New trends in research on media from the perspective ...

International Journal of Pedagogy, Innovation and New Technologies journal homepage: www.ijpint.com ISSN: 2392-0092, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014

New trends in research on media from the perspective of intercultural education Mirosława Wawrzak-Chodaczek, Arkadiusz Urbanek CONTACT: Professor Mirosława Wawrzak-Chodaczek, PhD, Department of Historical and Pedagogical Sciences, University of Wroclaw, Poland, Email: [email protected] CONTACT: Arkadiusz Urbanek, PhD, Department of Historical and Pedagogical Sciences, University of Wroclaw, Poland, Email: [email protected] Keywords:

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

mass media, global media, media in society, cross-cultural, methodology

Abstract: The main objective is to present a review of major research reports on the media. A literature review was limited to literature published at the beginning of the eleventh century, only full text documents. Helpful were the following keywords: global media, television, film, aggression, Internet, computer, computer games, Internet Gaming, Addiction communication, adolescents, interaction theory, methodology. Panoramic view of the media in the analyzed literature has allowed to extract a number of areas related to the functioning of the media in society. A comprehensive review of the literature helped identify a number of factors, which specified the areas of research into the effects of media.

Introduction The range of knowledge on any given subject of its research is often perceived through the level of development of a given scientific discipline. Hence, despite its subject undergoing constant changes, media research in the context of a society remains yet to be explored. Some media are going out of date, whereas others are dynamically emerging, concurrently entailing a lot of controversies (Szpunar 2012: 13-5). Accordingly, it is worth to pose a question what is the meaning of new media? On one hand it is acknowledged that television provides a point of reference for its occurrence, thus the latter functions as a set of techniques of acquiring, processing and transmission of data introduced to the circulation later than a traditional television (Skrzypczak 1999: 375). On the other hand, while classifying new media their essential features should be taken into consideration, to recall new ways of world’s representation, interactivity, or new relations between the users and media technologies, with the implication that new media enhance more complex and non-traditional application of electronic devices, i.e. requiring active participation of the recipient (Skrzypczak 1999: 375). Thence from such standpoint only the Internet, computers and mobile phones would match such understanding of the new technologies. According to L. Manovich the key features of new media tackle five core elements, i.e.: a) numerical representation; the object of new media can be described by formal (mathematical) language, subject to algorithmic processing, b) modulatory; subject of new media consists of independent parts including level of undividable „atoms” such as pixels, 3D points, text character etc, DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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M. Wawrzak-Chodaczek, A. Urbanek • New trends in research on media from the perspective of intercultural education

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c) automatisation of new media that allows to automatise many tasks related to its creation, processing and accessibility, d) variety: the object of new media is not eventually determined in advance, but functions as a notion that exists in many different, various, independent versions which number can be unlimited; hence the new media may be compared to mapping the terrain in different scales and transcoding, allowing to modify media into computer data and change one format into another, e.g. the direct analog-to-analog or digital-todigital conversion of one encoding to another, such as for movie data files (Manovich 2006: 119-0).

The main objective of this study is to present a review of possibly all major research reports concerning functioning of the media in societies, revealing intercultural perspective. Wide range of analysis embraces the issues of the subject of research into media and ways of its accomplishment, but also the intercultural importance of media as a medium of information. The role of media is of key importance within intercultural sphere, participating in transmission between the family culture and, for instance, as diverse culture as Muslim or African. The material for analysis was gathered by searching for references via Host EBCSO and the following data base: Academic Search Complete, ISI Web of Knowledge, South African Journal of Psychology, Methodology of Research, New Media Theory, Video Game Research, Media Violence Research, Social Media, Cyberpsychology, as well as Polish literature on the subject within Polish books and journals, postconference materials and National Library data base. The research has been limited to the literature published at the beginning of the 21st century, precisely dating from January 2000 up to the most recent publications. While researching the following key words were applied: mass media, world media, aggression, the Internet, computer, computer games, internet games, addiction, youth communication, interaction theory, methodology. The searching criteria referred to publications within social and economic science published in Polish and English languages. Altogether, over 15 000 texts referring to the above-mentioned key words were found upon searching, however following the procedure of filtering 11 300 bibliographical publications meeting the required criteria were admitted, of which 3 500 were books and articles. During gathering the empirical material the tool of content analysis was applied.

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Research results Multi-aspect approach towards media in the analysed literature on the subject allowed to distinguish number of areas related to the media functioning in the society. As far as Poland is concerned, works and studies dedicated to scientific reflection over media are conducted by many scholars, to recall for example B. Dobek-Ostrowska, J. Gajda, S. Juszczyk, S. Michalczyk K. Doktorowicz, M. Sokołowski, M. Szpunar, T. Goban-Klas, J. Mikułowski Pomorski, J. Plisiecki, H. Depta, J. Izdebska, M. Braun- Gałkowska, J. Jastrzębski, A. Gwózdz, I. Fiut, E. Wilk, A. Pitrus, K. Loska, W. Godzic, R. Kluszczyński, B. Brzozowska, B. Siemieniecki, W. Chyła and many others. Media research projects are carried out in various centers within universities, with such institutions in the UK as The Communication and Media Research Institute (CAMRI), or The Institute of Communication and Media Research at the University of Leipzig that continues the tradition of press-related media research dating back to 1919. Processes of communication in a contemporary society, particularly within politics, are in the focus of attention at the Institute for Media and Communication Studies in Berlin, whereas Institute of Mass Communications and Media Research at the University of Zurich concentrates research endeavours on contemporary society as a medium of information. Theoretical analyses and research results are published in journals dedicated to media such as Media i Społeczeństwo, Global Media Journal-Polish Edition, E-mentor, Neodidagmata, Nowe Media, Media – Kultura – Komunikacja Społeczna, Kognitywistyka i Media w Edukacji, Media i Marketing Polska and many others. While categorising the topics tackled in foreign literature on new media it is self-evident that majority of them focus on the issue of research into the role of computers, the Internet or mobile phones in social life. Media research projects in this regard are commonly widespread in Poland, USA, Latin America, Africa, Australia and Asia. Number of themes oscillate around the role of the Internet in education, political communication, violence, computer games, media addictions, aggression, movies, mobile phones, love affairs in DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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Research method

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the cyberspace and the methodology of the research (Löfgren-Mårtenson 2008: 125-38, Helsper, Eynon 2010: 503-20, Niculovic, Zivkovic, Manasijevic, Strbac 2010: 1-15). Review of Polish and foreign media research projects indicates that the focus of the researching attention is on the application of media in education (Juszczyk 2002: 10-75, Izdebska 2003: 26, Morbitzer 2007: 16-45, Gajda 2010, Kerawalla, Minocha, Kirkup, Conole 2008: 21-33). Nonetheless, it is worth to stress that the analyses do not merely tackle the positive aspects of utilising the Internet in education, as its power of impact as a modern medium is also used for the purpose of indoctrination and intercultural extremism. Moreover, research projects into unlimited range of transmission of such content, crucial in political and social crises, are also of key importance. The activity of Robert Spencer and Pamela Geller who are American bloggers, sets an interesting example of application of social network for global influence on numbers of activities (Stryjewski 2013: 33). Their example provides with two key aspects of the discussion over media, as on one hand it reveals the power of their brunt, but on the other – the escalation of perilous contents. Hence, activities of bloggers can concentrate on popularisation of islamophobic slogans, that as a matter of fact turned out to be particularly hazardous in Great Britain, as their activity online was linked to a strong extreme movement against Muslims, whereas some of the entries on the blogs were referred to the motives behind the terrorist activity of Anders Breivik. Activities of bloggers, who used media for indoctrination of hatred, came across as a threat to internal security in Great Britain in the context of commemoration the death of Drumme L. Rugby, a soldier killed by perpetrators declaring Islamic background. The threat related to escalation of violence and unlimited range of the bloggers’ influence through social network sites proved to be so overwhelming that British government decided to ban few individuals from entering the territory of UK, justifying such decision by the need to protect public good, as their actions promote hatred and violence among multicultural communities of Great Britain, questioning the intercultural balance. Research into international communication exemplify another priority related to enlarging phenomenon of globalisation. From such perspective media are analysed as a scene of international events, hence such area of research attracts attention of rising number of scholars, particularly from USA (Banerjee 2009: 165-8). Polish accomplishments in this regard are also worth taking into consideration, to recall works of such sociologists of media and media experts as T. Goban-Klas (2006: 65), J. Mikułowski Pomorski (1999: 45-65) or Z. Nęcki (1983). It must be remembered that their studies paved the way for the emergence of such reflections even before 1989. The literature on the subject provides information on the phenomenon of introducing politics to the world of media (Hallin et al. 2004: 17-9), making media research into political communication crucial nowadays. Even in the past, analyses of the political programmess in countries striving for political transformation made up a large chunk of research area. Thus, media play a great part in establishing context of the perception of different cultures, consequently engaging issues of intercultural education and political area. For instance, media proved to serve as a creator of public image of Muslims and their public perception, particularly in the context of terrorism and subsequent islamophobia. It is at the same time vital to stress the power of media impact especially on teenagers shaping their point of view far more significantly than the authority of teachers they encounter in their everyday life reality (Zall M. 2012: 556-8). It is reflected in dozens of American research projects, predominantly based on empirical studies (Graber, Smith 2005: 479-508, Hirzalla, van Zoonen et al. 2011). Germany was the first country to launch exploration in this regard, hence German scientists have been cooperating with American scholars for years within many research projects. As for EU at large, stage of development within such research differs from country to country. British, Dutch and Scandinavian scholars are at the forefront, with similarly decent scientific level presented by the French, although the accessibility of publications solely in French narrows their reception. Many researchers focusing on this aspect of media operate from Spain and Italy, whereas in Poland a favourable ground for such research was established after 1989. The works of Polish scholars tackling political communication are mainly descriptive, however, more and more empirical studies are beginning to emerge (Michalczyk 2005: 45-60). Wide-scope application of information technologies has become common, whereas establishment of the world wide web and social network allowed the users to interact with other persons and business activity subjects (Mangold et al. 2009, Majchrzak et al. 2011: 18). As a result, majority of the Internet users are unable DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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to imagine everyday life routines without conversations with friends via internet communicators. Moreover, they learn about different events from social network sites such as Facebook, whereas their contacts with classmates are maintained thanks to such portals as Nasza Klasa. Over the last five years social networks have become a preferable tool of communication for many people. On top of that, transmission of data of businesslike character became a crucial issue within the area of intercultural business. Apart from the role of media as a medium of information, there is increased number of research projects into the quality of communication while preserving cultural diversity. It occurs that application of channels of communication in intercultural business is not sufficient as the standards of thinking about business and communicating differ, hence requiring recognition, even upon online contacts. Interesting research projects in this regard have been accomplished by Abbas J. Ali, Abdulrahman Al-Aali, Abdullah Al-Owaihan (2013: 467-75), who point inexplicit understandings of such notions as “profits”, “community” or political business subject to the term of Fardha, i.e. a commitment to act for the sake of others. As far as African continent is concerned, the main issues concern research on sexual relations of young Nigerians online (Adebayo Udegbe Sunmola, 2006), application of media in education (Bosch 2009: 185-00), as well as research into factors contributing to the model of domesticating the Internet and mobile phone (Schoon 2012: 690-06). Moreover, issues of over-continental and transcultural tradition of fashion patterns, subject to specificity of religion and culture, seem scientifically equally attractive. Media participate in the transmission beyond cultural borders, generating new trends. Changes in fashion provide such example, resulting from natural dynamics of the multicultural societies. For instance, the traditionally perceived image of hijab subject to new fashion standards is currently undergoing change. Thus, thanks to such magazines as „ELLE”, or „Arabian Woman” a transformation of Arabic women’s clothing, unfamiliar to European culture, takes place (Kilicbay B. et al. 2002). Thanks to media there is a new area of products, swimming costumes, sportswear, perfumes or jewellery, all of great significance to global business. Hence, media become a part of common trade market since intercultural business is present within many multicultural societies (Mahajan V. 2013: 128-31). Surveys carried out by Polish Internet Research prove that half of the Internet users declare that while experiencing early symptoms of illness, they first of all seek information online, particularly within medical forums (Knol- Michałowska et al. 2012: 143). Digital technologies and platforms, including blogs, wiki, forums, internet services and social networks such as Facebook and Twitter stand for another interesting, yet not a mainstream, object of research. Although they have been significantly altering the way of making information accessible, entailing more or less even system of hierarchical exchange, the searching person is dependent on the middleman. Internet forums are perceived by the literature on the subject as a platform of communication, with no territorial or time barriers, what allows people from different places in the world to meet in one place limitlessly (Szpunar 2004: 108, Słysz et al. 2009: 30-1, Raghavendra et al. 2012: 149-62, Karuppasamy et al. 2013: 245-250, Antheunis et al. 2012: 11). Review of the literature acknowledges the great potential of social network that can be used by medical service staff, as many studies concern doctors’ recommendations about procedures within given ailments. Some patients interact with the health service staff and therapists, for such relations are often of therapeutic nature as teenagers and young adults often seek practical advice and emotional support on the Internet (Piasecka 2008: 243-349, Knol- Michałowska et al. 2012: 142-58). Despite the fact that social media have been subject of research for merely few years, there are already some worthwhile studies in this regard. Still, it must be remembered that the analyses are predominantly carried out the context of using social networking in marketing and advertising, as many companies acknowledge the potential of Facebook or other similar services as far as marketing and PR are concerned. Within other areas their application still remains on the peripheries of the scientific interest (O’Keeffe, Clarke-Pearson 2011: 4). Many publications concern the issue of violence in media, where empirical data prove that users that have been exposed to brutal scenes in media get more frequently engaged in physical fights with others in the reality. The research projects embrace all types of media, i.e. television, films, cartoons, music and video games (Yates et al. 2012, Lennings et al.2010: 424-37, Anderson, Dill 2000: 772-70). Numerous research projects have been conducted in this regard, nonetheless, they have not concerned the correlation between time spent on playing brutal video games and aggression. Still, increasing role of video games in the life of the youth contributed to raised number of research on media violence. DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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As far as this aspect of research into media is concerned, it must be emphasised that children and teenagers learn aggression through imitating the patterns of behaviour presented in the media (Anderson et al. 2003: 960-71, Viermero 2002: 138-44). Moreover, many research projects have been dedicated to cyber violence and invasion of privacy (Beale, Hall 2007: 8-12). Notwithstanding, there are also some ideas for educational application of computer games as a medium of content useful for civic or intercultural education. Undoubtedly, games exert great impact and can expose to a threat of reproduction of violence towards racial, cultural or gender diversity. Despite such perilous aspect, Helen Kwah took up an interesting issue of application of computer games for educational purposes, stressing the key importance of games selection, conveying a message within and locating such method of learning within traditional canon of teachers’ work (Kwah 2012: 955-61). Taking into consideration the context of multicultural traditions such idea comes across as not entirely innovative, as this topic was a subject of profound exploration during Dubai World Games Expo in 2010. As a result of increased interest in transmission of hidden content in games, the necessity of its surveillance proved to be a must. Within this aspect, great significance has been drawn to the consideration of different cultural traditions, where such video games are to be released. In consequence of the debates on video games as transmitters of behaviour a special system of game assessment was launched, referred to as Entertainment Software Rating Association. Its objective is to protect cultural values in the message conveyed within a video game, concentrating, for instance, on elimination of behaviours promoting alcohol consumption, smoking cigarettes, or promotion of inappropriate content, all in order to retain balance of mental growth among children and teenagers. With regards to the issues of elements of Islamic cultures in video games, a profound analysis was provided by Tomasz Stefaniuk, pointing at Islamic traditions in action games such as Prince of Persia, Sands of Time, Spirit of the Warrior or many Islamic plots present in Assassin’s Creed (Stefaniuk 2011: 14-6). Despite the fact that the potential of the computer games is not subject to motivation and engagement of the users, a computer game is a significant tool that helps pupils to develop various skills, thus classes with application of games can provide better that conventional method of succeeding in the process of learning and teaching. Consequently, through computer games students can learn how to think critically, solve problems and be creative. Computer games also introduce an area of communication and meeting between students and friends or other players. Such a tool can also facilitate the process of a lifelong learning, as games allow to improve such features as flexibility, adaptation skills, initiative, setting own goals and leadership. Moreover, video games provide the players with the opportunity to visit fabulous places that do not exist in reality. Still, research projects on computer games predominantly focus on relation between brutal video games and aggression, or on this aspect of such games that could disturb perception of the content of sexual nature (Griffiths, Wood 2000: 199–25, Hong, Liu 2003: 245-58, Anderson, Bushman 2001: 353–9, Scholtz 2005, Wawrzak-Chodaczek 2011: 143-57). W. Griffiths (2004: 54), commenting on research he co-conducted with Nigel Hunt on 400 teenagers aged 12 to 16, noticed that most of the children play video games, but in extreme cases they devote as much as 30 hours weekly to this activity. Amid symptoms indicating addiction to games among children and teenagers Griffiths recalls: stealing money needed for games, spending all the money on buying games, neglecting school obligations, school absence, marginalising social life, irritation if playing games is impossible, agitation, increased aggression, etc. Similar criteria of pathological use of the computer and the Internet are provided by other researcher, Kimberly Young (2000). On the basis of the gathered material Young distinguished 5 types of computer addiction: a) addiction to virtual relationships, sometimes referred to as cyber-relationship addiction, i.e. an addiction to social contacts online, b) cybersexual addiction, i.e. addictive watching of films and photos with erotic and pornographic contents, or having sexual chats online, c) computer addiction considering those who spend time on computer activities, not necessarily online as in most cases it involves obsessive computer games playing, d) net compulsions, similar to computer addiction, yet concerning staying online all the time (logged in), observing what happens in the cyberspace, e) information overload which stands for compulsive Internet surfing or searching through data base, e.g. staying in many chat rooms simultaneously or participating in dozen of discussion lists concurrently. DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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Increased interest of scientific environment and public opinion considering widely understood inappropriate use of modern communication technologies has been reported worldwide, focusing attention not only on the Internet but also on mobile phones. There are many negative phenomena in this regard, from electronic fraud, publishing harmful contents (such as violence or pornography) to application of communication technologies as tools of accomplishing aggression-oriented objectives. Such problems are becoming increasingly socially important as children and teenagers at large make up the main victims or, on the other hand, perpetrators of inappropriate application of modern communication technologies (Pyżalski 2010: 3). A mobile phone, of key importance for the social reality, is also a subject of research (Bond 2013: 1-10, Orr et al. 2013: 268-85). Nonetheless, the scientific analyses concerning this device are not as popular as researching into the Internet, TV or computer games. Review of the literature indicates that research projects on mobile phones have been overwhelmed by the Internet and computer games research. However, in Poland researching application of mobile phones has been carried out, among others, by A. Ładyżyński (2006: 45-58, 2007: 126-39, Karwatowska, Szpyra-Kozłowska 2004: 144-51), whose analysis focused on relation between seniors’ activity and using mobile phones. According to the research, seniors use mobile phones for its basic functions such as making phone calls, setting up contact lists, time control or sending text messages. For such users a mobile phone serves as a medium of staying in touch with the closest family members or friends, satisfying their sense of security, consequently providing seniors with the feeling of freedom and independence (Martinez-Pecino et al. 2012: 6). Blogs have also been in the focus of researching attention, although they differ from other internet sources, as they allow to combine various levels of activities. Hence, a blog user can read some comments, but also click on the link and become more involved in the blog’s dynamics (Kaye 2010: 194–10, Arbaie, Normaliza 2013: 191-8). Moreover, users can control own level of engagement that can change from one session to another, or from one blog to another.

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M. Malewski (1998: 167) recognises that successful exploration of the external world depends on the accuracy of applied research methods and degree of conformism towards its imperatives. Hence, understandably, the focus of a researcher’s attention is on improvement of the research methods and techniques as well as on constant enrichment of own repertoire. Development in this regard leads to the insight of an actual and real picture of the researched reality within the range of own reliable scientific theory. The activities of the media researchers are more challenging than in the case of representatives of other humanities such as archeology, history of art, anthropology, or even psychology or sociology. Undoubtedly, they also need to be up-dated on the current scientific reports, however the subject of their research does not change as rapidly and dynamically as within media research (Goban-Klas 2011: 19). The attempts to synthesise research on the media communication on the whole embrace three aspects. Namely, (1) sets of universal yet detailed assumptions (hypotheses), (2) explanatory theories considering theory of a medium range applying logical speculations, or (3) overall theories of media communication as a specific version of interpersonal communication (Pisarek 2008: 273). Theories are most frequently established through verification of previous generalisation and theories, as implied by cumulative development f of science. Nonetheless, it must be remembered that within foundation of the “theories” some concepts and theory-generating assumptions, merely generate number of notions defining phenomena significant according to such concepts. Notwithstanding, formulation of the regularities within such “theories” does not occur, hence such conceptualisations may not serve as an explanation of various phenomena, but rather as their description (Nowak 1985: 396-400). Reflections on methodology of media research include clashing perspectives on research, i.e. a modern quantitative approach versus standpoints favouring qualitative postmodern paradigm (Silvana 2008: 1-12). Analysis of the literature, due to applied research procedures and explanatory theories, allows to acknowledge that researchers utilise practically all the available sociological methods, techniques and research procedures. Media research projects are challenging as they must refer to given social and cultural reality. And despite arousing interest in working out global, international or even over-national theoretical DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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Methodology of media research in the analysed sources

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and conceptual models, it is intricate as there is dearth of research based on data tackling world media, and the chances to develop such perspectives are scarce. Analysis of the selected texts reveals dominance of the theory that communication studies are part of empirical school, i.e. enhancing approach of the user, benefits and agenda-setting hypothesis (Bonds-Raacke, Raacke 2010: 427). Still, there are dozens of research projects referring to critical school theory within the framework of structuralism and semiotic studies. Apart from these two approaches, there is a theory of technological determinism that relies on the technical paradigm stressing the function, i.e. role, of given social phenomena in the cultural system (LisowskaMagdziarz 2004). Moreover, while researching political systems of other countries the cybernetic paradigm is applied together with information theory. The two-stage transfer mode can be also recalled as it engages a theory where media transmission is filtered by other persons that pass on only such information that can persuade the recipient to their points of view. Large-scale research projects tackling media influence on children and youth have been also reported. Among other theories applied within media research there are: social bond theory, excitation-transfer theory, social learning theory and theory of games. On the other hand, as far as research projects on political media are concerned, theory of propaganda plays a big part, as it is a highly interdisciplinary domain, profoundly rooted in sociology, psychology, political science, history and philosophy. This, in turn, has been reflected in research currents that dominated reflection over the phenomenon of propaganda, to recall psychological, sociological and political current for instance. Consequently, the most important methods and techniques include: a) method of diagnostic survey b) content analysis (the typically media-related method) c) discourse analysis, particularly in the Critical Discourse Analysis tradition (de Gruyter 2001: 57). Linguistic research entails film discourses, with predominant attention drawn to correlation between contemporary film discourse and everyday language. In order to avoid doubts about legitimisation of previous methods applied in linguistic research, the following approaches should be mentioned: a) ethnographic method (Coleman 2010: 230), b) individual case study, c) research on the content of the mass media with reference to the theory of agenda-setting (Łódzki, Wanta 2010). During the analysis of the research a multi-factor data analysis was also applied. Many researchers do not utilise any theories during accomplishment of the research process, hence results gained within do not acknowledge up-to-date theories. Moreover, no new theories basing on own research are provided. As far as methodology of media research are concerned, insufficiency of explanatory theories are palpable as those are most frequently research projects that oscillate around symbolic interactionism.

Conclusions Despite many problems tackled within the framework of the analysed sources there are still some matters requiring further attention. Such niches of the research on the media include for instance: 1. strong state control over public media, partiality, high level of integration between the worlds of politics and journalism, low level of journalists’ professionalism, breaching professional ethics, cynicism, conformism, lack of objectivity, 2. relation between the older generation and the media, 3. medial initiations of children, 4. the issue of media ownership, 5. lack of research tackling pornography with relation to the recipient (there are research projects concentrated on the content only), 6. audio and visual data as a subject of analysis and perspective, 7. recipients’ behaviours influenced by the media, 8. sustention of virtual rather than real social contacts and interactions, 9. research on the general media impact. DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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Despite rising importance of social networking sites, research projects tackling media with regards to the features of users’ personalities still remain limited. Thus, there is dearth of multidimensional research considering the impact of brutal video games on youth aggressive behaviour. Moreover, it is also worth to focus on gender as reflected in the mass media, since the analysis of its content implies that: 1) media have been marginalising women in the public sphere, 2) media imitate gender stereotypes, 3) production and media transmission are sexually determined; 4) perception of the media is sexually determined; 5) women’s alternative implies alternative criteria of the quality (Young 2000, p. 3). It, consequently, results from the following drawbacks of the research procedures: 1) it is arduous to find research explaining many variables related to the attitudes of pupils and teachers towards educational media; 2) there is lack of methodological discipline; 3) there is lack of interdisciplinary, yet coherent and intersubjectively acknowledged results; 4) there are no research projects generating significant, reliable and original conclusions tackling empirically accessible social reality, but also cultural as well as political influences within the area of human activities; 5) lack of research analysing youth behaviour as a result of media reception.

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Słysz, A., Arcimowicz, B. (2009). Przyjaciele w Internecie. Internet jako rozrywka, zagrożenia i zalety sieci, dzieci i rodzice w Internecie, wzorce korzystania z sieci. Gdańsk: GWP. Szpunar, M. (2012). Nowe-stare medium. Internet między tworzeniem nowych modeli komunikacyjnych a reprodukowaniem schematów komunikowania masowego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PAN.

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Articles: Abbas, J. A., & Abdulrahman A., Al-Owaihan A. (2013). Islamic Perspectives on Profit Maximization. Journal Bussines Ethic, 117. Adebayo, D. O., & Udegbe, I.B., & Sunmola, A.M. (2006). Gender, Internet Use, and Sexual Behavior Orientation among Young Nigerians. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 9. Akou, H. M. (2007). Building a New World Fasioin, Islamic Dress in the Twenty-first Century. Fashion Theory, 11(4). Anderson C., & Bushman B. (2001), Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior. Psychological Science, 12. Anderson, C.A., & Carnagey, N.L., & Eubanks, J. (2003) Exposure to violent media: The effects of songs with violent lyrics on aggressive thoughts and feelings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84. Anderson, C., & Dill, K. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviour in the laboratory and life. Journal of Personal Social Psychology, 78(4). Antheunis, M. L., & Valkenburg, P.M., & Peter, J. (2012). The quality of online, offline, and mixed-mode friendships among users of a social networking site. Cyberpsychology, 6(3). Arbaie, S., & Normaliza, A.R. (2013). Learning Through Blogging, Australian Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences, 7(1). Banerjee, I. (2009). Asian media studies: The struggle for international legitimacy, [in:] Internationalizing media studies, ed. D. K. Thussu, New York, NY Routledge. Beale A., Hall, K. (2007), Cyberbullying: What school administrators (and parents) can do, The Clearing House, A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, vol.81(1). Behm-Morawitz, E., & Mastro, D. (2009). The effects of the sexualization of female video game characters of gender stereotyping and female self-concept. Sex Roles, 61. Bond, E. (2013). Mobile phones, risk and responsibility: Understanding children’s perceptions. Cyberpsychology, 7(1). Bonds-Raacke, J., & Raacke, J. (2010). MySpace and Facebook: Identifying Dimensions of Uses and Gratifications for Friend Networking Sites, Individual Differences Research. www.idr-journal.com, 8(1). Bosch, T. E., (2009). Using online social networking for teaching and learning: Facebook use at the University of Cape Town. Communicatio. South African Journal for Communication Theory and Research, 35(2). Coleman, G. (2010). Ethnographic approaches to digital media. Annual Review of Anthropology, 39. Graber, D., Smith, J., (2005). Political Communication Faces the 21st Century. Journal of Communication, 3(55). Griffiths, M., Wood, R. T. A., (2000). Risk factors in adolescence: the case of gambling, video game playing, and the internet. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16. Hae Woo Lee, M.D., & Jung-Seok Choi, M.D., & Young-Chul Shin, M.D., & Jun-Young Lee, M.D., & Hee Yeon Jung, M.D., &Jun Soo Kwon, M.D. (2009). Impulsivity in Internet Addiction, A Comparison with Pathological Gambling. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 15(7). Helsper, E.J., & Eynon, R. (2010). Digital natives: where is the evidence? British Educational Research Journal, 36(3). Hirzalla, F., van Zoonen, L., de Ridder, J., (2011). Internet Use and Political Participation: Reflections on the Mobilization/Normalization Controversy. Information Society, 27. Hong, J., Liu, M., (2003). A study on thinking strategy between experts and novices of computer games. Computers in Human Behavior, 19(2). Huang, H., Leung, L., (2009). Instant Messaging Addiction among Teenagers in China: Shyness, Alienation, and Academic Performance Decrement. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 12(6). Izdebska, J., (2003). Młodzież-media elektroniczne. Nowa przestrzeń edukacyjna. Edukacja Medialna, 1. DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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Karuppasamy, G., & Anwar, A., & Bhartiya, A., & Sajjad, S., & Rashid, M., & Mathew, E., & Saikh, R. B., & Al Sharbatti, S., & Sreedharan, J., Use of Social Networking Sites among University Students in Ajman. United Arab Emirates, Nepal Journal of Epidemiology, 3(2). Karwatowska, M., & Szpyra-Kozłowska, J., (2004). Zasady konwersacyjno-grzecznościowe dialogów młodzieżowych w SMS-ach, [w:] Dialog a nowe media, ed. M. Kita, J. Grzenia, Katowice, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Kaye, B. K., (2010). Going to the Blogs: Toward the Development of a Uses and Gratifications Measurement Scale for Blogs. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 18. Kerawalla, L., & Minocha, S., & Kirkup, G., & Conole, G. (2008). Characterising the different blogging behaviours of students on an online distance learning course. Learning, Media and Technology, 33. Kilicbay, B., Binark, M., (2002). Consumer Culture, Islam and the Politics of Lifestyle. Fashion for Veiling in Contemporary Turkey. European Journal of Communication, 17(4). Knol-Michałowska, K., & Goszczyńska, E., & Petrykowska, A. (2012), Fora internetowe jako źródło wsparcia społecznego dla kobiet ciężarnych uzależnionych od nikotyny. Studia Edukacyjne, 23. Kwah, H., (2012). How Commercial and “Violent” Video games can promote culturally sensitive science learning: Some questions and challenges. Cultural Studies of Science education, 7. Lagan, B. M., & Sinclair, M., & Kernohan, W.G., (2010). Internet use in pregnancy informs women’s decision making: a web-based survey. Birth, 37. Larsson, M., (2009). A descriptive study of the use of the Internet by women seeking pregnancy-related information. Midwifery, 25. Lennings, Ch. J., & Amon, K. L., & Brummert, H., & Lennings, N. J., (2010). Grooming for Terror: The Internet and Young People. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 17(3). Löfgren-Mårtenson, L., (2008). Love in Cyberspace: Swedish Young People with Intellectual Disabilities and the Internet. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 10 (2). Ładyżyński, A., (2006). Komórka w plecaku, czyli o wpływie technologii na młodych, [w:] „Dzisiejsze czasy” – edukacja wobec przemian w kulturze współczesnej, ed. W. Jakubowski, Kraków: Oficyna Wydawnicza „Impuls”. Ładyżyński, A., (2007). Telefon komórkowy – ekstensje młodych, [w:] Wybrane aspekty komunikacji społecznej, ed. M. Wawrzak-Chodaczek, Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. Łódzki, B., & Wanta, W., (2010). Central European Journal of Communication – Development of AgendaSetting Theory and Research. Between West and East. The Official Journal of the Polish Communication Association, 3/2(5). Martinez-Pecino, R., & Lera, M.J., (2012). Active seniors and mobile phone interaction. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 40(5). Niculovic, D., & Zivkovic, D., & Manasijevic, D., & Strbac, N., (2012). Monitoring the effect of Internet use on students behavior case study. Educational Technology Research and Development, 60(3). O’Keeffe, G.S., & Clarke-Pearson, K., The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127(4). Orr, J.A., & King, R.J., & Hawke, P., & Dalgleish J., (2013). Can we text you? A qualitative exploration of young unemployed job-seekers’ attitudes to receiving resilience-building SMS messages. Advances in Mental Health, 11(3). Porter, G., & Hampshire, K., & Abane, A., & Munthali, A., & Robson, E., & Mashiri, M., & Tanle A., (2012). Youth, mobility and mobile phones in Africa: findings from a three-country study. Information Technology for Development, 18(2). Pyżalski, J., (2010). Polscy nauczyciele i uczniowie a agresja elektroniczna – zarys teoretyczny i najnowsze wyniki badań, [in:] Człowiek i uzależnienia, ed. M. Jędrzejko, & D. Sarzała, Pułtusk-Warszawa: Akademia Humanistyczna im. Aleksandra Gieysztora, Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA-JR. Raghavendra, P., & Wood, D., & Newman, L., & Lawry, J., (2012). Why aren’t you on Facebook?: Patterns and experiences of using the Internet among young people with physical disabilities. Technology and Disability, 24. Scholtz, Ch., (2005). Fascinating technology: computer games as an issue for religious education. British Journal of Religious Education, 27. DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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Schoon, A., (2012). Dragging young people down the drain: the mobile phone, gossip mobile website Outoilet and the creation of a mobile ghetto. Critical Arts: A South-North Journal of Cultural & Media Studies, 26. Silvana, K. F., (2008). The Grounded Theory and the Analysis of Audio-Visual Texts. International Journal Social Research Methodology, 11. Stefaniuk, T.I., (2011). Przez pustynię. Motywy islamskie oraz „islamskie” w grach. AS – SALAM, 1. Stryjewski, R., (2013). Islamofobia w sieci. AS – SALAM, 2. Szpunar, M., (2004). Społeczności wirtualne jako nowy typ społeczności – eksplikacja socjologiczna. Studia Socjologiczne, 2(173). Yates, M.A., & Gregor, B.A., & Haviland, M. G., (2012). Child Maltreatment, Alexithymia, and Problematic Internet Use in Young Adulthood. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(4). Young, K., (2000). Internet Addiction: Symptoms, Evaluation, And Treatment. http://www.netaddiction.com/articles/cyberdisorders.pdf, [02.04.2014); Walsh, S. P., & White, K. M., & Young, R. McD., (2009). The phone connection: A qualitative exploration of how belongingness and social identification relate to mobile phone use amongst Australian youth. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 19(3). Walzer, A., (2008). Zer: Television and Minors. Programming and Reception Flow Analysis. Compared Study: 2003-2007. Revista de Estudios de Comunicacion, 13(24). Wawrzak-Chodaczek, M., (2011). Place of computer games in the leisure time of Polish youth in their adolescence. The New Educational Review, 26(4). Weller, S., (2006). Tuning-in to Teenagers! Using Radio Phone-in Discussions in Research with Young People. International Journal Social Research Methodology, 9(4). Viermero, V., (2002). Factors predicting aggression in early adulthood. Psykologia, 37(2). Vijay, M., (2013). Understanding the Arab Consumer. Harvard Business Review, May 2013. Zall, M., (2012). Islamophobia in Classrooms, Media and Politics. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 55(6).

DOI: 10.5604/23920092.1134796

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