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Figure 1 Location of Oegstgeest, The Netherlands.

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13 An insight into animal exchange in Early Medieval Oegstgeest: a combined archaeozoological and isotopic approach Inge M.M. van der Jagt, Lisee M. Kootker, Thijs van Kolfschoten, Henk Kars and Gareth R. Davies

Introduction Shortly after the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe’s urban life revived and trade and commerce revitalised. As a result, many international large-scale trade networks emerged in Northern Europe from the Early Middle Ages (c. 500-1000 AD) onwards. Recent archaeological research stress that not only major population centres participated in these trade-networks, but also small rural and sub-urban coastal and riverine settlements (Loveluck and Tys 2006; Theuws, in prep.). The Dutch Rhine delta is considered to be one of the coastal and riverine areas where numerous settlements developed and flourished during the 6th and 7th century AD, preceding the rise of more upstream trade centres like Dorestad in central The Netherlands. One of these Rhine delta settlements is Oegstgeest, where large-scale excavations revealed the remnants of a large Merovingian (500-750 AD) rural settlement (Fig. 1). Among a broad spectrum of archaeological finds, an isolated inhumation grave was discovered containing the skeletal remains of a young child. Based on the fact that the archaeological records show evidence of external contacts, and taking the strategic location of the settlement near the coast and along the river Rhine into consideration, one assumes that the early medieval settlement was part of one of the many trade networks in Europe. It is therefore thought that Oegstgeest was regularly visited or even inhabited by people from a non-local descent (Hemminga and Hamburg 2006; Hemminga et al. 2008; Jezeer 2011). Hence, to gain more insight into the child’s provenance, strontium isotope research was conducted on one dental element of the child as well as on several porcine teeth to define the bioavailable strontium signal in the region to compare the child’s data with (Kootker and Altena 2012; Kootker, Davies and Kars 2012). The results from these analyses not only hinted at a non-local origin of this young individual, but also one of the

porcine teeth gave a non-local signal. Although non-local or imported archaeological artefacts have been identified earlier, evidence of longdistance acquisition or trade of animals or animal products from the preliminary archaeozoological analyses is to date still absent (Dijkstra 2011b). The non-local strontium signal of the pig is therefore considered to be the first strong evidence for animal mobility in Early Medieval Oegstgeest. In order to gain a better insight into the possible former animal trade connections in Early Medieval Rhineland, additional porcine dental samples are analysed. Furthermore, unpublished and published archaeozoological data are reexamined with the specific aim to look for archaeozoological evidence for trade in or exchange of pigs or porcine products. This paper presents the results of the archaeozoological and strontium isotope investigations. The site

The Merovingian settlement in Oegstgeest has been extensively excavated during the first decade of the 21st century (Hemminga and Hamburg 2006; Hemminga et al. 2008; Jezeer 2011). The rural settlement was situated along a side channel parallel to the river Rhine and on both sides of a smaller transverse channel. Several longhouses, outhouses, wells, (waste) pits and ditches were found that can be directly linked to the habitation phase between the 6th and 7th century AD. The evidence of trade or exchange in Oegstgeest is convincing: metal ore was probably imported from the eastern part of The Netherlands (the Veluwe, cover sand area), Germany and possibly even from England. Tephrites were imported from upstream regions as the Eifel area in northwest Germany and other production centres in Germany probably produced a vast quantity of the Oegstgeest pottery as well (Dijkstra 2006; Hamburg and Hemminga 2007; Dijkstra 2008; 2011a;

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Figure 2 Schematic map of the excavation area in Oegstgeest showing sample locations. The T–numbers refer to Trench numbers, the F-numbers to Feature numbers.

Dijkstra 2011b). Moreover, the presence of a coin from England dating to 675-750 AD can be considered as indicative for connections between The Netherlands and England (Nooijen 2011). The archaeological artefacts provide clear evidence that Oegstgeest, among other settlements in the Rhine delta, participated in extensive farreaching trade networks in the 6th and 7th century AD. Convincing archaeozoological evidence

that the inhabitants of Oegstgeest produced a large surplus of animals or that they were involved in the long-distance trade or exchange of animals or animal products is so far absent (Cavallo 2006; 2008; Nagels 2012; Van der Jagt, in prep.). This might be related to the fact that surplus production or trade of livestock is difficult to identify zooarchaeologically (Groot 2008). Similar, zooarchaeological or contextually

An insight into animal exchange in Early Medieval Oegstgeest: a combined archaeozoological and isotopic approach 141

bounded evidence for occasional feastings has not yet been recognized either. This might be directly linked to the fact that from the 90.000 animal bones recovered, to date less than 20% has been analysed. After the 7th century AD, the size of the settlement reduced and eventually the settlement seems to have been abandoned. Only one longhouse and its accompanying features have been dated to the 10th and 11th century (Dijkstra 2011b).

Isotope analysis in archaeological research The application of radiogenic strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analyses in archaeological research has proven a successful tool in demonstrating palaeomobility and tracing migration events in both man and livestock (Bentley et al. 2002; Privat, O’Connell and Richards 2002; Schweissing and Grupe 2003; Pye 2004; Bentley 2006; Evans et al. 2007; Haverkort et al. 2008; Britton et al. 2009; Schwarcz, White and Longstaffe 2010; Towers et al. 2010; Viner et al. 2010; Guiry et al. 2012; Knudson et al. 2012). Hence, isotope analyses can provide an additional line of evidence for evaluating the degree that trade or mobility has occurred in Early Medieval Oegstgeest. The principle of the strontium isotope method has been described extensively (Capo, Stewart and Chadwick 1998; Pye 2004; Bentley 2006; Slovak and Paytan 2011) and will only be summarized here. Strontium has four naturally occurring isotopes: 84Sr, 86Sr, 87Sr and 88Sr. 87Sr is the radiogenic product of the -decay of 87Rb. The spatial variations in the initial amount of 87Rb in the geological bedrock and the age of the lithology result in the geographical variation in the distribution of 87Sr. Combined with the fact that strontium isotopes do not undergo fractionation due to their large atomic mass makes the 87Sr/86Sr ratio a geochemical proxy for palaeomobility. Strontium is released into the biosphere by natural processes (e.g. weathering of rocks, rainwater and sea-spray). However, the 87Sr/86Sr available for uptake by plants (bioavailable strontium) may deviate from the expected ratios based on geological conditions due to atmospheric depositions and the differential weathering of minerals within soils (Price, Burton and Bentley 2002). It is the bioavailable strontium that is eventually taken up in the food chain and incorporated in bone, dentine and enamel through the diet, where it substitutes for calcium in the structure of carbonate hydroxyapatite (Schroeder, Tipton and Nasan 1972; Rosenthal 1981). The large phosphate crystals in enamel and its compact structure

make enamel resistant to diagenesis (Nelson et al. 1986; Budd et al. 2000; Hoppe, Koch and Furutani 2003). Enamel is formed during the first years of life and undergoes barely any change after mineralisation. Hence, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio in tooth enamel reflects the strontium intake during infancy (Hillson 1986; Pye 2004; Bentley 2006). By comparing the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the dental enamel with the bioavailable strontium signal, it is possible to gain information on the geographical origins of the individuals. To date, values between 0.7088 and 0.7113 have been recorded in archaeological tooth enamel of background fauna in The Netherlands (Kootker, Davies and Kars 2012).

Material and methods Strontium isotope analyses

Nine porcine dental elements from different locations were selected for analyses (Fig. 2). The teeth were mechanically cleaned using an acid-leached dental drill by removing the surface of the enamel. Although enamel cannot remineralise due to the loss of the enamel forming cells (ameloblasts) after eruption, enamel remineralisation does occur at locations where enamel demineralisation has taken place, such as the abrasive (i.e. the occlusal, distal and mesial sides) and caries surfaces (Selwitz, Ismail and Pitts 2007; Franklin and Hicks 2008). Hence, samples of ca. 1-3 milligram were collected from non-abrasive surfaces only and sealed in acid pre-cleaned 2 millilitre polyethylene Eppendorf centrifuge tubes. The samples were leached with 0.1N acetic acid (CH3CO2H), subsequently rinsed with Milli-Q water and eventually dissolved in 3.0N HNO3. Strontium was isolated by ion exchange chromatography using Sr-Resin (EIChroM©). All samples were nitrated twice with 3N HNO3. The samples were loaded on single annealed rhenium filaments with TaCl5. The isotope compositions were measured on a Finnigan MAT- 262 RPQ-plus multicollector mass spectrometer and on a ThermoFinnigan Triton at the VU University Amsterdam. The strontium ratios were determined using a static routine and were corrected for mass-fractionation correction. All measurements were referenced to the NBS987 standard, which gave a mean 87Sr/86Sr value of 0.710239 (N=7). The samples were run to an internal precision of ± 0.000008 (1SE) or better. The total procedural blanks provided a negligible contribution (≤100 pg).

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Figure 3 The mortality profile of pig based on the mandible wear stages (MWS, N=53).

Figure 4 The mortality profile of pig based on the post-cranial skeletal elements (N=159).

Results and discussion The archaeozoological data

The published and unpublished archaeozoological data were reassessed to look in particular for archaeozoological indications for trade in pigs or porcine products in terms of age at death, body part representation and butchery technique (Cavallo 2006; 2008; Nagels 2012; Van der Jagt, in prep.). One of the advantages of pigs over cattle and caprines is that they reach the optimal slaughter age (low costs, high yield of meat) before maturity; between one and two years of age. Consequently, due to the young slaughter age, metric variations are difficult to examine, whilst in particular the morphological variations between pigs might imply the import of different breeds. Therefore, due to the limited available data, the metric assessment is not included in this paper. In addition, the analysis of butchery marks is excluded in this manuscript. Although the identification of different butchering techniques from the archaeological record might lead to the identification of local and non-local butchery practices, an insufficient

amount of butchery marks was identified in the Oegstgeest assemblage (N=78) for such a detailed analysis. Over 1000 pig fragments are recovered representing 26,9% of the total mammal assemblage. 184 elements are assigned to the partial skeletons of two piglets, indicating that pigs were likely to have been born and raised locally. The mortality profiles based on the teeth wear stages and the fusion of postcranial skeletal elements (Fig. 3 and 4) allow a reasonably accurate assessment of the (slaughter) age at death of the animals (Silver 1969; Grant 1982; Hambleton 1999). Both mortality profiles reveal a distinct, but expected pattern for pigraising. Most pigs died at the optimal slaughter age. Piglets and older specimens are barely represented in the mandible assemblage, but are reflected in the post-cranial bone assemblage (Fig. 4). This apparent difference between the mortality profiles is, among other factors, related to methodological restrictions, sample size, selection and taphonomy. The pig bones are represented by remains deriving from all parts of the body, supporting


Figure 5 Quantification of the skeletal elements of pig visualized according to the method of Spennemann (Spenneman, 1985).

the view that complete carcasses were processed on the site, rather than (imported?) parts of the animal (Albarella 2004) (Fig. 5). The assemblage is however, slightly biased towards cranial elements, specifically mandibles. This bias can be explained by the contents of one waste pit, in which 64 fragments of pig mandibles were found, belonging to a minimum of 14 individuals (Van der Jagt, in prep.). In addition, the bias might also have been caused by the fact that teeth and cranial elements are more easily identifiable and the durable dental elements are more frequently well-preserved (Albarella 2004). In addition, ribs and vertebrae are significantly underrepresented in the NISP sample. This might be explained by the fact that although attempts were made to identify all bone fragments to species, most vertebrae and all ribs were classed as medium mammal-sized. In summary, the fact that partial skeletons and fragments from all body parts of both juvenile and mature pigs have been recovered at the site, demonstrates that pigs were bred, kept and butchered in or around the medieval village of Oegstgeest. Due to the absence of a large amount of metric and butchery data, the archaeozoological dataset provide little evidence yet for large-scaled trade in meat or porcine products. Nonetheless, it must be taken into account that small quantities of animals or animal products resulting from interregional interactions (trade, gift-exchange, feastings) easily remain undetected in the archaeozoological datasets.

Strontium isotope analyses

The results of the strontium isotope analyses are displayed in table 1 and figure 6. The porcine teeth cover a wide 87Sr/86Sr range of 0.7058-0.7151. Strontium data obtained from archaeological background fauna in the Oegstgeest region suggest 87Sr/86Sr values between 0.7088 and 0.7094 (N=30: Kootker, Davies and Kars 2012). From the ten investigated pigs, five therefore exhibit 87Sr/86Sr ratios that are incompatible with the expected bioavailable strontium range around Oegstgeest and are identified as non-local to the site. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio of V411 (0.71042) does occur in The Netherlands and can be indicative for either the loess area or the boulder clay and cover sands units, although possible provenances in Great Britain or southwest Germany cannot be excluded (Evans et al. 2010; Kootker, Davies and Kars 2012; Oelze 2012). Although the strontium ratio of 0.7086 of V415 does not match one of the preliminary defined local strontium ranges in The Netherlands (Kootker, Davies and Kars 2012), it does correspondent with the defined minimum 87Sr/86Sr ratio for the Oegstgeest area and is therefore considered to be compatible with the local signal. Individuals V250, V182 and V708 on the other hand exhibit 87Sr/86Sr ratios that do not represent the Dutch geological background and have to be brought to the settlement from elsewhere beyond the Dutch frontier. The vast majority of strontium isotope research projects focus on the identification of non-local individuals rather than pinpointing possible areas

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Figure 6. Radiogenic strontium ratios of all nine individuals from Oegstgeest, presented in ascending order. They are shown against the expected bioavailable strontium range in the region (Kootker et al., 2012).

Table 1. Strontium isotope composition of archaeological pig teeth from Oegstgeest (‘Nieuw Rhijngeest Zuid 2009’). ID

Trench

Feature

87Sr/86Sr

Archaeological context

Reference

V250

5

14

0.70584

water well

This study

V415

10

29

0.70865

ditch

This study

V185

5

21

0.70900

pit

This study

V412

10

29

0.70917

ditch

This study

V484

11

24

0.70930

pit

This study

V152

5

15

0.70931

water well

This study

V429

11

24

0.70939

pit

This study

V411

10

29

0.71042

ditch

This study

V182

5

29

0.71512

water well

This study

V708

14

4

0.70801

water well

Kootker & Altena 2012

of origin. The latter research question is seldom simple to answer, as isotope analysis can only rule out places of origin and strontium isotope ratios are rarely unique for specific lithologies (Montgomery 2010). Moreover, bioavailable strontium distribution maps are rare. There is a lack of bioavailable strontium information from many parts in Europe. Nevertheless, gaps are steadily filled and various (preliminary) baseline maps have been published over the last few years (IRHUM; Bentley and Knipper 2005; Evans, Montgomery and Wildman 2009; Evans et al. 2010; Voerkelius et al. 2010; Frei and Price 2012; Kootker, Davies and Kars 2012). Based on the available data, an attempt has been made to identify possible source areas for V250, V708 and V182.

Low strontium ratios such as 0.7058 (V250) are indicative for the Tertiary basalts on the Isle of Skye in Scotland (predicted 87Sr/86Sr values 0.703 - 0.708), but also occur in southwest Germany (Hohentwiel volcanic area, 0.7057 - 0.7082) and the young volcanic Eifel area in northwest Germany (Hoffs and Wedepohl 1968; Evans, Montgomery and Wildman 2009; Oelze 2012). Parts of southwest Germany, Scotland and southeast England can also be identified as possible source areas for V708 (87Sr/86Sr of 0.7080: Bentley and Knipper 2005; Evans et al. 2010). More radiogenic ratios as high as 0.715 (V182) may occur in Scotland (Tertiary granites, 0.715-0.720), although Britain’s bioavailable strontium distribution map shows a compositional gap, as no


average values between 0.713 and 0.716 have yet been recorded (Evans, Montgomery and Wildman 2009; Evans et al. 2010). Strontium ratios of 0.715 are also compatible with the biosphere ratios in the gneiss and granite and possible older metamorphic bedrocks of the Black Forest in southwest Germany and with the Devonian granitoids in the Massif Central, southwest France (0.7166 ± 0.0060) (Price, Wahl and Bentley 2006; Kelly 2007; Oelze 2012). Hence, sample V182 is more likely to originate from either southwest Germany or southwest France rather than from the British Isles. Several provenance studies have already pointed out that pigs and/or porcine products have been subjected to significant movement from the prehistory onwards (Bentley, Price and Stephan 2004; Bentley and Knipper 2005; Shaw et al. 2009; Guiry et al. 2012; Madgwick, Mulville and Evans 2012). The results presented in this study add the early medieval settlement of Oegstgeest to this list. The strontium isotope ratios indicate possible connections with the eastern Netherlands (cover sand area, V411), Germany, France, Scotland and/or England (V182 and V250), which, except for France, match perfectly with those obtained from the analysis of the inorganic material culture (see section 1.1).

Conclusion The isotope results presented here show that the early medieval inhabitants of Oegstgeest participated in a large-scaled trade network in which not only objects of material culture such as pottery and tephrites were subjected to exchange, but also in which the exchange of animals or animal products was involved. The combined strontium isotope results and the inorganic material culture point towards possible source areas within The Netherlands (cover sand or loess area), but indicate also source areas reaching far beyond the Dutch frontier (Germany, Scotland, England and possibly France). The archaeozoological analysis does not provide solid evidence yet for the participation of pigs or porcine products in trade networks, (gift-) exchange or feastings. Nevertheless, the fact that to date less than 20% of the animal bones from Oegstgeest has been analysed bears the potential to provide a solid foundation for future archaeozoological research.

In conclusion, the results presented in this paper indicate that the application of stable isotopes combined with archaeozoological research, offers a powerful tool to answer conventional archaeological and archaeozoological research questions. Hence, additional stable isotope analyses (strontium, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon isotopes) of livestock specimens from Oegstgeest can provide a means for estimating the amount of animals or proportions of animal products which were exchanged or imported as opposed to being acquired from locally raised individuals.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank all the students who have worked on the Oegstgeest project for their effort in analyzing the material. Furthermore, we would like to thank Jasper de Bruin and Marleen van Zon for providing unpublished archaeological data.

Contact addresses Inge M.M. van der Jagt Leiden University, Faculty of Archaeology Reuvensplaats 3, 2311 BE Leiden the Netherlands Email: [email protected] Lisette M. Kootker VU University Amsterdam, Institute for Geo- and Bioarchaeology De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam the Netherlands Email: [email protected] Thijs van Kolfschoten Leiden University, Faculty of Archaeology Reuvensplaats 3, 2311 BE Leiden the Netherlands Email: [email protected] Henk Kars VU University Amsterdam, Institute for Geo- and Bioarchaeology De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam the Netherlands Email: [email protected] Gareth R. Davies VU University Amsterdam, Department of Earth Sciences De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam the Netherlands. Email: [email protected]

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