information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information .... Charu Dwivedi, Ishan Pandey, Himanshu Pandey,. Pramod W.
Nano- and Microscale Drug Delivery Systems
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Nano- and Microscale Drug Delivery Systems Design and Fabrication
Edited by
Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu University Politehnica of Bucharest, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Bucharest, Romania
Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-323-52727-9 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Matthew Deans Acquisition Editor: Simon Holt Editorial Project Manager: Andrae Akeh Production Project Manager: Caroline Johnson Designer: Greg Harris Typeset by Thomson Digital
Contents List of Contributors Foreword Preface
xiii xvii xix
1. Microscale Drug Delivery Systems: Current Perspectives and Novel Approaches
28 29 29 29
Blessing A. Aderibigbe, Hembe E. Mukaya
1 2 2 5 9 10
2. Sustainable Delivery Systems Through Green Nanotechnology Kiruba Krishnaswamy, Valérie Orsat 1 History and Development of Nanotechnology 1.1 Chronological Highlights of Events That Led to the Origin and Development of Nanotechnology 1.2 Terminology Used in Nanotechnology 2 Different Forms of Nanostructures 2.1 Quantum Dots 2.2 Buckminsterfullerene (or Fullerene) 2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 2.4 Polymer Nanoparticles 2.5 Metallic Nanoparticles 3 Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles (AuNP) 3.1 Bottom-Up Approach 3.2 Top-Down Approach 4 Transition Toward Green Nanotechnology 4.1 Green Chemistry 4.2 Green Engineering
28
3. Polymer Therapeutics: Design, Application, and Pharmacokinetics
Irina Negut, Valentina Grumezescu, Gabriela Dorcioman, Gabriel Socol 1 Introduction 2 Microscale Drug Delivery Systems 2.1 Microneedles Drug Delivery Systems 2.2 Microparticulate Drug Delivery Systems 3 Conclusions References
4.3 Green Nanotechnology 5 Green Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles From Plant Extracts 6 Sustainable Gold Nanoparticles 7 Summary References
17
18 20 21 23 23 23 23 24 26 26 26 27 27 28
1 Introduction 1.1 Types of Polymer Therapeutics 2 Polymeric Therapeutics for Treatment of Cancer 2.1 Polymer–Drug Conjugates for Cancer Treatment 2.2 Conjugates Containing Platinum-Type Drugs 2.3 Conjugates Containing Methotrexate Drugs 2.4 Conjugates Containing Ferrocene Analogs 3 Polymeric Therapeutics for Treatment of Viral Infections 4 Polymeric Therapeutics for Treatment of Diabetes 5 Polymeric Therapeutics for Treatment of Osteoporosis 6 Polymer Therapeutics for Treatment of Digestive Tract Diseases 7 Polymeric Therapeutics for Wound Dressing and Tissue Regeneration 8 Polymeric Therapeutics for Treatment of Sepsis 9 Polymer Therapeutics for Treatment of Bacterial Infections 10 Polymer Therapeutics for Treatment of Fungal Infections 11 Polymer Therapeutics for Treatment of Malaria
33 34 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 41 42 42
v
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Contents
12 Polymer Therapeutics Inflammation 13 Polymer Therapeutics Ocular Diseases 14 Polymer Therapeutics Leishmaniasis 15 Polymer Therapeutics Hypertension 16 Conclusions 17 Websites References
for Treatment of 42 for Treatment of 43 for Treatment of 43 for Treatment of 44 44 44 44
84 86 86 88 91 91
Gerardo Caruso, Lucia Merlo, Ema Tot, Cinzia Pignataro, Maria Caffo
Lidija Matija, Jelena Muncan, Ivana Mileusnic, Djuro Koruga 49 51 52 52 52 53 57 60 63 63 64 66 69 70 70 72
5. Dendrimers and DendrimersGrafted Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization, Functionalization, and Biological Applications in Drug Delivery Systems Asghar Taheri-Kafrani, Hamidreza Shirzadfar, Elham Tavassoli-Kafrani 1 Introduction 2 Dendrimers as Nanoscale Containers 3 Dendrimers in Gene Transfection 3.1 Nonviral Gene Delivery Systems
83
6. Nanotechnology and the New Frontiers of Drug Delivery in Cerebral Gliomas
4. Fibonacci Nanostructures for Novel Nanotherapeutical Approach
1 Introduction 2 Motivation 3 Biomolecular Signaling and Fibonacci Nanostructures 3.1 Biomolecular Signaling 3.2 Fibonacci Nanostructures in Biology: Classical and Quantum Approach 3.3 Model of Peptide Plane Oscillation 3.4 Cell–Matrix Interactions 4 Fibonacci Nanostructures/C60 4.1 Water–DNA Hydrogen Bonding 4.2 Aquaphotomics of Nanoharmonized Substance 4.3 Analysis of Nanocream Effects on the Skin 4.4 Case Study of NHS Therapeutic Effects on Skin 4.5 Violation of the DNA-Protein-Water Information Channel and Cancer 4.6 Case Study of NHS Medical Therapy 5 Conclusions References
4 Dendrimers in Drug Delivery 4.1 Dendrimers as Possible Globular Protein Mimics 4.2 Dendrimers as Drug Delivery Agents 4.3 Dendrimers as Carriers or Scaffolds for Diagnosis and Therapy 5 Dendrimers Modified Magnetic Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery 6 Conclusions References
75 78 81 81
1 Introduction 2 Glioma 2.1 Glioma Biology 2.2 Blood–Brain Barrier 3 Nanoparticles: New Therapeutic Potentials 3.1 Polymer Nanoparticles 3.2 Liposomes 3.3 Gold Nanoparticles 3.4 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles 3.5 Carbon Nanotubes 3.6 Fullerenes 3.7 Graphene Nanoparticles 3.8 Dendrimers 4 Nanotoxicology 5 Applications in Brain Tumors 6 Conclusion References
95 97 97 98 100 100 101 102 102 102 103 103 104 104 106 107 108
7. Nanoparticles: A Novel Approach to Target Tumors Gaurav Verma, Manasa D. Rajagopalan, Rajashekar Valluru, Katta A. Sridhar 1 Introduction 1.1 Applications of Nanoformulations 2 Types of Nanoformulations for Therapeutic Delivery 2.1 Nanoliposomes 2.2 Nanospheres 2.3 Nanotubes 2.4 Nanoparticles 2.5 Nanoemulsion 2.6 Dendrimers 2.7 Polymeric Micelles 2.8 Solid Lipid Nanocarriers 2.9 Nanocapsules 3 Modern Trends in Therapeutic Nanoformulations
113 113 114 114 114 114 114 115 115 115 115 115 115
4 Polymers and Methods Concerned in Nanodrug Delivery Systems 4.1 Polymers 4.2 Surfactants 4.3 Production Process 5 Challenges in the Fabrication of Nanoparticles as Targeted Delivery 5.1 Targeted Drug Delivery 6 Toxicity Control Process During Fabrication of Nanoparticles 6.1 Waste Control Process 6.2 Exposed Population 6.3 Experimental Approach 7 Future Prospects 8 Conclusions References
116 116 117 117 119 120 122 123 123 123 124 124 124
8. Therapeutic Nanostructures for Dermal and Transdermal Drug Delivery Yousef Javadzadeh, Leila Azharshekoufeh Bahari 1 Introduction 1.1 Drug Delivery Through Skin 2 Nanocarriers in Skin Delivery 2.1 Nanoemulsions 2.2 Liposomes 2.3 Ethosomes 2.4 Transfersomes 2.5 Lipid Nanoparticles 2.6 Cubosomes 2.7 Niosomes 2.8 Polymer-Based Nanoparticles 2.9 Nanogel 2.10 Dendrimers 2.11 Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerenes 3 Nanoparticles in Skin Delivery 3.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles 3.2 Quantum Dots 3.3 Titanium Dioxide and Zinc Oxide-Based Nanoparticles 3.4 Nanogold and Nanosilver 3.5 Cell-Penetrating Peptides 4 Conclusions References
131 131 132 134 135 136 136 137 138 138 139 139 139 140 140 140 141 141 142 142 142 142
9. Electrospun Nanofibrous Scaffold as a Potential Carrier of Antimicrobial Therapeutics for Diabetic Wound Healing and Tissue Regeneration Charu Dwivedi, Ishan Pandey, Himanshu Pandey, Pramod W. Ramteke, Avinash C. Pandey, Shanti Bhushan Mishra, Sandip Patil
Contents
vii
1 Introduction 2 Materials for the Fabrication of Antimicrobial Nanofibrous Scaffolds 2.1 Natural Origin Polymers 2.2 Synthetic Polymers 2.3 Blends of Natural and Synthetic Polymers 3 Methods of Fabrication of Nanofibrous Scaffolds 3.1 Stereolithography 3.2 Supercritical Fluid 3.3 Thermally Induced Phase Separation 3.4 Molecular Self-Assembly 3.5 Electrospinning 4 Antimicrobial Applications of Nanofibrous Scaffolds 5 Physicochemical Characterization of Antimicrobial Nanofibrous Scaffolds 5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy 5.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 5.3 Thermal Analysis 5.4 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis 5.5 Biological Characterization 5.6 In Vitro Release Study of Antimicrobial Agents 5.7 Swelling Index 5.8 Porosity 5.9 Water Contact Angle 6 Detecting Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents 6.1 Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus 6.2 5-Nitroimidazole Antibiotics 7 Evaluation of Antimicrobial Efficacy of Antimicrobial Nanofibrous Scaffolds 7.1 Agar Diffusion Test 7.2 Broth Dilution Test 8 Strategies for the Incorporation of Antimicrobial Compounds on Nanofibrous Scaffolds 8.1 Physical Adsorption 8.2 Chemical Immobilization 9 Conclusions References
148 150 150 150 151 151 151 151 151 151 152 153 157 157 158 158 158 158 159 159 159 160 160 160 160 160 160 161
161 161 161 161 162
10. Nanosized Drug Carriers for Oral Delivery of Anticancer Compounds and the Importance of the Chromatographic Techniques Ceyda T. Sengel-Turk, Mehmet Gumustas, Bengi Uslu, Sibel A. Ozkan 1 Introduction
165
viii
Contents
2 Nanocarrier-Based Approaches for Oral Delivery of Anticancer Compounds 2.1 Polymer-Based Nanocarriers 2.2 Lipid-Based Nanocarriers 3 The Place of Chromatographic Techniques in Cancer Drugs 3.1 Liquid Chromatography 3.2 Components of HPLC 3.3 Analysis of Drug Delivery Systems 4 Conclusions References
166 166 173 177 177 178 182 190 190
11. Promising Novel Nanopharmaceuticals for Improving Topical Antifungal Drug Delivery Madhu Gupta, Vikas Sharma, Nagendra S. Chauhan 1 2 3 4
Introduction Skin Structure and Penetration Route Topical Drug Delivery System and Skin Topical Antifungal Drugs and Available Dosage Forms 5 Need for Novel Nanopharmaceuticals for Topical Delivery 5.1 Microemulsions 5.2 Nanoemulsions 5.3 Polymeric Micelles 5.4 Lipidic Nanoparticles 5.5 Polymeric Nanoparticles 5.6 Dendrimers 5.7 Liposomes and Niosomes 5.8 Transfersomes and Ethosomes 5.9 Transethosomes 5.10 Miscellaneous System 6 Conclusions References
197 199 200 200 204 205 206 207 208 221 222 222 223 224 224 225 225
12. Nanoconstructs Based on Cyclodextrins for Antimicrobial Applications Angela Scala, Anna Piperno, Giovanni Grassi, Luigi M. Scolaro, Antonino Mazzaglia 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cyclodextrins and Their Nanoconstructs CD-Ns and Antibacterial/Antibiotic Drugs CD-Ns and Antiviral Agents CD-Ns and Antifungal Agents CD-Ns, Disinfectants, and Antiseptics Photodynamic Antimicrobial Chemotherapy by Using CD-Ns 6.1 CD-Ns and Curcuminoids 6.2 CD-Ns and Porphyrinoids 7 CD-Capped AgNPs for Antimicrobial Applications
229 231 233 234 236 237 237 238 240
8 Conclusions and Perspectives References
240 241
13. Nanoemulsions: A Novel Antimicrobial Delivery System Mojdeh hakemi-Vala, Hassan Rafati, Atousa Aliahmadi, Afshan Ardalan 1 2 3 4
Introduction Definitions Preparation Techniques Fundamental Concepts on the Formation of Nanoemulsions 5 Thermo Dynamical Concept 6 Applications of Nanoemulsions in Pharmaceuticals 6.1 Advantages of Nanoemulsion-Based Systems 6.2 Disadvantages of Nanoemulsion-Based Systems 7 Pharmaceutical Applications 7.1 Antimicrobial Nanoemulsions 8 Mechanism of Antimicrobial Action of Nanoemulsions 9 Anticancer Nanoemulsions 10 Food Applications of Nanoemulsions 11 Microbial Food Spoilage 12 Microbial Products as Preservative 13 Food-Borne Diseases 14 Microbial Fermented Foods 15 Nanoemulsions as Food Preservative 16 Nanoemulsions as a Food Antimicrobial Delivery System 17 Food Marketing 18 Cosmetics 18.1 Nanoemulsions as Skin Moisturizers 18.2 Nanoemulsions as Sunscreen Products 18.3 Nanoemulsions as Antiaging Products 18.4 Nanoemulsions as Hair Care products 19 Conclusions References
245 246 247 247 248 249 249 250 250 250 251 257 258 258 259 259 259 259 259 260 261 261 261 262 262 262 263
14. Nanodrug Delivery Systems for Dermal and Transdermal Photosensitizer Drugs Antonio C. Tedesco, Fernando L. Primo, Marigilson P. de Siqueira Moura 1 Dermal and Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems: Concepts and Classification 1.1 The Skin 1.2 Drug Penetration Through Skin 1.3 Photodynamic Therapy Against Skin Cancer
267 267 268 269
Contents
1.4 Nanocarriers for the Photosensitizer Drugs 1.5 Nanocapsules as Photosensitizer Drug Delivery Systems 1.6 Organogel Nanoparticles as Photosensitizer Drug Delivery Systems 2 Photosensitizer Drugs and Drug Delivery Systems 2.1 Skin Cancer Treatment: Photodynamic Therapy 2.2 Topical Photosensitizers 3 Biological Studies of Dermal and Transdermal Photosensitized Nanomaterials 3.1 Foscan/Nanoemulsion 4 Tissue Engineering and Dermal/Transdermal Photosensitized Nanomaterials 4.1 Nanoemulsions: Advanced Topical Drug Delivery System 4.2 Tissue Engineering: In Vitro Skin Models 4.3 Dermal Equivalents 5 Conclusion and Future Directions References
270 270 271 271 271 272 274 274 274 274 275 276 276 277
15. Recent Advances in the Delivery of Chemotherapeutic Agents Gunjan Jeswani, Swarnali D. Paul 1 Background 2 Overview of New Generation Cancer Chemotherapeutics 2.1 Alkylating Agents 2.2 Platinum Compounds 2.3 Antimetabolite 2.4 Mitotic Spindle Inhibitors 2.5 Topoisomerase Inhibitors 3 Targeted Therapies 3.1 Mechanisms of Drug Targeting 3.2 Newer Targeted Therapies 3.3 Approved Carriers for Targeting Drugs/Antibody to Targets 4 Cancer Vaccine 4.1 Categories of Cancer Vaccine 4.2 Approved Cancer Vaccines 5 Chemoprevention 6 Patent Information 7 Conclusions References
16. Polyurethane Nanostructures for Drug Delivery Applications Krishna P. Rajan, Selvin P. Thomas, Aravinthan Gopanna, Murthy Chavali
281 282 283 284 284 285 285 286 286 289 291 292 293 293 294 294 296 296
1 Introduction 1.1 History 1.2 Chemistry of Polyurethanes 1.3 Structure Property Relationship 1.4 Applications of Polyurethanes 2 Biocompatibility 2.1 Scope 2.2 Categorization of Devices by Nature of Body Contact 2.3 Categorization by Duration of Contact 2.4 Tests for Evaluating Biocompatibility 2.5 Blood Compatibility 2.6 Phases in Biocompatibility Testing 3 Processing of Polyurethanes 3.1 Solution Blending 3.2 Melt Mixing 3.3 In Situ Polymerization 3.4 Emulsion Polymerization 3.5 Foaming 3.6 Coating 3.7 Fiber Spinning 3.8 Molding 3.9 Tubing 4 Drug Delivery Applications of Polyurethanes 4.1 Systemic Delivery 4.2 Localized Delivery 5 Conclusions References
ix
299 299 300 301 302 303 303 304 304 305 305 305 307 308 308 308 308 309 310 310 311 311 312 313 313 316 316
17. Nanoemulsion as a Valuable Nanostructure Platform for Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery Rashmin B. Patel, Mrunali R. Patel, Shivam D. Thakore, Bharat G. Patel 1 Introduction 1.1 Nanoemulsion 1.2 Microemulsion 1.3 Physical Properties of Nanoemulsion 1.4 Advantages/Disadvantages of Nanoemulsion 1.5 Differences Between Microemulsion and Nanoemulsion 2 Nanoemulsion for Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery 2.1 Nanoemulsion and Drug Delivery: A Long-Term Companion 2.2 Nanoemulsion in Various Route of Administration: A Detailed View
321 322 322 323 326 326 328 328
329
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Contents
3 Research in Nanoemulsion in the 21st Century 3.1 Research in Nanoemulsion 4 Conclusions References
333 333 338 339
18. The Supramolecular Complex of Sertraline With Cyclodextrins: Physicochemical and Pharmacological Properties Vyacheslav Buko, Bartlomiej Palecz, Silwia Belica-Pacha, Ilya Zavodnik 1 Introduction 343 2 Sertraline and β-Cyclodextrin Supramolecular Complex: Thermodynamic Parameters 344 2.1 Isothermal Titration Calorimetry 344 2.2 UV–Vis Spectrophotometry—Solubility Studies 347 3 Cyclodextrins as Drug Carriers 347 4 Cyclodextrins as Hypodlycemic Agents 348 5 Sertraline as a Hypoglycemic Agent 348 6 The Efficacy of the HPβCD: Sertraline Complex in Prevention of Alloxan-Induced Diabetic Lesions in Rats 349 7 Conclusions 353 References 353
19. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Modulations of Therapeutically Active Constituents From Orally Administered Nanocarriers Along With a Glimpse of Their Advantages and Limitations Biswajit Mukherjee, Bhabani S. Satapathy, Sanchari Bhattacharya, Rhitabrita Chakraborty, Vimal P. Mishra 1 Introduction 2 Nanocarriers in Oral Drug Delivery 3 Various Types of Oral Nanocarrier Systems 3.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 3.2 Nanoliposomes 3.3 Polymeric Micelles 3.4 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 3.5 Niosomes 3.6 Dendrimers 4 Major Obstacles in Successful Oral Delivery of Nanocarriers 4.1 Critical Gastrointestinal Environment 4.2 Mucus Membrane 5 Transport Across the Intestinal Epithelium 5.1 Transcellular Transport
357 358 360 360 361 362 362 362 363 363 364 364 365 366
5.2 Paracellular Transport 5.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport 5.4 Receptor-Mediated Transport 6 PK/PD Modulation of Orally Administered Drugs Loaded in Nanocarriers Based on Recent Research Findings 7 Critical Factors Affecting the PK/PD and Fate of Orally Administered Nanocarriers 7.1 Effect of Nanocarrier Size 7.2 Effect of Surface Charge 7.3 Nanocarrier Composition and Surface Modification 7.4 Effect of Coating Materials on Gastric Stability of Oral Nanocarriers 8 Some Strategies to Enhance Bioavailability of Oral Nanocarriers 8.1 Modification of Endocytosis 8.2 Targeting 8.3 Mucoadhesion 9 Challenges in Clinical Feasibility of Oral Nanocarriers 10 Conclusions and Future Prospects References
366 367 367
367 369 369 370 370 370 371 371 371 371 371 372 372
20. Nanostructured Propolis as Therapeutic Systems With Antimicrobial Activity Marcos L. Bruschi, Hélen C. Rosseto, Lizziane M.B. de Francisco, Lucas de A.S. de Toledo, Raphaela R. de A. Pereira 1 2 3 4 5
Introduction Terminology and Identification Historical and Current Uses of Propolis Botanical Origin and Composition Therapeutic Activity and Biological Properties 5.1 Antimicrobial Activity 5.2 Toxicity and Allergenic Effects 6 Micro/Nanotherapeutic Systems Containing Propolis 7 Strategies to Release Propolis 8 Conclusions and Remarks References
377 378 378 379 381 382 383 384 385 387 388
21. Nanostructures for Curcumin Delivery: Possibilities and Challenges Parasuraman A. Subramani, Kalpana Panati, Veeranjaneya R. Lebaka, Dharaneeswara D. Reddy, Venkata Ramireddy Narala 1 Introduction and Background of Curcumin 2 Photophysical and Photochemical Properties of Curcumin 2.1 Photophysical Properties
393 395 395
Contents
2.2 Photochemical Properties 2.3 Structure Activity Relationship of Curcumin Analogs 3 Antimicrobial Properties of Curcumin 3.1 Antibacterial Activity 3.2 Antiviral Activity 3.3 Antifungal Activity 3.4 Antiprotozoal Activity 3.5 Antihelminthic Activity 3.6 Other Activities 4 Bioavailability of Curcumin 4.1 Inability to Concentrate in Serum 4.2 Absorption and Metabolism 4.3 Efforts to Overcome the Problems 4.4 Nanotechnology-Enhanced Curcumin 4.5 Curcuminoids Nanocarrier 5 Nanostructures for the Delivery of Curcumin 5.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles 5.2 Organic and Polymeric Substances 5.3 Fabricated Materials 5.4 Novel Dipeptide Nanoparticles for Effective Curcumin Delivery 5.5 Electrospun Curcumin-Loaded Mats With Anticoagulant and Antibacterial Properties 5.6 Implants and Future Delivery Systems 6 Conclusions References
395 396 397 398 400 400 401 402 402 403 403 404 404 405 406 407 407 408 410 410
411 411 411 412
22. Nanostructures for Improved Antimonial Therapy of Leishmaniasis Frédéric Frézard, Cynthia Demicheli, Sydnei M. Da Silva, Erly G. Azevedo, Raul R. Ribeiro 1 Introduction 2 Chemistry and Pharmacology of Pentavalent Antimonials 2.1 Chemistry and Mechanism of Action 2.2 Pharmacokinetics of Conventional Pentavalent Antimonials 3 Injectable Liposomal Formulations of Antimonial Drugs 3.1 Technological Advances Toward Liposome Production
419 421 421 421 422 422
3.2 Liposomes for Passive Drug Targeting and Optimization 3.3 Liposomes for Active Drug Targeting 3.4 Progress Achieved Toward Cure of Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis 4 Injectable Nonlipid-Based Nanocarriers for Antimonial Drugs 5 Oral Formulations for Antimonial Drugs 5.1 Cyclodextrin-Based Formulations 5.2 Amphiphilic Antimony(V) Complexes 6 Topical Formulations of Antimonial Drugs for Cutaneous Leishmaniasis 7 Conclusions References
xi
422 425 426 430 430 430 431 432 432 433
23. Nanoarchitectures for Neglected Tropical Protozoal Diseases: Challenges and State of the Art Swati Pund, Amita Joshi 1 Neglected Protozoal Diseases: A Treatment Challenge 2 Nanoarchitectures and Classification 2.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles 2.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles 2.3 Lipid-Based Carriers 2.4 Liposomes 2.5 Polymeric Micelles 2.6 Dendrimers 2.7 Nanocrystals 2.8 Nanotubes 2.9 Cyclodextrin Nanocarriers 3 Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis) 3.1 Chagas Disease Chemotherapy and Nanotechnology-Based Formulations 4 Leishmaniasis 4.1 VL and Nanodelivery of Antileishmanial Drugs 4.2 CL and Nanodelivery of Antileishmanial Drugs 5 African Trypanosomiasis and Nanodelivery of Trypanocidal Agents 6 Concluding Remarks References Index
439 440 442 442 442 442 442 443 443 443 443 443 444 448 449 462 466 467 468 481
