Nanotechnology Applications in the Food Industry

Nanotechnology Applications in the Food Industry

http://taylorandfrancis.com

Nanotechnology Applications in the Food Industry

Edited by

V Ravishankar Rai Jamuna A. Bai

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-8483-2 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www .copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-7508400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

Contents Preface .............................................................................................................................................. ix Editors .............................................................................................................................................. xi Contributors.................................................................................................................................... xiii Part I Introduction to Nanotechnology in the Food Sector Chapter 1 Development of Bio-Based Nanostructured Systems by Electrohydrodynamic Processes...............3 Maria Jose Costa, Philippe Emmanuel Ramos, Pablo Fuciños, José António Teixeira, Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana, and Miguel Ângelo Cerqueira Chapter 2 Carbon Nanomaterial-Based Fertilizers Can Improve Plant Growth..............................................21 Guixue Song, Madelyn Pandorf, Paul Westerhoff, and Yun Ma Chapter 3 Nanomaterials in Food Applications................................................................................................45 Ahmed S. Khan Chapter 4 Market Potential of Food Nanotechnology Innovations..................................................................59 Rajesh P. Shastry and V Ravishankar Rai Part II Nanotechnology in Food Packaging Chapter 5 Nanomaterials Applicable in Food Protection.................................................................................75 Josef Jampílek and Katarína Kráľová Chapter 6 Use of Nanopolymers, Nanocomposites, and Nanostructured Coatings in Food Packaging..........97 Semih Ötleş and Buket Yalçın Şahyar Chapter 7 Starch Nanocomposite Films for Food Packaging.........................................................................107 Oswaldo Ochoa Yepes, Lucas Guz, Santiago Estevez Areco, Roberto Candal, Silvia Goyanes, and Lucía Famá Chapter 8 Electrospun Nanofibers: Development and Potential in Food Packaging Applications................141 Carlos A. Fuenmayor and Paula J. P. Espitia v

VI

CONTENTS

Part III Nanosensors for Safe and Quality Foods Chapter 9 Nanosensors in the Food Industry.................................................................................................183 Fabrizio Sarghini and Francesco Marra Chapter 10 Applications of Aptamers to Nanobiosensors and Smart Packaging............................................203 Luis Eduardo Suárez-Nájera, Stefany Cárdenas-Pérez, José Jorge Chanona-Pérez, Arturo Manzo-Robledo, Jaime Vargas-Cruz, Mayra Luna-Trujillo, Miriam Rodríguez-Esquivel, and Mauricio Salcedo-Vargas Part IV Nanotechnology for Nutrient Delivery in Foods Chapter 11 Nanoemulsions Produced by Low-Energy Methods: Fundamentals and Food Applications.......221 Samantha C. Pinho, Cynthia de Carli, and Marilia Moraes-Lovison Chapter 12 Application of Nanotechnology in the Safe Delivery of Bioactive Compounds..........................237 Behrouz Ghorani, Sara Naji-Tabasi, Aram Bostan, and Bahareh Emadzadeh Chapter 13 Electrospinning of Edible, Food-Based Polymers.........................................................................293 Serife Akkurt, Lin Shu Liu, and Peggy Tomasula Chapter 14 Role of Polymeric Nanoparticles in Nutraceutical Delivery..........................................................315 Rubiana Mara Mainardes and Najeh Maissar Khalil Chapter 15 Nanoemulsions and Nanodispersions: A Fundamental View of Their Preparation, Characterization, Stability Evaluation, and Application................................................................333 Tai Boon Tan and Chin Ping Tan Chapter 16 Lipid Nanocarriers for Phytochemical Delivery in Foods.............................................................357 Bojana D. Balanč, Kata T. Trifković, Radoslava N. Pravilović, Verica B. Đorđević, Steva M. Lević, Branko M. Bugarski, and Viktor A. Nedović

CONTENTS

VII

Chapter 17 Role of Bioactive Compounds to Improve Nanomechanical Properties and Functionality of Polymeric Vehicles....................................................................................................................385 Alonso Villafán-Rangel, Juan Eduardo René Cortés-Millán, Miriam Madrid-Mendoza, Israel Arzate-Vázquez, Monserrat Escamilla-García, Ollin Celeste Martínez-Ramírez, and Angélica Gabriel Mendoza-Madrigal Chapter 18 Microscopy Techniques for Structural Characterization, Evaluation of Nanomechanical Properties, and Biosensing of Food Systems.................................................................................403 Luis Eduardo Suárez-Nájera, Stefany Cárdenas-Pérez, Juan Vicente Méndez-Méndez, José Jorge Chanona-Pérez, Alejandra Valdivia-Flores, Georgina Calderón-Domínguez, and Rubén López-Santiago Chapter 19 Chitosan Micro- and Nanoparticles for Vitamin Encapsulation....................................................427 Patricia Rosales-Martínez, Maribel Cornejo-Mazón, Izlia J. Arroyo-Maya, and Humberto Hernández-Sánchez Chapter 20 Nanoparticle Nutrient Carriers.......................................................................................................441 Nily Dan Chapter 21 Electrospinning and Electrospraying Technologies and Their Potential Applications in the Food Industry.......................................................................................................................461 Alex López-Córdoba, Clara Duca, Jonathan Cimadoro, and Silvia Goyanes Part V Safety Assessment for Use of Nanomaterials in Food and Food Production Chapter 22 Advanced Approaches for Efficacy Evaluation and Risk Assessment of Nanomaterials in Food...483 Marco Roman, Catia Contado, Christian Micheletti, Iolanda Olivato, Erik Tedesco, and Federico Benetti Chapter 23 Effect of Nanoparticles on Gastrointestinal Tract..........................................................................503 Jamuna A. Bai and V Ravishankar Rai Chapter 24 Regulatory Framework for Food Nanotechnology........................................................................517 Kangkana Banerjee and V Ravishankar Rai Index.............................................................................................................................................. 529


Preface Nanotechnology Applications in the Food Industry is a comprehensive reference book containing exhaustive information on nanotechnology and the scope of its applications in the food industry. The various sectors in the food industry where nanotechnology finds extensive application include the production, processing, packaging, and preservation of foods. Nanotechnology is also increasingly used to enhance flavor and color and in nutrient delivery and bioavailability and to improve food safety and in quality management. The book focuses on the overview of nanotechnology development for food industries and the impact it is having on the state of science in the food industry. The book has five sections delving into all aspects and the key role of nanotechnology in the food industry in the present scenario and the future trends. Part I (Introduction to Nanotechnology in the Food Sector) covers the technological basis for its application in the food industry and in agriculture, the use of nanosized foods and nanomaterials in food, the safety issues pertaining to its applications in the foods, and on market analysis and consumer perception of food nanotechnology. Part II (Nanotechnology in Food Packaging) reviews the use of nanopolymers, nanocomposites, and nanostructured coatings in food packaging. The potential of nanotechnology in active packaging applications, intelligent packaging, and multifunctional packaging for improving the safety and quality of foods are discussed. Part III (Nanosensors for Safe and Quality Foods) provides an overview on nanotechnology in the development of biosensors for pathogen and food contaminant detection and in sampling and food quality management. The challenges and trends in nanosensor design for food applications are discussed. Part IV (Nanotechnology for Nutrient Delivery in Foods) deals with the use of nanotechnology in foods for controlled and effective release of nutrients. The use of nanoparticles in developing, increasing the functionality and bioactivity of dietary foods, functional foods, and nutraceuticals are covered. Part V (Safety Assessment for Use of Nanomaterials in Food and Food Production) deliberates on the benefits and risks associated with the extensive and long-term application of nanotechnology in the food sector. The issues on nanoparticles and their residues in food during food production, migration of nanoparticles into foods during processing and packaging, behavior of nanoparticles in the gastrointestinal tract, and safety and risk assessment of nanomaterials in the food are reviewed. Legal and ethical barriers for the application of nanotechnology in food industry, regulatory aspects of its application in food, and food production and labeling of nano ingredients in foods are addressed. The book is a valuable reference material discussing the basics and trends in the application of nanotechnology in the food industry. It is exhaustive and comprehensive, focusing on all aspects of technological strategies in the nanofood segment. The book is beneficial for graduate students, researchers, scientists working on application aspects of nanotechnology and food industry and food policy makers. We would like to thank all the authors for contributing the chapters and sharing their expertise.

ix


Editors V Ravishankar Rai earned his MSc and PhD from the University of Mysore, India. Currently, Dr. Rai is working as a professor in the Department of Studies in Microbiology, University of Mysore, India. He was awarded a fellowship from the UNESCO Biotechnology Action Council, Paris (1996), the Indo-Israel Cultural Exchange Fellowship (1998), the Biotechnology Overseas Fellowship, Government of India (2008), the Indo-Hungarian Exchange Fellowship (2011), Indian National Academy Fellowship (2015), and Cardiff Incoming Visiting Fellowship (2017). Presently, he is the coordinator for the Department of Science and Technology, Promotion of University Research and Scientific Excellence and University Grants Commission innovative programs. Jamuna A. Bai has completed her MSc and PhD in microbiology from the University of Mysore, India. She is working as a researcher in the University Grants Commission-sponsored University with Potential Excellence Project, University of Mysore, India. She has previously worked as Indian Council of Medical Research Senior Research Fellow and carried research on food safety, role of quorum sensing and biofilms in food-related bacteria, and developing quorum-sensing inhibitors. Her research interests also include antimicrobial application of functionalized nanomaterials against food-borne pathogens.

xi


Contributors Serife Akkurt Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit Eastern Regional Research Center Agricultural Research Service United States Department of Agriculture Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania and Rutgers Department of Food Science The State University of New Jersey New Brunswick, New Jersey Santiago Estevez Areco Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Departamento de Física, Laboratorio de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos (LP&MC) Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-CONICET) Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina Izlia J. Arroyo-Maya Departamento de Procesos y Tecnología, Unidad Cuajimalpa Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Mexico City, Mexico Israel Arzate-Vázquez Laboratorio de Microscopía de Fuerza Atómica y Nanoindentación, Centro de Nanociencias y Micro y Nanotecnologías Instituto Politécnico Nacional Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos Mexico City, Mexico Jamuna A. Bai Department of Studies in Microbiology University of Mysore Mysore, India

Bojana D. Balanč Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy Department of Chemical Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade, Serbia Kangkana Banerjee Department of Studies in Microbiology University of Mysore Mysore, India Federico Benetti European Center for the Sustainable Impact of Nanotechnology EcamRicert Srl Rovigo, Italy Aram Bostan Department of Food Nanotechnology Research Institute of Food Science and Technology Mashhad, Iran Branko M. Bugarski Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy Department of Chemical Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade, Serbia Georgina Calderón-Domínguez Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico Roberto Candal Instituto de Investigación e Ingeniería Ambiental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas Universidad Nacional de San Martín Buenos Aires, Argentina

xiii

XIV

CONTRIBUTORS

Stefany Cárdenas-Pérez Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico

Nily Dan Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Drexel University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Miguel Ângelo Cerqueira International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory Braga, Portugal

Cynthia de Carli Department of Food Engineering School of Animal Science and Food Engineering University of Sao Paulo Pirassununga, Brazil

José Jorge Chanona-Pérez Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico Jonathan Cimadoro Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Departamento de Física, Laboratorio de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos (LP&MC) Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-CONICET) Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina Catia Contado Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Ferrara Ferrara, Italy Maribel Cornejo-Mazón Departamento de Biofísica, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional Unidad Profesional Lázaro Cárdenas Mexico City, Mexico Juan Eduardo René Cortés-Millán Laboratorio de Investigación A Facultad de Nutrición Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos Cuernavaca, Mexico Maria Jose Costa Centre of Biological Engineering University of Minho Braga, Portugal

Verica B. Đorđević Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy Department of Chemical Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade, Serbia Clara Duca Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Departamento de Física, Laboratorio de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos (LP&MC) Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-CONICET) Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina Bahareh Emadzadeh Department of Food Nanotechnology Research Institute of Food Science and Technology Mashhad, Iran Monserrat Escamilla-García Facultad de Química Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico Paula J. P. Espitia Nutrition and Dietetics School University of Atlantico Atlantico, Colombia Lucía Famá Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Departamento de Física, Laboratorio de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos (LP&MC) Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-CONICET) Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina

CONTRIBUTORS

Pablo Fuciños International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory Braga, Portugal

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Josef Jampílek Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia

Carlos A. Fuenmayor Institute of Food Science and Technology (ICTA) Najeh Maissar Khalil Universidad Nacional de Colombia Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology Laboratory Bogota, Colombia Department of Pharmacy Universidade Estadual do Centro-Oeste Behrouz Ghorani Guarapuava, Brazil Department of Food Nanotechnology Research Institute of Food Science Ahmed S. Khan and Technology College of Engineering and Information Mashhad, Iran Sciences DeVry University Silvia Goyanes Addison, Illinois Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Departamento de Física, Laboratorio Katarína Kráľová de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos Institute of Chemistry (LP&MC) Faculty of Natural Sciences Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires Comenius University (IFIBA-CONICET) Bratislava, Slovakia Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina Steva M. Lević Faculty of Agriculture Department of Food Technology and Biochemistry Lucas Guz University of Belgrade Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Belgrade, Serbia Departamento de Física, Laboratorio de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos (LP&MC) Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-CONICET) Universidad de Buenos Aires and Instituto de Investigación e Ingeniería Ambiental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas Universidad Nacional de San Martín Buenos Aires, Argentina Humberto Hernández-Sánchez Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos Mexico City, Mexico

Lin Shu Liu Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit Eastern Regional Research Center Agricultural Research Service United States Department of Agriculture Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania Alex López-Córdoba Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Departamento de Física, Laboratorio de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos (LP&MC) Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-CONICET) Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina

XVI

CONTRIBUTORS

Rubén López-Santiago Departamento de Inmunología Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico

Ollin Celeste Martínez-Ramírez Laboratorio de Investigación A Facultad de Nutrición Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos Cuernavaca, Mexico

Mayra Luna-Trujillo Laboratorio de Electroquímica y Corrosión Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Química e Industrias Extractivas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico

Juan Vicente Méndez-Méndez Centro de Nanociencias y Micro y Nanotecnologías Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico

Yun Ma State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics Institute of Microbiology Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing, China

Angélica Gabriela Mendoza-Madrigal Laboratorio de Investigación A Facultad de Nutrición Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos Cuernavaca, Mexico

College of Life Science Tianjin Normal University Tianjin, China

Christian Micheletti European Center for the Sustainable Impact of Nanotechnology EcamRicert Srl Rovigo, Italy

Miriam Madrid-Mendoza Laboratorio de Investigación A Facultad de Nutrición Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos Cuernavaca, Mexico

Marilia Moraes-Lovison Department of Food Engineering School of Animal Science and Food Engineering University of Sao Paulo Pirassununga, Brazil

Rubiana Mara Mainardes Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology Laboratory Department of Pharmacy Universidade Estadual do Centro-Oeste Guarapuava, Brazil

Sara Naji-Tabasi Department of Food Nanotechnology Research Institute of Food Science and Technology Mashhad, Iran

Arturo Manzo-Robledo Laboratorio de Electroquímica y Corrosión Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Química e Industrias Extractivas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico

Viktor A. Nedović Faculty of Agriculture Department of Food Technology and Biochemistry University of Belgrade Belgrade, Serbia

and

Francesco Marra University of Salerno Fisciano, Italy

CONTRIBUTORS

Iolanda Olivato European Center for the Sustainable Impact of Nanotechnology EcamRicert Srl Rovigo, Italy

XVII

Semih Ötleş Ege University Food Engineering Department Izmir, Turkey

Miriam Rodríguez-Esquivel Centro de Nanociencias y Micro y Nanotecnologías Instituto Politécnico Nacional and Laboratorio de Oncología Genómica Hospital de Oncología del Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social Mexico City, Mexico

Madelyn Pandorf School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona

Marco Roman European Center for the Sustainable Impact of Nanotechnology EcamRicert Srl Rovigo, Italy

Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory Braga, Portugal

Patricia Rosales-Martínez Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica Unidad Profesional Adolfo López Mateos Mexico City, Mexico

Samantha C. Pinho Department of Food Engineering School of Animal Science and Food Engineering University of Sao Paulo Pirassununga, Brazil Radoslava N. Pravilović Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy Department of Chemical Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade, Serbia V Ravishankar Rai Department of Studies in Microbiology University of Mysore Mysore, India Philippe Emmanuel Ramos Centre of Biological Engineering University of Minho Braga, Portugal

Buket Yalçın Şahyar Ege University Food Engineering Department Izmir, Turkey Mauricio Salcedo-Vargas Laboratorio de Oncología Genómica Hospital de Oncología del Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social Mexico City, Mexico Fabrizio Sarghini Biosystem Engineering Section Department of Agricultural Sciences University of Naples Federico II Naples, Italy

XVIII

Rajesh P. Shastry Department of Studies in Microbiology University of Mysore Mysore, India Guixue Song Institute of Marine Science and Technology Shandong University Shandong, China Luis Eduardo Suárez-Nájera Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico Chin Ping Tan Department of Food Technology Faculty of Food Science and Technology Universiti Putra Malaysia Seri Kembangan, Malaysia Tai Boon Tan Department of Food Technology Faculty of Food Science and Technology Universiti Putra Malaysia Seri Kembangan, Malaysia Erik Tedesco European Center for the Sustainable Impact of Nanotechnology EcamRicert Srl Rovigo, Italy José António Teixeira Centre of Biological Engineering University of Minho Braga, Portugal Peggy Tomasula Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit Eastern Regional Research Center Agricultural Research Service United States Department of Agriculture Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania

CONTRIBUTORS

Kata T. Trifković Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy Department of Chemical Engineering University of Belgrade Belgrade, Serbia Alejandra Valdivia-Flores Dirección de Investigación Secretaria de Investigación y Posgrado Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico Jaime Vargas-Cruz Departamento de Ingeniería Bioquímica Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico Alonso Villafán-Rangel Laboratorio de Investigación A Facultad de Nutrición Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos Cuernavaca, Mexico Paul Westerhoff School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona Oswaldo Ochoa Yepes Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales Departamento de Física, Laboratorio de Polímeros y Materiales Compuestos (LP&MC) Instituto de Física de Buenos Aires (IFIBA-CONICET) Universidad de Buenos Aires Buenos Aires, Argentina

PART

I

Introduction to Nanotechnology in the Food Sector


CHAPTER

1

Development of Bio-Based Nanostructured Systems by Electrohydrodynamic Processes Maria Jose Costa, Philippe Emmanuel Ramos, Pablo Fuciños, José António Teixeira, Lorenzo Miguel Pastrana, and Miguel Ângelo Cerqueira CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Electrohydrodynamic Processing ............................................................................................. 5 1.2.1 Equipment and Processing............................................................................................ 5 1.2.2 Parameters..................................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Electrohydrodynamic Processing in the Food Industry ........................................................... 8 1.3.1 Bio-Based Materials Used ............................................................................................ 8 1.3.2 Applications in the Food Industry ................................................................................ 8 1.3.2.1 Encapsulation of Functional Ingredients ...................................................... 10 1.3.2.2 Enzyme Immobilization................................................................................ 11 1.3.2.3 Food Packaging ............................................................................................ 12 1.3.2.4 Bacteriophages.............................................................................................. 13 1.3.2.5 Filtration Membranes.................................................................................... 13 1.4 Future Trends and Final Remarks.......................................................................................... 14 Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................... 15 References ....................................................................................................................................... 15 1.1 INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology offers many benefits for the development of structures with enhanced properties. Due to their dimension, nanostructured systems present different physicochemical properties (i.e., optical, thermal, absorption, and stability) when compared with micro- and macroscale systems, making their use in food processing and applications of great interest to the industry. The main aspect that influences their different behavior at the nanoscale is the area-to-volume ratio. It determines the physicochemical characteristics and brings several advantages, such as a high encapsulation efficiency and stability, a tailored control release, an enhanced solubility, and the prevention of undesirable chemical reactions (Cerqueira et al. 2014, 2017a). In recent years, the development of high-performance nanostructured systems for food applications has improved food safety (e.g., sensor and nanoparticles). These systems have been applied

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4

NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

in several areas such as the encapsulation and controlled release of compounds, in the development of new food processing methodologies, and in food packaging. Aiming for commercialization, several nanotechnology-based products have been market launched in the last 10 years, claiming enhanced functionality based on their nanosized features (Silva, Cerqueira, and Vicente 2015). The development of bio-based nanostructured systems, for food applications, has been presented by researchers through a high number of published works. These works present the potential of using those systems for several applications such as for the protection and delivery of bioactive compounds, enzyme immobilization, detection of contaminants and microorganisms through the development of sensors, removal of chemicals from foods, water purification through nanofiltration, and the development of nanocomposites for packaging. This great number of applications is explained by the possibility of developing bio-based nanostructures with distinct architectures that, according to the materials and methodologies used, can be designed with different shapes and sizes. The common shapes of bio-based nanostructured systems are spheroids (capsules or particles), fibers (membranes), thin films (nanocoating for food packaging), and tubes (sensors) (Cerqueira et al. 2017b). Different approaches can be used for the development of nanostructured systems, giving importance to the control of the driving forces (e.g., electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions) and the free energy of the system (e.g., to assess the thermodynamic stability), which leads to systems with distinct properties and functionalities. During the fabrication process, nanostructured systems can be developed by the bottom-up and top-down methods, which are two of the common ways to classify the developed system (Livney 2015; Silva, Cerqueira, and Vicente 2011). Despite all the advantages of using bio-based nanostructures, the scale-up process from the laboratory to an industrial scale is still a hard task. The major challenge is controlling the main characteristics and properties of the nanostructures from the laboratory to the industrial production. In addition, some of the challenges regarding the scaling-up of nanostructure production are the batch versus continuous production, the increasing flow rate, and the homogenization process, which leads to a considerable number of trials for process optimization at industrial scale. While for inorganic nanostructures (i.e., ZnO, TiO2, and SiO2), the scale-up and commercialization is in the exponential step, where several companies have shown the capacity to produce several kilograms per day, for organic nanostructures, the industrial production is still in the beginning (Piccinno et al. 2012; Tsuzuki 2009). Some of the methodologies showing the capacity to be scaled-up for the production of foodgrade bio-based nanostructures are high-pressure homogenization, microfluidics, vibrational atomization (nanospray drier), and nanoprecipitation (Arpagaus 2012; Cerqueira et al. 2014; Lu et al. 2016; Trierweiler and Trierweiler 2011). Other processes that show promising advantages are the electrohydrodynamic processes, such as electrospinning and electrospraying that have been explored for the production of food-grade biobased nanostructured systems. These new processes are starting to change and improve the food industry through their use in several applications with a wide range of bio-based materials generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and/or the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (Kaur Bhullar, Kaya, and Jun 2015). Several studies confirmed that electrospinning and electrospraying processes are very effective in producing bio-based nanostructures with several advantages that overcome the existing technology limitations, such as different sizes range (micro to nano) and type of structures (fibers and particles), no heating required, ability to scale up (multinozzle systems), versatility in morphology (porosity and roughness), and low or no organic solvent requirement (Ghorani and Tucker 2015). Besides, the use of food-grade biopolymers for the production of structures able to guarantee high encapsulation efficiencies, a good stability, and a controlled release of bioactive compounds is also an important advantage (Anu Bhushani and Anandharamakrishnan 2014). However, they can present some limitations such as the high price of the equipment and the difficult scale-up of the process (Quirós, Boltes, and Rosal 2016).

DEVELOPMENT OF BIO-BASED NANOSTRUCTURED SYSTEMS

5

1.2 ELECTROHYDRODYNAMIC PROCESSING In the food industry, electrohydrodynamic processing is still recent and only slightly studied, its use being unusual in food structuring. Nevertheless, electrospinning and electrospraying are proving to be excellent options for use in the encapsulation of several functional compounds with interest for the food industry and in packaging applications (Ghorani and Tucker 2015; Pérez-Masiá, Lagaron, and López-Rubio 2014). The interest of researchers and industry has been driven by several technical advantages such as the facility of use, the available equipment, and the possibility of tuning the final properties of the materials by changing the processing conditions. 1.2.1 Equipment and Processing The electrohydrodynamic processes use an electrically driven force to produce single or multilayer fibers or particles that can be at the micro- and nanometric scale. During the process, an electrically charged fluid cone jet is formed by the biopolymer solution or molten biopolymer that is formed between the spinneret and the collector. The applied electric field leads to the formation of a cone-like shape, called the Taylor cone, that is obtained when the equilibrium of the electric forces and surface tension is destroyed. In the case of the formation of fibers (electrospinning), continuous production is achieved when the fluid is ejected from the tip of the Taylor cone and an extended fiber is formed by an electrostatic field that quickly solidifies on the collector (Figure 1.1a) (Quirós, Boltes, and Rosal 2016). Due to the high instability of the process, the fiber deposition and orientation is difficult to control, as the fibers are randomly oriented. To achieve a “more” controlled deposition of the fibers, the movement of the nozzle and/or collector can be controlled as well as the distance to the collector. For the production of particles (electrospray), the phenomenon is similar (Figure 1.1b), although, in this case, the electric field causes the deformation and distribution of the jet into droplets that, after being spray dried, are deposited in the collector (Jaworek and Sobczyk 2008). In the case of electrospraying, it is also possible to electrospray the biopolymers on a crosslinking solution (mostly used for the alginate cross-linking using CaCl2) to achieve more stable particles (Ghayempour and Mortazavi 2013). Choosing a molten biopolymer or the use of a biopolymer solution will highly influence the equipment requirements for the electrospinning/electrospraying process. While for processing, using a biopolymer solution, no heating is needed; for the process using a molten biopolymer, equipment with a heating module is needed. In fact, the use of the melting process is not common in food applications, mostly because some of the biopolymers and functional compounds used are thermosensitive and the use of heating can in most cases be a disadvantage (Zhang et al. 2016). One of the possibilities with electrohydrodynamic processing is to use nozzles with different diameters

Syringe/pump

Voltage +

Nozzle/tip

+

–

Figure 1.1

Nozzle/tip

–

Collector (a)

Syringe/pump

Voltage

Collector (b)

Main composition of (a) electrospinning and (b) electrospraying equipment during the processing of a biopolymer solution.

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and multiaxial geometries (monoaxial, coaxial, or triaxial) that will influence the morphology and the properties of the produced structures (Chakraborty et al. 2009; Xu et al. 2013). The multiaxial (coaxial/triaxial) geometries consist in different spinneret components which allow the simultaneous spinning/spraying of different liquids (Quirós, Boltes, and Rosal 2016). The use of coaxial and triaxial nozzles allows coating solid, liquid, or gas phases with a solid shell and produce multilayer structures, bringing several advantages, such as a controlled and tunable release of functional compounds, and encapsulation of different compounds in the same structure, allowing their release at different stages. The collectors can also have different geometries and morphologies, such as flat surface (stainlesssteel plate) or a cylinder (rotating mandrel), that can be in motion during the processing (Cerqueira et al. 2016; Gómez-Mascaraque, Lagarón, and López-Rubio 2015). The collector movements can be used to define the pattern of the developed structures (Bu et al. 2012), the use of a flat collector (working in the x and y directions) and the distance from the spinneret to the collectors (z direction) allow the development of three-dimensional (3D) structures (Zhang et al. 2016). Besides the equipment, the different possibilities to electrospin the biopolymer (melted or in solution) and the processing parameters are also very important factors when the objective is to obtain fibers or particles. Other important variables are the applied voltage between the nozzle and collector that, together with the solution and/or biopolymers characteristics, determines the electric field strength and thus the electrohydrodynamic jetting mode. These parameters will be discussed in the next section.

1.2.2 Parameters The electrohydrodynamic processes can be influenced by several parameters that will define the aspect, size, and morphology of the produced structures. The most influential parameters are (a) the polymer solution type, (b) processing, and (c) ambient conditions used during the electrohydrodynamic process. For the biopolymer solution, specific characteristics such as solvent type, conductivity, molecular weight, viscosity, and surface tension are the most influential. The process parameters that influence the obtained structure include the tip to collector distance, diameter of spinneret, applied voltage, and flow rate. The ambient conditions such as relative humidity, air flow, and temperature of the surroundings are also important during the process (Chong et al. 2007). The control of these variables will allow controlling the size, density, and morphology of the produced structures (Rogina 2014), although it is important to mention that to achieve reproducible results, a stable cone-jet mode should be obtained (Bock, Dargaville, and Woodruff 2012). The biopolymer concentration has a direct impact in viscosity, being one of the most important variables to obtain a stable cone-jet mode. An optimal concentration mainly depends on which structure type is desired, it being possible to obtain particles or fibers. Normally, with an optimal concentration range, the low polymer concentrations do not produce a continuous jet, leading to the production of particles, while for high polymer concentrations, a continuous flow is achieved and fibers will be formed. In the case of middle term conditions, a mixture of both mentioned structures will be obtained (i.e., particles and fibers) (López-Rubio and Lagaron 2012; Rogina 2014; Wongsasulak et al. 2007). During processing, if the flow rate is low or the electric field strength is high, the Taylor cone cannot be maintained and the process results in a phenomenon such as tilted jetting, multijetting, and dripping (Zhang et al. 2016). The electrohydrodynamic process produces dried structures, although to accomplish this, high concentrations of polymer must be used in order to reduce the solvent content and thus facilitating the solvent evaporation. However, a low viscosity is needed to allow jet formation; otherwise, a continuous electrospinning will be not possible (Huang et al. 2003; Shenoy et al. 2005). The solvent used


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is an important factor to allow, at first, a proper dissolution of the polymer and, at second, an efficient drying of the electrospun fibers or electrosprayed particles (Ghorani and Tucker 2015). Therefore, solvents with lower vapor pressure would permit an easier fiber drying (Wannatong, Sirivat, and Supaphol 2004). Other works also refer to the fact that the mixture of different solvents might bring important characteristics such as an easier drying process while maintaining the dissolution of the polymer (Ghorani, Russell, and Goswami 2013). One of the factors that influence the polymer solution viscosity the most is the molecular weight of the polymer. In general, high molecular weight increases viscosity leading to fiber formation (Tao and Shivkumar 2007). Therefore, low-molecular weight polymers are more likely to produce particles and high-molecular weight polymers produce fibers with large diameters (Bhardwaj and Kundu 2010). When the polymer solution is constituted by a mixture of polymers, the molecular weight of the polymers might also not be so influential in the production of fibers, since the polymers have enough affinity to create several entanglement points through intermolecular interactions (Munir et al. 2009). One of the ways used to understand the capacity of a polymer solution to be electrospun or electrosprayed is to evaluate the surface tension and conductivity. The surface tension is mainly dependent on the solvent used rather than on the polymer. High surface tension might prevent the formation of fibers and capsules or even complicate Taylor’s cone formation (Rogina 2014). A lower surface tension will allow the utilization of a lower electric field. To avoid a negative influence of surface tension, a reduction of polymer concentration might be done, although it is important to be aware that this change will also affect the viscosity of the polymer solution (Moomand and Lim 2015). The conductivity of the solution is influenced by the polymer, solvent type, and the presence of salts. More conductive solutions produce smaller-diameter fibers through electrospinning (Zong et al. 2002; Jiang et al. 2004). Therefore, with the same conditions, a more conductive solution will produce a higher elongated jet, thus producing a fiber with a smaller diameter (Tan et al. 2005). Aiming at controlling this parameters, it is common to use inorganic salts, which are added to increase electrical conductivity due to their smaller ionic diameter and higher ion mobility (Su et al. 2011). Regarding the parameters that are controllable in the equipment used, the applied voltage, flow rate, and collector distance are the most studied. The flow rate controls the amount of polymer that flows to the collector during a certain period of time. The flow rate should respect the drying time, to create dried fibers or particles. An increase in the flow rate will generate structures with bigger diameters, as a consequence of a larger amount of electrospun polymer (Zong et al. 2002). The applied voltage controls the electric field strength created between the spinneret and the collection point. Ghorani and Tucker (2015) worked to overcome the normal behavior of a dropwise solution to accomplish a Taylor’s cone. It is extremely dependent on parameters such as flow rate, surface tension, and viscosity. Higher voltages will increase the velocity of the jet and, as a consequence, the transported solution volume (Zong et al. 2002). Usually, there is a voltage range able to produce the minimal average fiber diameter, where a higher or lower voltage will increase the average fiber diameter (Ghorani and Tucker 2015). The distance between the tip and the collector is essential to allow fibers and particles to dry and should be adjusted according to the polymer concentration and applied voltage (Guo et al. 2013; Zou et al. 2011). In general, a greater distance between the tip and the collector will create longer flight times and higher solvent evaporation. Consequently, the diameter of the produced fibers will be smaller and the tendency for particles creation will be reduced (Lin et al. 2008; Yuan et al. 2004). Other parameters that should be controlled are the ambient conditions during processing. Temperature is an ambient parameter that mainly affects the polymer viscosity and the fiber drying process. Higher temperatures would create a lower polymer viscosity, and as a consequence, the fiber diameters will be smaller (Bhardwaj and Kundu 2010). Humidity can influence the fiber drying process, where a low humidity allows an easier fiber drying process (Demir et al. 2002).

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1.3 ELECTROHYDRODYNAMIC PROCESSING IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY The use of bio-based materials in the development and production of nanostructures through electrohydrodynamic processing is revealing several structural and functional advantages. Regarding commercial applications in the food industry, the use of biopolymers to produce nanofibers and nanoparticles, using electrohydrodynamic processes, has a wide area of applications such as new food ingredients, food additives encapsulation, high-performance (active) food packaging and coatings, and biosensors. However, and at this moment, only few companies are able to produce it using biopolymers at industrial scale (one of the cases is Bioinicia 2017 in Spain). Another kind of application with high potential is the use of electrohydrodynamic processing in the confectionery industry since the electrospun structures allow the creation of new textures and coatings in foods, leading to new and enhanced organoleptic properties (e.g., chocolate) (Altay and Okutan 2015; Luo et al. 2012a; Nieuwland et al. 2014). In this section, the bio-based materials used in electrohydrodynamic processing will be explored, as well the food applications where they can be used. 1.3.1 Bio-Based Materials Used Several bio-based materials from diverse origins can be used in electrohydrodynamic processes. Bio-based materials can be divided into the following: • Bio-based materials extracted from biomass, such as polysaccharides and proteins • Bio-based materials obtained from biomass-derived monomers where the final biodegradable polymer is obtained through classical chemical synthetic routes, such as poly(lactic)acid (PLA) • Polymers obtained from natural or genetically modified microorganisms, like xanthan gum and polyhydroxyalkanoates

Bio-based materials are all suitable for electrospinning and electrospraying with different purposes such as encapsulation of bioactive compounds, food packaging and coating, enzyme immobilization, and production of filtration membranes (Anu Bhushani and Anandharamakrishnan 2014; Fabra, López-Rubio, and Lagaron 2016; Ghorani and Tucker 2015). Bio-based materials are also promising choices due to their biodegradability and biocompatibility characteristics and to the fact that they can be tailored to the desired properties turning them into versatile carriers (Aceituno-Medina et al. 2014; Nieuwland et al. 2014; Stijnman, Bodnar, and Hans Tromp 2011). Another advantage of these materials is the fact that they can be used simultaneously with different methods (e.g., layer-by-layer, cross-linking) to enhance the final properties of structures. Concerning regulatory aspects, the choice will fall in materials generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and approved by the regulatory agencies (i.e., EFSA and FDA). From an economic point of view, elements such as a continuous supply, cost, and simplicity of use are all taken into account for the selection of the matrix source material. Some of the biopolymers used for electrospinning and/or electrospraying are presented in Table 1.1. 1.3.2 Applications in the Food Industry The main objectives of the food industry is to ensure the stability and quality of the food products as well the process efficiency. It seeks to achieve these demands and, at the same time, maintain food processing as simple as possible. So new and innovative food processing technologies play an important role in the continuous improvement of food processing and their products. This is the case for new processing technologies such as the electrohydrodynamic process that can help the food industry in achieving greater performance, higher versatility, and innovative approaches to the different types of applications. Some of these applications are the encapsulation of bioactive compounds, food packaging and coating, enzyme immobilization, and bacteriophage incorporation (Table 1.2) (Fabra, López-Rubio, and Lagaron 2016; Lee et al. 2016; Wen et al. 2016).


Table 1.1

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Bio-Based Material Source and Type Used in Electrohydrodynamic Processing, Developed Structure, and Encapsulated Compounds

Biomaterial Source Directly extracted from biomass

Biomaterial Type

Structure

Chitosan

Electrospun fibers

CNMA

Chitosan

Particles and fibers

(−)-Epigallocatechin gallate

Sodium alginate

Electrospray particles Starch Electrospun fibers Alyssum Electrospray homolocarpum particles seed gum WPI Electrospun fibers

Folic acid

Whey protein concentrate Caseinate SPI

Electrospray particles Electrospun fibers Electrospun fibers

Folic acid

API Zein

Electrospun fibers Coaxial electrospinning fibers Electrospray particles

Nisin Rose hip seed oil

Zein

Gelatin

Electrospun interlayers fibers Electrospun fibres

Electrospray particles

Gelatin Electrospun fibrils Oil-based/biomassPolycaprolactone Electrospun fibers derived monomers PVA Electrospun fibers PEO PLA

Polymers produced by natural or genetically modified microorganisms

Encapsulated Compounds

PHBV Kefiran Pullulan

Reference Rieger and Schiffman (2014) Gómez-Mascaraque, Sanchez, and LópezRubio (2016) Bakhshi et al. (2013)

BCNW D-limonene

Fabra et al. (2016) Khoshakhlagh et al. (2017)

α-tocopherol

Fabra, López-Rubio, and Lagaron (2016) Pérez-Masiá et al. (2015) Tomasula et al. (2016) Vega-Lugo and Lim (2009) Soto et al. (2016) Yao et al. (2016)

N/A Allyl isothiocyanate

Green tea catechins Anu Bhushani, Kurrey, and Anandharamakrishnan (2017) CNMA Cerqueira et al. (2016) β-carotene

Polyphenols

N/A N/A Eugenol

Electrospun fibers Coaxial electrospinning fibers Electrospun fibers

N/A N/A

Electrospun fibers Electro-wet-spinning fibers

N/A N/A

Zinc oxide

Fernandez, TorresGiner, and Lagaron (2009) Gómez-Mascaraque, Lagarón, and LópezRubio (2015) Nieuwland et al. (2014) Martins et al. (2015) Kayaci, Ertas, and Uyar (2013) Sullivan et al. (2014) Nguyen, Chung, and Park (2011) Castro-Mayorga et al. (2017) Esnaashari et al. (2014) Kong and Ziegler (2014)

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Table 1.2

Examples of Applications of Electrohydrodynamic Processes in the Food Industry

Application

Feature

Technique

Notes

Reference

Encapsulation

Functional ingredient

Electrospinning

Encapsulation

Functional ingredient Biosensor

Electrospraying

Encapsulation of López-Rubio et al. Bifidobacterium (2012) animalis subsp. Lactis Bb12 strains using WPC and pullulan Encapsulation of folic acid Bakhshi et al. (2013)

Electrospinning

Glucose oxidase in PVA

Active multilayer bio-based antimicrobial packaging Antimicrobial packaging Protein-based textures

Multilayer Multilayer structure with electrospinning PHBV 8% and zein as interlayer with CNMA

Cerqueira et al. (2016)

Coaxial T4 bacteriophage fibers electrospinning using PEO Electrospinning Gelatin and zein electrospinning

Korehei and Kadla (2013) Nieuwland et al. (2014)

Enzyme immobilization Food packaging and coating

Bacteriophages incorporation New textures production

Ren et al. (2006)

1.3.2.1 Encapsulation of Functional Ingredients The use of nanostructures for the encapsulation of functional ingredients has been presented as one of the most interesting systems for the protection, delivery, and controlled release of bioactive compounds and probiotics. It is known that functional ingredients can be very sensitive to different conditions (light, temperature, and pH) (Altay and Okutan 2015). Moreover, the lipophilic or hydrophilic nature of bioactive compounds can influence their behavior during the encapsulation process. So the use of bio-based materials for functional ingredient incorporation is a subject of special attention due to many applications with different objectives, namely, the following: • Controlled release (Jiang, Wang, and Zhu 2014) • Control temperature influence (Camerlo et al. 2014) • Functional activity maintenance (Cerqueira et al. 2016)

Encapsulation arises as a controlled delivery system where stability and functional performance will depend on their internal and external morphologies. The encapsulation of the functional ingredients in foods must ensure no undesirable impact on the organoleptic properties. At the same time, it must maintain their physicochemical properties providing a controlled release, ensuring the activity of the bioactive component when eaten. The major benefits of encapsulation come from small dimension matrices with high surface/volume ratios. These factors will lead to higher solubility, better aggregation stability, faster diffusion rates, and an increase in bioavailability (Davidov-Pardo, Joye, and McClements 2015). Several methods were already used and evaluated to produce encapsulation structures. Conventional methods such as coacervation (Yang et al. 2015), spray drying (Pérez-Masiá et al. 2015), nanoemulsion (Silva, Cerqueira, and Vicente 2012), and extrusion (Ramos et al. 2017) are commonly used for encapsulation. Spray drying is one of the most commonly used in the food industry due to its affordable operational costs. However, traditional methods can present some disadvantages such as the loss of volatile compounds and of probiotic bacteria viability due to the temperature needed during the process. Electrohydrodynamic processes appear as a novel method to encapsulate bioactive components due to their easy-to-use characteristics and advantages such as one-step formulation and the lack of need to use organic solvents or high temperature. Many studies were already performed and proved


5 µm

(a)

Figure 1.2

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50.0 µm

(b)

Scanning electron microscopy images of (a) WPC capsules obtained through electrospraying from 40 wt.% WPC aqueous solutions and (b) zein fibers obtained through electrospinning from 33 wt.% zein ethanolic solutions. (Reprinted from Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 13, A. López-Rubio and J. M. Lagaron, Whey protein capsules obtained through electrospraying for the encapsulation of bioactives, 200–6, Copyright (2012), with permission from Elsevier; with kind permission from Springer Science+Business Media: Food and Bioprocess Technology, Use of electrospinning to develop antimicrobial biodegradable multilayer systems: Encapsulation of cinnamaldehyde and their physicochemical characterization, 9, 2016, 1874–84, M. A. Cerqueira et al.)

that encapsulation by electrospinning/electrospraying is very effective when the aim is the encapsulation of bioactive compounds. Aceituno-Medina et al. (2014) tested the encapsulation of folic acid in amaranth protein isolate (API) and pullulan electrospun fibers and observed an increase in the thermal stability of the structure, assessed by the photoprotection during 120 min, avoiding folic acid degradation. Using whey protein concentrate (WPC), López-Rubio and Lagaron (2012) showed the possibility of using the electrospray process to encapsulate b-carotene in nanoparticles with a high encapsulation efficiency and, at the same time, stabilize b-carotene against photooxidation. These results showed a possible solution for the use of photosensitive bioactive compounds in food applications. López-Rubio and Lagaron (2012) used WPC to encapsulate Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bb12 in electrospray particles. The results showed a substantial increase in the viability of the Bifidobacterium strain at 20°C and a greater protection, even at high relative humidity, showing conditions for successful functional food applications. Figure 1.2 shows some of the structures developed for the encapsulation of food compounds. Figure 1.2a and b shows nanocapsules and nanofibers produced through electrohydrodynamic processing using WPC and zein, respectively. 1.3.2.2 Enzyme Immobilization Enzymes are natural catalysts that have high regio- and stereoselectivity and enhance the reaction rate of chemical reactions in living organisms. They are expensive, very sensitive, and unstable, leading to limitations when they are used in industry (Anu Bhushani and Anandharamakrishnan 2014; Lee et al. 2016). The immobilization process can solve some of these limitations, confining the enzyme in a specific region to overcome the enzyme sensitivity and instability problems and to allow a possible future reuse (Lee et al. 2016). Several techniques such as entrapment, cross-linking, adsorption, and covalent bonding are used to immobilize enzymes. The most used technique is covalent bonding, which allows the reuse of the enzyme and, because of it, is one of the methods that present the most robust immobilization. However, the type of support (chemical and morphological structure) in covalent bonding significantly influences the immobilized enzyme activity. To overcome these challenges and ensure a high surface area (to increase the functional groups for covalent bonding) and low diffusion limitations (to substrate and product), nanofibers produced by

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electrospinning appear as a solution due to their high surface area, open pore structure, and large lateral interspace between nanofibers (Lee et al. 2016). Liu et al. (2012) tested the glucose oxidase immobilization in poly(vinyl) alcohol (PVA)/chitosan/tea extract and observed the antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. This system exhibited 73% of deoxidization in tested samples and exerted inhibition of the growth of microorganisms, and so is suitable as a novel food packaging material able to extend the food shelf life. Several enzymes have a crucial importance in food industries; some studies have already shown an improvement in the efficiency and catalyzing capability of immobilized enzymes. For instance, Lee et al. (2016) immobilized lipase via cross-linking in methylcellulose nanofibrous mat where more than 90% of the initial activity was maintained after seven reuses. These results are very important for food applications since lipases are used in bioconversion reactions in several food industries, such as the bakery and dairy industries. 1.3.2.3 Food Packaging Food packaging, with films and coatings, are very important since they protect food along the food chain and guarantee the quality and safety of food products. Besides protection, they can also be used to provide extra functionalities such as antioxidant and antimicrobial activities or used as carriers of probiotics and nutrients. The use of electrospinning for food active packaging production is a very promising technique since it allows the production of nanolayered structures with controlled release ability by different triggers (relative humidity, temperature, and pH). Another interesting application is the use of electrospinning to produce food packaging with biosensors. This technology will create a response depending on the internal and external environment providing information about food quality and safety (Ren et al. 2006). One example is described by Luo et al. (2012b) that produced an immunobiosensor using magnetic nanoparticles immobilized in cellulose nitrate nanofibers, produced by electrospinning. This structure was conjugated with an antibody specific for E. coli O157:H7, allowing observation that the biosensor was capable of detecting E. coli at a low level (67 colony-forming units/mL in a total detection time of 8 min). These results showed that this is a sensitive, reliable, fast, and low-cost biosensor, which can be used in food applications. Regarding food coatings, this application is very important due to the barrier properties that can lead to the creation of better packaging materials. A possible methodology to apply a coating in food is spray coating. In this case, the electrospray is used to form a coating in the food product, it being possible to apply a uniform coating with a controlled deposition rate and film thickness. A major advantage is the ability to control the droplet size through the adjustment of the voltage and flow rate of the instrument and the possibility to control the spraying solution concentration (Anu Bhushani and Anandharamakrishnan 2014). Yao et al. (2016) encapsulated rose hip seed oil in zein prolamine fibers through coaxial electrospinning and showed that these compounds have a promising food packaging potential since they delayed the degradation of fruits (bananas and kumquats) for 7 days. The electrohydrodynamic process can also be used as a methodology for the development of interlayers for multilayer food packaging. The electrospun material can be used as a natural adhesive that ties together different biopolymer layers and, at the same time, improves biopolymer barrier properties. These advantages are highly important in food packaging/coating since the adhesion of different materials (i.e., hydrophobic with hydrophilic) is very important in multilayer food packaging. Barrier properties are also very important to ensure food quality and will depend on the type of food product (e.g., fresh or dry food product) and their different demands (e.g., high or low barrier). Interlayer methodology presents several advantages, making this methodology very useful for food packaging since it is a natural adhesive method, improves the physical performance (optimizing coating barrier properties), and allows the interlayers to be tailor made based on the final objective. Some biopolymers such as soy protein (Vega-Lugo and Lim 2009) and zein (Cerqueira et al. 2016)


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were already used and proved the possibility of using this methodology to assemble aliphatic polyester with natural biopolymers (Fabra et al. 2013). Recently, Cerqueira et al. (2016) tested a multilayer system using poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate 8 (PHBV8) (8% valerate content) and zein with and without cinnamaldehyde (CNMA) as interlayer. To complete this system, different outer layers were tested (i.e., PHBV8 and alginate-based films). The results showed antibacterial activity for Listeria monocytogenes to be more effective with PHBV8 with CNMA-loaded zein and using PHBV8 as outer layer. These results revealed a methodology and a system with promising characteristics for active bio-based food packaging. Other studies were done with different matrices. For instance, Fabra, López-Rubio, and Lagaron (2016) used electrospun fibers as a coating layer (whey protein isolate [WPI], zein, and soy protein isolate [SPI]) in wheat gluten films, forming a bilayer biostructure to encapsulate alpha-tocopherol. The release profiles and stability of alpha-tocopherol in a sterilization process were evaluated. Zein matrix revealed the best results with higher stability and slower release due to a more efficient water vapor reduction. These results lead to a new method for the creation of bioactive packaging systems for food application. In addition, some tests with nanocomposites and multilayered design were done and evaluated by Fabra et al. (2016) that used thermoplastic corn starch bionanocomposites and 15% bacterial cellulose nanowhiskers (BCNWs), coated with electrospun poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)– BCNW fibers. This system showed an improvement in water vapor permeability with a reduction of 70% and an enhanced barrier performance since it reduced the oxygen permeability by 98%, which are very important features in food applications. All these functionalities are very important for the food industry leading to the creation of innovative active food packaging, with optimized and desired properties (protection, controlled release, sensors, flavoring, antimicrobial, and probiotic) and to boost sustainability. 1.3.2.4 Bacteriophages Bacteriophages (or phages) are viruses that infect and kill only a specific bacterium, being used to ensure food safety and quality. Phages can be used for specific bacteria control in different steps of food production and storage, although with antibiotic technology, appearance phage therapy was left aside. The application of phages to reduce the concentration of bacterial pathogens is very promising to ensure food preservation (Korehei and Kadla 2013). Techniques such as electrospraying and electrospinning are suitable to incorporate phage and maintain their activity since electrospun materials are very flexible. Nowadays, there are some works focused on the incorporation of phages using these techniques, although more studies are needed in the near future. Using electrospinning/electrospraying in phage suspensions leads to phage deactivation due to the fast water evaporation during single-nozzle electrospinning. Coaxial electrospinning was successful to encapsulate T4 phage by placing it in the core of the fiber. Regarding the release profile, using an optimized system with higher-molecular weight polyethylene oxide (PEO) or blending with hydrophobic cellulose in aqueous buffer medium allowed a slower release rate (Korehei and Kadla 2013). 1.3.2.5 Filtration Membranes One of the interesting applications in food industries is the use of electrospun fibers for liquid filtration where it is needed to remove some contaminants, such as metals, and where the conventional purification methods are inefficient. One of the ways is the development of functionalized biopolymer-based nanofiber membranes able to retain toxic heavy metal ions, such as arsenate, and therefore obtain a clean water that can be used in food processes (Min et al. 2016). Another interesting application is the use of nanofiber filter membranes as antimicrobial filter. One of the studies was performed by Desai et al. (2009), which presented a chitosan-based nanofiber membrane with a capacity to bind to hexavalent chromium and a reduction of up to 2–3 log of E. coli bacteria.

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1.4 FUTURE TRENDS AND FINAL REMARKS The increasing number of publications on the use of electrohydrodynamic processing reveals the interest in the potential applications of this technology in the food industry. This trend is confirmed by the number of companies that are selling equipment and devices for the production of fibers and particles using electrohydrodynamic processing. The scale-up of the technology using bio-based materials that present GRAS status is still under development when compared with petroleum-/ synthetic-based ones. This is mainly due to the low variability of the materials and high availability when compared with bio-based biopolymers extracted from renewable sources. The injection system has to be modified when the process is scaled-up. Thus, multispinneret systems arranged either in uniaxial configuration or in circular geometry are used in equipment at industrial scale. One of the possibilities is the use of a hemispherical cap above the nozzle, which was shown to be useful to increase the flow rate (from 2 to 65 mL/h) during the electrospraying of ethanol, maintaining the stability of the cone-jet (Morad et al. 2016). The possibility to produce nanofibers and nanoparticles at the industrial scale using different pieces of equipment such as Fluidnatek™ (Bionica 2017) and Nanospider™ (Elmarco 2016) presented by companies and researchers (Kim et al. 2015); and the number of patent applications shows the interest in the use of this technology in the food industry. In fact, since the first patent in 1934 (Formhals 1934) regarding the production of fibers using cellulose derivatives by electrohydrodynamic processing, a great number of patents have been granted in this topic for several applications, although only few of them have been applied regarding the use of this technology for food purposes. Recent patent applications claim the possibility of producing particles and fibers using protein and polysaccharides mixtures. In 2012, Pepsico, Inc. presented an invention where conjugated proteins are produced using electrospinning (e.g., they prepared dextranconjugated whey proteins) where the main advantages over other methods for protein conjugation are that the electrospinning allows the glycosylation in shorter annealing times and with a higher yield. Also, an invention presenting the production methods of micro- and nanostructures using amaranth protein combined with a biopolymer was presented. The invention describes the use of electrospinning, electrospray, or bow-spinning for the production of the structures (López-Rúbio et al. 2015). The same authors presented an invention for the protection of biological material in general and thermolabile substances (i.e., microorganisms and viruses) that requires protection to extend their shelf life or broaden the scope of applications. This patent shows how to encapsulate the microorganisms Lactobacillus plantarum and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis (CECT 4552) with increasing viability by electrohydrodynamic processing, protecting the microorganisms against stress conditions such as temperature, relative humidity, or pH (Lagarón, Pérez-Másia, and LópezRubio 2015). Therefore, in the next years, it is expected to find structures produced using electrohydrodynamic processes in several food products and systems (packaging), as well as during their processing (filtration). It is also expected that their use in packaging materials and food processing (filtration and enzyme immobilization) will be achieved in consumer goods fairly shortly, while encapsulation using nanoparticles and nanofibers for delivery and controlled release applications will need further safety studies. These studies should show how these systems will protect and release compounds with different characteristics and how they will behave in the gastrointestinal tract, in order to guarantee safety and acceptance among regulatory agencies, industry, and consumers. One of the applications that can bring huge benefits to the food industry in the development of new and innovative foods is the use of electrohydrodynamic processing for 3D printing foods (Zhang et al. 2016). New foods (soft, palatable, and nutritious) can be created through the deposition of polymer fibers and particles. They can help to support the development of foods for consumers needing special foods (e.g., elderly people) due to physiological dysfunctions (e.g., dysphagia) and/or specific nutritional requirements (e.g., protein, iron, and calcium) (Aguilera and Park 2016). Some studies showed the possibility of using electrohydrodynamic processing to produce electrospun food


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structures, such as chocolate and cocoa coatings (using the heated process) (Gorty and Barringer 2011; Marthina and Barringer 2012). Also some studies were performed to produce a meat replacer by using gelatin and zein nanofibers (Nieuwland et al. 2014). One of the key points of using innovative technologies and submicro- and nanomaterials in foods, besides the legislation, is the consumer acceptance. In fact, it is the consumers who will decide wether electrohydrodynamic processed products will reach the market and if they will be widely consumed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the scope of the strategic funding of UID/BIO/04469/2013 unit and COMPETE 2020 (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006684) and BioTecNorte operation (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000004) funded by the European Regional Development Fund under the scope of Norte2020—Programa Operacional Regional do Norte. M. J. Costa is the recipient of a fellowship supported by a doctoral advanced training (call NORTE-69-2015-15) funded by the European Social Fund under the scope of Norte2020— Programa Operacional Regional do Norte. This research was supported by Norte Regional Operational Program 2014–2020 (Norte2020) through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) Nanotechnology-based functional solutions (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000019). REFERENCES Aceituno-Medina, Marysol, Sandra Mendoza, José María Lagaron, and Amparo López-Rubio. 2014. Photoprotection of folic acid upon encapsulation in food-grade amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.) protein isolate—Pullulan electrospun fibers. LWT—Food Science and Technology 62: 970–5. Aguilera, José Miguel, and Dong June Park. 2016. Texture-modified foods for the elderly: Status, technology and opportunities. Trends in Food Science & Technology 57: 156–64. Altay, Filiz, and Nagihan Okutan. 2015. Nanofibre encapsulation of active ingredients and their controlled release. In Advances in Food Biotechnology, edited by Rai Vittal Ravishankar, 607–16. Wiley Blackwell, Hoboken, NJ. Anu Bhushani, J., and Chinnaswamy Anandharamakrishnan. 2014. Electrospinning and Electrospraying Techniques: Potential Food Based Applications. Trends in Food Science and Technology 38 (1): 21–33. Anu Bhushani, J., Nawneet Kumar Kurrey, and Chinnaswamy Anandharamakrishnan. 2017. Nanoencapsulation of green tea catechins by electrospraying technique and its effect on controlled release and invitro permeability. Journal of Food Engineering 199: 82–92. Arpagaus, Cordin. 2012. A novel laboratory-scale spray dryer to produce nanoparticles. Drying Technology 30 (10): 1113–21. Bakhshi, Poonam Kaushik, Muhammad Rafique Nangrejo, Eleanor Stride, and Mohan Edirisinghe. 2013. Application of electrohydrodynamic technology for folic acid encapsulation. Food and Bioprocess Technology 6 (7): 1837–46. Bhardwaj, Nandana, and Subhas C. Kundu. 2010. Electrospinning: A fascinating fiber fabrication technique. Biotechnology Advances 28 (3): 325–47. Bioinicia. 2017. Bioinicia Electrospinning Electrospraying Fluidnatek. Accessed January 25, 2017. http://www .bioinicia.com/. Bock, Natalie, Tim R. Dargaville, and Maria Ann Woodruff. 2012. Electrospraying of polymers with therapeutic molecules: State of the art. Progress in Polymer Science 37 (11): 1510–51. Bu, Ningbin, Yongan Huang, Xiaomei Wang, and Zhouping Yin. 2012. Continuously tunable and oriented nanofiber direct-written by mechano-electrospinning. Materials and Manufacturing Processes 27 (12): 1318–23.

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13 Chapter 13: Electrospinning of Edible, Food-Based Polymers Aceituno-Medina, Marysol, Amparo Mendoza, and José María Lagaron. novel ultrathin structures based hypochondriacus) protein isolate Food Hydrocolloids 31:289–298.

Lopez-Rubio, Sandra 2013a. Development of in amaranth (Amaranthus through electrospinning.

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15 Chapter 15: Nanoemulsions and Nanodispersions Acevedo-Fani, Alejandra, Laura Salvia-Trujillo, María Alejandra Rojas-Graü, and Olga Martín-Belloso. 2015. Edible films from essential-oil-loaded nanoemulsions: Physicochemical characterization and antimicrobial properties. Food Hydrocolloids 47:168–177. Anarjan, Navideh, Naghmeh Jaberi, Samal Yeganeh-Zare, Elham Banafshehchin, Amir Rahimirad, and Hoda Jafarizadeh-Malmiri. 2014a. Optimization of Mixing parameters for a-tocopherol nanodispersions prepared using solvent displacement method. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 91 (8):1397– 1405. Anarjan, Navideh, Hoda Jafarizadeh-Malmiri, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, Hassen Mohamed Sbihi, Saud Ibrahim Al-Resayes, and Chin Ping Tan. 2015. Effects of homogenization process parameters on physicochemical properties of astaxanthin nanodispersions prepared using a solvent-diffusion technique. International Journal of Nanomedicine 10:1109–1118. Anarjan, Navideh, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, Hassen Mohamed Sbihi, Saud Ibrahim Al-Resayes, Hoda Jafarizadeh Malmiri, and Chin Ping Tan. 2014b. Preparation of astaxanthin nanodispersions using gelatin-based stabilizer systems. Molecules 19 (9):14257–14265. Anarjan, Navideh, and Chin Ping Tan. 2013a. Effects of storage temperature, atmosphere and light on chemical stability of astaxanthin nanodispersions. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 90 (8):1223– 1227. Anarjan, Navideh, and Chin Ping Tan. 2013b. Chemical stability of astaxanthin nanodispersions in orange juice and skimmed milk as model food systems. Food Chemistry 139 (1–4):527–531. Anarjan, Navideh, Chin Ping Tan, Tau Chuan Ling, Kwan Liang Lye, Hoda Jafarizadeh Malmiri, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, Yoke Kqueen Cheah, Hamed Mirhosseini, and Badlishah Sham Baharin. 2011. Effect of organic-phase solvents on physicochemical properties and cellular uptake of astaxanthin nanodispersions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59 (16):8733–8741. Anarjan, Navideh, Chin Ping Tan, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, and Tau Chuan Ling. 2012. Colloidal astaxanthin: Preparation,

characterisation and bioavailability evaluation. Food Chemistry 135 (3):1303–1309. Anton, Nicolas, Pascal Gayet, Jean-Pierre Benoit, and Patrick Saulnier. 2007. Nano-emulsions and nanocapsules by the PIT method: An investigation on the role of the temperature cycling on the emulsion phase inversion. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 344 (1–2):44–52. Anton, Nicolas, and Thierry F. Vandamme. 2009. The universality of low-energy nano-emulsification. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 377 (1–2):142–147. Bai, Long, Siqi Huan, Jiyou Gu, and David Julian McClements. 2016. Fabrication of oil-in-water nanoemulsions by dual-channel microfluidization using natural emulsifiers: Saponins, phospholipids, proteins, and polysaccharides. Food Hydrocolloids 61:703–711. Bhargava, Kanika, Denise S. Conti, Sandro R. P. da Rocha, and Yifan Zhang. 2015. Application of an oregano oil nanoemulsion to the control of foodborne bacteria on fresh lettuce. Food Microbiology 47:69–73. Bleeker, Eric A. J., Wim H. de Jong, Robert E. Geertsma, Monique Groenewold, Evelyn H. W. Heugens, Marjorie Koers-Jacquemijns, Dik van de Meent et al. 2013. Considerations on the EU de finition of a nanomaterial: Science to support policy making. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 65 (1):119–125. Chang, Yuhua, Lynne McLandsborough, and David Julian McClements. 2013. Physicochemical properties and antimicrobial efficacy of carvacrol nanoemulsions formed by spontaneous emulsification. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61 (37):8906–8913. Chang, Yuhua, Lynne McLandsborough, and David Julian McClements. 2015. Fabrication, stability and efficacy of dual-component antimicrobial nanoemulsions: Essential oil (thyme oil) and cationic surfactant (lauric arginate). Food Chemistry 172:298–304. IN THE FOOD Cheong, Ai Mun, Chin Ping Tan, and Kar Lin Nyam. 2016. In vitro evaluation of the structural and bioaccessibility of kenaf seed oil nanoemulsions stabilised by binary emulsifiers and b-cyclodextrin complexes. Journal of Food Engineering 189:90–98. Cheong, Jean Ne, and Chin Ping Tan. 2010. Palm-based

functional lipid nanodispersions: Preparation, characterization and stability evaluation. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 112 (5):557–564. Donsì, Francesco, Giovanna Ferrari, and Paola Maresca. 2006. High-pressure homogenisation for food sanitisation. Paper read at 13th World Congress of Food Science and Technology 2006:497. Failla, Mark L., and Chureeporn Chitchumronchokchai. 2005. In Vitro Models as Tools for Screening the Relative Bioavailabilities of Provitamin A Carotenoids in Foods: International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC. Failla, Mark L., Tian-Yao Huo, and Sagar K. Thakkar. 2008. In vitro screening of relative bioaccessibility of carotenoids from foods. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 17 (S1):200–203. Fernández-Garci ́ a, Elisabet, Francisco Rincón, and Antonio Pérez-Gálvez. 2008. Developing an emulsifier system to improve the bioaccessibility of carotenoids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56 (21):10384–10390. Frede, Katja, Andrea Henze, Mahmoud Khalil, Susanne Baldermann, Florian J Schweigert, and Harshadrai Rawel. 2014. Stability and cellular uptake of lutein-loaded emulsions. Journal of Functional Foods 8:118–127. Ghosh, Vijayalakshmi, Amitava Mukherjee, and Natarajan Chandrasekaran. 2013. Ultrasonic emulsification of food-grade nanoemulsion formulation and evaluation of its bactericidal activity. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 20 (1):338–344. Gupta, Ankur, H. Burak Eral, T. Alan Hatton, and Patrick S. Doyle. 2016. Nanoemulsions: Formation, properties and applications. Soft Matter 12 (11):2826–2841. Guttoff, Marrisa, Amir Hossein Saberi, and David Julian McClements. 2015. Formation of vitamin D nanoemulsion-based delivery systems by spontaneous emulsification: Factors affecting particle size and stability. Food Chemistry 171:117–122. Hategekimana, Joseph, Moses V. M. Chamba, Charles F. Shoemaker, Hamid Majeed, and Fang Zhong. 2015. Vitamin E nanoemulsions by emulsion phase inversion: Effect of

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Leong, Wai Fun, Yaakob B. Che Man, Oi Ming Lai, Kamariah Long, Mitsutoshi Nakajima, and Chin Ping Tan. 2011b. Effect of sucrose fatty acid esters on the particle characteristics and flow properties of phytosterol nanodispersions. Journal of Food Engineering 104 (1):63–69. Li, Yi Grace, Daniel Lu, and CP Wong. 2009. Electrical Conductive Adhesives with Nanotechnologies: Springer Science and Business Media, Berlin. Mao, Like, Jia Yang, Duoxia Xu, Fang Gao. 2010. Effects of homogenization on the physicochemical properties of nanoemulsions. Journal of Dispersion 31 (7):986–993.

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(1):95–102. Qian, Cheng, Eric Andrew Decker, Hang Xiao, and David Julian McClements. 2012. Physical and chemical stability of b-carotene-enriched nanoemulsions: Influence of pH, ionic strength, temperature, and emulsifier type. Food Chemistry 132 (3):1221–1229. Rebolleda, Sara, María Teresa Sanz, José Manuel Benito, Sagrario Beltrán, Isabel Escudero, and María Luisa González San-José. 2015. Formulation and characterisation of wheat bran oil-in-water nanoemulsions. Food Chemistry 167:16–23. Ribeiro, Henelyta S, José MM Guerrero, Karlis Briviba, Gerhard Rechkemmer, Heike P. Schuchmann, and Helmar Schubert. 2006. Cellular uptake of carotenoid-loaded oil-in-water emulsions in colon carcinoma cells in vitro. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 54 (25):9366–9369. Saberi, Amir Hossein, Yuan Fang, and David Julian McClements. 2013. Fabrication of vitamin E-enriched nanoemulsions: Factors affecting particle size using spontaneous emulsification. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 391:95 –102. Salvia-Trujillo, Laura, Alejandra Rojas-Graü, Robert Soliva-Fortuny, and Olga Martín-Belloso. 2013. Physicochemical characterization of lemongrass essential oil–alginate nanoemulsions: Effect of ultrasound processing parameters. Food and Bioprocess Technology 6 (9):2439–2446. Salvia-Trujillo, Laura, M. Alejandra Rojas-Graü, Robert Soliva-Fortuny, and Olga Martín-Belloso. 2015. Use of antimicrobial nanoemulsions as edible coatings: Impact on safety and quality attributes of fresh-cut Fuji apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology 105:8–16. Salvia-Trujillo, Laura, Quancai Sun, Byung Hun Um, Yeonhwa Park, and David Julian McClements. 2015. In vitro and in vivo study of fucoxanthin bioavailability from nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: Impact of lipid carrier type. Journal of Functional Foods 17:293–304. Scopus. 2016 (cited August 18). Available from https://www.scopus.com/term/analyzer.uri?sid Shariffa, Yussof Nor, Tai Boon Tan, Faridah Abas, Hamed Mirhosseini, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, and Chin Ping Tan. 2016. Producing a lycopene nanodispersion: The effects of

emulsifiers. Food and Bioproducts Processing 98:210–216. IN THE FOOD Silva, Hélder Daniel, Miguel Ângelo Cerqueira, and António A. Vicente. 2012. Nanoemulsions for food applications: Development and characterization. Food and Bioprocess Technology 5 (3):854–867. Solans, Conxita, Paqui Izquierdo, Jordi Nolla, Núria Azemar, and María José Garcia-Celma. 2005. Nanoemulsions. Current Opinion in Colloid and Interface Science 10 (3–4):102–110. Surassmo, Suvimol, Sang-Gi Min, Piyawan Bejrapha, and Mi-Jung Choi. 2010. Effects of surfactants on the physical properties of capsicum oleoresin-loaded nanocapsules formulated through the emulsion– diffusion method. Food Research International 43 (1):8–17. Tan, Tai Boon, Wern Cui Chu, Nor Shariffa Yussof, Faridah Abas, Hamed Mirhosseini, Yoke Kqueen Cheah, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, and Chin Ping Tan. 2016a. Physicochemical, morphological and cellular uptake properties of lutein nanodispersions prepared by using surfactants with different stabilizing mechanisms. Food & Function 7 (4):2043–2051. Tan, Tai Boon, Nor Shariffa Yussof, Faridah Abas, Hamed Mirhosseini, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, and Chin Ping Tan. 2016b. Comparing the formation of lutein nanodispersion prepared by using solvent displacement method and high-pressure valve homogenization: Effects of formulation parameters. Journal of Food Engineering 177:65–71. Tan, Tai Boon, Nor Shariffa Yussof, Faridah Abas, Hamed Mirhosseini, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, and Chin Ping Tan. 2016c. Forming a lutein nanodispersion via solvent displacement method: The effects of processing parameters and emulsifiers with different stabilizing mechanisms. Food Chemistry 194:416–423. Tan, Tai Boon, Nor Shariffa Yussof, Faridah Abas, Hamed Mirhosseini, Imededdine Arbi Nehdi, and Chin Ping Tan. 2016d. Stability evaluation of lutein nanodispersions prepared via solvent displacement method: The effect of emulsifiers with different stabilizing mechanisms. Food Chemistry 205:155–162. Trotta, Michele, Francesca Debernardi, and Otto Caputo. 2003. Preparation of solid lipid nanoparticles by a solvent

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16 Chapter 16: Lipid Nanocarriers for Phytochemical Delivery in Foods Abram, V., B. Berlec, A. Ota, M. Sentjurc, M. Šentjurc, P. Blatnika, and N. Poklar Ulrih. 2013. Effect of flavonoid structure on the fluidity of model lipid membranes. Food Chemistry 139:804–13. Acevedo-Fani, A., L. Salvia-Trujillo, M. A. Rojas-Graü, and O. Martín-Belloso. 2015. Edible films from essential-oil-loaded nanoemulsions: Physicochemical characterization and antimicrobial properties. Food Hydrocolloids 47:168–77. Acevedo-Fani, A., R. Soliva-Fortuny, and O. Martín-Belloso. 2017. Nanostructured emulsions and nanolaminates for delivery of active ingredients: Improving food safety and functionality. Trends in Food Science & Technology 60:12–22. Aditya, N. P., and S. Ko. 2015. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs): Delivery vehicles for food bioactives. The Royal Society of Chemistry Advances 5:30902–11. Aditya, N. P., A. S. Macedo, S. Doktorovova et al. 2014. Development and evaluation of lipid nanocarriers for quercetin delivery: A comparative study of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), and lipid nanoemulsions (LNE). LWT—Food Science and Technology 59:115–21. Afshin B., B. Ghanbarzadeh, H. Hamishehkar. 2016. Novel nanostructured lipid carriers as a apromising food grade delivery system for rutin. Journal of Functional Foods 26:167–75. Aisha, A. F. A., A. M. S. A. Majid, and Z. Ismail. 2014. Preparation and characterization of nanoliposomes of Orthosiphon stamineus ethanolic extract in soybean phospholipids. BMC Biotechnology 14:23–34. Ali, S, M., H. R. Moghimi, Z. Hadian, M. Barzegar, and A. Mohammadi. 2017. Physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity of a-tocopherol loaded nanoliposome’s containing DHA and EPA. Food Chemistry 215:157–64. Almeida, A. J., and E. Souto. 2007. Solid lipid nanoparticles as a drug delivery system for peptides and proteins. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 59(6):478–90.

Asprea, M., I. Leto, M. C. Bergonzi, and A. R. Bilia. 2017. Thyme essential oil loaded in nanocochleates: Encapsulation efficiency, in vitro release study and antioxidant activity. LWT—Food Science and Technology 77:497–502. Babazadeh, A., B. Ghanbarzadeh, and H. Hamishehkar. 2016. Novel nanostructured lipid carriers as a promising food grade delivery system for rutin. Journal of Functional Food 26:167–75. Babazadeh, A., B. Ghanbarzadeh, and H. Hamishehkar. 2017. Formulation of food grade nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) for potential applications in medicinal-functional foods. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology 39:50–8. Balanč, B. D., A. Ota, V. B. Djordjević et al. 2015. Resveratrol-loaded liposomes: Interaction of resveratrol with phospholipids. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology 117:1615–26. Barukčić, I., K. L. Jakopović, Z. Herceg, S. Karlović, and R. Božanić. 2015. Influence of high intensity ultrasound on microbial reduction, physico-chemical characteristics and fermentation of sweet whey. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 27:94–101. Beindorff, C. M., and Microencapsulation of Technologies for Food Processing, ed. N. J. Springer, Dordrecht.

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