Martial arts as embodied knowledge ; Asian traditions in a transnational ... verbal form n^asaké ..... tion of manual work and sexual habits (Dias 2004: 60-61).
MARTIAL ARTS AS
EMBODIED KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
D. S. FARRER AND JOHN WHALEN-BRIDGE
" C h i n W o o F i g h t i n g F o r m " cover photograph courtesy of S i f u N g G i m H a n , and S i f u C h o w T o n g
D . S. Farrer dedicates his work on this volume to Master Huo Yuanjia.
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John Whalen-Bridge dedicates his work on this volume to Takamiyagi Shigeru and Charles Johnson.
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L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s C a t a l o g i n g - i n - P u b l i c a t i o n D a t a M a r t i a l arts as embodied knowledge ; A s i a n traditions i n a transnational world / edited by D . S. Farrer and J o h n W h a l e n - B r i d g e . p. c m . Includes b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l références and index. I S B N 978-1-4384-3967-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. M a r t i a l arts.
2. M a r t i a l a r t s — S o c i a l aspects.
1. Farrer, D . S.
II. W h a l e n - B r i d g e , J o h n . GV1101.M283
2011
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2011009301
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1
The Training of Perception in lavanese Martial Arts
Jean-Marc de Grave
To what extent can the classification of the sensés be considered objective or universal? C a n touch be considered a simple capacity or sensé or an elaborate one? Answers to such questions dépend o n the way the hierarchy of sensés is shaped i n a given sociocultural context and how i n this context the sensés are educated. T h i s chapter examines a training of the sensés that refines the conventional notion of " t o u c h " away from ordinary "touching" and doser to what was called "tact" i n eighteenth-century Europe. Javanese martial arts draw their roots from an esoteric context where the refinement of perception does not represent an end i n itself but a passage toward self-control w i t h an implied relationship to the divine. However, the practice of Javanese pencak silat i n its m o d e m version tends to be emancipated from any spiritual référence. T h e training focuses o n implied touch, tact, and proprioception in a very active way.' A f t e r discussing the Javanese traditional context, I w i l l présent an ethnography of the techniques used i n Javanese martial arts to refine the n o t i o n of sensitive perception. 1 w i l l then show how m o d e m scientific research o n cognition echoes the concepts and the Javanese empirical models described, draw a comparison with the European context, and conclude by discussing the educability of the sensés w i t h i n a cultural context.
Classical Javanese Conceptions of the Sensés Java is one of the principal islands of Indonesia. T h e Javanese occupy the central and eastern parts of the island. O n the basis of oral traditions.
123
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M a r t i a l A r t s as Embodied Knowledge
T h e Training of Perception in Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
125
certain concepts and practices from India were adopted starting in the first centuries C E . T h e spécifie classification of the sensés dating from this time still marks Javanese culture and habits today, surviving both Islamization at the beginning of the fifteenth century and D u t c h c o l o n i zation from the sixteenth century onward. T h i s categorization of the sensés is aligned with a broader System of classification that stands o n a hierarchical basis of four peripheral terms and one central term. Space, for example, is conceived according to the four cardinal directions and one center point. For the sensés, the four peripheral éléments or "external sensés" are: smell, hearing, sight, and taste. T h e central sensé is "inner feeling" {rasa). Rasa includes ail that can be perceived and felt w i t h i n the body: c o m b i n i n g sensations of the skin and proprioception as well as the "émotions and feelings" (rasa-pangrasa) especially tied to the liver. T h e sensations of the skin and proprioception induce a sensé of touch: for example, one can sensé heat and cold without direct contact w i t h the skin. Therefore,
in Javanese, " t o u c h "
(dumuk) strictly speaking simply indicates what one touches; while the verbal form n^asaké
(from rasa) is used for feeling what one touches.
Inside rasa, "the true inner feeling" (rasa sejati) can be activated by a spécial state of concentration that is obtained by balancing the external
and feeling are strongly involved through breathing and concentration
sensés and the internai sensé. T h i s balance is tied to balanced social
exercises. Concrète applications of such exercises involve training remote
behavior and—for those who want i t — i s achieved through
sensitive blind détection and developing the ability to break hard objects.
méditation
and asceticism. Rasa sejati is the most subtle form of feeling that lies i n the body; it corresponds to the "true essence" of being and is supposed to be of divine origin (fig. 5.1).
>• l , , , !
,
.
Tenaga Dalam:
T e c h n i q u e s to R e e n f o r c e B o d y C o n t a c t
T h e gênerai traditional formative Systems that we find i n pencak silat thus consist in harmonizing between them each peripheral sensé i n
Merpati Putih ( M F ) is one of the principal Indonesian schools of tenaga
order to activate the "inner feeling" so that it expresses—through
suit-
dalam (inner power). S u c h schools bave undergone a large-scale develop-
able training and practices—feelings of compassion and empathy. A t a
ment beginning at the end of the 1980s. T h e biggest schools can count
sociorelational level, the transmission of this k i n d of knowledge coincides
several hundred thousand members. T h e i r sponsors—often
w i t h the coming of âge i n adulthood, a crucial period of the human life
themselves—are
cycle notably described i n anthropological works.^ In Java, entering into
T h i s phenomenon bas become so extensive that it tends toward institu-
adulthood marks the need to foUow the teaching of a master w i t h the
tionalization. In 1997, for example, I could visit an expérimental
practitioners
influential religious, political, or military personalities. state
aim of hecoming a "true human being" through lifelong learning.'
hospital comprising a tenaga dalam section in Surahaya, East Java. T h i s
T h e création of a m o d e m Indonesian State i n 1945,
development corresponds to an adaptation to modernity, where the n o t i o n
however,
initiated the spectacular development of secularized and even laicized
of internai sensé is still maintained but transposed, as we shall see."*
practices, in w h i c h any relationship to the spiritual dimension is sometimes
T h e school of M e r p a t i Putih originated in the town of Yogyakarta,
excluded. S u c h an exclusion may be illustrated through an example from
C e n t r a l Java. Subsequently, when the founders started training the presi-
w i t h i n the framework of martial arts training, where the sensés of touch
dential guards i n the schools breathing and "inner power" techniques, the
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M a r t i a l A r t s as Embodied Knowledge
T h e Training of Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
127
administrative center moved i n 1976 to the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta (Western Java). Since the formai création of the organization i n 1963, the persons i n charge of M e r p a t i P u t i h worked hard to rationalize their techniques by collaborating w i t h military, médical, and sport specialists. T h e i r leitmotif consists of saying that one can acquire good h e a l t h w i t h Merpati P u t i h and increase one's energetic capacities without the use of mystical practices such as fasting or the use of formulas of i n v o c a t i o n / protection. T h i s manner of approach is regarded as a positive and m o d e m approach by certain "progressives" and yoiing people. T h e school, while internationally famous for its self-defense techniques of pencak silat—the martial arts of the Malayan peoples—it is k n o w n above ail for its breathing techniques. Believed to be inherited from ancient Indian tantra, thèse practices make it possible to sharpen the capacities related to body perception, e.specially skin perception and proprioception. T h e first séries of breathing exercises comprises four différent postures. Transmitted after two months of training at the first level, it continues to be practiced regularly thereafter because it allows the practitioner to maintain the accumulated tenaga dalam. Immediately after this séries, the students learn another séries that includes fourteen différent postures (see one of them i n fig. 5.2) and aims at developing the acquired potential of
Figure 5.3.
A pair of m é t a l targets broken by a fourth-level student.
tenaga dalam. T h e way of breathing consists of: inspiration, rétention and muscular tension, expiry and muscular relaxation. T h e second séries is complementary to the first and aims to reinforce various parts of the body: lower limbs and the pelvis, the abdominal muscles and ail the muscles of the body, upper limbs and the chest. T h e exercises are carried out w i t h the eyes closed and by turning one's attention to internai feelings. A s the student becomes more adept at thèse practices, the order of the positions of the breathing séries is reversed, then combined. T h e n the type of breathing that is practiced at first as hissing becomes subtlc, weights are used to reinforce the desircd effccts, the exercises are practiced i n water, and three types of breathing techniques are alternated, centered either on the chest, stomach, or solar plexus. T h e basic practice to test the use of the vital force is the "breakage of hard objects" (pemecaluin benda keras). T h e most c o m m o n targets used for différent levels of attainment are madc of concrète (fig. 5.3). T h e composition and soinetimes the size w i l l differ according to the level and the gender of the practitioner: the higher the level, the less sand is used Figure 5.2.
A breathing posture of the Merpati Putih (school).
i n order to make the target barder to break. T h e second type of target,
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M a r t i a l A r t s as Embodied Knowledge
T h e Training of Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
129
used by second-level students and beyond, is an ice block. T h e third type, also used by second-level students and above, is a target of métal files i n tempered steel (ftg. 5.3). T h e practitioner must break through a number of thèse targets at one time, with the quantity increasing according to the level of the student. T h e fourth type, made of cast iron, is used starting at the third level; it generally consists of water pump handles. T h e fifth type, probably the hardest target to break, is a pumice tuff block: it is used starting w i t h the fourth level. Practitioners e x p l a i n that well-developed tenaga dalam and the control of gesture make it possible to break an object by reducing the impact o n the body when the target is struck. Because not ail students have attained the requisite development and control, physical contact frequently compensâtes for the effect of the tenaga dalam o n the object that is used as a target. To prépare the body to encounter hard contact w i t h the target, exercises aiming at hardening the points of bodily impact directly o n the ground (or o n a faggot of eut rods of bamboo placed o n the ground) are practiced during training. For the hreaking of hard
Figure 5.4. A second-level student breaks through concrète during an examination.
objects beyond the first level of practice, one also uses the foot, the hand, the elbow, the arm, the calf, the head, and so forth, i n addition to the extemal edge of the h a n d . T h e technique of breakage thus implies adéquate knowledge of the
this subject, instructors systematically insist that simultaneously w i t h the technical aspect, it is essential to have complète self-confidence to succeed.
points of impact, for to strike a target anywhere other than i n a favorable
Ultimately, if the practitioner doesn't control a i l thèse
( i n gênerai, fleshy) zone c a n prove to be dangerous. It implies also the
not concentrated or bas not trained assiduously—he or she c a n be hurt.
parameters—is
ability to employ an appropriate amount of striking power for the type
Therapeutic techniques spécifie to the school are put i n practice i n
of target used: a target made out of concrète or pumice tuff requires, for
case of injuries or wounds. In the case of simple contusions, the practitio-
example, that one stresses the power of the blow, while a target made
ner c a n treat himself by the means of spécial exercises i n w h i c h postures,
out of tempered steel or from cast iron requires that one stresses the
movements, and adapted breathing forms are used. If there are bruises
speed of the strike, and a target made out of ice blocks requires that one
or tendonitis, a qualified member of the school—the master (guru) or a
combines both power and speed.
c o a c h — c a n do massage to detect the damaged zones and help regenerate
Practices that require breaking boards or bricks train perception at
them or position them back into place. T h i s qualified member may also
various levels. T h e student must be acutely aware, o n the one hand, of
apply tenaga dalam to the t h e r a p y — w h i c h is parented to what we call
the intrinsic characteristics of the materials used (ail of them more or less
magnetism i n Europe—carried out while placing hands a few centimeters
breakable, although very dense i n certain cases), and, o n the other hand,
above the zone to be treated. It is then a question of interpreting the
of the capacities and the physiological reactions of the h u m a n body i n its
feelings registered o n the palm. Those feelings give indices (beat, cold,
interaction w i t h the material environment. T h e student must have control
pins and needles, and so forth) o n the nature and the précise location
of displacements, rapid movements, and the inévitable counter-shocks that
of the pain, and attest to the energy exchange that occurs between the
accompany such exercises.' T h i s very developed sensé of observation and
specialist and the patient. T h i s type of technique is called getaran. Before
expérimentation is closely tied to rasa as an "internai touch"—where pain
describing how the getaran training is applied to perception, I w i l l discuss
possibly intervenes i n case of failure—and as "emotional sensitivity." O n
its philosophical background as expressed by M P ' s master.
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M a r t i a l A r t s as Emhodied Knowledge
Philosophical Aspects of the Teaching
T h e T r a i n i n g of Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
131
Titising hening means that one must start w i t h something "pure" (resik) and "sacred" {suci). To attain "purity and peace" (hening), it is
A f t e r a certain levé! of mastering breakage techniques, the students of
necessary to k n o w how to master oneself, suppress ail dissociated wiU, and
the school deepen their understanding of the philosophical teaching that
eliminate "desires" {nepsu). T h e most important one of ail is the attitude
parallels the breathing techniques described later on. T h e master of the
of "remission" {pasrah) w i t h respect to the Creator (Sang M a h a Pencipta).
M e r p a t i P u t i h school thus considers the entire set of " i n n e r force" {tenaga
T o paraphrase, the Merpati P u t i h student is enjoined to:
, , ,
dalam) breathing techniques and scnsitive action that seeks to feel "subtle waves" igetaran) w i t h i n the broader philosophical background to w h i c h
• search w i t h ail one's heart;
the Javanese Mersudi patitising tindak pusakané
• develop précision and balance behavior;
titising hening notably refers.
For the Indonesian non-Javanese members, this statement translates
• strive for humility and wisdom.
^
;
in Indonesian to Mencari sampai mendapatkan tindakan yang henar dakm ketenangan, w h i c h means: "To look for, until obtained, balanced behavior
O v e r a l l , the student is required to respect the profound truths associated
thanks to a peaceful m i n d and heart." T h e two Indonesian terms that
w i t h the art and develop mastery over the sensés and spiritual serenity.
compose the school's name, Merpati Putih, form the acronytn of this
W e see here that the heart of the teaching is based o n behav-
statement and establish a way to develop a multilevel interprétation. A t
ior and relationship w i t h others. For Mas Pung, there is récognition,
the external level we have Merpati P u t i h , at the internai level Mersudi
negatively, of what constitutes the characteristics of antisocial behaviors:
patitising tindak pusakane titising hening, and this in turn is subdivided
indécision, unstable character, arrogance, turbulence, and so forth, i n
into further levels. T h i s method of procédure is tied to the Javanese
short, those characteristics that have adverse social conséquences. T h e
cosmological tradition that insists on the interdependence of beings,
master emphasizes that it is not a simple view of m i n d , like i n Western
objects, and the relations that unité them. S c h o o l founder Mas Pung
philosophy, but a relational principle i n w h i c h the social, through the
interprets this statement as follows: Mersudi means "to look for" in the
term pusakané,
most active way, w i t h ail one's forces and investing oneself fuUy u n t i l the
hening. T h e n o t i o n of remission is also important. It includes ail activities
goal is found and obtained. T h e reasons and true goals that motivate this
and gestures, including thoughts. Remission is expressed simultaneously
investigation must be "felt and l i v e d . " Every movement must be carried out and accompanied with a true "introspection" (mawas diri) because "introspection forms the basis of courage" (Mulat sarira hangrasa wani).
is tied to the cosmic harmony through the terms titising
through the active social relationship of the subject and through the fact that one does not dissociate oneself from the natural environment. Thus, we may notice that the statement's key, Mersudi . . . , is not
Patitising confers a sensé of "précision, correct goal, being i n agree-
used as a real montra, that is, an efficient formula w i t h ritual or religious
ment (with the System of social values)." O n e must remember that what
purpose, but expresses a way of personal and social behavior i n w h i c h
is good for oneself is not necessarily good for others. It is necessary to
Javanese roots can be continuously felt i n the m o d e m context where
remain humble and not flaunt one's knowledge and capacities.
Merpati Putih opérâtes. A s a,sserted before, this aspect of the philosophy
Tindak means the "attitude, behavior" that reflects one's empirical
of the school, expressed by its founder M a s Pung, gives us keys to under-
action. Everyone must strive to become an example for one's friends or
standing the techniques aimed at teaching remote sensitive blind détec-
younger fellows in order to build a bridge over w h i c h new générations
tion abilities that enable the appréhension of the proximal environment.
can pass. It is essential to adopt a manner of behavior that is " h u m b l e " {andhap asor), "honest" (jujur),
full of "compassion" (welas asih) and
" w i s d o m " (arif wijaksana). Pusakané
Tactile and Proprioceptive Sensés to Detect Subtle Waves
here does not designate a pusaka as a physical object (a
regalia) but as a " p r i n c i p l e " that forms a pillar of truth, a deep truth
A c c o r d i n g to Javanese experts, getaran (waves, vibrations) exist i n them-
that represents the banner of the school that protects ail of its members.
selves and everywhere, including i n human beings. T h e techniques used
132
M a r t i a l A r t s as Embodied Knowledge
seek to sensitize the body to subtle vibratory frequencies. A t M e r p a t i P i i t i h the training starts w i t h the two breathing séries mentioned earHer w i t h référence to tenaga dalam, w i t h w h i c h two complementary postures are associated. T h e type of breathing for thèse exercises—initially "hissing"—becomes so smooth that no sound is emitted while the breath is exhaled only slightly.* Subsequently, breathing techniques called "cleaning respiration" {nafas pembersi) are practiced, also w i t h the eyes closed. Thèse are performed seated i n half-lotus, a position that corresponds to a slower rate of breathing w i t h four aspects: nasal inspiration, rétention, oral expiry, and reverse breathing. T h i s breathing aims at locating and e l i m i n a t i n g the tensions from the body. T h e n , while breathing i n the same way, the attention of the practitioner is directed toward the cosmos, then toward the ground, then it is again centered o n the body proper of the practitioner. Each one of thèse four stages must have a length of time proportionally equal to that of the others to reach at least an hour i n a i l . It is specified that the practitioner must maintain a state of receptivity; as m u c h as possible: he must close the "external sensés" (smell, hearing, sight, taste), he must calm his émotions and thoughts, and his attention must be focused o n internai feelings, the relation of interiority w i t h externality—particularly o n the skin but also through breathing
T h e T r a i n i n g of Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
133
supposed to support getaran perception, i n order to drive out conséquent fear caused by the loss of the visual stimuli, as well as to stimulate selfconfidence. T h e students then undergo a n extended and monotonous training of their sensations and the interprétation of thèse
sensations
to help them overcome their appréhension and to establish a cause and effect relationship between what they feel between skin perception and proprioception and the level of the material reality surrounding them. Thereafter, the student combines getaran and tenaga dalam. For the grade exams from levels six to seven, the blindfolded student must go through some obstacles, then locate a terracotta pot suspended i n the air at the level of his face and break it w i t h a blow using the external edge o f the h a n d . i n getaran training alone, one of the tests from level seven to level eight consists i n stopping a bail shooting toward a goal, still blindfolded. C e r t a i n advanced groups play small football matches as an exercise of practical application. T h e most advanced specialists use knives or swords to eut objects, like vegetables, completely blindfolded. Nevertheless, the grade of a pupil i n the ranks of the school does not guarantee the quality o f success i n getaran applications. Experts w h o have reached a h i g h level of détection insist o n the fact that it did not come at once. H a v i n g begun the training o f getaran o n level six, they had to practice assiduously for at least three hours or more per day for at
frictions (the physical contact of the mucous membranes and the alveoli of the lungs fiUed w i t h air) and proprioception. W i t h the aid of thèse breathing exchanges and sensations, he increases his internai receptivity and his contact w i t h the environment. T h e basic application into w h i c h the practitioner is initiated is the détection of obstacles (fig. 5.5). T h e practical session lasts at least as long as the preparatory phase, both reaching three hours or more. T h e trainers draw up a course of obstacles made up of sticks approximately 1.6 meters long, of w h i c h the majority—equipped w i t h a base—are vertical, and placed at a distance from each other of 50 to 80 centimeters; simultaneously some others are placed horizontally. Practitioners therefore train o n a surface of, more or less, 5 to 10 square meters, according to the number of participants. T h e exercise consists of h a v i n g the eyes blindfolded while endeavoring to detect the obstacles i n order to avoid them. T h e hands represent the principal tool for détection, but the instructors w h o m I met insist o n the need for being accustomed to detect w i t h the entire body. T h e y also maintain the need to invest oneself i n active movement, w h i c h is
Figure 5.5. Getaran détection dunng a National Day event in Jakarta.
1^4
M a r t i a l A r t s as Embodied Knowledge
T h e Training of Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
135
least one year before certain mental blocks n o longer arose, i n particular
Therefore w i t h i n the secular school, while pupils may develop abili-
the appréhension caused by the absence of visual support. T h i s appréhen-
ties that resemble touch intensified to the extrême, practitioners marked
sion, according to them, pushes the practitioner to use analytical thought
by Javanese transmission Systems—whereby an inner training evolves
or bis imagination to interpret bis immédiate environment. T h i n k i n g ,
throughout the whole life—are not fully satisfied by the techniques alone.
however, far from being of any utility for this practice, is the principal obstacle to progress if it is not properly controlled and modulated by the " a t t e n t i o n " (perhatian) o n the fiati (liver) as the physical center of feeling.
Getaran
and Cognitive Science
:
,
T h e difficulties that c a n discourage practitioners réside i n several points including not only the investment of time and attention but fre-
T h e further development o f M e r p a t i Putih's getaran raises the question of
quently the strong physical investment required as well. T h i s last point
the objectivization of the techniques used. C e r t a i n cadres of the school
is particularly cogent for blind people. Since 1991, the techniques of
had proposed to establish collaboration w i t h the scientific circles of the
getaran have been taught to b l i n d men and women. A f t e r one conclusive
neurosciences
expérimental period carried out i n Yogyakarta over a twelve-year period,
applying it i n the public domain, but they were not heard. In spite of the
other training centers have been created i n Java (Jakarta and Semarang)
efforts of rationalization and adaptation to the m o d e m context, a certain
and i n B a l i (Denpasar).' Visually handicapped people who are assiduous
empirical approach d o m i n â t e s i n the development of the techniques. But
i n training manage i n a few months to perceive their close environment
this expérimental approach, as we saw earlier w i t h the training adapted
and thus manage to move around practically like sighted people."
to b l i n d people, c a n take a long time before intégration w i t h the com-
N o t so long ago the practices of getaran were still shrouded i n secrecy.
and kinetics i n order to study the p h e n o m e n o n
before
m o n course.
They are now partially disunited from the traditional course of pencak silat
Nevertheless, when 1 speak about the phenomenon of remote blind
and can be, i n addition to blind people, transmitted to adults of more than
détection to neurophysiologists, neuropsychologists, or psychophysicists
thirty years of âge within the framework of a health gymnastics course
it does not seem to astonish them. Because of their disciplines, they are
developed by the school. This became possible because the connections
well informed about the perceptive potential of the h u m a n body i n ail its
to local conceptions of time and space of the school transmission Systems
richness and complexity and déplore the hegemony of works concerning
have been partially freed from Javanese ritual constraints. Conversely, the
Visual perception i n their respective fields. In particular, Alain Berthoz
absence of such a background would probably not support the possibil-
(1997: 58) concerning tactile sensitivity relates that: " O u r skin contains
ity of perennializing i n a m o d e m context this spécial tie to the natural
many receptors sensitive to various aspects of contact w i t h the external
environment related to particular social habits.
world. Some measure pressure . . . , others detect beat and cold and
T h e various capacities to w h i c h getaran leads should not make us
actually constitute a class of thermoreceptors" (36). It even appears that
lose sight of the fact, however, that the techniques are supposed to make
the sensitivity of thèse sensors is so subtle that they c a n carry out remote
it possible first of a i l for the practitioners to learn h o w to k n o w one's
sensing, as i n the case of the "facial vision of the b l i n d " : indeed "objects
inner self, to c o n t r o l one's é m o t i o n s , one's behavior, one's relations w i t h
that are close to the face tend to provoke slight disturbances of the air
others, and one's intimate relationship w i t h the world. O n several occa-
as well as changes i n beat radiation that could be detected by receptors
sions 1 met w i t h practitioners of the highest level i n getaran who, after
on the face" (O'Regan 2001: 9 5 9 ) . '
several years of advanced control of the techniques, expressed dissatisfac-
Consequently, various éléments take part i n the existence of a very
tion and a sensé that something was lacking. In order to compensate for
elaborate perceptive apparatus ready to supplément the sensé of s i g h t . I t
thèse deep feelings, thèse experts consulted traditional Javanese masters
is theoretically not excluded that by using spécifie exercises this apparatus
and sometimes proceeded to follow their teachings; one of them bas even
in w h i c h tactile capacities and other capacities related to balance and body
founded bis o w n school by reintroducing a religious orientation.
m o t i o n may arise, intervene, and compensate for—or even replace—sight.
136
M a r t i a l A r t s as Embodied Knowledge
T h e T r a i n i n g of Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
137
A U the more so, says Berthoz, because tactile information seems to have
A n o t h e r similarity that occurs between cognitivist observations and
access to the centers of the brain that process visual data (1997: 9 4 - 9 5 ) .
Javanese concepts is the latent possibility to accentuate one or more of
Moreover, the " a t t e n t i o n " that is central i n the practice of getaran exploits
the perceptive capacities and intensify their active rôle by concentrating
an important part of the sensé of touch: "Tactile perception is not only
one's attention o n it, as found i n the Javanese techniques of concentrat-
in correspondcnce w i t h vision, it is influenced by the active character
ing one's attention o n a spécifie point of the body during the breakage
of attention" (1997: 97).
technique or developing concentration to activate " i n n e r feeling" or
,i-
>
Berthoz qtiotes the case of a several-years-long collaboration with two
getaran perception during the deprivation of sight.
pédagogues during w h i c h he developed a set of exercises close to those
A l a i n Berthoz (2006), i n collaboration w i t h the philosopher Jean-
of getaran. Berthoz states that: "Thèse two teachers had succeeded, by a
Luc Petit, recently quoted turther enquiries to underline the fact that the
particular pedagogy of enriched environment, to teach partially sighted
action of human beings is physiologically and sensitively directed toward
children to play the balloon, the bail, foil, etc. T h e more the movement
an interaction w i t h the world rather than toward a fundamental représen-
was fast, the more the c h i l d r e n seemed to succeed" (1997: 59).
tation of the world preceding action (Berthoz and Petit 2006: 15,
163).
N o t i n g that "the fundamental problem is that of the unit of percep-
A m o n g others, I noticed a couple of thèse enquiries that can be related
t i o n " and that "the neural bases of cohérence are still badly understood"
to the broader context of perception involved i n getaran's case that have
(1997: 103), Berthoz pleads for an approach that seeks to highlight the
to do w i t h the c o m p l e t i o n of active imagination and perception o n the
interdependence of the various cognitive potentials i n order to restore
one hand, and the construction of space through expérience o n the other.
the éléments i n their place w i t h i n the whole. Because for h i m "there
W e saw that the most skilled specialists of getaran have to train
are more than five sensés," it is also necessary to take into account "the
for more than three hours daily for a period of more than one year ( i n
vestibular sensors, the proprioceptors of the muscles, of the articula-
addition to several years of martial arts training and to twice or thrice
tions, and for certain species, echolocation, the magnetic direction, etc."
weekly routine trainings) before starting to be able to enact
(Berthoz 1997: 287). H e especially proposes to return to a classification
sensitive blind détection. T h e i r training involves repeated expérience of
of the sensés that corresponds to "perceptive functions" and to add to
continuously facing error and failing while practicing tentative m o t i o n
the five sensés those "of movement, space, balance, effort, self, décision,
détection. C o n c e r n i n g the difficulties of improving détection, the prac-
responsibility, initiative, etc." Jacques N i n i o (1996: 36) draws up a list
titioners identified the interférence of m i n d pushing them to t h i n k and
close to the preceding one, associating w i t h the five sensés those of "the
rationalize. O n this subject, Berthoz and Petit (2006: 167-168) explain
remote
vertical, the magnetic field, température, pressure, connection w i t h time
that sensorial perception induces a nonsensorial component that they call
and w i t h external movements," but also, for other species, echolocation
active imagination, w h i c h compensâtes for what the sensés cannot directly
and modification of the electric
perceive. For instance, we imagine the back side of a bail as being the
field.
T h u s the Javanese concepts mentioned earlier présent similarities
same as the side of the bail that we do see; i n the same way, we imag-
w i t h the observations developed by thèse authors i n a way that insists
ine emptiness i n a box of w h i c h we see the external part. T h e actual
on the need for taking into account proprioception, interpreted as the
perception and this active imagination are thus continually intertwined
sensé of internai touch or even the source of this sensé or its prolonga-
to différent degrees. In such conditions, it is not surprising if a genuine
t i o n according to the adopted prospect. O n e finds this taken into account
perception is hard to obtain and requires consistently good concentration
in the Javanese conceptions that refer to one's " i n n e r feeling," precisely
and much training. It is ail the barder to use without the sensé of sight.
including the sensé of touch, and the complementary character of the
N o t using sight enables imagination to increase. Too m u c h imagination,
sensés, w h i c h i n Java is expressed by the fact that the sensés have the
according to the authors, may provoke "empty perception" (almost the
same source (the "central feeling") and are, i n the original conceptions,
same words as those used by officiai coaches of M P school, meaning, i n
activated by a c o m m o n divine principle.
the case of getaran training, the inability to detect an obstacle).
138
M a r t i a l A r t s as Embodied Knowledge
T h e Training of Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
A n o t h e r aspect of the perceptive expérience described by Berthoz
139
method of getaran, by suggesting that the human body is equipped w i t h
and Petit (2006: 163) is that of neural activity for récognition of space.
a perceptive potential highly sensitive to seemingly negligible external
T h e somatosensorial m o t i o n maps of the cérébral cortex, for instance, are
variations. T h e science of cognition bas developed conceptual éléments
rapidly modified through expérience. It means that the degree of adapta-
close to those of the Javanese empirical method. In fact, "our m o d e m
t i o n of those m o t i o n maps to empirical perception activity is very h i g h .
forms of thought do constitute the rediscovery of a fundamental aspect
W e may suppose that fréquent and prolonged blindfolded trainings such
of the h u m a n experiment," says Varela i n relation to original Buddhism
as those of M P play an important rôle i n the configuration of the maps
(ibid: 173).
of those who are training, even if it is still hard to be précise without previous e x p é r i m e n t a t i o n .
In social anthropology, Marcel Mauss (1993) conckides that corjioral and breathing practices like Indian yogic and Chinese Taoist techniques
Therefore, w h e n considering ail thèse physiological capacities and
teach us something about the " c o m p l è t e h u m a n b e i n g " (the social,
abilities, it is essentiel to take into account that subtleties of the per-
psychic, and physical one). Indeed it appears that if India and C h i n a
ceptive apparatus go well beyond the five sensés. O l d Javanese Sanskrit
respectively developed traditions of writing, sciences, refined technology,
describes up to ten sensés according to their respective body features: the
and religious and political centralism, i n certain points comparable
to
ear, the skin, the eye, the tongue, the nose, the m o u t h [word], the hand
what one finds i n Western nations, t h e y — l i k e Java and compared to the
[gripping action], the foot [mobility], the anus, the genitals (Zoetmulder
Westerners—preserved empirical expérience and practices that testify to
1995: 203). Subtleties of the perceptive apparatus also show through i n
the constitutive vitality of their social relations and the oral transmission
the described techniques that empirically reveal sensés substituting for
of their cognition Systems. In thèse designs and through thèse practices,
sight. It is notable that ail the ten bodily features listed here play an
the body engages i n its totality.
active part i n the practice of getaran (for instance, muscles of the anus
Very différent is the case of industrial Europe where the use of
and the genitals are used at différent phases of the breathing, the tongue
external prostheses has become the c o m m o n rule and enabled a technol-
is placed i n a spécial way i n the mouth, and so o n ) .
ogy of assistantship of body m o t i o n (bicycle, motorbike, car, train, plane,
T h e action is either internai—focusing attention o n the sensé of
elevator, electronic apparatus), and a specialization of the
perceptive
breathing as an internai sensé of touch—or external. In both cases it is
activity (notably through the increasing number of mass média: books,
connected w i t h A l a i n Berthoz's "sensé of movement" that is activated
newspapers, radio, T V , movie, computer, video games). T h i s type of
every moment the body moves even slightly (through breathing activity,
technology and communicational and educational média are likely to
for instance) w h e n engaged i n intentional m o t i o n (2006: 206). Getaran's
modify intrinsic characteristics of sensitive perception.
total perception, therefore, utilizes both internai and external orientations i n a complementary way.
D a v i d Howes (1990) argues that the hierarchalization of the sensés varies not only from one social context to another but also from one era to another. H e evokes the example of European printing works increasing the sensé of sight to the détriment of that of hearing (1990: 102). S t i l l it should be noted that the process of using systematically printed works
Observations on Corporal Training
for individual private reading began i n the 1700s and took place over C o r p o r a l trainings, or psycho-corporal trainings to be exact, are provided
several centuries. Previously the hegemony of the sensé of sight was not
in the Far East w i t h a particular valorization that bas been comparatively
like that k n o w n today, w i t h numerous m o d e m média focused o n sight (to
illustrated by J e a n - F r a n ç o i s Billeter (1984). Billeter opposed,
through
w h i c h we add street advertising to those cited previously). In this period,
the European valorization of c o n t e m p l a t i o n
according to N é l i a Dias i n the previous period (2004: 304) (referring to
w i t h the Eastern concept of perfect action. However, i n the analysis I
K a r l M . Figlio): "feeling was identified w i t h sensitivity and sensitivity
arguments and examples,
develop here, it appears that m o d e m scientific thought makes it possible
in its turn w i t h the sensé of tact."" Tact seems to bave lasted into the
to give a theoretical account of empirical methods, including the Javanese
beginning of the nineteenth century (Dias 2004: 304) and does not differ
140
M a r t i a l A r t s as E m b o d i e d K n o w l e d g e
radically from eighteenth-century
interprétation.
T h e T r a i n i n g o f Perception i n Javanese M a r t i a l A r t s
141
It is d i f f i c u l t t o n a m e
23). T h i s i n n o v a t i v e concept, based o n former works (Forest 2004: 12-17) was
t h i s s e n s é ( w h i c h shares c e r t a i n a s p e c t s w i t h t h e t e r m " p r o p r i o c e p t i o n " )
modelcd o n the characteristics of the sensé of tact: pressure, résistance, developed
t h a t is a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h w i t h o u t d i r e c t c o n t a c t " b e a t a n d c o l d , d r y n e s s
energy, tiredness, a n d p a i n . I n a d d i t i o n to i n d i c a t i n g that various features of
a n d w e t " a n d is d e s c r i b e d as a n " i n v i s i b l e a n d s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n " o r
the body a i l possessed tact w i t h similar sensitivity, this study revealed a greater
"diffuse f e e l i n g b y w h i c h w e feel w h a t occurs i n u s . " P r o p r i o c e p t i o n here
capacity of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of the "muscular sensé," particularly i n regard to spatial
is c o m p a r e d t o t a c t as t h e m a i n s o u r c e o f sensés o f w h i c h taste, t h e s e n s é s of s m e l l , hearing, a n d sight f o r m nervous extensions, spécial forms. Tact,
thus seen
prolongations, or
as a " p a s s i v e t o u c h , " is n o t d e v a l u e d as
" a c t i v e t o u c h " b e c a u s e o f its a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e h a n d a n d t h e c o n n o t a t i o n of m a n u a l w o r k and sexual habits (Dias
2004: 60-61).
o r i e n t a t i o n . T h i s n o t i o n has become central i n the physiology of m o v e m e n t and perception and has been pointed out by various authors. Some of t h e m insist that proprioception exists o n l y i n accord w i t h the other sensés a n d speak of visual proprioception or cutaneous proprioception (Forest 2004: 29). 2. For A r n o l d V a n G e n n e p , ritual i n i t i a t i o n is composed by a set of rites that facilitate young people in " b e c o m i n g |a| m a n or w o m a n " (1991: 96). I n bis
internai
view, this i n i t i a t i o n is characterized by three steps: séparation from the world
sensé a n d four e x t e r n a l p e r i p h e r a l sensés c o n n e c t e d t o t h e i n t e r n a i brings
T h i s categorization organizing our view around a central
of w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n , réclusion i n a spécial place (forest, b u t , a n d so forth),
us d i r e c t l y b a c k t o t h e J a v a n e s e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d taises t h e q u e s t i o n o f
intégration w i t h the maie or female adult group. H e also notices several c o m m o n
w h e t h e r , f o r e x a m p l e , a p r a c t i c e s u c h as r e a d i n g , p o p u l a r i z e d b y t h e g e n -
characteristics, such as fasting and alimentary proscriptions, that we also tind i n
eralized diffusion o f p r i n t e d works, intervenes n o t o n l y to t h e détriment o f
Java. F r o m the analysis of bis data, he concludes that " t h e suppression of o r d i -
t h e a u d i t o r y a t t e n t i o n , as H o w e s suggests, b u t also t o t h e loss o f a t t e n t i o n
nary life rules is essential to transitional periods." T h e three steps described by
to proprioceptive faculties.'- W h a t
V a n G e n n e p bave been explored further by V i c t o r Turner (1969), w h o theorizes
is at s t a k e
today i n the h o r i z o n of
p r i n t e d m é d i a is t h e e m p h a s i s o n e l e c t r o n i c m é d i a c i t e d e a r l i e r a n d t h e effect this type o f média bas o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n a n d its a t t e n d a n t s o c i a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , a n d c o g n i t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s . D o w e m o d e m s prefer t o relate t o e x t e r n a l
média c o g n i t i v e objects o r d o we
also w a n t t o nurture o u r i n n e r abilities?
interacts w i t h a n d has a regenerative effect u p o n the existing social structure and social norms. 3. For a detailed description of Javanese esoteric conceptions, classificat i o n System a n d contiguous practices, see de G r a v e (2001a: 1 8 - 1 4 4 ) . O n the classification System, see also: V a n Ossenbruggen (1977).
I n c o n c l u s i o n , n o final a n s w e r c a n b e g i v e n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t differentiates
that the period of réclusion (liminal phase) is a n anti-structure that dialectically
a s e n s é a n d a c a p a c i t y as i t a p p e a r s h e r e
4. C e r t a i n schools, influenced by Islam, préserve a strong mystical orienta-
i n the light of
t i o n . O n the tenaga dalam, see de G r a v e (2001a: 1 4 6 - 2 0 7 ) . O n the c o m p l e m e n -
the Javanese, eighteenth-century European, a n d contemporary examples.
tarity between formai éducation a n d informai éducation see de G r a v e (2001b,
A c c o r d i n g to the réfèrent system o f values, ritual, positivist, or l a y m a n ,
2004, 2005).
and according to projections of the d o m i n a n t académie disciplines a n d
5. O n e characteristic of anaerobic breathing, w h i c h is based o n long
t h e i r i m p a c t o n s o c i e t y , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s c a n c h a n g e o n a scale o f t i m e t h a t
phases of apnea at the e n d of the inspiration a n d sometimes of the expiry, is
is d i f f i c u l t t o d é t e r m i n e . W h o k n o w s i f o u r o w n c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e n s é s
to intensify blood c i r c u l a t i o n . C o m b i n e d w i t h muscular tension, it produces a n
w i l l n o t approach the Javanese ones w i t h
effective hardening of the muscles, w h i c h become denser and more résistant.
conceming
future scientiftc
discoveries
6. That's not without r e m i n d i n g one of the " P r i m o r d i a l O n e " of the pre-
perception?
H i n d u i s m Indian conceptions that appears as a " v i t a l force that breathes w i t h o u t the air m o v i n g ( G o n d a 1979: 219).
Notes
7. T h e center i n Jakarta was created i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h a f o u n d a t i o n of the L a n d Forces. 8. A statistical average from three to six m o n t h s was established. Progress
1. T h e récognition of the existence of tnuscular receptors at the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h century leads the B r i t i s h physiologist C h a r l e s S. S h e r r i n g t o n to replace the term "muscular sensé" (an " i n t e r n a i " sensé and so différent from the five " e x t e r n a l " sensés) w i t h that of " p r o p r i o c e p t i o n , " m a k i n g it possible to distinguish between internai and external transformations of the body (Forest 2004:
is thus m u c h faster t h a n i n sighted people; this average reveals a higher potential aptitude. 9. For a présentation of pencak silat a n d a detailed description of the M e r p a t i P u t i h school, see de G r a v e (2001a: 2 1 5 - 3 2 7 ) ( o n pencak silat, .see also de G r a v e 1996, 2000).
Martial Arts as Embodied Knowledge
142
The Training of Perception in Javanese Martial Arts
143
10. K e v i n O ' R e g a n spécifies that hearing may also play a rôle i n this process.
G o n d a , Jan. 1979. Les religions de l'Inde—/: Védisme et hindouisme ancien. Paris: Payot.
11. C e r t a i n authors like O ' R e g a n or Varela argue a character of quasi-
Howes, D a v i d . 1990. "Les techniques des sens." Anthropologie et sociétés
reciprocity o n the prospective subject-object. For instance, Varela (1993: 172-173)
14 (2):
99-115.
stipulâtes that the r e l a t i o n of perception does not émerge from the subject, but
Mauss, M a r c e l . 1993. "Les techniques d u corps." Sociologie et anthropologie 3 6 3 - 3 8 6 .
rises from the " é m e r g e n c e " b o r n from the " c o n t a c t " between what perceives and
N i n i o , Jacques.
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1996. L'empreinte des sens: Perception,
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12. Philosophers and naturalists (for example, C o n d i l l a c , D i d e r o t , and Buffon) held w i t h this view according to w h i c h "sight is a variety, even a species of t o u c h " (Dias 2004: 58).
O ' R e g a n , K e v i n . 2001. " A Sensorimotor A c c o u n t of V i s i o n and V i s u a l C o n s c i o u s ness." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24 (5): 9 3 9 - 9 7 3 . Turner, V i c t o r W . 1969. The
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lent of the "passive t o u c h " — i s i n no case regarded as a passive one since it is
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i n J . - C . G a l e y , éd., Différences,
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Textes
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de G r a v e J e a n - M a r c , 1996. " U n e école catholique de pencak silat: Tunggal H a t i S e m i n a r i . " Archipel 52: 6 5 - 7 5 . . 2000. " U n c h a m p i o n issu du palais royal: L'histoire de R M H a r i m u r t i . " Archipel 60: 141-166. . 2001a. Initiation rituelle et arts martiaux: Trois écoles de kanuragan
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Paris: A r c h i p e l / L ' H a r m a t t a n . . 2001b. " H u b u n g a n p e n d i d i k a n f o r m a i dan n o n - f o r m a l d i Indonesia: Pencak silat, tari d a n c i t a - c i t a para pendiri p e n d i d i k a n d i Indonesia." Suluah 1 (2):
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U.
ASIAN STUDIES / SPORTS STUDIES
This landmark work provides a wide-ranging scholarly considération of the traditional Asian martial arts. Most of the contributors to the volume are practitioners of the martial arts, and ail are keenly aware that thèse traditions now exist in a transnational context. The book's cutting-edge research includes ethnography and approaches from film, literature, performance, and theater studies. Three central aspects émerge from this book: martial arts as embodied fantasy, as a culturally embedded form of self-cultivation, and as a continuous process of identity formation. Contributors explore several popular and highbrow cultural considérations, including the career of Bruce Lee, Chinese wuxia films, and Don DeLillo's novel Running Dog. Ethnographies explored describe how the social body trains in martial arts and how martial arts are constructed in transnational training. Ultimately, this académie study of martial arts offers a focal point for new understandings of cultural and social beliefs and of practice and agency. "The book successfully demonstrates that martial arts and other traditional art forms are not static entities. Instead they respond to changing environments by a process of constant reinvention." — Thomas A. Green, coeditor of Maniai Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation "Taken together, thèse essays give a new picture of Asian martial arts as a transnational phenomenon, ranging from Singapore's préservation of Chinese traditions to British adaptation of Indian martial arts for the stage and African usage of Okinawan traditions. Since martial arts are one of the most famous traditions to have originated in Asia, it is usefui to see exactiy how they are viewed or practiced around the world, from a scholarly perspective." — Margaret B. Wan, author of Green Peony and the Rise of the Chinese Martial Arts Novel D. S. Farrer is Assistant Professor of Cultural Anthropology at the University of Guam and the author of Shadows of the Prophet: Martial Arts and Sufi Mysticism. John Whalen-Bridge is Associate Professor of English at the National University of Singapore and the editor of several books, including (with Gary Storhoff) American Buddhism as a Way of Life, aiso published by SUN Y Press.
SUNY P R E S S
State University of New York Press www.sunypress.edu
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