switzerland's overseas aid programme. Within the strategic aid programme, ‘Employment and Income’ and ‘Education’ are two of thirteen themes, with vocational skills development situated within both themes. The focus is on vocational skills development to help access to employment, increased income generation and decreased vulnerability. As stated: The aim is to provide people with the skills they need to take part in economic life, and open up new opportunities for productive employment and access to appropriately paid work (SDC, 2011a). SDC skills development has a strategic focus on women, youth and the rural poor, with the aim to target the poorest and most vulnerable. SDC’s website describes some of the types of work it funds around skills development which includes: • • •

•

increase in the range of available skills development training on offer (including private training providers); development and adaptation of national standards of training providers; different ways of making training options more widely available and affordable (e.g. by reducing entrance barriers, supporting innovative teaching and learning methods, expanding and adapting such options for rural regions, and including business expertise in the curriculum in order to promote self-employment); promotion of the relevance and quality of vocational skills development by bringing them more in line with market demands (SDC, 2011a).

In terms of projects and programmes, SDC funds skills development in a variety of areas, but mainly linked to vocational skills training and setting up / modernization of vocational training systems. There is funding for adult education teachers and literacy programmes in order to increase competencies at the local level. And, SDC also funds some professional training e.g. teachers, local authority staff and police. It also supports the e+i network (http://www.sdc-employment-income.ch/en/Home), a web-based platform for development practioners working towards the creation of employment and income. Like most donors, Switzerland funds a scholarship programme for graduates to study at postgraduate level in Switzerland. So while the strategic focus is on supporting the very poor, there are elements of Swiss support which the very poor are not necessarily the direct beneficiaries. The geographic focus of support is wide, with Albania, Nepal, Peru, Bangladesh, Mali and Turkey receiving the most support in monetary terms between 2002-9 (OECD-DAC). Within those dates changes in funding patterns seem to have taken place, with funding for Bolivia and Bangladesh increasing 2005-9, whereas funding for Turkey and India stopped during this period. SDC fund a number of projects and programmes that focus on marginalized youth as the main beneficiaries. These are highlighted in Section 3.2.1. Projects focus on income generation and improving employment opportunities for those disadvantaged groups of the population, through vocational skills and basic skills development learning opportunities. These programmes support a range of vocational skills in sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, construction, trade and the service sector. There is less of a focus on

23

structural and systemic changes to VET provision and more of a focus on meeting local livelihood needs. In terms of implementation, SDC-funded skills development projects are sometimes implemented by Swiss consultancy companies / development organisations (with a local presence), but equally it seems southern NGOs and institutions are used where possible. Only one of the highlighted projects (F-Skill in Nepal) had an obvious government presence, with the Swiss implementing agency working alongside a government department. There is a focus on making skills development appropriate to labour market needs and linking in with industry where appropriate. Training is provided by a range of providers: informal NGO-led training, national training institutions and local training centres, as well as private providers. On the evidence from the selected projects, SDC tends to work with informal training providers, local training centres and private providers, and less so with national institutions and government departments. SDC appears to adopt a range of strategies based around local capacity and the objectives of the project, introducing diverse training providers where appropriate to reach disadvantaged groups. SDC funds different approaches to skills development in order to reach certain population groups, but also based on local skills development capacity and labour market needs. For example, SDC funds apprenticeship programmes (Mali), NGO-led life skills / vocational skills (Nepal), craft workshops (Bolivia), and more formal class-based training in Nicaragua. Evaluated projects show improvements of target groups’ engagement with the labour market and better opportunities for income generation. To summarise, SDC projects and programmes have a strong emphasis on vocational skills development for the poor in order to help them participate in the economy and become more productive citizens. SDC uses a range of providers and approaches, depending on local needs and capacities.

24

3.2.1

Selected projects: Switzerland

Recipient country

Bangladesh


Basic School and Joint Gender Programme

Time

200715

Basic description

Vocational / technology and gender equity based education services to the rural adolescent boys and girls who have not attended school or who have dropped out.

Main objectives



Improving living chances of undereducated / uneducated youth by giving them opportunities to generate income and livelihoods.

Funding source: SDC cofinances with SIDA.

Appropriate basic education (e.g. literacy, numeracy); practical training on technologies that adolescents can use profitably to improve their living standards; support for entrepreneurship development, selfemployment and income generation, supporting learners with skills and technology, credit facilities and guidance to set up business and "graduate companies" (SDC, 2011d). Empowerment of girls a focus.

Implementing partner: A Bangladeshi NGO implements (SDC, 2011d).

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) Focus on rural youth who haven't attended school or who have dropped out (boys and girls).




Delivery via informal training provider (SDC, 2011d).

Total budget is currently unknown.

There is evidence of much impact (however some of the numbers from different sources seem to differ): According to website (SDC, 2011d) - nearly 50% of the graduates from the CMES basic schools entered the mainstream formal primary and secondary schools, while others opted for selfemployment or salaried job. More than 4000 girls from the programme are now involved in income generating activities (2011d). According to evaluation - Graduates of the programmes have started over 8,800 businesses (c.30% of trainees); 30% of trainees have gained employment within existing businesses (Gonon, 2011). By 2009 c.800 full-cycle graduates (2) (later the paper states there have been 2900 graduates). Evaluation thinks drop out rate is high, especially between levels (Gonon, 2011) - but this could be because trainees are moving back into mainstream schooling. Also motivation to stay on in programme seems to slip as their skills become more marketable.

SDC funds CHF 3.45million, 2007-2011. A new phase, 2011-15 will have SDC contribution of CHF 9.45m (SDC, 2011d). Average annual spend of SDC 200711: CHF 862,500 (based on 4 year project).

25

Recipient country

Bolivia

Chad


PROCAP (Programa de Capacitación Laboral)

Training Centre Artisinal Fianga

Time

200513

19972009

Basic description

Main objectives



PROCAP helps build capacity in human capital to meet the demand for agricultural production systems and other strategies of nonfarm income generation (Procab Bolivia, 2011).

Income generation and increase in agricultural production in poor communities. Training has a gender and citizenship perspective. Phase two (2009-13) aims to improve access, relevance and quality of training and technical training in the areas of production and intervention (Procab Bolivia, 2011).

Funding source: SDC.

Training craftsmen to be capable to make equipment that meets the needs of producers (in agricultural industry). Also making workshop equipment (SDC, 2010b).

Training craftsmen to make agricultural equipment and raise the profile of mechanisation (SDC, 2010b).


Three areas of focus sustainable small scale agriculture in traditional technologies where production is destined for consumption or the domestic market; and modern agriculture supported by modern technologies whose production is targeted to agribusiness, and non-farm rural economic activities linked directly or indirectly, to agriculture and the exploitation of natural resources such as eco / ethno tourism, small industry and handicrafts, construction and others(Procab Bolivia, 2011) Training craftsmen to produce equipment - so specific technical skills.

Implementation partners: this information is currently not known, but FAUTAPO Foundation, the Episcopal Commission on Education and the Ministry of Education of Bolivia have some role in the project.

Implementation partners: this information is currently unknown.

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) Beneficiariespoor communities in rural areas (marginalised youth and adults). Some focus on agricultural productivity in rural areas, but not on urban slums.




Alliance between public and private providers.

Project costs currently unknown.

Various training initiatives took place over the first phase of the project (20069). This includes - 6 craft workshops, 1715 families trained in agricultural cycles, 6 training centres strengthened (Procab Bolivia, 2011).

Craftsmen are project beneficiaries. No real focus on marginalised and youth, but some focus on rural productivity.

This information is currently unknown.

Project costs: CHF 2.152million (SDC, 2010b).

135 craftsmen trained (SDC, 2010b).

If this is total SDC contribution, average annual cost to SDC: CHF 179,000 (based on 12 year project).

26

Recipient country

Mali


Time

Programme d'Appui à la Formation Professionelle (PAFP)

199811

Basic description

Main objectives



National system of vocational training adapted to the socioeconomic artisans and craftspeople in Mali and nationally recognized. Apprenticeships with artisans and some training in training centres. Consolidation and development of vocational training system.

Increase in revenues and access to employment of youth (men and women) and promote local economic development (urban, semiurban and rural areas), through the development of programmes that lead to vocational training qualifications (Maurer, 2011).


Apprenticeship programme with artisans. These include: jewellery, hair dressing, dress making, auto mechanics, auto electrical, metal construction, wood joinery, cold air conditioning, electronics (SDC, 2011e). Some basic skills training also.

Implementing partner: a private sector Swiss company. Also mention of various partners on website including: unions and professional associations, women's groups, professional organisations, the National Federation of Artisans of Mali, the Chambers of Trade, the Support Fund for Vocational Training and Learning (FAFPA), the National Vocational Training centres, local authorities (SDC, 2011e).

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) Beneficiaries young men and women. Most vocational training traditionally at secondary school level and thus excludes those who don't get to secondary school. Also artisans generally work with youth in their networks, i.e. not very poor (Maurer, 2011).



Delivery via artisan apprenticeship . Apprentices attend school once a week at training centres.

Total project budget CHF 9,649,019. Total SDC funding: CHF 9,649,019 (Maurer, 2011). Average annual SDC cost: CHF 742,232 (based on 13 year project). Next phase (2012-2015): CHF 9,800,000, more than 2 million CHF / year (SDC office Burkina Faso, 2011).


Around 7800 apprentices trained over 9 occupational areas between 2006-9. Over 500 master craftsmen trained 2008-9. The programme has expanded, but not as much as expected (e.g. in 2008 it was expected to train 3100 apprentices, but actually trained 2666). However, this was seen as satisfactory. Pace of geographical expansion exceeded expectations. Compared to the country's formal TVET system - the PAFP 'has high outreach and is thus more effective' (Maurer, 2011). Supported training programmes take place to a large extent within firms and workshops, therefore 'competencies acquired during training are closely related to skill needs of these economic units'. As a result 'employability of the trainees is high (98%), which is a lot more than for those graduating from a VT programme offered by public training organisations at the secondary level' (Maurer, 2011). Query as to valueadded of PAFP programme as artisans might well train youth without programmic intervention. Also no indication that artisan wages and productivity rising in those area project is present or if these trainees have higher wages than others. Recently stated that most trainees leave workshops at the end of training and become self-employed or

27

Recipient country


Time

Basic description

Main objectives







establish their own enterprises (Maurer, 2011). Nepal

Franchising SKILL (FSkill)

2002-7

Established as an Employment Oriented Outreach Training Programme aimed at improving the livelihood of disadvantaged Nepalese people focusing on those who cannot attend training in urban and semi urban areas (SDC, nd). Market responsive skills training for youth through a network of private sector franchises. The Franchising (F)-SKILL Project is a scaling-up of the SKILLProgramme using a variant of franchising through independent business owners (franchisees) (SDC, 2011f). FSkill transformed from a project into a private sector company (F-Skill Pvt Ltd.) from 2007 (SDC, nd).

The overall goal of the project is to improve the livelihood of Nepali youth by imparting market responsive skills training through a network of franchisor and franchisees (private sector organisations). The purpose of the project is to provide gainful employment and/or selfemployment to the Nepali youth by successfully utilizing the acquired skills (SDC, 2011f).

Funding source: SDC. Implemented by a Swiss consultancy company working with government department (SDC, 2011f).

Market-responsive skills training targeted to specific employment sectors and to markets in Nepal or overseas (some graduates go overseas to work).

Beneficiaries disadvantaged youth. 10% of trainees were Dalit, 73% Janjati (Helvetas, 2011). Originally an outreach programme for youth not able to get to urban, semiurban training.

Delivery managed via government department. Training provided in franchised private training providers.

Total SDC funding: CHF 3.62million (SDC, 2011f). Average annual SDC cost: CHF 724,000 (based on 5 year project).

F-SKILL (in 2006) had been working with twenty franchisees throughout Nepal. Around 1500-2000 youth were trained each year (Helvetas, 2011). According to the SDC website (SDC, 2011f) over 2,300 youth had received training through these franchisees (not sure of date of website entry). Out of the 2300 trainees, 20% were in training, 50% had recently completed training and were in the process of finding employment or were going into self-employment and 23% had been employed in related trades for over a year.

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Recipient country

Nicaragua


Time

Improving Employability Skills of Young People in Nicaragua

200712

Basic description

Main objectives



National system for monitoring and evaluating the quality of youth job training with a focus on skills; strengthen the capacity of training centres to expand young people's access to a range of job training for employability; and create and strengthen structures and mechanisms for coordination and articulation of national and local strategies (Arnold, 2011). Second phase (from 2010) - expansion and institutionalisation.

Improve employability and access to the labour market for youth with low opportunities. to help improve the employability and labour insertion of young people with low opportunities, mainly from rural and marginal urban areas (Arnold, 2011).


Skills in agricultural, forestry, manufacturing, construction, trade and service sectors (Inatec, 2010).

Implemented by Nicaraguan national training institute (Arnold, 2011).

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) Entrepreneurs, employees of MSMEs and farmers. Also youth with limited financial resources to acquire job market skills (Arnold, 2011). As limited access to skills development. Rural youth and youth from marginalised urban, periurban areas. Some focus on urban slums and agricultural skills (Arnold, 2011).




Delivery via national training institute and training centres.

SDC funding US$2.307milli on (2007-10) (Arnold, 2011).

So far, over 3,000 young people (aged 16 to 30) completed their training successfully, with 60% of them females (Arnold, 2011). Later in same document it states - 1420 young people 'could participate in 71 courses of "capacitación laboral", while 897 young people (474 of them women) successfully completed their training courses' (Arnold, 2011). Slight difference in numbers. 47 out of 71 planned courses running. Little impact information available. Arnold (2011) states 12% of graduates are self-employed afterwards. In evaluation noted as 'effective and sustainable' (Arnold, 2011).

Average annual cost: US$769,000 (based on 3 year project). Not sure of funding costs for 2010-12.

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3.3

World Bank

Skills development is an important focus of World Bank lending. Strategically, World Bank and other donors’ involvement in skills development initiatives have been shaped by various research and policy papers. Prominent amongst these Middleton, et al (1991) argue that developing countries need to ‘improve productivity throughout the economy if they are to compete successfully in an era of rapid economic and technological change’ (1991: 7) and key to this aim is the development of a skilled labour force. The paper argues for a diverse range of training provision, with a particular focus on: private sector provision, strengthening of primary and secondary education and improving the effectiveness of public sector provision. In relation to public sector training Middleton et al (1991) argue that training provision in many countries has been of poor quality and graduates often find difficulties in gaining subsequent employment. They highlight six ‘key elements’ in strategies to improve public training: choosing appropriate objectives, improving market orientation in planning, improving institutional responsiveness to market forces, using training resources efficiently, building capacity for policy implementation, and diversifying sources of finance (Middleton et al, 1991: 12).

Their critique of public sector provision of skills development provision influenced a number of donors to move away from supporting only public sector bodies. The paper for example, highlights the important role the private sector can play in increasing efficiency and effectiveness of training provision. Yet, looking World Bank lending in the 2000s (see 3.3.1), the focus has been on improving public sector training and the formal training system (often with a focus on at least some of the six key element highlighted above). Skills development is located at various points within World Bank strategy documentation, but most prominently under Education and Labour Markets. These thematic areas take in a range of skills development initiatives, such as skills for employability, knowledge and skills for the new economy, teacher training and vocational education. Given the scope of the World Bank the aims of skills development can be diverse, but the mission is: to fight poverty ... and to help people help themselves and their environment by providing resources, sharing knowledge, building capacity and forging partnerships in the public and private sectors (World Bank, 2011d).

Skills development programmes are offered in a range of areas, including, youth employment initiatives, VET, training of teachers and health workers, support to higher education, capacity building and knowledge enhancement. There is a strong focus on support to vocational education. The World Bank also manages a range of scholarship programmes for graduate and postgraduate studies leading to master's and doctoral degrees in development-related fields for mid-career professionals from some developing countries. Geographically, the World Bank funds projects in a large number of countries. 2002-9, the largest recipients of funds in monetary terms, according to the CRS database were: India, Mozambique, Zambia, Nigeria, Rwanda and Bangladesh. Unpacking the country funding slightly more over that period, we can see that Bangladesh only received money in one year, 30

and Nigeria and Rwanda only from 2005 onwards. India receives more than 3 times the amount of the second highest borrower over the period. Looking at World Bank skills development support since 2000 a focus on skills development for disadvantaged youth in order to enhance employability and to strengthen income generation seems to have become more pronounced in recent years. Many projects and programmes with a focus more marginalized groups have recently begun, but have little evaluative data as yet 36. Previously there was a focus on youth, but not necessarily the most disadvantaged. Section 3.3.1 shows selected skills development programmes with World Bank support. These programmes, in particular, aim to develop demand-driven training systems, which have increased links to industry and the private sector (e.g. in Mali, Zambia, India, Egypt, Mozambique and St Lucia). In these selected projects, World Bank funding mainly supports the formal (public) sector training system, often via the Ministry of Education. However in some cases, training is provided elsewhere - by NGOs in the Post-literacy and Continuing Education project (Bangladesh), ‘project intermediaries’ on the Skills Development project (Egypt) and some private provision on the Mali VET Consolidation Project. Links to the private sector are encouraged e.g. in terms of internships (St Lucia), training providers’ links to employers (Egypt) and industry involvement in decision-making (India). Evaluation outcomes are generally positive and show improvements of target groups’ engagement with the labour market and better opportunities for income generation. The World Bank projects and programmes have a strong emphasis on vocational skills development, focusing on developing demand-driven training systems which are responsive to industry needs. The ultimate aim of these will be to enhance employability prospects of graduates of (generally formal sector) vocational training, many of whom will be youth, but not necessarily poor and marginalized youth. Support to formal training systems through government departments is most prominent, with some variation in providers.

36

E.g.Urban Youth Employment Project, PNG, 2011-16; Youth, Employment and Skills Project, Liberia, 2010-13; and Youth Empowerment Project, Kenya, 2010-15. 31

3.3.1

Selected projects: World Bank

Recipient country


Time

Basic description

Main objectives



Bangladesh

Post literacy and continuing education for human development

2001-7

Post-literacy and continuing education to neo-literates through non formal education. 4 main planned components promotion of enhanced and comprehensive non-formal education; financing of a post-literacy programme; improving the quality and accessibility of continuing education services; strengthening institutional capacity of the Directorate of Non-Formal Education (WB, 2001b).

Increase the functional application of literacy skills for neo-literates in Bangladesh so they can 'use literacy skills to increase their incomes, improve their welfare, and participate fully as citizens' (WB, 2008b).

Funding source: cofunded by WB, SDC and Gvt of Bangladesh.

Functional application of literacy skills

Implementing agency: government department in Bangladesh.

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) 1.65 neoliterates (half women).




Project management unit contracted training to NGOs at local level. NGO-led training.

Total project cost: US$71.55 million.

Performance rating in Implementation Completion Results Report (ICR) 'moderately unsatisfactory' (WB, 2008b). 972,900 learners completed PL&CE programmes (below 1.65m original target). Project delayed by 18 months and extended by 2 years. Only 5 out of 7 planned implementation phases completed (WB, 2008b). Difficulties identified with gvt contracting 100s of NGOs to implement the project. However, findings of the tracer studies indicate that the project 'had a positive impact on poverty alleviation for PLCE-1 graduates through widening employment opportunities and increasing family incomes'. Indications of increased empowerment for women e.g. in terms more active participation in family decisionmaking, improved family health and hygiene, and heightened social awareness of village and community matters (WB, 2008b).

Project management unity located in government department (education) managed the project on a daily basis. Project had 5 different Directors managing it over 7 years (this 'reflected the inherent instability of PIMU and seriously undermined its capacity to effectively manage the project') (WB, 2008b).

WB financed $53.3m, SDC $7m and Government of Bangladesh $11.245m (BB, 2011f). Average annual WB cost: US$ (based on 6 year project). ($14m credit reallocated from project to fund post-flood rehabilitation, WB, 2008b).

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Recipient country

Egypt

India


Skills development project

Vocational training improvement project

Time

200310

200712

Basic description

Main objectives



Pilot programme to stimulate the private sector demand for skills training development, through demanddriven, training funding mechanism (WB, 2003, 2011h).

Setting up a demand-driven training funding mechanism and employer-driven training of employees by intermediaries.

Funding source: WB and Government of Egypt.

Employerdriven training.

Making the design and delivery of VET more demand responsive across India. Improving the quality of vocational training and promoting systemic reforms and innovations. Involving the private sector in decision

Before the project firms found it difficult to recruit qualified workers and job seekers found good jobs elusive. Training providers were supply-driven with weak incentive to tailor the course curriculum to the needs of employers (WB, 2011h). Improve the employment outcomes of graduates from the vocational training system by making the design and delivery of training more demandresponsive (WB, 2007a). The Government of India 'is keen to undertake

Implementing partners: Government of Egypt. Project Management Unit (PMU) manages the project.

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) SMEs in the construction, manufacturing and tourism sectors (WB, 2003) and employees. Youth and marginalised not a major focus of the project.



Training carried out by 'project intermediaries' who link in with employers.

Total project cost US$12.5million. US$5.5million from WB, $1m from local sources of borrowing in country (i.e. beneficiary firms) and $6m from Government of Egypt (WB, 2011g). Average annual WB cost: US$ (based on 7 year project).

Funding source: WB and Government of India cofunders. Implementing agency : government department (Ministry of Labour and Employment). It's a centrallycoordinated,

Currently VET support in 21 industry sectors (WB, 2011i).

Youth, but not necessarily marginalised groups. Graduates from vocational schools. Before project - only c. 30% of graduates from institutions in VET system found employment upon

Training via 400 Industrial Training Institutes (ITI) (i.e. formal VET training institutes) (WB, 2007a). At national level project guided by a National Steering Committee (NSC). NSC chaired by the

Total project cost: US$359million. WB funding $280m and Government of India $79m.


Project set up a funding mechanism for demand-driven training. It achieved 'satisfactory results for firms and training providers' (WB, 2011h). 34,500 people trained and 1,155 private firms served with training. The project created a 'demonstration effect by improving employers’ perception about the value of technical training for improving worker performance' (WB, 2011h). Enhanced competitiveness of private manufacturing firms. Review suggests grounds for national scaling-up of a demand-driven approach for skills development (WB, 2011h).

Progress to achievement of objectives: 'moderately satisfactory' ... project is making 'steady progress' (WB, 2011i). Key reforms being implemented are: implementation of a multiskilling multi-entry and exit vocational training course named Center of Excellence; improving institution management through a public-private partnership mode by establishing Institutional management Committees (IMC) with private sector participation; establishing an instructors training network with inclusion of private training providers and

33

Recipient country

Mali


VET Consolidation Project

Time

19962002

Basic description

Main objectives

making at national, state and local levels.

reforms to move towards a system where the Government plays a key role in policy development, standards setting, financing, and monitoring and evaluation, while engendering greater competitiveness and accountability by institutions' (WB, 2007b). Economic growth and HRD. Improve local capacity to allocate training resources as a function of labour market demand, and to increase the involvement of the private sector in the management, provision and financing of VET.

VET support for urban poor in informal sector. Consolidation of pre-service VET services (upgrading facilities, revising curricula, improving teacher quality etc.); establishment of a Vocational Training Support Fund ; and the establishment of an Employment and Training Observatory (WB, 1996).



multi-state project. Project management structures at national and state level. (WB, 2007b).

Funding source: World Bank and France (WB, 2011j). Implementing agency: government department (Ministry of Education).

Auto Mechanics, general mechanics (maintenance), masonry, metalwork, electrical contracting, carpentry, woodwork and joinery, electromechanics, accounting, plumbing, office work, secretarial and office skills (WB, 2003b).

Target beneficiaries (including youth/ marginalised / urban / rural) graduation and employers felt these graduates lacked appropriate technical skills which made them difficult to employ (WB, 2007c).

Poor, urban groups in the informal sector. Mali had one of least skilled labour-forces (WB, 2003b).



Secretary MoLE. National Implementation Project Management Unit. At State level project guided and facilitated by State Steering Committee. SSC supported by a State Project Implementation Unit. Each ITI has Institute Management Committees. Training via existing formal VET colleges, with some private sector provision.


decentralizing instructors training to states; enhancing transparency and accountability (WB, 2011i). 21 industry sectors in which COE curricula has been developed. Some states are implementing better / faster than others, some states remain slow (Union Territories and some North-Eastern States). C. 9000 instructors trained up to 2011. Performance based incentive funds given to three states (Maharashtra, Gujarat and Orissa) (WB, 2011i).

Total project cost: US$13.4 million. World Bank funding: $13.4 and French funding: $3.7m (WB, 2011j). (Not sure of discrepancy in funding totals). (WB, 2011j). Average annual cost to EW: US$ (based on 6 year project).

Evaluation states: 'project outcome is rated satisfactory, but sustainability is unlikely ... The project had made some contribution to the vocational and technical education system'' (WB, 2003b). Structures were put in place to support an improved VET system, which also included the private sector. Quality of skills training seen to be improved. However - delays in start up and links between various partners could have been better (WB, 2003b). While the objective of the VTSF was to finance up to 90% percent of training expenses for apprentices under 21, there was 'no indication that this arrangement was implemented' also some trainees had to drop out as couldn't afford transport costs (WB, 2003b). Some impact information about numbers of trainees in employment afterwards and wage rates could not be assertained because

34

Recipient country


Time

Basic description

Main objectives







project delays meant evaluation came sooner than impact information available. Around 65,000 apprentices seen to have been trained (WB, 2003b). Mozambique

St Lucia

TVET project

Skills for Inclusive Growth

20062014

200712

Upgrading the existing TVET system to a demand-led training system and providing beneficiaries with more market relevant skills and improved economic opportunities (WB, 2006).

Providing beneficiaries with more market-relevant skills and improved economic opportunities and facilitating the transition of the existing TVET system to a demand-led training system (WB, 2006).

Funding source: World Bank / MoFa Netherlands.

Private-sector driven training project to increase the employability of youth. 3 elements: establishment of competitive training scheme that finances private sectordriven training and traineeships; development

Increase the employability of youth through private-sector driven training.

Funding source: WB and Government of St Lucia.

Implementing agency: government department (Ministry of Education and Culture).

Implemented by: government department (Ministry of Education) and national agency (National Skills Development Centre ).

Training in agriculture, industrial maintenance, tourism and administration and management sectors (WB, 2011k). Focus on competencybased training.

Youth who chose VET at post-primary level (WB, 2006b). Some agricultural training.

First year of project, focus on hospitality sector (this sector has the most vacancies) and during project training will be expanded to other sectors depending on need (WB, 2006c).

Youth aged 17-30 and unemployed youth. (as lack of skills training possibilities for disadvantaged youth).

Training via formal TVET system.

Total project cost $US37.5million (2006-11). WB commitment $30m; Netherlands MoFA $7.5m (WB, 2006). Average annual cost to WB: US$ (based on 8 year project).

Training via formal training providers.

Total project cost $US4.2million.

Internships via private firms (WB, 2010b).

WB funding $3.5, Government of St Lucia $7m (WB, 2011l). Average annual cost to WB US$ (based on 5 year project).

Progress towards objective 'moderately satisfactory' and progress towards implementation 'satisfactory' (WB, 2011k). Evaluation (2011) found that' the fund had a positive impact but also reported some weaknesses' (WB, 2011k). 19 qualifications and related modules have been developed in various sectors, but concerns over teachers' knowledge to teach at higher levels and foreign teachers might need to be brought in (WB, 2011k). Fwk on financing and governance as well as decentralised management discussed, but need to be approved (WB, 2011k). c.600 students in pilot schools; 300 teachers have been trained (WB, 2011k). Impact and effectiveness results will not be fully available until end 2011. Progress to achievement of objectives and implementation progress had been 'moderately unsatisfactory' (2010) but currently 'moderately satisfactory' (WB, 2011m). Progress had been made since 2010 e.g. training first cohort of trainees has begun, additional standards vetted and the framework for quality assurance advanced (WB, 2011m). The key indicator for this project outcome is: percent of enrolled youth employed fifteen months after the start of the training (WB, 2006c). However, many of the effectiveness and

35

Recipient country

Zambia


Technical Education Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TEVET) Development Program Support Project

Time

2001-8

Basic description

of an improved policy framework for delivering training; and strengthening institutional capacity (WB, 2010b). Project to develop highquality, sustainable, demanddriven, and equitable TVET training system (WB, 2001c).

Main objectives







impact indicators not available yet (WB, 2011m).

Improve skills for both the formal and informal sectors of the economy through creating a demand driven training system. Government is reorienting its role from being a provider and financier of training to regulating, monitoring, evaluating and providing some financing for demand-driven training (WB, 2001d).

Funding sources: WB, G of Zambia, the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, Zambian and foreign sources. Implementing agency: government department (Ministry of Science, Technology and Vocational Training).

Improve skills both in formal and informal economies.

Students, trainees, training institutions at various levels and training providers, the Ministry of Science and Technology and Vocational Training, TEVETA and employers (WB, 2009). Focus on youth.

Preemployment training and employerbased training. Training via public (formal sector) and private training institutions (WB, 2001c). Programme Steering Committee supported by a Program Coordination Team (WB, 2009).

Total project cost $US88.9million. WB gave $25m, Gvt of Zambia $21m, Denmark $15m, Germany $1.5m, Netherlands $14m, foreign sources $2.8m and local sources in Zambia $9.6m (WB, 2011n). Two donors (Danida and Neths) stopped funding due to issues with the project and Danida stopping funding in the sector (WB, 2009). Average annual cost to WB: US$ (based on 7 year project).

Outcomes performance 'moderately satisfactory' (WB, 2009). Progress against objectives saw 23% of registered institutions benefit from TEVET fund (50% target); 98% of employers thought training was relevant (60% target); No. of TEVET graduates from low socioeconomic groups went up from 10 to 34% (10% increase target); 90% of graduates in employment within a year (target 70% in 6 months) (WB, 2009). Tracer study found 88% of employers actively employ TEVET graduates (up 26% on previous study) (WB, 2009). Bursary scheme allowed 1500 students to go into training. Main weakness in project design seen in terms of implementation arrangements and time estimated for changes to take place. Much of project delayed and carried on for 2 additional years. Also ineffective coordination among the Program Coordinator with department officials of the implementing agencies resulted in ill planning and inefficient articulation with training institutions (WB, 2009).

36

4

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Website translated into English via web translation tools. Website translated into English via web translation tools. 39 Website translated into English via web translation tools. 38

41

SIDA (2011a) Economic Opportunities (online). http://www.sida.se/English/About-us/Howwe-operate/Important-Areas-of-Development/Economic-Opportunities/ [Accessed August 2011]. SIDA (2011b) Important Areas of Development (online). http://www.sida.se/English/Aboutus/How-we-operate/Important-Areas-of-Development/ [Accessed August 2011]. SIDA (2011c) Knowledge, Health and Social Development (online). http://www.sida.se/English/About-us/How-we-operate/Important-Areas-ofDevelopment/Knowledge-health-and-social-development [Accessed August 2011]. Tippett, P. and V. Simmons (2007) Independent Completion Report: Australia China (Chongqing) Vocational Education Project: (ACCVETP). AusAID. USAID (2001) Congress Budget Justification. Washington DC: USAID. USAID (2011a) Our Work (online). http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/ [Accessed August 2011]. USAID (2011b) Education Strategy. Washington DC: USAID. USAID (2011c) Workforce Development (online). http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/education_and_universities/workforce_dev [Accessed August 2011]. Wheelahan, M. (2010) Youth Employment Promotion Programme Mid Term Evaluation. Canberra: AusAID. World Bank (2001) Annual Report 2001. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2008) Global Challenges – Knowledge and Learning (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:21709046~m enuPK:4851994~pagePK:51123644~piPK:329829~theSitePK:29708,00.html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2010) Annual Report 2010. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2011a) Knowledge Management (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/WBIPROGRAMS/KFDLP/0,,contentMD K:20934415~menuPK:2128002~pagePK:64156158~piPK:64152884~theSitePK:461198,00. html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011b) Operations (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:20103838~m enuPK:1697023~pagePK:51123644~piPK:329829~theSitePK:29708,00.html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011c) Knowledge and Skills for the New Economy (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMDK:20 640025~isCURL:Y~menuPK:617592~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:282386,00. html [Accessed August 2011].

42

World Bank (2011d) Skills and Employability (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTSOCIALPROTECTION/EXTLM/ 0,,contentMDK:22595969~menuPK:7109795~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:390 615,00.html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011e) Projects Database (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/0,,menuPK:41389~pagePK:958 63~piPK:95983~targetDetMenuPK:228424~targetProjDetPK:73230~targetProjResPK:95917 ~targetResMenuPK:232168~theSitePK:40941,00.html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2009) TEVET Zambia – Implementation Completion and Results Report. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2011n) Technical Education Vocational & Entrepreneurship Training (TEVET) Development Program Support Project (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P057167&theSitePK=40941&piP K=64302772&pagePK=64330670&menuPK=64282135&Type=Financial [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2001d) TEVET Zambia PID. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2001c) TEVET Zambia: overview (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSi tePK=40941&Projectid=P057167 [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2006c) OECS Skills for Inclusive Growth St Lucia PID. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2011m) OECS Skills for Inclusive Growth St Lucia – Implementation Status and Results. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2010b) OECS Skills for Inclusive Growth St Lucia: overview (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSi tePK=40941&Projectid=P097141 [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011l) OECS Skills for Inclusive Growth St Lucia: financial (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P097141&theSitePK=40941&piP K=64302772&pagePK=64330670&menuPK=64282135&Type=Financial [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2006b) Mozambique TVET – Project Appraisal Report. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2011k) Mozambique TVET – Implementation Status and Results. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2006) Mozambique Technical and Vocational Education and Training (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSiteP K=40941&menuPK=228424&Projectid=P087347 [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011j) Mali Vocational Education and Training Consolidation Project (online) http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P001746&theSitePK=40941&piP 43

K=64302772&pagePK=64330670&menuPK=64282135&Type=Financial [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (1996) Mali Vocational Education and Training Consolidation Project (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMDK:20 791338~isCURL:Y~menuPK:2448286~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:282386,00 .html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2003b) Mali Vocational Education and Training Consolidation Project – Implementation Completion Report. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2007c) World Bank supports Vocational Training in India (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/0,,contentMDK:21360800~menu PK:64282138~pagePK:41367~piPK:279616~theSitePK:40941,00.html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2007b) Project Appraisal Report – India Vocational Training Improvement Project. Washington DC: World Bank. World Bank (2011i) Implementation and results report – India Vocational Training Improvement Project. Washington DC: World Bank World Bank (2007a) India: Vocational Training Improvement Project (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P099047&theSitePK=40941&pag ePK=64283627&menuPK=228424&piPK=73230 [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2003) Skills Development Project Egypt: Overview (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P049702&theSitePK=40941&piP K=64290415&pagePK=64283627&menuPK=64282134&Type=Overview [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011g) Skills Development Project Egypt: Financial (online). http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P049702&theSitePK=40941&piP K=64302772&pagePK=64330670&menuPK=64282135&Type=Financial [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011h) Egypt: Skills development project (online). http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/0,,contentMDK:22745026~menu PK:64282137~pagePK:41367~piPK:279616~theSitePK:40941,00.html [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2001b) Post-Literacy and Continuing Education for Human Development Project: Overview (online) http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagePK=64312881&piPK=64302848&theSi tePK=40941&Projectid=P050752 [Accessed August 2011]. World Bank (2011f) Post-Literacy and Continuing Education for Human Development Project: Financial (online) http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?Projectid=P050752&theSitePK=40941&piP K=64302772&pagePK=64330670&menuPK=64282135&Type=Financial [Accessed August 2011]. 44

World Bank (2008b) Implementation completion and results report. Bangladesh: Post literacy and continuing education for human development. Washington DC: World Bank.

45

5

Annex One: Terms of Reference

Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2012 Title of the Work: Mapping donors’ skills development strategies and programmes Author: Frances Hunt TERMS OF REFERENCE Background The 2012 Education for All Global Monitoring Report will focus on skills development, emphasizing strategies that expand employment opportunities for marginalized young people. It will examine what types of skills development programmes are best equipped to support the development of economically dynamic and socially inclusive societies. The Report will aim to identify ways to address the chronic misalignment between the education system and labour market that is evident in many countries. It will identify the types of skills that employers are seeking (including basic literacy, transferrable skills, life skills, as well as specific vocational skills), and the types of training programmes needed to support these. It will assess the contribution of programmes that can help to extend the opportunities of marginalized young people, including ones beyond the education sector (for example apprenticeships, firm-based training, and second-chance programmes). The skills-employment mismatch is exacerbated in many of the world’s poorest countries by a ‘youth bulge’. A growing number of young people aged 15-24 are seeking work in urban areas, while opportunities for decent, productive employment are not increasing at the same pace. As a result, increasing numbers of young people are working in low paid, insecure jobs in the informal sector. Despite widespread rural-urban migration, young people in lowincome countries continue to live and work predominantly in rural areas. The Report will also look at the types of skills development training programmes that can help to improve the livelihoods of those working in the agricultural sector as well as those involved in off-farm work in rural areas. The Report will explore the public policy approaches needed to extend employment-relevant skills training to vulnerable young people such as early school leavers, young adults who never attended school, those who left school lacking the cognitive and life skills needed to thrive in literate societies, and those who have succeeded in gaining higher levels of education but lack the relevant skills to get access to decent, productive work. It will look at the approaches to provision, governance and financing of skills training programmes that can play a role in extending opportunities. Objectives The purpose the Work is to provide an overview of the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors’ skills development activities. The main focus should be programmes or projects that have skills development as a central objective, however an

46

overview of programmes not specifically defined as skills-related also include some skills element should also be provided where feasible. Specifically, the Work shall cover the following two objectives: Objective 1: To provide a general overview DAC donors’ skills development activities. This review should include all bilateral members of the DAC except Germany, Japan and South Korea. The World Bank, the European Commission, the African and Asian Development Banks should also be included as multilateral donors. This section should include both an overview table (see attached example) covering all donors and a short text outlining general trends. The following questions should be answered: • •

• •

• • •

How important is skills development within the donor’s aid programme? Where is skills development located within the donor’s aid programme (eg. under ‘education’, ‘economic growth’, ‘labour market’ and/or youth). What are the key elements of the donor’s skills development strategy? How has the importance of skills development within the donor’s overall strategy and priorities evolved over time? What are the main objectives of the donor’s approach to skills development (for example, to promote economic growth, enhance competiveness and trade, reduce the skills-labour market mismatch, and address vulnerability and disadvantage)? Are there links between the approach and the donor’s own economic development experience and its approach to skills development at home? In which developing countries have most of the donor’s skills development programmes being implemented over that last 10 years? How are the funds channeled/who are the implementing partners (developing country governments, donor country NGOs, recipient national/local NGOs)?

Objective 2: To offer a more in-depth analysis of programmes and projects funded by a few key donor. The exact list of countries to focus on will depend partly on the outcome of Objective 1, and should be decided following discussions with the GMR team. The list of 3 donors will be chosen among the following: Switzerland, Canada, France, Denmark, Australia, Belgium, Spain, European Commission, World Bank. For each donor this section should include an overview table of between 5 and 10 skills development projects or programmes, followed by a short overview analysis expanding on the question asked in Objective 1. 2.1. Skills development programmes review Review of important skills development programmes or projects. ‘Importance’ should be assessed by both size and relevance to the topic of the 2012 GMR, meaning that chosen programmes should include the largest ones in terms of total funding, as well as some potentially smaller ones but which focus on employability skills for marginalized youth. 47

Programmes should be in operation since 2000. The key questions below should be answered in bullet point format in a table: • How are the funds channeled/who are the implementing partners (developing country governments, donor country NGOs, recipient national/local NGOs)? • What are the main objectives of the programmes? • What types of skills do these programmes aim to support (for example life skills, basic literacy, transferrable skills, specific vocational skills)? • Who are the target beneficiaries, and why? • To what extent are the programmes targeted at youth and/or marginalized groups? • Is there any special focus on skills development in urban slums, or enhancing agricultural productivity in rural areas? • What are the arrangements for delivery of skills development programmes in terms of: o provision (including the role of the education providers and employers; how learning is certified) o finance (including the extent to which beneficiaries, the private sector and government are expected to contribute to the costs of provision) o governance (including who is responsible for monitoring and regulating provision, which ministries or other agencies are involved in provision) • How effective are the programmes/projects? • What has been their impact? 2.2. General skills development programmes review A short critical analysis bringing together the findings in the programmes overview table should follow for each donor, building on the questions answered in Objective 1, for example: •

Linking the donor’s strategy with the programmes: how is the donor’s approach to skills development implemented on the ground?

•

Which types of aid to skills development activities does the donor focus on? eg. Support to: catch-up programmes for early school leavers, technical training institutions, apprenticeship programmes; scholarships to study in the donor’s institutions etc. What type of arrangements does the donor favour in terms delivery of skills development programmes in terms of provision, finance and governance? How effective are the programmes/projects in general? What has been their impact and how well is it evaluated?

• •

Sources: OECD-DAC CRS aid projects database, donor websites and/or direct contact, donors’ general aid strategies and education/skills development strategy documents if available, project/programme evaluations (either from the donor or implementing agencies such as NGOs). Output

48

The Work shall consist of approximately 4,000 words (excluding the tables, appendices, annexes and bibliographies) written in the English language at a very good level. It will also include an abstract adapted to a non-technical audience.

49

6

Annex Two: Donations to countries 2002-2009 US$ millions

Country



Average amount across donating countries US$ million

Mayotte

1

68.6

68.6

Oceania, regional

2

64.1

32.1

Bolivia

12

57.4

4.8

Tunisia

8

56.9

7.1

Senegal

9

51.8

5.8

Morocco

10

51.6

5.2

Nicaragua

10

45.8

4.6

South Africa

14

43.1

3.1

Peru

8

42.2

5.3

Viet Nam

13

38

2.9

Mozambique

14

35.2

2.5

Wallis and Futuna

1

33.4

33.4

Iraq

7

32.4

4.6

Ecuador

8

29

3.6

Colombia

8

27.3

3.4

Albania

5

25.7

5.1

DRC

10

25.1

2.5

Indonesia

5

24.8

5.0

Bangladesh

10

24.7

2.5

India

14

23.6

1.7

Sri Lanka

7

21.6

3.1

Burkina Faso

10

20.8

2.1

Guatemala

6

19.3

3.2

Cape Verde

6

18.5

3.1

China

6

18.4

3.1

Mexico

5

17.2

3.4

Brazil

12

17.1

1.4

Dominican Republic

4

15.1

3.8

O. Palestinian T.

11

14.9

1.4

Papua New Guinea

5

14

2.8

Burundi

4

13.9

3.5

Philippines

7

13.7

2.0

Guinea

5

13.4

2.7

United Republic of Tanzania

11

13

1.2

El Salvador

6

11.6

1.9

Mali

8

11.5

1.4

Algeria

5

11.4

2.3

Serbia

11

11

1.0

Lao PDR

6

10.7

1.8

Angola

5

10.6

2.1

50

Country




Zambia

10

10.3

1.0

Benin

7

10.1

1.4

Namibia

8

10.1

1.3

Nepal

8

9.9

1.2

Paraguay

6

9.8

1.6

Cameroon

9

9.7

1.1

Kosovo

4

9

2.3

Djibouti

1

8.6

8.6

Venezuela, B.R.

3

8.5

2.8

Vanuatu

4

8.5

2.1

Honduras

5

8.5

1.7

Mauritania

4

8.2

2.1

Rwanda

10

7.8

0.8

Afghanistan

7

7.3

1.0

Kenya

12

7.3

0.6

Panama

2

7

3.5

North of Sahara, regional

3

6.9

2.3

Jordan

5

6.5

1.3

South of Sahara, regional

10

6.3

0.6

Republic of Moldova

5

6

1.2

Timor-Leste

6

5.9

1.0

Cuba

5

5.5

1.1

Bosnia and Herzegovina

6

5.2

0.9

Ethiopia

10

5.2

0.5

Turkey

3

4.8

1.6

Europe regional

5

4.8

1.0

Argentina

6

4.7

0.8

Cambodia

7

4.5

0.6

Nigeria

8

4.4

0.6

Uzbekistan

3

4.2

1.4

Uganda

12

4

0.3

Madagascar

7

3.9

0.6

Bhutan

4

3.8

1.0

Ghana

8

3.7

0.5

South America, regional

4

3.5

0.9

Cook Islands

1

3.2

3.2

North & Central America, regional

3

3.2

1.1

States Ex-Yugoslavia

4

3.2

0.8

Cote D'Ivoire

8

3.1

0.4

Congo

6

3

0.5

Samoa

2

2.6

1.3

Haiti

5

2.6

0.5

51

Country




Pakistan

5

2.6

0.5

Armenia

3

2.5

0.8

CAR

4

2.4

0.6

Chile

7

2.4

0.3

Somalia

3

2.3

0.8

Liberia

3

2.2

0.7

Sudan

8

2.2

0.3

Sao Tome and Principe

3

2.1

0.7

Lebanon

9

2.1

0.2

Tonga

1

1.8

1.8

Equatorial Guinea

1

1.7

1.7

Malaysia

1

1.7

1.7

Kyrgyzstan

2

1.7

0.9

Guinea-Bissau

4

1.7

0.4

Uruguay

4

1.6

0.4

Togo

5

1.4

0.3

Sierra Leone

6

1.4

0.2

Thailand

7

1.4

0.2

Gambia

4

1.3

0.3

Egypt

6

1.2

0.2

Niger

4

1.1

0.3

Syrian Arab Republic

4

1.1

0.3

Malawi

10

1.1

0.1

Comoros

1

1

1.0

Mongolia

2

0.9

0.5

Costa Rica

4

0.9

0.2

Micronesia, F. S.

2

0.8

0.4

TFYR Macedonia

3

0.8

0.3

Chad

4

0.7

0.2

Zimbabwe

5

0.7

0.1

Fiji

2

0.6

0.3

Kiribati

2

0.6

0.3

Eritrea

4

0.6

0.2

Georgia

4

0.6

0.2

Yemen

2

0.5

0.3

Tajikistan

3

0.5

0.2

Botswana

2

0.4

0.2

Maldives

1

0.3

0.3

Marshall Islands

1

0.3

0.3

Montenegro

3

0.3

0.1

Myanmar

4

0.3

0.1

52

Country




Montserrat

1

0.2

0.2

Palau

1

0.2

0.2

Turkmenistan

1

0.2

0.2

Azerbijan

2

0.2

0.1

Belarus

2

0.2

0.1

Kazakhstan

3

0.2

0.1

Ukraine

3

0.2

0.1

Jamaica

1

0.1

0.1

Lesotho

1

0.1

0.1

Mauritius

1

0.1

0.1

Saint Helena

1

0.1

0.1

Saint Lucia

1

0.1

0.1

Belize

2

0.1

0.1

Far East Asia, regional

2

0.1

0.1

Gabon

2

0.1

0.1

(source: adapted from OECD-DAC, 2011).

53

7

Annex Three: Donor Analysis Table

Importance of skills development within the overall aid strategy

7.1

Location of skills development within overall aid programme

Key elements of recent skills development strategy



Key recipient countries for skills development programmes

No identified skills development strategy, but TVET and scholarships highlighted in overall aid strategies. Various elements of current projects and programmes: Support to health and education professionals, training of other professionals, scholarships to Australia, gender empowerment programmes and post conflict training.

Main focus of education programme seems to be on school-based/aged support in order to help children into school and provide pathways out of poverty (AusAID, 2010: 3). Aim is to: Improve relevance and quality of education (including VET) so students acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for life and productive employment (AusAID, 2011b).

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) shift towards Oceania regional 2007-9 and away from other countries, esp. in South East Asia and China. The Annual Report, 2000-1 (AusAID, 2001) has basic education (to disadvantaged groups) and TVET priorities in education programme, with a focus was on Asia-Pacific region.

According to CRS database 687 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Large recipients (in terms of project costings 2002-9 ) were Oceania, regional, Indonesia, China, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Vanuatu.

AUSTRALIA - AUSAID

Aid program organised around 5 strategic goals, which include ‘promoting opportunities for all’ and ‘food security, sustainable economic growth and private sector development’ (AusAID, 2011e). Main focus of education programme seems to be on schoolbased/aged support: 'Enhanced support for basic, secondary and vocational education and tertiary-level scholarships is helping to get more children into school, provide pathways out of poverty and develop leaders' (AusAID, 2010: 3). Aim is to: Improve(e) relevance and quality of education (including VET) so students acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for life and productive employment i. TVET received 6% of ODA's estimated spending on education 2009-10; scholarships, 24% (AusAID, 2010).

Skills development is aligned with two strategic policy goals ‘promoting opportunities for all’ and ‘sustainable economic growth’ (AusAID, 2011e). Under promoting opportunities for all one objective involves ‘empowering women to participate in the economy, leadership and education’ and under sustainable economic growth there is a focus on ‘improving incomes, employment and enterprise opportunities for poor people in both rural and urban areas’ (AusAID, 2011e). Also skills development projects and programmes are located within gender equality, health and poverty reduction initiatives.

There is a focus on TVET and vocational training for youth / marginalised e.g. Australia-Pacific Technical College small business training Bangladesh , local development training in Vietnam, and financial literacy training for women in Peru (microfinance project) (AusAID, 2010).

AusAID also funds skills development activities in: Philippines, Bangladesh, Fiji, PNG, Samoa, Afghanistan, Cambodia, Pakistan, Tonga, Kiribati, Indonesia, Timor Leste, Vietnam, Burma, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, Iraq, Peru.

AusAID supported various training programmes e.g. teacher education, health worker training, training of various public sector workers, fisheries, journalists, academic scholarships etc. In terms of training for youth / disadvantaged groups this is not obvious from report: there was vocational training of 25,000 people in various countries and sectors through NGO programme, community development training in PNG and Bangladesh(for women), microfinance training for women in PNG. In recent years main focus is on support to Australia-Pacific Technical College – so other initiatives may have dropped away.

54


7.2





TVET located within Education and Science theme - sometimes alongside HE. Other skills development in conflict prevention and peace building.

No identified skills development strategy, but focus on TVET in literature and various projects. Also academic and research management support, conflict prevention and resolution training. There is training in tourism sector (FMEIF, 2010) and scholarships to Austrian institutions.

Objectives of TVET which is the main focus in general to train people into employment, differs slightly for the various VET projects. Website notes: 'well-trained people can meet local needs for qualified labour and are also properly prepared to cope with the demands of the global knowledge society' (ADC, 2011). Focus on school and outof-school education for 'imparting occupational skills and knowledge' of particular importance for 'underprivileged populations and regions' (ADC, 2011).

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) support to Burkina Faso has been fairly constant 2002-9, but increased support to Albania in recent years and a move away from Palestine.

According to CRS database - 543 vocational/advanced projects funded 1999-2011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings, 20029) were Burkina Faso, Albania, Europe, Papua New Guinea, States Ex-Yugoslavia and Palestinian Territories.

AUSTRIA - ADC

Education and Science' one of 12 themes of development strategy (ADC, 2011), with enabling access for girls and women a priority. Within this theme vocational training and HE are brought together as an area of focus and the links between VET and the labour market explored. Also highlighted ADC's role in establishing and developing modern national systems of TVET. Further resources indicate other areas of stronger priority for ADC e.g. environment, poverty reduction, peace, water supply / sanitation (FMEIF , 2010) 7.3


Evaluation of ADC's education projects 1995-2008 (OSB Consulting, 2006) - 29/85 total education projects were based in Austria (or third countries e.g. IIEP) and were mainly scholarship programmes – (i.e. 68% of total budget allocation for education was for training in Austrian universities and institutions' (OSB Consulting, 2006). The report notes 6 VET projects (three in south east Europe and three in south), 2 teacher training projects and 3 basic life skills projects.

The focus 2010-12 seems to be on skills development in: Moldova, Burkina Faso, Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Moldova, Bhutan (FMEIF, 2010).

In terms of types of projects and programming, much seems to be the same.

BELGIUM - BTC

Skills development appears within four (out of 11) themes of Belgian development support, in Education, Health, Agriculture and Gender. Under Education - while ensuring access to quality education seems to be a priority, 40

TVET and teacher education located under Education (BTC, 2011a). Other skills provision under Health, Agriculture and Gender themes.

No identified skills development strategy, however various elements of projects and programmes include: teacher training, public sector worker training, health worker training and scholarships. Projects and programmes that support youth / marginalised groups include: support to

No clear focus. Different objectives linked to projects and programmes. For example: Some projects focus on economic development through training and technical support. Gender and health projects about addressing disadvantage and vulnerability.. The

In terms of country focus, areas of support and types of intervention much appear to remain the same between 2005-10. In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) support to India and DRC remain fairly constant, with an increase for Burundi since 2007.

According to CRS database - 1102 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2002-9) were D. R. Congo, India, Burundi, Morocco and Senegal. Activities also funded in: Vietnam, Peru, Cambodia, Uganda, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Niger, Ecuador 40(BTC, 2011b).

In Annual Report 2005 (BTC,

Other projects are in francophone Africa, but could not be translated. 55



TVET and teacher education noted as areas of focus (BTC, 2011a).

7.4




(financial) empowerment of women through business development training (Vietnam, Peru); BTVET (Uganda); Technical and professional education (DRC); and TVET (Palestinian Territories) (BTC, 2011b).

aim of the Training Facility in Vietnam to improve competitiveness of Vietnam in global economy (through training public servants); Other public sector development project to enhance effectiveness of public sector institutions; reduce unemployment of young people through professional education.

2006) - there were scholarships / traineeships in Belgium, also local and project scholarships; training of professionals and public sector workers, health workers and teachers.

Children and Youth Strategy quotes: 'access to quality education not only provides children and youth with labour market skills, enabling them to take advantage of economic opportunities but also with better life skills, enabling them to become better members of their societies and better parents' (CIDA, n.d.). And includes the following output: 'youth are literate and numerate and get the skills they need to be productive members of their communities' (CIDA, n.d.). Others from projects / programmes include: foster economic development; integration into the labour market for women; support to private sector led economic growth (CIDA, 2011a). Life skills training to help

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) much remained the same 2002-9, there was a slight shift towards Sri Lanka and away from Guinea over this period.


In terms of a focus on youth / disadvantaged and routes to employment / income generation – there were some projects in Rwanda, Morocco and Niger (women). There were also TVET initiatives in Palestine, Laos, Benin, Burundi, Ethiopia, Ivory Coast. Literacy training in Burkina Faso.

CANADA - CIDA

CIDA's mission is to help people living in poverty. Securing the future of children and youth is one of three guiding themes and stimulating economic growth is another. These shape priorities in terms of projects and programmes. Education and skills agenda are linked. The Sustainable Economic Growth Strategy aims to help long-term sustainable economic growth that will increase revenue generation, create employment, and lead to poverty reduction in developing countries. The strategy focuses on three paths, including building economic foundations, growing businesses

Skills development located most obviously in two of the three guiding themes of CIDA's: Securing the future of children and youth and Stimulating economic growth. Education and Skills are one of three priority areas in the Children and Youth Strategy (CIDA, n.d.). Investing in people is one of the three paths of the Sustainable Economic Growth Strategy (CIDA, 2011a). Gender is one of three cross-cutting themes.

Cida has a 'Children and Youth Strategy' (CIDA, n.d.) - linked to producing 'healthy and productive adults.' Emphasis of strategy on most vulnerable and girls. Access to quality education (one of three priorities) includes providing 'more children and youth - girls in particular - with the basic skills they will need to be productive citizens'. Part of the strategy is to increase learning opportunities for youth in and out of school (CIDA, n.d.). Sustainable Economic Growth Strategy aims to create long-term sustainable economic growth increasing revenue generation, creating employment, reducing poverty - this includes 'investing in people', with a focus on private sector led economic growth in developing countries and increasing the participation of women (IDA, 2011a). Skills development projects seem to link with these aims. Projects include training of

According to the projects database (CIDA, 2011b) there seems to be fewer skills-related (or other) projects in 2001. Those funded included training of professionals, public sector workers, health workers and teachers. There was some support to emerging economies (e.g.. SMEs, market economies etc). Canada also funded academic scholarships.

According to CRS database - 765 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Sri Lanka, Guinea, Morocco, Afghanistan and Jordan Numerous projects and recipient countries, which include these examples (started in 2010/1) - Haiti, Afghanistan, Kenya, Burkina-Faso, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Peru, Pakistan, Ghana, Mali, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Ethiopia, Colombia, Brazil, South Africa, Argentina, Ecuador, Burundi, DRC, Canada (internships), Ukraine, West Bank and Gaza, Bangladesh, Sudan, Morocco, Nepal, Nicaragua, West Indies (CIDA, 2011b).

There seem few projects with a focus on youth / disadvantaged groups – routes to employment and income. Skills development also seems less prominent in Cida texts, especially in relation to business and economic development. It

56



and investing in people (CIDA, 2011a). Skills development prominent.




professionals, teacher training, health worker training, scholarships and internships. Often a small part of a bigger project skills development is evident in numerous projects.

employment and often part of a wider project / project aims (CIDA, 2011b).

seems there was less of a focus on life skills and preparing youth for work and employment in 2001, but more of a focus on good governance.

Economic growth through private sector development - ultimately in order to reduce poverty (Danida, 2011b).

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) there was increased funding for South Africa and Benin 2006-9, and no funding for skills development in 2004; support to Tanzania was fairly constant.


In relation to youth / marginalised: training of workers / youth to make them more productive (e. g. microfinance, market-based VET training); training of micro, small and medium private enterprises (various); life skills training programmes for youth to help employability (various) (CIDA, 2011b). 7.5

DENMARK – DANIDA

Poverty alleviation is the overall goal. There are five priority areas including: Growth and Employment and Gender Equality (Danida, 2011a). Skills development seemingly not prominent within these themes. The Strategy for Development Cooperation (Danida, 2010a) highlights the need for TVET for young people (and women), 'in order to satisfy the private sector’s need for a skilled labour force and to increase young people’s opportunities

This is not clear. Skills development might be located in Growth and Employment priority area. But although this is highlighted by Africa Commission, in the Strategy for Development Cooperation (Danida, 2010a) skills development is not mentioned and not an obvious priority 41. In the Strategy skills development not one of the six highlighted areas under Growth and Employment (Danida, 2010a), nor is the word 'skills' mentioned in the document.

The Growth and Employment theme highlights the 'special focus on furthering market-based economic growth and employment' through 'strengthening of the effort to develop the private sector' in developing countries (Danida, 2011b). ). There seems to be a budget line under Technical Assistance for Fellowships and VET training and academic competence (Danida, 2010b). In terms of identified projects and programmes some don't seem to fit within the strategic framework outlined. Projects include: teacher training, health training, scholarships.

Difficult to respond to this further as links to archive documents on website not functioning.

According to CRS database - 90 vocational projects funded 1999-2011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2002-9) were South Africa, Benin, Tanzania, Africa, regional and Liberia. It's difficult to find information about skills development work (if any), as project / programme details are not prominent. Countries known to have skills development work - Bhutan, Zambia, Kenya.

There is a VET project in Bhutan, Danida Business Partnerships and Programme for Innovative Partnerships (Danida, 2011b).

41

The Africa Commission prioritises 5 initiatives, including: support for young African entrepreneurs and making university programmes more business oriented in the field of agriculture, and improve VET programmes to create more jobs (2). 57







Within themes: Education is under Socially Sustainable Development - but emphasis not skills development. One VET programme is noted under Education, in Andes region. Within Economic Sustainable Development - under the subtitle Aid for Trade, entrepreneurship with a focus on women is highlighted, with training included (MOFA Finland, n.d.); Training linked to agricultural and wider rural development and also to Education (MOFA Finland, 2007).

Projects include teacher training, higher education support and scholarships.

Poverty reduction is a major focus of Finland's development strategy and this shapes some skills development work. MDGs also provide focus to skills work.

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) support to Kenya, Mozambique and Namibia was fairly constant 2002-9. There was increased funding to Somalia from 2006 and a decrease in funding to Serbia over this period.

According to CRS database - 269 vocational projects funded 1999-2011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2002-9) were Kenya, Somalia and Mozambique.

Under Fighting Poverty and Inequality theme, ADF 'helps maximise job creation and make economic growth more inclusive through specific actions that support small- and medium-sized businesses'.. It also supports education under this theme. Under

Different elements and approaches for different regions. In North Africa and Middle East focus on economy and employment, incl. professional and vocational training for youth to find employment.

Economic growth and job creation and private sector growth encouraged (AFD, 2011); For example in North Africa and Middle East the main objective is - 'job-creating growth, particularly through private sector projects and professional training'. In Support to Social Services the 'goal is to encourage

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) massive funding increase to Mayotte and Wallis and Futuna 2008-9 (and also increases in Senegal and Vietnam). France tends to fund countries with former colonial ties and overseas departments / regions and this has remained the same. The bulk of funding in Africa has been to north, rather than SSA. No funding

According to CRS database - 639 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Mayotte, Tunisia, Wallis and Futuna, Morocco and Vietnam.

for employment'; for 'productivity and competitiveness of businesses'. However, TVET does not seem to be a focus area for Danida. 7.6

FINLAND – Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Key objective of development policy is the eradication of poverty and promotion of sustainable development (e.g. economic, social and ecological). Policy linked to MGDs. There are three priority areas around climate change, prevention of crises and peacebuilding. Also three cross-cutting themes, including: gender equality, promotion of rights, including children (MOFA Finland, 2011). Skills development doesn't seem obviously prominent. 7.7

Projects with a link to youth / livelihoods include: agricultural training (Vietnam); vocational training (Andes region); training entrepreneurs, esp. women (MOFA Finland, n.d.); .

According to project/ programme information recent activities in: Vietnam; Andes region; Finland (staff development, HE sector); Western Balkans.

FRANCE - AFD

AFD prioritizes four challenges, which include fighting poverty and inequality and promoting sustainable and shared growth both of which linked to skills development and economic growth. Skills development highlighted (AFD, 2011). In 2010, AFD

AFD also supports professional job training centres in both formal and informal sectors. Examples of skills development projects include: professional training,) teacher

Annual report 2010 notes beneficiaries including Morocco, the Dominican Republic , Tunisia, Mali, Sri Lanka, DRC, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, Cote D'ivoire (AFD, 2011).

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gave public and private professional job training €49 million in funding (AFD, 2011).

Economic Growth theme support includes to financial services and private sectors, farming and agribusiness (AFD, 2011). PROPARCO is a developmentfinance institution and subsidiary of AFD. Its focus is on the private sector, with a mission to 'catalyse entrepreneurial investment in emerging and developing countries’ (AFD, 2011).

training, health workers training, scholarships (AFD, 2011).

economic growth by helping adapt vocational training to the economy’s needs' (AFD, 2011).

to Djibouti, Mali and CAR since 2004.


2002 Annual Report (AFD, 2003) highlighted priority sectors – and skills development (with a focus on youth/ disadvantaged) did not seem prominent. Examples of skills development included: human development in education and health, CEFEB (training of senior managers, banks, etc. in France's overseas territories). There were VET projects in Morocco and Tunisia. In 2002 France skills development support seemed to have a much less obvious focus on economic growth, job creation and private sector growth (as seen in AFD, 2011). Initiatives seem less guided by an overall goal.

7.8

GREECE – HELLENIC AID

Greece committed to MDGs. Its approach seems to have a wide focus and across a number of sectors: including education, gender equality (Hellenic Aid, 2010). Vocational training for young people and women for job creation is one of the areas noted that Greece works on, but skills development not prominent (Hellenic Aid, 2010). Scholarships and student costs high in budget breakdown for 2009.

The structure is difficult to understand. Vocational education seems to come under Infrastructure Services.

The following are highlighted in the text of Annual Report, 2009 (Hellenic Aid, 2010): capacity building through transfer of knowledge via technical assistance and vocational education for young people and women. Projects include: training of health professionals, banking services, public sector workers, HE support, scholarships. In terms of young people and disadvantaged groups: enhancement of entrepreneurship, innovation and vocational training (Ukraine) (Hellenic Aid, 2010). Focus seems to be on postgraduate study in Greek institutions, with some training of professionals. Less obvious focus

Annual Report 2009 notes VET for young people and women for job creation (Hellenic Aid, 2010) - although projects don't seem to correlate with this. Funding primarily seems to be for scholarships.

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) Greece had an increase in funding in 2003 (particularly for Albania), but little funding overall since then (apart from funds to SSA and Europe in 2009). Funds available for ODA currently reducing due to financial crisis in Greece (Hellenic Aid, 2010), and there will be no scholarships 2011-12.

According to CRS database - 61 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Albania, Georgia, South of the Sahara and Europe (regional). Albania, Serbia, Albania, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Egypt, Palestinian Territories, Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Ukraine noted as recipients in Annual Report 2009 (Hellenic Aid, 2010).

According to the 2003 Annual Report (Hellenic Aid, 2004), the goals and focus seem similar to 2009. In 2003 one of the priority areas was –infrastructure in the sectors of primary and secondary education and vocational training, especially for job creation. Much of the skills development in 2003 involved trainees (e.g. public /

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on underprivileged youth.



private sector workers, students) coming to Greece to study. There were a few projects on skills development for youth / disadvantaged, but not many e.g. training of unemployed women (Romania), and training of young people on establishment of SMEs (3). A focus on improving employment opportunities of youth / disadvantaged has not been a main priority for Greece.

7.9

IRELAND – IRISH AID

Poverty alleviation is the overall goal. Policy guided by MDGs (Irish Aid, 2011). Skills development within White Paper not obviously prioritised. Under 'key decision' themes of Investing in People, Trade and Development, Building Government Capacity - the only area of skills development highlighted are scholarships (Irish Aid, 2006).

In White Paper (Irish Aid, 2006): scholarships, teacher training and health worker training located within Investing in People theme and improving management of social services in Building Government Capacity theme. Legal training under Human Rights theme. Training for decision makers on climate change under Environment and Development (Irish Aid, 2006).

Various elements to skills development, but not a big focus on skills development for youth/ marginalised. Funding goes to fellowships and scholarships, teacher training, health worker, journalists, HE links, farmer training.

Fulfilment of MDGs provides the basis of the White Paper and many decisions around skills development.

According to CRS database Ireland’s support to skills development has increased since 2005. Funding in 2006 was at its highest, with fairly regular support to India, South Africa and Kenya. Sri Lanka and Egypt got one-off funding in 2005 and 6 respectively.

According to CRS database - 230 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2002-9) were India, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa. Projects noted in: Uganda, South Africa, Malawi, Timor Leste and Palestinian Territories.

In terms of skills for youth and marginalised examples include: rebuilding livelihoods (Uganda), bursaries for youth to attend vocational courses (Uganda); support to literacy teaching (South Africa) (Irish Aid, 2009).

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7.10





Skills development located within various themes. For example, training of women in VET and micro-credit under Gender, training of health workers under Health, links with Italian universities under Education (MOFA Italy, nd), training of teachers under EFA (CIS, 2011a).

There is no identified skills development strategy. Various elements highlighted in texts include: training of women to enable access to jobs and entrepreneurship, in particular through micro-credit and vocational training programmes.

G8 and MDG priorities guide development policy (MOFA Italy, nd); Training of women to enable access to jobs and income also highlighted (MOFA Italy, nd). Projects indicate a link to employment and entrepreneurship, support to education EFA goals and support to HE development (CIS, 2011b), even though highlighted less in strategy.

In terms of country focus (according to CRS database) support to vocational projects seems fairly sporadic. There was no funding at all in 2002 and 2006, but larger bursts of funding in 2004, 2008 and 2009. Larger funding for Mozambique (2007), China (2008) and SSA (2008).

According to CRS database - 1055 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were India, Mozambique, Iraq, and China. 266 projects were bilateral, unspecified.

Economic growth and training for employability / access to employment. Lux is focusing on TVET in order to meet economic imperatives (Lux Development, 2009). Often work in hospitality and tourism sectors as these 'produce economic growth and social prosperity'. Also improving access to and the quality of basic social services.

According to CRS database there was no funding of vocational training in 2002-3, but large increases from 2006. Since then there has been consistent support for Senegal, Nicaragua, Vietnam and Lao; with funding in Cape Verde and Namibia increasing in recent years.

ITALY

Italy is committed to the MDGs and G8. Priority areas include education, support to SMEs, health and cross-cutting themes. Skills development seemingly not prominent, but examples of initiatives can be found reading within text (MOFA Italy, nd). On the website, priority areas in development cooperation include: poverty reduction, EFA, rights of children, adolescents and young (CIS, 2011a).

7.11


Projects with a focus on youth / marginalised include: VET (Pakistan, Balkans), training for youth / training for employment / SMEs: (Burundi, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Madagascar, Chile).

Difficult to access documentation for further analysis of policy.

Education and VET noted as a priority focus for Balkans and Eastern Europe, Algeria and Sahara, Kenya, Pakistan (MOFA Italy, nd). Training projects funded in: Angola, Uganda, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Burundi, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Madagascar, Chile, Ghana, Niger, Afghanistan, Italy, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay (CIS, 2011b).

Other projects include: training of professionals, scholarships, HE support, peace building and good governance; teacher training, (CIS, 2011b, MOFA Italy, nd).

LUXEMBOURG – LUX DEVELOPMENT

Poverty alleviation and MDGs are main priority. Interventions to reach MDGs focus around three priority sectors: health, education (including vocational and technical training), local development (including microfinance initiates) (3). Skills development prominent within policy documents and project funding. TVET high priority (Lux Development, 2009).

Within the priority sector of Education (VET) and Local Development (e.g. microfinance).

Strong focus on skills development for youth and marginalised. Lux Development describes various ways it approaches TVET – e.g. linking recipient country economic priorities to TVET policies and promoting 'competency-based approach' to skills development. Lux Development provides strategic analysis of TVET systems. Work is often carried out in the hospitality and tourism sectors as these are ‘skills and occupations sought by businesses' (Lux Development, 2009). In some areas apprenticeships are seen as more appropriate than courses (e.g. handicraft training). Projects focusing on youth / marginalised include: VET (Laos,

Lux Development describes how it has a history of working in TVET (over 15 years), while other donors have often focused on basic education (Lux Development, 2009). Lux-Development seems to have been working in TVET for some time (although CRS database possibly contests this 2002-3), perhaps becoming more focused in recent years around

According to CRS database - 251 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Senegal, Nicaragua, Cape Verde, Namibia and Vietnam. In terms of recent projects / programmes the following countries have VET initiatives: Laos, Kosovo, Burkina Faso, Mali, Namibia, Vietnam, Montenegro, Senegal, Tunisia, Cape Verde, Nicaragua, Niger (Lux Development, 2009).

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Kosovo, Burkina Faso, Mali, Namibia, Vietnam, Montenegro), establishing / maintaining a TVET school (Senegal, Tunisia); HRD in hospitality and tourism (Laos, Cape Verde, Vietnam, Nicaragua); SME support and training - including microfinance (Niger, Burkina Faso); handicraft apprenticeships (Niger, Mali, Senegal, Burkina Faso); bursaries for internships (Cape Verde), and systemic / programme support to TVET sector (Namibia, Niger, Senegal, Cape Verde); literacy training (Burkina Faso) (Lux Development, 2009). Other skills development includes: health worker training, professional training, teacher training and scholarships. 7.12



key sector support (hospitality and tourism), linking into national economic plans and areas and training that supports economic growth.

THE NETHERLANDS

The Netherlands works on four 'policy spearheads' - security and the legal order, food security, water and Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights. No major focus on skills development. Education and health are non-priority themes - 'these themes will not disappear from Dutch policy, but will support the four spearheads’. That means, for example, commitment to VET in weak states will continue or even increase, or that vocational education will be given extra attention where it

VET located within Education non-priority theme. VET might be used to support policy spearheads (MOFA Neths, nd).

Elements of skills development hinted at within policy spearhead areas: e.g. creation of jobs for of people countries out of conflict, training to support spearheads (e.g. food security, sexuality). VET to support policy spearhead areas (MOFA Neths, nd). More established HE/VET initiatives have included - NICHE programme (HE); PUM ‘Vehicle’ programme (Vocational Education for Higher Categories and Levels), FLOW (funding leadership and opportunities for women – includes economic empowerment), Nuffic (HE). Also scholarship and fellowship programmes. Little obvious focus on projects for youth and marginalised.

Main objectives are the four policy spearhead areas (each with their own objectives). Linked to this, the Netherlands encourages private sector development, aims to promote a good business climate, will invest in cooperation with the business community. PPPs are important (MOFA Neths, nd).

According to CRS database funding for vocational training increased substantially 2007-9. This included more funds for Cape Verde, Bolivia and Mozambique, Support to Zambia fairly constant 2002-9. More recently, the Netherlands is cutting the number of countries it supports and types of area it supports. Less money is going to areas that don't support the spearheads (MOFA Neths, nd). VET can support the spearheads, but is not in itself a priority area.

According to CRS database - 255 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2002-9) were Bolivia, Zambia, Cape Verde and Mozambique. Website highlights VET programmes in: Bolivia, Indonesia, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Zambia and Ghana.

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There are various elements: skills training of professionals, scholarships, HE support, teacher training, language training, health worker and farmer training, business mentoring.

NZAID 'supports skills training as an important part of addressing unemployment, increasing capacity, and encouraging economic growth' (Currents, 2009).

According to CRS database support to vocational training fairly constant 2002-9, with more in 2002 and less funding in 2009. Support to Cook Islands, Samoa and Tonga has been quite constant over this period.

According to CRS database - 150 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings, 2000-9 were Cook Islands, Samoa, Tonga (1). Focus on Pacific, targeted support elsewhere;

relates to food security or water management' (MOFA Neths, nd).

7.13

NEW ZEALAND - NZAID

Primary aim supporting sustainable economic development. Four focus areas include investing in economic development and human development (NZAid, 2011). Recent refocus on delivering jobs and prosperity (and away from some public sector support) (Currents, 2009). Skills development activities present, but focus also on production, trade, tourism revenue, remittances, infrastructure development (Currents, 2009, NZAid, 2011). By achieving economic growth countries can work towards MDGs themselves. In terms of activities - skills development prominent.

Under Investing in Economic Development theme (support for related technical and vocational skills) and Human Development theme (scholarships) (NZAid, 2011). NB: scholarships under Education in 2010 Annual Report (Currents, 2010).

Skills development which might target youth / marginalised include: training courses in workbased skills areas in public and private sectors (Cook Islands, Kiribati, PNG, Samoa, and Tonga); skills-based training to address skills shortages in various countries (via NGOs); microenterprise skills training to disadvantaged people (PNG); small business management training (Samoa); skills training for seasonal workers.

NZAid has had a recent refocus on economic development and making aid more effective – and a move away from public sector support.

Recent skills development recipients include: PNG, Cook Islands, Kiribati, PNG, Samoa, Tonga, Solomon Islands and Fiji.

Looking at 2004/5 Annual Review (NZAid, 2005) there was more of a focus on the MDGs and less on (the current) focus of economic development. Skills development 2004/5 included scholarships, HE support, learning exchanges, public sector training (teachers, health workers). There was support to small-scale businesses e.g. agribusiness, business and marketing skills for traders and VET. Little obvious support in 2004/5 for youth and disadvantaged groups and routes into employment – this has now been enhanced.

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7.14






Various types of projects / programmes, but no obvious skills strategy. Projects and programmes include: scholarships (incl. locally run Masters programmes), HE support, public sector training, democracy and election support, teacher training, legal training, health workers (Norad, 2011b). Various business training initiatives e.g. matchmaking programme (joint ventures between N-S companies) (Norad, 2010) and Application Based Support programme.

TVET to reduce unemployment and promote economic growth (NORAD, 2011a). Focus seems to be on public sector support; support for human rights, democracy and free speech; support for women and youth into jobs; business support, economic development; HE sector support.

According to CRS database support to vocational training fairly constant 2002-9, with large injection in 2009 mainly going to Kosovo. Support to Mozambique and Serbia increased 2006-9, with others fairly constant.

According to CRS database - 495 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2002-9) were Kosovo, Serbia, Mozambique and Ethiopia.

NORWAY - NORAD

Overall aid strategy not easy to decipher. Norway has 5 thematic areas including Education and Research and Macroeconomics and Public Administration. Skills development does not seem very prominent (e.g. 'skills' are not mentioned in annual report 2009, Norad, 2011b). However Norway funds substantial number of skills development projects and programmes.

Not clearly defined. Under Education TVET and educating for entrepreneurship are highlighted (NORAD, 2011a) Some initiatives labelled as Businessrelated assistance, but not sure where that sits thematically (Norad, 2010).

Projects with a focus on youth / marginalised include: microfinance and vocational training for women, small-scale entrepreneurs and small farmers (Pakistan, Sri Lanka); vocational skills development projects (Afghanistan); entrepreneurship education in secondary school (Namibia, Mozambique); and agriculture training for women (Zambia).

In 2000 Norad’s focus on jobs and income generation was identified as a main future focus. Central priority areas at the micro level included - business related education (e.g. vocational and management training) and research and stimulating income generation enterprise (e.g. for women, SMEs, tourism expertise) According to Annual Report 2001 (Norad, nd) the focus was on improving economic, social and political situations of people in developing countries, especially the very poor. Some projects supported youth / disadvantaged through routes to employment e.g. street kids education and vocational training (Bangladesh, India), training and advisory services for women on market and credit opportunities (Bangladesh, India, Guatemala, Nicaragua). Others more indirectly e.g. training of teachers, health workers. Some support to democratisation.

Countries identified as running skills development projects mainly in Annual Report 2009 (Norad, 2011b) include: Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Namibia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Bangladesh, Madagascar, Palestine, Angola, Nicaragua, East Timor, Indonesia, India, Malawi, Vietnam, Nigeria, Zambia, South Africa.

Seeming similarities with current support and focus.

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7.15





Projects and programmes include: teacher training, scholarships, HE support, public sector capacity building (IPAD, 2010b); security force training / support / military training.

2005 Strategic Vision’s (IPAD, 2010a) aims seem to shape skills development initiatives. Aims include: economic and social development (no prominent focus on youth or marginalised). Linked also to MDGs and promoting the Portuguese language (IPAD, 2010a).

According to CRS database funding for vocational training by Portugal remained fairly constant 2002-9. Funding reduced to Timor Leste 2007-9, but increased to Sao Tome and Principe; support to Mozambique remained fairly constant. Donor countries remain the same.

According to CRS database - 172 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Timor-Leste, Sao Tome and Principe and Mozambique. Overall ODA concentrated in: Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and S. Tomé, Principe and Timor-Leste (IPAD, 2010a).

PORTUGAL - IPAD

Skills development is an important focus for Portugal in strategic terms. Guided by international agendas e.g. MDGs - poverty reduction overall goal (IPAD, 2010b). Focus 2005-10 on two main areas: education as part of support to sustainable development and the fight against poverty; and governance, democracy and participation (IPAD, 2010a). Teacher training and scholarships main focus of Education and capacity building a major focus in Governance theme (IPAD, 2010a). 7.16


Under Education teacher training and scholarships at universities; Under Governance - capacity building in public admin (IPAD, 2010a). Also some skills based work under Community Development (small scale vocational training etc.) – but this side of skills development i.e. support to youth / marginalised, not prominent.

Projects / programmes with a focus on youth / marginalised: vocational training women and youth (Mozambique, Angola, S. Tome & Principe, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau) (IPAD, 2010a and 2010b).

The 2001-5 - priorities remain similar: reduce poverty (through support to education, health, gvt and civil society) and cross-cutting issues, such as capacity building. University collaboration and scholarship programmes remain from 2001-5 (IPAD, 2005). Focus on skills development remains high. But uncertain whether there was much focus on skills development for youth / disadvantaged.

SPAIN - AECID

Spain is committed to MDGs. It has a range of priorities: there are 12 priority sectors, 5 cross-cutting priorities and Policies for Children and Youth, Indigenous Peoples and African descendants. Spain has a wide, rather than narrow focus. Within that wide focus skills development has limited prominence in overall aid

Difficult to identify location of skills development, but possibly in a range of priority sectors e.g. health, governance, science technology and innovation and migration (i.e. improve professional capacities for effective insertion into the labour market) (MOFA Spain, 2009).

Project information is difficult to find. Available information also describes health training, capacity building to support governance; scientific training, scholarships and training potential migrants in the countries of origin, to create and improve professional capacities for effective insertion into their labour markets. Projects with a focus on youth / marginalised include: youth and adult literacy (Peru).

Given the range of priorities, there seem to be multiple objectives. E.g. training to improve access to employment , MDGs, development of higher order skills (MOFA Spain, 2009).

According to CRS database funding for vocational training by Spain was fairly constant 2002-9, but with increase 2008-9. Funding has focused on Spanish speaking Latin America, with many receiving substantial amounts throughout. Nicaragua and Peru received more funding 2008-9, others remained similar.

According to CRS database - 2795 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Nicaragua, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia and Ecuador. Information about skills development funding not found from other sources.

Unable to translate early documents to identify project focus and changes in priorities.

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Location of skills development isn’t clear, but possibly under: Economic Development (SIDA, 2011a), Knowledge and Health (SIDA, 2011c). In projects database relevant projects seem to be within a range of themes: Economic, Social and Cultural Human Rights, Adult Education, Vocational Training, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Organisational Development, Civil Society and HIV/AIDS, Sexual Health and Rights.

No obvious skills development strategy. There are various elements of skills development work which include: international training programmes (SIDA, 2011b). Projects areas include: democracy training, health, teacher training, scholarships.

Various objectives: economic integration of vulnerable young people; build capacity for entrepreneurial training; community and rural development; support to MDGs (e.g. health training, teacher training)

According to CRS database funding for vocational training by Sweden support was fairly constant 2002-9, with increases in 2006 and 2009. Most consistent was funding to Moldova. Spain didn’t fund projects in South Africa after 2006 and only started funding in Bolivia in 2009.

According to CRS database - 122 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Moldova, South Africa and Bolivia.

strategy.

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SWEDEN - SIDA

Overall mission: ‘to help create conditions that will enable poor people to improve the quality of their lives’. 5 themes include: economic development and knowledge, health and social development (SIDA, 2011b).

Projects with a focus on youth / marginalised include: vocational training often young people and women (Rwanda, Egypt, Cote D'Ivoire, Ethiopia), microfinance, entrepreneurship, women's empowerment (India), literacy development (Pakistan, India, Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, Sudan, Mali) and rural education (Congo).

The Annual Report 2003 (SIDA, 2004) highlights Sweden's overall objective as 'development cooperation should contribute to raising the living standards of poor people'. Six development cooperation sub-goals include: economic growth, economic and political independence, economic and social equality and equality between women and men. A major focus in 2003 seems to be around economic growth - this appears to be capacity building of public admin, health and education sectors. Focus also on democratisation / human rights training. There appears little focus on skills development for youth / disadvantaged groups. Projects identified include vocational training for unemployed (Tajikistan).

According to Swedish projects database skills development projects were run in: India, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Pakistan, West Bank/Gaza, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, Nicaragua, Bolivia, DRC, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Sudan, Argentina, Guinea, Bangladesh, Brazil, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Mali, Nepal, Morocco, Regional Caucasus, Burundi, Yemen, Burkina Faso, South Africa, Bosnia & Herzegovina, East Timor, China, Mauritania, Mozambique, Egypt, Zimbabwe, Nepal, Philippines, Benin, Mauritania, Togo, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Kosovo, Ecuador, Russia, Brazil, Cambodia, Kazakhstan, Chile, Lithuania, Belarus, Colombia, Serbia, Somalia, Estonia, Ukraine, Uruguay, Moldova, Romania, Gambia, Afghanistan, Cameroon, Chad, PNG, Côte d´Ivoire, Thailand 42.

There currently seems more focus on this type of work.

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some project descriptions are in Swedish, so not possible to understand focus of them. 66


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Vocational skills development prominent. Focus on targeting poorest and most vulnerable, e.g. women, young people and rural populations. Focus involves: increase in the range of available skills development training on offer (including private training providers); development and adaptation of national standards of training providers; different ways of making training options more widely available and affordable. Promotion of the relevance and quality of vocational skills development by bringing them more in line with market demands (SDC, 2011a).

Objectives include: Economic engagement, income generation, access to employment, address vulnerability and disadvantage, address labour market and skills mismatch. Women's access to employment and income (SDC, 2011c). In relation to vocational skills development: 'the aim is to provide people with the skills they need to take part in economic life, and open up new opportunities for productive employment and access to appropriately paid work' (SDC, 2011a). Also adult education for increasing competencies at local level e.g. literacy, numeracy, basic health awareness etc.

According to CRS database funding for vocational training by Switzerland has remained fairly constant, with additional funding in 2006. Fairly constant funding to Nepal, Peru and Albania, with Bangladesh starting to receive funding in 2005 and Turkey stopping funding in 2007. According to SDC vocational skills development has been one of the priorities of SDC's activities in developing countries and emerging economies for more than thirty years (SDC, 2011a).

According to CRS database - 820 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project numbers) were Albania, Nepal, Peru, Bangladesh and Mali.

SWITZERLAND - SDC

SDC has thirteen themes including: Employment and Income and Education (SDC, 2011b). Vocational skills development prominent, with a particular focus on women, youth and rural poor.

Vocational skills development under Employment and Income and Education themes (SDC, 2011b).

Projects include: vocational training for school drop outs (Bangladesh), courses for adult education teachers (Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Togo, Mali, Haiti, DRC), setting up a VET system (Peru), practical training for educated youth - to prevent migration (Bosnia and Herzegovina), modernisation of vocational training system (Kosovo), literacy training (Niger), vocational skills (Burkina Faso), agricultural training (Burkina Faso) .

Skills development projects noted in: Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Benin, Niger, Togo, Mali, Haiti, DRC, Peru, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo

The Annual Report in 2001 (SDC, 2002) highlights project areas including : literacy training (Ecuador), VET (Eastern Europe), and training of public sector workers (various). There has been a focus on training for youth / disadvantaged throughout the decade with projects in Bangladesh, Bolivia and Mali, for example.

SDC also supports scholarships, teacher training, public sector training (SDC, 2010).

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Elements include: scholarships, health worker training, teacher training, training of public sector workers, HE support and communication skills development.

Achieving the MDGs mainly health MDG4 and MDG5 and education MDG2, but also povertyrelated MDG1 and gender MDG3.

According to CRS database funding for vocational training by UK increased substantially 2008-9 with support to Bangladesh. Otherwise support limited (South Africa stopped in 2003 and India 2007).

According to CRS database - 137 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) Bangladesh, South Africa and India.

UNITED KINGDOM - DFID

DFID’s overall aim is to reduce poverty in poorer countries, in particular through achieving MDGs. DFID also has 6 'structural reform priorities' including making development policy more focused on boosting economic growth and wealth creation and improving the lives of girls and women (DFID, 2011a). In terms of expenditure - education, health, wealth creation and vulnerability support are all prominent. Skills development and training only present in relation to teacher training, health sector training and basic skills training for vulnerable in Business Plan (DFID, 2011a) and Annual Report (DFID, 2011b). So skills development not obviously important in overall aid strategy, but has a role in education, health and poverty eradication especially, and at project-level.

In Annual Report (DFID, 2011b) MDGs are used as a means to map progress at country level - skills seem to be located under MDG 1, MDG 2, MDG 4, and MDG 5 (i.e. those relating to poverty, education, and health). This also relates to priorities in Business Plan (DFID, 2011a). Vocational skills development and agricultural training is under ‘Eradicating poverty’.

Projects / programmes with a focus on youth / marginalised include: basic literacy, employment and numeracy skills for out of school children / working children / youth (Uganda, Ghana, Bangladesh); agricultural training (Burma); women skills / business development (Burma, Yemen); job and skills training (Nepal, Pakistan) (DFID, 2011b, 2011c).

Looking at 2000 Departmental Report (DFID, 2000), DFID's aim was the elimination of poverty with specific objectives including: better education, health and opportunities for poor people (including literacy, access to information and life skills) and promotion of sustainable livelihoods. The language of skills for development is fairly prominent. The report states: 'A further education priority for DFID is to help provide developing countries with an essential framework for skills acquisition and training provision. This will enable individuals to gain access to work-related skills and employment and help developing economies achieve growth, building on a higher level of skills in the population'. Although not noted in the CRS database the DFID Departmental Report (DFID, 2000) notes a Skills for Development initiative (£25M over 2 years) which aimed to stimulate entrepreneurial skills required by the poorest countries. It had three components – including assisting countries to develop skills in the population to contribute to economic growth (e.g. Rwanda). Similar scholarship / fellowship programmes existed. DFID supported teachers, civil servants,

Countries where known skills development work: Bangladesh, Uganda, Ghana, Burma, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Palestinian Territories, Yemen (DFID, 2011b).

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managers etc with training. Limited focus on skills development for youth / disadvantaged groups remain.

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UNITED STATES - USAID

Importance of skills development differs depending on source of information. On website skills development appears more prominent (USAID, 2011a). Eight areas of focus include Education and Training and Economic Growth and Trade. Under Education and Training - skills development is one of three goals (HE and workforce development). In the Congress Budget Justification document (Dept of State USA, 2011) skills development has a lower priority and different aims. In it priority performance goals, include: food security, country stability / security, good governance and humanitarian relief. Skills development (and education or economic development) - not obviously present in these. Other areas are

Within Education Strategy (USAID, 2011b) tertiary and workforce development one of three goals. Under Development Assistance budget (Dept of State USA, 2011) Education is included and within it a mention of skills: 'providing youth with basic academic and life skills that empower them to take full advantage of economic opportunity.' A number of skills development programmes / exchanges geared towards protecting US national security and encouraging country stability and peace e.g. some possible funding via Economic Support Fund. Other areas of training initiatives Health and Good Governance.

Various elements include: basic level and high-level skills training for workforce development (USAID, 2011b). There is a focus on linking the public and private sector to build demand-driven workforce programs (USAID, 2011c). Also basic skills development esp. with youth and skills development for at risk youth. Other project areas focus on skills development linked to military activities and peace building, drugs control training (Bolivia, Mexico, Haiti), exchange programmes for mutual understanding between USA and other countries, business links programmes, scholarship and study programmes, HE support (Dept of State USA, 2011).

Education and skills development to: promote long-term broad-based economic growth, reduce poverty and inequality, improve health and promote participatory democracy (Dept of State USA, 2011) and to build the skills and capacity of their workforces to support economic growth and competitiveness, as well as to stabilize societies after conflict or natural disaster (USAID, 2011c). A number of programmes geared towards protecting US national security and encouraging country stability and peace (Dept of State USA, 2011).

According to CRS database USA had no funding of vocational training 2002-3, with substantial amounts to Iraq in 2005 and South Africa 2004. There has been little funding of vocational training since. USAID describes a focus on higher education support. CBJ 2001 (USAID, 2001) - Under Program Performance and Prospects heading - there were six strategic goals including encouraging broad based economic growth and agricultural development, strengthening democracy and good governance, building human capacity through education and training and stabilizing the world's population and protecting human health. USAID's human capacity development goal had two objectives: Expanding access to quality basic education for underserved populations, especially girls and women; and Increasing the developmental contribution of host-country institutions of higher education (i.e. post primary). Programmes include: teacher training, HE support, SME training, health training and governance. Talk of replicating of 'some U.S. models for technical and vocational training, including

According to CRS database - 329 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Iraq, South Africa and Mongolia. Countries with skills projects identified include: Iraq, Pakistan, Liberia, Yemen, Afghanistan, DRC, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Bolivia, Mexico, Haiti, Russia, Sudan, Rwanda, Somalia, Jordan, India, Armenia, Dominican Republic, Ghana, Cambodia, Sri Lanka (Dept of State USA, 2011; USAID, 2011c);

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of higher priority. Under Development Assistance Education noted, but not prioritised (Dept of State USA, 2011).



public- private partnerships at the secondary and tertiary levels'. Education and training work primarily in Africa, but also targeted work in Asia, Near East and Latin America. More of a focus now on security.

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EUROPEAN UNION

In terms of EuropeAid's Development and Cooperation focus is on the MDGs. EU works in nine areas including: human development and social cohesion and employment. Human Development / Investing in People include Education, Health, Employment and Social Cohesion and Children's rights. Within Education while the main emphasis is on school-based education, skills development is prominent. The header is Education and Training and strategy emphasises vocational skills development and institutional development and capacity building (EC, 2011a). In Social Cohesion and Employment there is less emphasis on skills development, but the Employment

Difficult to decipher. Shifts between Education, Employment and Social Cohesion and Employment and Social Protection, depending on document. Within Education theme (a sub-theme of Human Development / Investing in People) - vocational skills development and higher education are highlighted on the website. But there is also mention (and cross-over) within Social Cohesion and Employment - e.g. teaching of entrepreneurial/ business skills in secondary schools and university, importance of education and VET. In the Employment Plan (EC, 2007) education is the means through which skills development and VET takes place (EC, 2007). However in the Annual Report 2011, Education is mainly related to primary education, with skills initiatives (e.g.

In terms of VET skills development - Employment Strategy (EC, 2007) the role of public/private partnerships are highlighted although not certain whether this is taking place. Projects with a focus on youth / marginalised include: vocational skills women (Egypt); basic life skills youth and adults (Morocco); professional schools (Kyrgyz Republic); strengthen managerial skills in SMEs (Uzbekistan); VET modernisation (Syria); TVET system (Botswana); vocational training (Greenland, New Caledonia); agricultural training (Afghanistan, Nicaragua, DRC); training for micro-enterprises (Peru); Guatemala (food-fortraining); tourism training (Vietnam) (EC, 2011d). Various other skills development elements include support to: HE, scholarships, public sector training, police, legal teacher and health worker training.

Achieving MDGs seems to be the main objective. Thus training across a range of sectors and has a range of clients / beneficiaries. A number of initiatives linked to work and enhancing income generation chances.

Annual Report 2000 (EC, 2001): Fight against poverty (primary objective of development aid) had six priorities – but skills development not prominent within these. However, within text under macro-economic policies it states: 'the EC is also committed to continuing its support for social sectors (health and education)' and there is a section on social sector support - highlighting primary education, basic education as a whole (including literacy and non-formal training) higher education and job related vocational training.

According to CRS database - 885 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings, 2000-9) were Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco. Projects identified in: Egypt, Morocco, China, Kyrgyz Republic, Uzbekistan, Honduras, Russia, Latin America, Syria, Botswana, Iraq, Kiribati, Rwanda, Greenland, New Calidonia, Afghanistan, Nicaragua, DRC, Peru, Guatemala, Djibouti, Vietnam (EC, 2011d).

Projects in 2000 include: business skills to SMEs; HE support, teacher training, legal and HR training, scholarships, marketoriented economy training, banking training, health worker training. Projects in relation to youth/marginalised include: adult basic education; vocational training (China, Peru, Honduras, Mexico); agricultural training (Lebanon, Philippines, Bolivia) (EC, 2001). Possibly more focus on TVET now and a move away from business training towards market

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Strategy (EC, 2007) does have Education, VET, Science and Technology as one of the policies conducive to employment. Within the EC, VET has a prominent role to play in Europe alongside school, adult and higher education (EC, 2011b).

TVET) in Employment and Social Protection (EC, 2011d). With regard to Europe (EC), VET comes under Lifelong Learning alongside School, Adult and Higher Education (EC, 2011b).

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economies.

AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

Strategic priorities include: higher education, science and technology (HEST) and vocational training (TVET). Also crosscutting themes. Infrastructure got 59.7% of (indicative operational programme) funding, whereas social sector (including HE) only got 5.5% (these sector priorities make up c. 77% of overall lending) (AfDB, 2010). Thus in strategic terms it’s important, in operational terms skills development does not seem that important.

Seems to be under Higher Education, Science and Technology and TVET strategic priorities.

Various elements include: skills development in HE, financial training, young professionals programme. Not high priority, but projects related to youth / marginalised include: TVET (Niger, Botswana); ICT Centre (Rwanda); SME entrepreneurship training (Libya); skills development, science and technology (Rwanda) (AfDB, 2010, 2011).

Focus on HE, science and technology and TVET 'building the continent’s capacity for research and innovation, so that it can participate fully in the technological advancements of the twenty-first century' (ADB, 2011). TVET project aims include: reducing unemployment and improving links to formal education.

Annual Reports not available on web before 2008. Skills development projects funded late 1990s / early 2000s include: skills development and income generation (Malawi); skills development and alternative learning (Zanzibar, Tanzania); teacher training (Kenya, Mali); middle level staff training (Angola). It seems a shift has taken place towards HE and away from basic education (including teacher training).

According to CRS database - 45 vocational projects funded 1999-2011. Main recipients (in terms of project costings 2000-9) were Tanzania, Rwanda, Cameroon. Projects also in: Eritrea, Guinea, Tanzania, Lesotho, Niger, Botswana, Rwanda, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Senegal, Libya (AfDB, 2010, 2011).

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Various elements: training of – public sector workers, teachers, health workers, people working in economic / finance areas, skilled professionals. Scholarship programme.

Overall goals - poverty reduction. Other objectives include: increased access to jobs (either formal or nonformal sector) and income. Increase labour market participation and employment rates. Increase in standards of living. On projects database 'strategic goals' are linked to projects. For skills development projects these include: economic growth, social development and capacity building (with fewer linked to governance, private sector development and gender equity) (AsDB, 2011a). Education strategy hopes TVET will 'contribute to filling labour market gaps and meeting the need of informal sector workers.' (AsDB, 2010) Increasing emphasis on meeting labour market needs.

Looking at Annual Report 2001 (AsDB, 2002): largest share (19%) of total project-specific technical assistance was to agriculture and natural resources, followed by social infrastructure, finance, and transport and communications. Indonesia, China, Vietnam and India received most funding. Education to support economic growth and reduce poverty - but not a strategic priority in itself. Under Education theme skills development was strong and the following programmes were emphasised - basic skills, literacy, potential income earning capability, teacher training. Some talk remains the same - e.g. improving the link between skills demand and supply. Current emphasis on education and skills development seems more integral, however projects funded look similar.

According to CRS database - 7 vocational/advanced level projects funded 19992011 (special funds). Main recipients (in terms of project numbers) were Maldives and Sri Lanka.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

80% of ADB lending to be in 5 core areas, including: education and finance sector development. Health and agriculture not core priorities, but still funded. Strategy 2020 (AsDB, 2010) has drivers of change to be stressed in all AsDB operations - including developing the private sector, gender and helping DCs gain knowledge. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan (AsDB, 2010) states increased support for workforce skills development, higher education and capacity building in all parts of education system. Skills development prominent within education and capacity building field (AsDB, 2011b).

Mainly within Education. Skills development a core priority area e.g. TVET, skills training, teacher training.

Projects with a focus on youth / marginalised include: TVET (Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Kyrgyz Republic, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Nepal, Philippines, Vanuatu, Thailand, Cambodia, Pakistan, regional, Laos, China); demanddriven skills training for poor (Vietnam); skills training for (unemployed) youth, women and adults (Mongolia, Maldives, PNG, Sri Lanka); rural skills development (Bhutan); agribusiness / agricultural extension training (Laos, Vietnam) (AsDB, 2011a, AsDB, 2011c).

Education Strategy 2020 (AsDB, 2010) - wants to increase labour market relevance of skills programmes, have increased links with industry and more internships, learner placements and on the job training. Also wants more skills training for women in the future.

On website projects database the following countries received skills development funding (AsDB, 2011a): Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Kyrgyz Republic, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Nepal, Philippines, Vanuatu, Thailand, Cambodia, Pakistan, regional, Laos, China, Timor Leste, Mongolia, Maldives, Bhutan, Uzbekistan, Micronesia.

Projects include: HE support, technology and professional skills development and teacher training. Those linked to youth / marginalised include: skills development / vocational education (Marshall Islands, PNG, Bhutan, Maldives); TVET (Vanuatu, Philippines); skills and entrepreneurship / employment (Kyrgyz, Nepal) (AsDB, 2011a).

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Skills development located within both Education and Labour Markets. In Tertiary Education the area is: Knowledge and Skills for the New Economy (e.g. higher order skills). In primary education teacher training. In secondary education vocational education. And under Labour Markets (a sub-topic of Social Protection and Labour) it's Skills and Employability.

Various elements in relation to skills development for youth / marginalised including: School to Work Transition and vocational education at secondary level (WB, 2010). Under labour markets skills and employability focuses on: youth employment, VET, skills development strategies (WB, 2011d). Projects include: support, disadvantaged adults / youth / girls - to enhance employability and strengthen career opportunities / vocational training (Argentina, El Salvador, PNG, Sierra Leone, Afghanistan, Liberia, Kyrgyzstan, Timor Leste); TVET (Iran, Mozambique, Kazakhstan, China); women's economic empowerment (Bangladesh); skills development (Pakistan, Mauritania, Ghana, Rwanda, Bangladesh);

Education building skills to meet labour market needs (WB, 2010); Training to build job-related skills; VET to provide workers with skills more relevant to needs of employers and the economy; improving access to / quality of HE; Improving quality of primary schooling, HE and health care.

WB Annual Report (WB, 2001) focus on poverty reduction and MDG targets, knowledge sharing and distance learning. Some focus on new technologies. Economic growth and public / private sector development training important (WB, 2001).

According to CRS database India largest recipient of WB funds 2002-9 (3 times more than next recipient). Other major recipients include: Mozambique, Zambia, Rwanda and Nigeria.

WORLD BANK

WB's mission: 'to fight poverty ... and to help people help themselves and their environment by providing resources, sharing knowledge, building capacity and forging partnerships in the public and private sectors'. WB has six themes including: Knowledge and Learning (WB, 2008) Capacity building is one of the core functions of the bank (WB, 2011b). In Education sector quality increasingly important - focus also on teacher training and vocational training (WB, 2010). Skills development fairly prominent.

Other initiatives include: Knowledge for Development Initiative (WB, 2011a) and Global Development Learning Network. Skills development training of teachers, health workers. Also HE support.

Projects with a focus on youth / marginalised included employment skills for women (Bangladesh); skills development (Thailand, Korea); technical, vocational, and entrepreneurship training system, and improve the skills of workers to serve both the formal and informal sectors of the economy (Zambia); literacy training (Bangladesh); private sector development - employee training (Guatemala); support to economic growth training (Sao Tome, Principe).

Numerous countries including: India, Afghanistan, Colombia, Ethiopia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Argentina, El Salvador, PNG, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Kyrgyzstan, Timor Leste, Iran, Mozambique, Kazakhstan, China, Bangladesh, Roma communities, Guyana, Pakistan, Mauritania, Ghana, Rwanda, Bangladesh, PNG, Vietnam (WB, 2011e).

Other projects included: health support, partnership for capacity building in Africa, training of public and private sector workers; knowledge-sharing initiatives, teacher training (WB, 2001). Similar focus and private and public sector development, as well as knowledge sharing.

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