nr 53

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Jana Pawła II, przyjrzymy się między innymi jego krytyce ...... Od końca drugiej wojny ...... chi-square to test the hypothesis which stated that corruption will not signifi- ...... Logopedia – pytania i odpowiedzi: podręcznik akademicki, Opole 2001, p. 615 ..... E. Zwonik, Wyjście ze świata ciszy… czyli alternatywne i wspomagające ...
nr 53 (4/2017) październik–grudzień

wydawca / publisher

Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II Wydział Zamiejscowy Prawa i Nauk o Społeczeństwie w Stalowej Woli ISSN 1734-6614

adres redakcji / editorial board’s address

Kwartalnik „Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” » 37-450 Stalowa Wola, ul. Ofiar Katynia 6a » e-mail: [email protected]

zespół redakcyjny / editorial board

ks. dr hab. Roman B. Sieroń, prof. KUL, redaktor naczelny / editor-in-chief » dr hab. Piotr T. Nowakowski, prof. KUL, zastępca redaktora naczelnego i  redaktor ds. międzynarodowych / deputy editor and international editor » mgr Dorota Cichoń, sekretarz redakcji / administrative editor » prof. dr hab. Lilia Morska, redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » dr hab. Jadwiga Daszykowska, redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » dr Anna Witkowska-Paleń, redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » dr Mirosław Rewera, redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » dr Łukasz Szwejka, Uniwersytet Jagielloński (Kraków) redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » dr Marek Ziemba, redaktor tematyczny i statystyczny / subject and statistical editor » prof. dr Anna Abram, University of London (Wielka Brytania) redaktor językowy anglojęzyczny / English-language editor » prof. dr Adrian Reimers, University of Notre Dame (Stany Zjednoczone) redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » prof. dr David W. Lutz, Holy Cross College at Notre Dame (Stany Zjednoczone) redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » prof. dr Erik Aasland, Fuller School of Intercultural Studies (Stany Zjednoczone) redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » prof. dr Stephen B. Mutch, Macquarie University, Sydney (Australia) redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » dr Iwona Kołodziejczyk, Divine Word University, Madang (Papua-Nowa Gwinea) redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » o. dr Wojciech M. Stabryła OSB, Dormition Abbey, Jerozolima (Izrael) redaktor tematyczny / subject editor » mgr Katarzyna Warzocha, redaktor językowy polskojęzyczny / Polish-language editor » mgr Rafał Podleśny, redaktor techniczny / layout editor

rada naukowa / advisory board

prof. dr Doni P. Whitsett, University of Southern California, Los Angeles (Stany Zjednoczone) » prof. dr Colleen Friend, California State University, Los Angeles (Stany Zjednoczone) » prof. dr Dianne Casoni, Université de Montréal (Kanada) » prof. dr Geoffrey Hawker, Macquarie University, Sydney (Australia) » prof. dr Işıl Bulut, Başkent Üniversitesi, Ankara (Turcja) » prof. dr Sergiu Baltatescu, University of Oradea (Rumunia) » prof. dr hab. Natalia Kowalisko, Uniwersytet Iwana Franki, Lwów (Ukraina) » prof. dr hab. Nella Nyczkało, Akademia Nauk Pedagogicznych Ukrainy (Ukraina) » prof. dr Velga Velvere, Łotewska Akademia Nauk, Ryga (Łotwa) » prof. dr Benas Ulevičius, Vytautas Magnus University, Kowno (Litwa) » prof. dr Jewgienij Wołkow, Higher School of Economics, Niżny Nowogród (Rosja) » dr Juhani Pekkola, Kymenlaakso University of Applied Sciences, Kouvola (Finlandia) » dr Adesoji Oni, University of Lagos (Nigeria) » dr Klara Stamatova, Sofia University (Bułgaria) » prof. dr hab. Franciszek Adamski, Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego » o. prof. dr hab. Zdzisław Kijas OFMConv., Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II w Krakowie » ks. prof. dr hab. Marian Wolicki, PWSTE w Jarosławiu » prof. dr hab. Jurij Paczkowski, PWSTE w Jarosławiu » dr hab. Mariusz Jędrzejko, prof. WSB, Wyższa Szkoła Biznesu w Dąbrowie Górniczej » dr hab. Mirosław Kowalski, prof. UZ, Uniwersytet Zielonogórski i KNP PAN »  ks. prof. dr hab. Janusz Mariański, KUL (Lublin) » o. prof. dr hab. Roland Prejs OFMCap., KUL (Lublin) » dr hab. Włodzimierz Dłubacz, prof. KUL, KUL (Lublin) » prof. dr hab. Tamara Howorun, KUL (Stalowa Wola) » prof. dr hab. Roman Pelczar, KUL (Stalowa Wola) »  dr hab. Edmund Juśko, prof. KUL, KUL (Stalowa Wola) Redakcja zastrzega sobie prawo do zmiany tytułów, dokonywania skrótów i zmian redakcyjnych » Redakcja nie odpowiada za błędy autorskie » Wersja papierowa kwartalnika jest wersją pierwotną » Wszystkie artykuły zamieszczone w czasopiśmie są poddawane podwójnej ślepej recenzji 2

przedmowa

„Mimo obserwowalnych na poziomie osobniczym deficytów, jakie wiążą się z procesem starzenia, w obrębie gatunku ludzkiego dożywanie sędziwego wieku stało się czymś ewolucyjnie korzystnym, przystosowaniem zwiększającym potencjał replikacji genów znajdujących się w puli genowej gatunku. Dla przetrwania genów ważna jest nie tylko bezpośrednia sprawność reprodukcyjna pojedynczych organizmów (osobników), ale również odpowiednie stosunki w grupie, a zwłaszcza opieka nad młodym potomstwem ze strony osobników starszych” – napisał 81-letni prof. Jerzy Vetulani, wybitny polski neurobiolog w swym ostatnim artykule. Miał go zamieścić na blogu, ale zrobił to już jego wnuk. Profesor nie zdążył, bo w marcu tego roku, przechodząc przez przejście dla pieszych na ulicy Balickiej w Krakowie, został potrącony przez samochód. Kilka tygodni później zmarł. Kierowca stanął przed sądem, proces trwał blisko rok. Wyrok nie był zbyt surowy: rok więzienia w zawieszeniu na dwa lata i 10 tysięcy zł zadośćuczynienia dla rodziny zmarłego. Sąd wziął pod uwagę przekroczoną przez kierowcę o 15 km prędkość, ale również podeszły wiek zmarłego. Rosnący udział osób starszych w społeczeństwie to wyzwanie nie tylko dla Polski. Jak zapewnić tym ludziom mobilność, nie narażając ich na nadmierne ryzyko? Dotyczy to nie tylko pieszych, ale i kierowców. Szacuje się, że w 2030 roku co czwarty europejski kierowca będzie miał ponad 65 lat. Eksperci pocieszają jednak, że „dzięki” starzeniu się społeczeństwa powstaje „srebrna gospodarka” (prof. Piotr Szukalski), czyli produkty i usługi tworzone z myślą o srebrnowłosych staruszkach. Już w 2010 roku na japońskim rynku sprzedano więcej pieluch dla dorosłych niż dla dzieci. Te problemy były i są przedmiotem badań nauk humanistycznych i społecznych. Nauka o problemach ludzi starszych – szeroko rozumiana gerontologia – obejmuje też inne dyscypliny: pedagogikę, socjologię, familiologię, geriatrię. Coraz bardziej tematyka ta staje się przedmiotem badań naukowych, opisywanych w specjalistycznej literaturze. W numerze 53. polecam lekturę prac autorów z Polski (Warszawa, Kraków, Białystok, Włocławek, Kielce i Stalowa Wola), Stanów Zjednoczonych (Notre Dame, Atchison, Waszyngton), Kanady (Trois-Rivières) oraz Nigerii (Lagos). Na wstępie David P. Harris zastanawia się, czy bogactwo narodów zapewnia godność społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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pracy, analizując podejścia św. Jana Pawła II i Adama Smitha do następstw technologii oraz idei pracy. Następnie Paul Dudzinski inicjuje dyskusję nad zasadą pomocniczości w katolickiej nauce społecznej. Ludobójcze kontinuum ideologicznie motywowanych i popieranych przez państwo masowych zabójstw to temat podjęty przez Michaela Farrella. W czwartym opracowaniu Anh Thi Kim Tran pochyla się nad zagadnieniem czasu wolnego jako błogosławieństwa i zobowiązania dla wietnamskich kobiet. Następnie Ayotunde Adebayo i Alex Friday Obaje analizują korupcję w Nigerii jako zmorę dla skutecznej realizacji celów kształcenia w zakresie nauk społecznych na podstawowym poziomie edukacji, z kolei Marek Kluz przygląda się roli kary w procesie wychowania i duchowego rozwoju osobowości dziecka. Język uwięziony w ciele: dlaczego Stephen Hawking nie mówi? Pomoc logopedyczna u pacjentów ze stwardnieniem zanikowym bocznym to tytuł artykułu Danuty Grzesiak-Witek. Urszula Kempińska śledzi społeczno-kulturowe implikacje lektury powieści z serii „Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya” E.L. James, Emilia Kramkowska podnosi kwestię przemocy wobec ludzi starych, natomiast Anna Róg i Monika Wojtkowiak przybliżają obraz matki w oczach wychowanków młodzieżowego ośrodka wychowawczego. Zachęcam także Państwa do lektury biograficznego artykułu Piotra T. Nowakowskiego poświęconego ks. prof. Marianowi Wolickiemu, jak też sporządzonej przez Bogdana Więckiewicza recenzji książki autorstwa Janusza Mariańskiego. Wreszcie w dziale „Sprawozdania i komunikaty” znajdziemy sprawozdanie autorstwa Małgorzaty Przybysz-Zaremby pt. O autorytecie w wychowaniu. Miłej i owocnej lektury! ks. Roman B. Sieroń, redaktor naczelny

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spis treści

3 Roman B. Sieroń

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ART YKUŁY 7 David P. Harris

Czy bogactwo narodów zapewnia godność pracy? Analiza podejścia św. Jana Pawła II i Adama Smitha do następstw technologii oraz idei pracy 

24 Paul Dudzinski

Zasada pomocniczości w katolickiej nauce społecznej 



38 Michael Farrell

Ludobójcze kontinuum ideologicznie motywowanych i popieranych przez państwo masowych zabójstw   

62 Anh Thi Kim Tran

Czas wolny jako błogosławieństwo i zobowiązanie: istotna potrzeba w życiu wietnamskich kobiet    

71 Ayotunde Adebayo, Alex Friday Obaje

Korupcja w Nigerii: zmora dla skutecznej realizacji celów kształcenia w zakresie wiedzy o społeczeństwie na podstawowym poziomie edukacji   

93 Marek Kluz

Rola kary w procesie wychowania i duchowego rozwoju osobowości dziecka   

106 Danuta Grzesiak-Witek

Język uwięziony w ciele: dlaczego Stephen Hawking nie mówi? Pomoc logopedyczna u pacjentów ze stwardnieniem zanikowym bocznym   

121 Urszula Kempińska

Społeczno-kulturowe implikacje lektury powieści z serii „Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya” E.L. James   

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132 Emilia Kramkowska

Przemoc wobec ludzi starych ciemną stroną funkcjonowania współczesnej rodziny   

147 Anna Róg, Monika Wojtkowiak

Obraz matki w oczach wychowanków Młodzieżowego Ośrodka Wychowawczego w Kielcach   

BIOGRAFIE 161 Piotr T. Nowakowski

Rodem z Niska: sylwetka księdza profesora Mariana Wolickiego

RECENZJE 166 Bogdan Więckiewicz

O religijności Polaków w dobie sekularyzacji Europy (rec. Janusz Mariański, Tożsamości religijne w społeczeństwie polskim. Studium socjologiczne, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2017, stron: 513)

S PRAWOZDANIA

I KOMUNIKAT Y

171 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba

O autorytecie w wychowaniu

178 Planowane konferencje

NOT Y O AUTORACH CONTENTS 185 Zestawienie recenzentów współpracujących z kwartalnikiem

„Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” w roku 2017

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artykuły Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 7–23 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

David P. Harris

Does the wealth of nations uphold the dignity of work? An analysis of Saint John Paul II and Adam Smith regarding the consequences of technology and idea of work

Introduction and background to the machine question As technology continually progresses and machines increasingly enter the various realms of human life, questions arise regarding the effects of these processes. While technology itself is a subject given much attention, the consequences of technology must also be considered. Whether it is viewed merely as a productive tool or a more comprehensive agent of change in society and the workplace, technology demands to be acknowledged. Technology certainly affects work; work will be considered as an activity that potentially transcends purely material aspects. This begs the asking of simple questions: Is the benefit of new technology always and everywhere worth the cost of the social consequences that accompany it? In other words, can work be more than a job, and can workers be more than cogs in a machine? Technology forces individuals to reconsider their roles within the workplace and potentially wrestle with the notion they are ordered to something beyond the mere production of economic “stuff ”. Employing the perspectives of Saint John Paul II and Adam Smith, this paper aims to investigate the role of technology and commodification of labor, społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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as well as the subsequent effects upon individuals and society. The examination begins with a general exposition to this issue, which is often referred to as the machine question. Machines have long benefited and long vexed society. While technology and machines have vaulted productive capacities to levels never before seen, there may often be a social cost that many fail to recognize. How and why does this occur? In his 1974 book, Harry Braverman explains that machinery comes into the world not as a servant of humanity; instead, its owners use it as an instrument in order to accumulate more capital and further dehumanize labor. However, Braverman explains that it is not the machine itself that is the source of this dehumanization. Rather, “[m]achinery offers to management the opportunity to do by wholly mechanical means that which it had previously attempted to do by organizational and disciplinary means”1. In other words, machinery augments the human capability to exert power in a controlled, automated fashion in a work setting, as the “evolution of machinery represents an expansion of human capacities, an increase of human control over environment through the ability to elicit from instruments of production an increasing range and exactitude of responses”2. Prior to these advances in technology, such precise responses were more difficult to extract from the productive realm, as management simply depended upon imperfect human action and reaction to enforce demands. However, employees must act in congruence with the steadfast hand of technology, and management is able to more precisely dictate the pace of work, as machines can be calibrated and controlled according to centralized decisions3. Technological progress does not simply take place in a vacuum; rather, historical and institutional forces play a role. Social theorists from Adam Smith to Thomas Carlyle to Thorstein Veblen have recognized this. Maxine Berg summarized this notion: “The machine was not an impersonal achievement to those living through the Industrial Revolution; it was an issue. The machinery question in early nineteenth-century Britain was the question of the sources of technical progress and the impact of the introduction of the new technology of the period on the total economy and society. The question was central to everyday relations between master and worker, but it was also of major theoretical and 8

H. Braverman, Labor and monopoly capital: the degradation of work in the twentieth century, New York 1974, p. 134. 2 Ibidem, p. 133. 3 Ibidem, p. 133–134. 1

artykuły ideological interest. The very technology at the basis of the economy and society was a platform of challenge and struggle”4. Thus, machines have a significant and complex role in society. As humans gain more technical insight and build better and faster machines, individuals and society as a whole must grapple with serious and consequential questions. “At the moment, the human race is in transit from the time when we were utterly dependent upon the natural world and showed that utter dependence by worshipping it, and through a time when we dreamed imperiously that we could master nature”5. Pamela McCorduck suggested that humans now realize they are not simply defined by man versus nature relationships; rather, through technology and the machine process, man versus man relationships are evermore present. The machine process allows man to take a more causal role; he can exert his will and be the master of change that affects others. Society struggles with the appropriate manner in which to deal with this relationship: “We are still deeply unsure of ourselves vis-à-vis nature; a part of it and yet apart (from it), we have still to find out just where we can best stand. Our experience in the twentieth century with partaking in the power of the gods has been mixed, to say the least”6. This uncertainty and trepidation regarding technological progress implies that understanding technology and the machine question are all the more important7.

Adam Smith’s portrayal of work Adam Smith addresses the concept and importance of labor in much of his work. In An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations (hereafter referred to as The wealth of nations), Smith devoted a great deal of attention to labor and work. While he focused on labor as being the source of value, he also discussed the meaning of the act of work itself to each individual worker: “The property which every man has in his own labor, as it is the original foundation of all other property, so it is the most sacred and inviolable. The patrimony of a poor man lies in the strength and dexterity of his hands; and to hinder him from employing this strength and dexterity in what manner he thinks proper

M. Berg, The machinery question and the making of political economy: 1815–1848, Cambridge 1980, p. 9. 5 P. McCorduck, Machines who think, Natick 2004, p. 198. 6 Ibidem. 7 M. Berg, op. cit., p. 9; P. McCorduck, op. cit., p. 198–199. 4

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without injury to his neighbor, is a plain violation of this most sacred property. It is a manifest encroachment upon the just liberty both of the workman, and of those who might be disposed to employ him”8. Here, Smith acknowledged the significance and value (not necessarily exchange-value or use-value) of the act of work itself. While Smith stated that work is important since it is the source of other property, he emphasized that work is the “most sacred and inviolable” of properties9. Individuals must have this freedom to work. Smith affirmed the positive effects, and economic primacy, of labor. He mentioned the great economic benefits of human work. Smith stated that the “skill, dexterity, and judgment with which labor is generally applied” is the primary factor in determining a nation’s total output10. In other words, labor and its productivity are sources of the wealth of nations; human work is a compulsory component of economic existence. Additionally, in thriving, civilized nations, the fruits of labor can be enjoyed by all, even “a workman, even of the lowest and poorest order, if he is frugal and industrious, may enjoy a greater share of the necessaries and conveniences of life”11. Smith’s placement of labor upon the foundation of production and wealth is outlined in many other sources. According to Paul J. McNulty, Smith “established the primacy of labor as the ultimate source of economic wealth”12. McNulty also claimed that Smith was the first to recognize the special importance of the field of labor economics: “For Smith, labor was at once the primary factor in the process of economic growth, the ultimate source and measure of economic value, and the principal claimant, among the several producing groups in society, to the sympathies of both the social scientist and the public administrator ... in the Smithian system, labor is both the basis of and the connecting link between income and growth theory, price theory, and proposals for social reform”13. Labor serves many purposes. In addition to being the primary factor of economic growth, labor aids in satisfying human needs and wants. What is the basic foundation for human activity, including human work? In The theory of moral sentiments, Smith described the roots of human thought and action; 10

A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, in: R.L. Heilbroner (ed.), The essential Adam Smith, New York 1986, p. 218. 9 Ibidem. 10 Ibidem, p. 159. 11 Ibidem, p. 159–160. 12 P.J. McNulty, Adam Smith’s concept of labor, “Journal of the History of Ideas” 1973, vol. 34, no. 3, p. 347. 13 Ibidem, p. 346. 8

artykuły he identifies human passions as the motivation for behavior. Some passions should be acted upon, and some should be acted upon to a lesser degree. Bodily, imaginative, unsocial, social, and selfish passions all provide the impetus for human action. Reaction to these passions takes on different forms: “The propriety of every passion excited by objects peculiarly related to ourselves, the pitch which the spectator can go along with, must lie, it is evident, in a certain mediocrity”14. Once human behavior rises out of these passions, labor takes on different meaning, as it is subjected to the influence of others. Thus, labor is also a social concept. According to Smith, “man has almost constant occasion for the help of his brethren”15. Smith acknowledged that this freedom to work and express oneself might be rendered imperfect by certain social inadequacies or constraints. It is not through the sheer kindness and generosity of fellow human beings that work assumes social characteristics; rather, the “propensity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for another” has developed as a uniquely human trait that mirrors the underlying inclination for individuals to pursue their self-interests16. Smith explained: “Give me that which I want, and you shall have this which you want, is the meaning of every such offer; and it is in this manner that we obtain from one another the far greater part of those good offices which we stand in need of. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages”17. Thus, humans are not independent beings. The help of others is needed; via bargain and exchange, each helps himself or herself out of self-interest, not necessarily out of charity. According to Smith, only a beggar would choose to primarily depend upon the benevolence of fellow human beings18. Smith recognized that hardship may result, and his “frankly sympathetic attitude toward the laboring classes stands in sharp contrast ... with the ... harsh attitudes toward the workers which had previously been expressed by most of the Mercantilist writers”19.



A. Smith, The theory of moral sentiments, Indianapolis 1982, p. 27. Idem, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 169. 16 Ibidem, p. 168–169. 17 Ibidem, p. 169. 18 Ibidem. 19 P.J. McNulty, op. cit., p. 346. 14 15

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Adam Smith and the role of technology Adam Smith, of course, is well-known for his delineation of the inner workings and benefits of increased mechanization and the division of labor. To some degree, he certainly championed the productive advantages to be realized when the division of labor and ensuing technological progress are utilized in production. “The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labor, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which it is anywhere directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labor”20. This, in turn, “sets the stage for the process of economic growth – the division of labor enormously enhancing the technical capacity to produce wealth”21. Thus, the division of labor was responsible for great strides forward in the economic realm, as production of many goods evolved into more efficient operations. In his famous pin factory example, Smith explained that a single worker attempting to produce pins alone “could scarce, perhaps, with his utmost industry, make one pin a day, and certainly could not make twenty”22. However, ten laborers working together could benefit from the specialization acquired from each worker focusing on one or two of the eighteen specific tasks embedded within the pin making process, rather than each worker making an entire pin from start to finish. Consequently, Smith estimated these ten workers could produce 48,000 pins per day as they work. Working independently and without the benefit of the division of labor, these ten workers could produce nowhere near that number23. Smith summarized the productive gains in applying the division of labor as the consequence of three circumstances: the improved dexterity for every worker, the saving of time that is usually lost when switching from one activity to another, and the application of new inventions or technology24. However, Smith foresaw potential pitfalls of both an individual and social nature embodied within the division of labor. He provided additional perspective in a discussion of the increasing degree of the division of labor, tendency toward mechanization, and corresponding social implications. According to Smith, “[i]n the progress of the division of labor, the employment of the far A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 161. R.L. Heilbroner, The essential Adam Smith, New York 1986, p. 153. A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 162. While William Petty first introduced this notion of the division of labor in a watch-making example, Smith further elaborated on the sundry benefits of such a practical scheme (P.C. Dooley, The labour theory of value, London 2005, p. 35–36). 24 A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 162–164.

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artykuły greater part of those who live by labor ... comes to be confined to a few very simple operations; frequently to one or two. But the understanding of the greater part of men are necessarily formed by their employments. The man whose life is spent in performing a few simple operations, of which the effects, too, are always the same, or very nearly the same, has no occasion to exert his understanding ... He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become”25. According to Smith, as the division of labor propels economic expansion, the progress it fosters bears a social cost. “Material progress, in other words, brings moral decay”26. The expansion of commercial society leads to a lack of intelligence, creativity, and thought; individuals experience alienation in the process. This notion of alienation or self-estrangement occurs as individuals become more and more disengaged from the world around them27. How does this occur? Smith proposed that the division of labor serves to dull the mental faculties of those engaged in the process. Instead of experiencing a challenging and engaging work environment that consists of witnessing the beginning and completion of a project, workers are relegated to the monotonous execution of one or two mindless tasks. Work performance, compensation, and even the overall meaning of work may be simply based upon the completion of these tasks28. However, in other societies that do not rely so heavily upon the mechanistic processes of the division of labor in order to fulfill productive and economic needs, workers are able to find a greater sense of fulfillment from overseeing a project from beginning to end. Consequently, individual job satisfaction may be understood in a much different manner than in a society that incorporates the division of labor in its economic domain. Smith elaborated on this idea of the absence of the division of labor: “In such societies the varied occupations of every man oblige every man to exert his capacity, and to invent expedients for removing difficulties which are continually occurring. Invention is kept alive, and the mind is not suffered to fall into that drowsy stupidity, which, in a civilized society, seems to benumb the understanding of almost all the inferior

Ibidem, p. 302. R.L. Heilbroner, The essential Adam Smith, p. 155. 27 Idem, The paradox of progress: decline and decay in The Wealth of Nations, “Journal of the History of Ideas” 1973, vol. 34, no. 2, p. 253–254. 28 R.L. Heilbroner, The essential Adam Smith, p. 154–156; A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 302. 25

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ranks of people”29. This “drowsy stupidity” is largely the result of the effects of the machine process. Smith was clearly concerned with the cultural and mental degeneration that resulted from the division of labor and tendency to mechanize30. David Reisman offers further evidence: “Yet the division of labor can also mean something else to the worker: psychological deprivation and narrowed horizons. In more primitive societies ... variety of occupations and scope for problem-solving innovation prevented intellectual decay”31. Certainly, this double-edged sword of the division of labor can be costly: “For then it becomes apparent that the progress to which Smith directs our attention is material, not spiritual or mental. From the nonmaterial point of view, not progress but retrogression has taken place. The division of labor, on which material progress has been based, has sapped, not enhanced, the mental capabilities of its users”32. What is the reason for this persistent social drive for material progress? Smith identified human nature as a source of this insatiable desire for growth. “The desire of food is limited in every man by the narrow capacity of the human stomach; but the desire of the conveniences and ornaments of building, dress, equipage, and household furniture, seems to have no limit or certain boundary”33. The endless human desire for material goods plays a significant role in economic expansion. But from where does this material yearning originate? Smith explained that it is an inherently human characteristic, one of “bettering our condition, a desire which, though generally calm and dispassionate, comes with us from the womb, and never leaves us till we go into the grave”34. More simply, the incorporation of the division of labor is a reflection of the pursuit of more money. It allows producers to realize greater earnings, even if it comes at the expense of the dulling of workers’ minds. “Thus, growth of output, stemming from the all-important division of labor, comes about as the natural consequence of the drive to increase profits by catering on an enlarged scale to a growing market”35. The profit incentive emerges as the primary motivator

14

A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 302. M. Berg, op. cit., p. 9; D.A. Reisman, Adam Smith’s sociological economics, London – New York 1976, p. 149. 31 D.A. Reisman, op. cit., p. 149. 32 R.L. Heilbroner, The essential Adam Smith, p. 155. 33 A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 223. 34 Ibidem, p. 240. 35 R.L. Heilbroner, The paradox of progress, p. 243. 29

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artykuły in a market economy, surpassing any concerns regarding working conditions or individuals36. Due to this personal and social decay, Smith acknowledged legitimate concerns in advocating a truly free market economic system. In addition, there remain other issues in promoting an economy with no built-in mechanism designed to maintain order and justice. “It is difficult to champion the unfettered operation of a free market when the Invisible Hand reveals itself in the form of noxious fumes or poisoned waters or resource exhaustion – not to mention technological unemployment”37. Smith certainly did not provide all of the answers to such problems. “Thus Smith’s analysis of the market mechanism cannot be considered the last word on the subject. But in some ways it is more important than that: it is the ‘first word’ on the subject”38. Smith at least began to understand the benefits and difficulties, of both productive and social natures, associated with the market system.

Saint John Paul II on work The meaning and importance of work is one of the primary components of Catholic Social Teaching in general and as well as the writings of Saint John Paul II in particular. Work is more than a means to an end; it is not simply activity that provides for the needs and wants of individuals. Building upon the groundwork of many popes before him, Saint John Paul II reaffirmed the Catholic Social Teaching viewpoint that work should be more than a job or stream of income, but also a source of dignity. More specifically, he wrote his seminal encyclical regarding the meaning and value of work, Laborem exercens. This encyclical provided the basis for much of modern Catholic Social Teaching regarding labor. Like Pope Leo XIII before him, Saint John Paul II emphasized the understanding of work as a process of fulfillment and service. While it is obvious that humans have an integral part in the process of work, Saint John Paul II suggested that it should be more than a passive role. In this sense, Saint John Paul II claimed that people are “subjects” of work; there is some significance and value beyond the objective



Idem, The essential Adam Smith, p. 151–155. Ibidem, p. 152. 38 Ibidem.

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process of work39. As such, labor is “neither a tool in the productive process nor a mere commodity”40. Saint John Paul II explained further: “As a person, man is therefore the subject of work. As a person he works, he performs various actions belonging to the work process; independently of their objective content, these actions must all serve to realize his humanity, to fulfill the calling to be a person that is his by reason of his very humanity”41. Thus, it is through work that humans can fulfill their potential as humans42. He proposes there are three interwoven spheres of human work: personal dignity and work, family life and work, and society and work. First, Saint John Paul II suggests that work corresponds to human dignity: “Work is a good thing for man – a good thing for his humanity – because through work man not only transforms nature, adapting it to his own needs, but he also achieves fulfillment as a human being”43. Like Pope Leo XIII before him, Saint John Paul II recognized that work is inherently good and contributes to the dignity of humans44. However, even if work is understood in this fashion, it may be tainted by outside factors. Although work has positive implications, it also “contains the unceasing measure of human toil and suffering, and also of the harm and injustice which penetrate deeply into social life within individual nations and on the international level”45. Why is some work embodied by this human toil and suffering? According to Saint John Paul II, there are several sources: “There are many factors of a general nature: the widespread introduction of automation into many spheres of production, the increase in the cost of energy and raw materials, the growing realization that the heritage of nature is limited and that it is being intolerably polluted, and the emergence on the political scene of peoples who, after centuries of subjection, are demanding their rightful place among the nations and in international decision-making”46.

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Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, Vatican City 1981, 6. F. Kammer, Doing faithjustice: an introduction to Catholic social thought, New York 1991, p. 101. 41 Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 6. 42 Pope Paul VI, Gaudium et spes, Vatican City 1965, 35; Pope Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno, Vatican City 1931, 83. 43 Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 9. 44 D.J. O’Brien, T.A. Shannon, Catholic social thought: the documentary heritage, Maryknoll 1992, p. 350. 45 Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 1. 46 Ibidem. 39

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artykuły While some of these forces of social change will be addressed later, suffice it to say that they may contaminate work. In order to prevent chaos and poverty, these dynamic social processes must be addressed by nations, as well as the existing social and economic structures surrounding work. In short, a response is required to the changing world47. Saint John Paul II expressed some of the same general concerns regarding work in Centesimus annus. He addressed the value and meaning of work, as well as its role for individuals. “Work thus belongs to the vocation of every person; indeed; man expresses and fulfills himself by working”48. He stated that every individual has an inherent and inviolable right to work: “The obligation to earn one’s bread by the sweat of one’s brow also presumes the right to do so. A society in which this right is systemically denied, in which economic policies do not allow workers to reach satisfactory levels of employment, cannot be justified from an ethical point of view, nor can that society attain social peace”49. Saint John Paul II recognized that maintaining the right to work is crucial for the expression of creativity and fulfillment of humans. However, he acknowledged another crucial facet of work; it is in communion with and serves others. “Moreover, it is becoming clearer how a person’s work is naturally interrelated with the work of others. More than ever, work is work with others and work for others; it is a matter of doing something for someone else”50. He further explained that this reciprocal “community of work” is a commitment to collaborate with others51. In short, the point is that work is “of service to others – i.e., let us praise those who pick up our trash and clean our offices”52.

Saint John Paul II and the implications of technological advancement Catholic social teaching supplements the productive denotation of technological change with the incorporation of further social implications. In Laborem exercens, Saint John Paul II certainly acknowledged a positive economic and

49 50 51 52 47

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Ibidem. Idem, Centesimus annus, Vatican City 1991, 6. Ibidem, 43. Ibidem, 31. Ibidem, 32. S.M. Hauerwas, In praise of Centesimus Annus, in: M.E. Stamps (ed.), To do justice and right upon earth, Collegeville 1993, p. 67. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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social role for technology, remarking that it is through work that “man must earn his daily bread and contribute to the continual advance of science and technology”53. This is indicative of improved material well-being, as this “recent stage of human history, especially that of certain societies, brings a correct affirmation of technology as a basic coefficient of economic progress”54. To some degree, such advancements are necessary and beneficial to human survival. To be sure, Catholic social teaching recognizes that the “results of science and technology are, in themselves, positive”55. Saint John Paul II recognized the rapid developments in industry and agriculture, noting that such changes were generally for the betterment of society. He described the manner in which these advancements have come to fruition: “In this way there have appeared not only the simplest instruments for cultivating the earth, but also through adequate progress in science and technology the more modern and complex ones: machines, factories, laboratories and computers”56. However, these technological transformations implied far-reaching changes across the social spectrum, since “it is also true that for this very reason industrial development provides grounds for reproposing in new ways the question of human work”57. In other words, technology forced individuals to reconsider their roles within the workplace; they may think and behave differently, which could result in consequences regarding the meaning of work58. Saint John Paul II explained the nature of his argument. He proposed that technology functioned as an ally to a worker, being as it “facilitates his work, perfects, accelerates and augments it” and “leads to an increase in the quantity of things produced by work, and in many cases improves their quality”59. However, if not overseen with great care and caution, technology may turn against workers and become their enemy: “However, it is also a fact that, in some instances, technology can cease to be man’s ally and become almost his enemy, as when the mechanization of work “supplants” him, taking away all personal satisfaction and the incentive to creativity and responsibility, when it deprives many workers of their previous employment, or when, through exalting the 18

Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 1. Ibidem, 5. 55 Catholic Church. Pontificium Consilium de Iustitia et Pace, Compendium of the social doctrine of the Catholic Church, Homebush 2004, p. 199. 56 Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 12. 57 Ibidem, 5. 58 Saint John XXIII, Mater et magistra, Vatican City 1961, 176; Pope Paul VI, op. cit., 5. 59 Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 5. 53

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artykuły machine, it reduces man to the status of its slave”60. Consequently, machines can be a threat to workers and the meaning of the work in which they engage. It may strip workers of the proper motivation and method in which work should be considered and undertaken. Saint John Paul II supposes that this danger may arise when work is dehumanized by the pursuit of growth and profits by businesses. Put another way, when individuals cease to be the subject of work, and are replaced by financial incentives as the primary consideration of work, then technology becomes the enemy of workers61. Saint John Paul II affirmed the primacy of workers in the productive process. He contended that it should always be understood that the worker is “the purpose of the work, whatever work it is that is done by man – even if the common scale of values rates it as the merest ‘service’, as the most monotonous, even the most alienating work”62. In other words, the welfare of workers should be considered more important than any purely economic consideration. Why? According to Catholic social teaching: “Man truly is; economic systems are a manner of speaking”63. Put differently, while economic structures have come and gone throughout history, Catholicism understands them as products of, and subservient to, humans. These notions of work, economic growth, and technology are reflective of the principles of Catholic social teaching. In Centesimus annus, Saint John Paul II offered greater details about his understanding of technology and increased mechanization in modern society. To be sure, he identified the positive outcomes associated with improvements in technology, saying that “the possession of know-how, technology and skill” was largely responsible for the “wealth of the industrialized nations”64. In fact, economic wealth “is based much more on this kind of ownership than on natural resources”65. However, Saint John Paul II suggested potential social decay may be rooted in technological progress and the ever-increasing use of machines. Echoing his work Laborem exercens, Saint John Paul II also supposed that the loss of meaning found within work, indeed within life in general, resulted from the onslaught of “consumerism, when people are ensnared in a web of false and

62 63

Ibidem. Ibidem, 6; Saint John XXIII, op. cit., 176; Pope Paul VI, op. cit., 5. Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 6. E.J. O’Boyle, Catholic social economics: a response to certain problems, errors, and abuses of the modern age, in: M.A. Lutz (ed.), Social economics: retrospect and prospect, Boston 1990, p. 127. 64 Saint John Paul II, Centesimus annus, 32. 65 Ibidem. 60 61

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superficial gratifications rather than being helped to experience their personhood in an authentic and concrete way”66. Ultimately, he suggested that the drive for material accumulation is behind this social decline: “In the sphere of economics, in which scientific discoveries and their practical application come together, new structures for the production of consumer goods had progressively taken shape. A new form of property had appeared – capital; and a new form of labor – labor for wages, characterized by high rates of production which lacked due regard for sex, age or family situation, and were determined solely by efficiency, with a view to increasing profits”67. In outlining his position, Saint John Paul II emphasized the possibility of alienation. Saint John Paul II argued that this state of alienation might exist in a personal sense (willful self-estrangement) or in a social sense (a society that views people as a means to an end)68. Regardless, alienation posed a danger to both individuals and society: “Alienation is found also in work, when it is organized so as to ensure maximum returns and profits with no concern whether the worker, through his own labor, grows or diminishes as a person, either through increased sharing in a genuinely supportive community or through increased isolation in a maze of relationships marked by destructive competitiveness and estrangement, in which he is considered only a means and not an end”69. Nonetheless, Saint John Paul II regarded the maturation of a society that encourages the development, expression, and contributions of its members as the ultimate fulfillment of Catholic social teaching: “For an adequate formation of a culture, the involvement of the whole person is required, whereby one exercises one’s creativity, intelligence, and knowledge of the world and of people”70. Such a society would adhere to a proper understanding of work and economic growth71. Essentially, Saint John Paul II described technology as filling a supplemental role within any economic system. It should not be of primary consideration when taking into account the meaning of work and the activities of workers. In other words, the dignity of each individual worker should be of the utmost importance, while technology is simply an ancillary tool utilized in the process of economic development. If technology 20

Ibidem, 41. Ibidem, 4. 68 Ibidem, 41. 69 Ibidem. 70 Ibidem, 51. 71 Ibidem.

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artykuły exists as the primary motivation behind economic and social decisions, then this constitutes a grave injustice upon workers. Such an outlook could prove disastrous for a society72. In this respect, “technology brings many benefits, but it can also bring social and economic costs, including the downgrading and displacement of workers”73.

Conclusion The freedom to work is a fundamental right of each individual. This understanding of the meaning of work seems to resonate with Smith’s description of work as a “sacred and inviolable” property. The authors and works outlined in this paper reveal a common emphasis upon the apparent underlying meaning of work; work is not simply a means to an end, but it is a crucial component of what it means to be a human being. In addition, the social environment in which it takes place influences work. Work takes place both with and for others. This social setting may yield both positive and negative results upon work74. In order for an economic system to effectively uphold the inherent dignity found within each individual, work must be viewed as both a productive and social pursuit. Technology can certainly aid in this endeavor, but should not dominate it in the attempt to improve financial standing75. Both Saint John Paul II and Adam Smith acknowledge certain advantages of technological progress. Machines often allow for the realization of productive efficiencies in the marketplace and enhance certain aspects of human existence. However, Saint John Paul II and many authors within the Catholic tradition advise we may want to “proceed with caution” in the technological realm, as the social and behavioral side effects of the machine question may open the door for unintended consequences.

H. Pesch, Ethics and the national economy, transl. R. Ederer, Norfolk 2004, p. 67; Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 5; Saint John XXIII, op. cit., 176; Pope Paul VI, op. cit., 5. 73 Catholic Church. National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Economic justice for all: pastoral letter on Catholic social teaching and the U.S. economy, Washington, DC 1986, p. 73. 74 A. Smith, An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, p. 168–169. 75 H. Pesch, op. cit., p. 67; E.J. O’Boyle, op. cit., p. 131.

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References Berg M., The machinery question and the making of political economy: 1815–1848, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1980. Braverman H., Labor and monopoly capital: the degradation of work in the twentieth century, Monthly Review Press, New York 1974. Catholic Church. National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Economic justice for all: pastoral letter on Catholic social teaching and the U.S. economy, United States Catholic Conference, Washington, DC 1986. Catholic Church. Pontificium Consilium de Iustitia et Pace, Compendium of the social doctrine of the Catholic Church, St. Pauls Publications, Homebush 2004. Dooley P.C., The labour theory of value, Routledge, London 2005. Hauerwas S.M., In praise of Centesimus Annus, in: M.E. Stamps (ed.), To do justice and right upon earth, Liturgical Press, Collegeville 1993, p. 63–83. Heilbroner R.L., The essential Adam Smith, W.W. Norton and Company, New York 1986. Heilbroner R.L., The paradox of progress: decline and decay in The Wealth of Nations, “Journal of the History of Ideas” 1973, vol. 34, no. 2, p. 243–262. Kammer F., Doing faithjustice: an introduction to Catholic social thought, Paulist Press, New York 1991. McCorduck P., Machines who think, A.K. Peters, Natick 2004. McNulty P.J., Adam Smith’s concept of labor, “Journal of the History of Ideas” 1973, vol. 34, no. 3, p. 345–366. O’Boyle E.J., Catholic social economics: a response to certain problems, errors, and abuses of the modern age, in: M.A. Lutz (ed.), Social economics: retrospect and prospect, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1990, p. 121–153. O’Brien D.J., Shannon T.A., Catholic social thought: the documentary heritage, Orbis Books, Maryknoll 1992. Pesch H., Ethics and the national economy, transl. R. Ederer, IHS Press, Norfolk 2004. Pope Paul VI, Gaudium et spes, Libreria Editrice, Vatican City 1965. Pope Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno, Libreria Editrice, Vatican City 1931. Reisman D.A., Adam Smith’s sociological economics, Croom Helm – Barnes & Noble, London – New York 1976. Saint John XXIII, Mater et magistra, Libreria Editrice, Vatican City 1961. Saint John Paul II, Centesimus annus, Libreria Editrice, Vatican City 1991. Saint John Paul II, Laborem exercens, Libreria Editrice, Vatican City 1981. Smith A., An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, in: R.L. Heilbroner (ed.), The essential Adam Smith, W.W. Norton, New York 1986. Smith A., The theory of moral sentiments, Liberty Fund, Indianapolis 1982.

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artykuły Abstrakt Czy bogactwo narodów zapewnia godność pracy? Analiza podejścia św. Jana Pawła II i Adama Smitha do następstw technologii oraz idei pracy Wymaga wyjaśnienia, czy technologia stanowi włącznie narzędzie produkcji, czy też jest bardziej całościowym czynnikiem zmiany dotykającym miejsce pracy i społeczeństwo. W niniejszym artykule rozważono technologię i pracę z perspektywy św. Jana Pawła II i Adama Smitha. Smith znany jest ze swego opisu wewnętrznych mechanizmów podziału pracy i korzyści stąd wynikających, jednak wyraził on również obawę o indywidualne i społeczne konsekwencje tej wzmożonej mechanizacji. Podobnie św. Jan Paweł II wskazywał na coś więcej aniżeli tylko implikacje dla produkcji wynikające z przeobrażeń technologicznych; technologia zmusza jednostkę do rewidowania ról pełnionych przez nią w miejscu pracy i do zmagania się z myślą, że nakazuje się jej coś wykraczającego poza produkcję dóbr i świadczenie usług. Włączając do rozważań wybrane dzieła św. Jana Pawła II i Adama Smitha, w niniejszym artykule postarano się zbadać rolę technologii i utowarowienia pracy, jak też wynikające stąd następstwa dla jednostki i społeczeństwa. Słowa kluczowe: ekonomia społeczna, historia myśli ekonomicznej, technologia, praca, Adam Smith, Jan Paweł II

Abstract Does the wealth of nations uphold the dignity of work? An analysis of Saint John Paul II and Adam Smith regarding the consequences of technology and idea of work Whether technology is viewed solely as a productive tool or a more comprehensive agent of change in the workplace and society, it demands to be acknowledged. This paper considers technology and work from the perspectives of Saint John Paul II and Adam Smith. Smith is well-known for his delineation of the inner workings and benefits of the division of labor, but he also displayed concern for the corresponding personal and social ramifications of this increased mechanization. Likewise, Saint John Paul II recognized more than just the productive implications of technological change; technology forces individuals to reconsider their roles within the workplace and wrestle with the notion they are ordered to something beyond the production of goods and services. Incorporating specific writings of Saint John Paul II and Adam Smith, this paper aims to investigate the role of technology and commodification of labor, as well as the subsequent effects upon individuals and society. Key words: social economics, history of economic thought, technology, work, Adam Smith, John Paul II

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Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 24–37 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Paul Dudzinski

The principle of subsidiarity in Catholic social thought

Historical background: liberalism and capitalism The seeds of the principle of subsidiarity planted by Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical letter Rerum novarum were part of the pontiff ’s pastoral response to the conditions of workers in the new environment created by the Industrial Revolution. However this situation was complicated by the liberal mindset that had in many ways joined forces with this Revolution to contribute the element of laissez-faire to economic policies. Charles Darwin’s materialistic theory of evolution also provided in part the impetus for the rise of socialism. Yet these movements can be attributed to two thinkers whose respective philosophies made an impact on the culture. They are Georg W.F. Hegel and Adam Smith. Hegel’s dialectical philosophy of Geist played a direct role in liberal thought that social progress could only come about through conflict (however, according to Edmund Fawcett, the liberal notion of conflict was in terms of debate, discussion, and compromise). Liberal thought distrusted government influence and believed that a “hands-off ” approach to the particulars of social progress was the best way for the workings of the market forces1. Adam Smith, in his The

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E. Fawcett, Liberalism: the life of an idea, Princeton – Oxford 2014, p. 1–26. Fawcett does not mention Hegel by name but the aspects of liberalism mentioned above certainly characterize Hegel’s dialectical philosophy of absolute mind that had a large part to play in the revolution of 1848 in Germany, according to F.C. Copleston, A history of

artykuły wealth of nations, introduced two notions that are used today in support of the free-market economy: one notion is that a person is primarily concerned with self, and only works out of his self-interest. The other notion is the role of the “invisible hand” that somehow is involved in the machinations of the dynamics of the market forces2. What we see happening then near the end of the 19th century is the clash of ideas between classical liberalism and traditional monarchism that was being played out in the historical theater. Concomitantly with this there was the clash of ideas that revolved around the relation between labor and capital, between factory owner and workers, as well as the treatment of workers by ownership, and the right to have private property. At the time then that Leo XIII began writing his encyclical letter the whole world was undergoing a profound change (that would reach one stage of completion after World War I): from the established empires to nation-states. Italy was the prime example of this political evolution, not only with the transition in government brought about by nationalistic forces (led by Garibaldi) but with the drastic change in mores. The sweep of the Industrial Revolution allied with liberalism brought about what Tracey Rowland calls the Aristocratic and Bourgeois Liberal version of morality3. This growth of secular morality and the inhuman excesses in the dehumanizing environment of factories contributed to the beginnings of breakdowns in family and social life, where greed, graft, and corruption became the norm4. This brought about the genesis of literature which condemned the inhumane practices that were occurring especially in factory work where whole families, including children, would work for puny wages in sweat jobs and live in tenements near the factory, breathing in the coal-polluted smog it produced. One such writer was Charles Dickens, whose novels such as Oliver Twist and A Christmas carol had the deplorable conditions of the time as the backdrop to his stories. The Anglican cleric Thomas Malthus applied this concept of laissez-faire capitalism



philosophy, vol. 7: Fichte to Nietzsche, Garden City 1963, p. 189–225; see also G.W.F. Hegel, Phenomenology of spirit, transl. A.V. Miller, Oxford – New York – Toronto – Melbourne 1977. 2 K. Lux, Adam Smith’s mistake: how a moral philosopher invented economics & ended morality, Boston 1990, p. 13–93. 3 T. Rowland, The culture and the Thomist tradition: after Vatican II, London – New York 2003, p. 73–76. 4 This situation was already happening in the United States, where after the Civil War the likes of Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller took advantage of the laissez-faire character of free market capitalism to build their financial empires. For more information on these phenomena, see K. Lux, op. cit., p. 54–79. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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to his notion of overpopulation, to make the argument that the poor and poverty stricken are prolific in having more children, which held back the national economy; he held this because he saw a correlation between their poverty and his perception of their indolence. Thus the answer in his eyes was simple: limit and control the poor’s ability to conceive and bear children5.

The ontological basis of the principle of subsidiary: the Thomistic background As has been noted by other scholars, elements of the principle of subsidiarity can be traced back to Aristotle and the ancient Greek culture. However, St. Thomas Aquinas is the more proximate source for the essentials of the principle. The principle of subsidiarity is based upon his metaphysical doctrine on the hierarchy of being, his theory of the participation of being, and his vision of the nature of the human person. We can glean his teaching on these points from his various works. His teaching on the hierarchy of being is based upon divine exemplarism; God Himself is the Source of all being and His Ideas are the means by which created creatures share in His being – in an orderly, hierarchical manner, beginning with the ranks of angels as spiritual intelligences, man as an incarnate spirit, lower animals, plants, and inanimate life6. Participation in God’s esse follows this hierarchical ordering from the more perfect to the less perfect. Hence in this manner we can see that in one sense that Thomas views the modus essendi as coming from above7. However, St. Thomas’s teaching on nature provides the ontological basis for this hierarchy. His teaching on the role of form in the composition of created being is the crucial link between the esse which comes from above and the nature below which shares or participates in esse. His metaphysical axiom, esse per formam, is the basis for his account for how created beings appropriate their different shares in esse in their own concrete existences8. Hence created nature has its own “qualified” self-sufficiency,

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C.R. Drysdale, The life and writings of Thomas R. Malthus, Whitefish 2007; see also K. Lux, op. cit., p. 28–53. 6 G.T. Doolan, Aquinas on the divine ideas as exemplar causes, Washington 2008, p. 14–17. 7 L.B. Geiger, La participation dans la philosophie de S. Thomas d’Aquin, Paris 1953, p. 238. 8 Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, I, q. 42, a. 1, ad. 1: “Primus autem effectus formae est esse: nam omnis res habet esse secundum suam formam”. See also his In librum de causis, lectio 10, which reveals the influence Pseudo-Dionysius had on the mind of St. Thomas. 5

artykuły so to speak, based upon its place within the metaphysical rank of modus essendi. This teaching forms the basis of St. Thomas’s social doctrine in which there are different hierarchical grades within society itself, from the state down to the single household of the family, and while such a ranking begins with what is more universal (i.e. the State), yet each level of society – the human family, the village, city, associations like the guilds – all have their own respective legitimate autonomy, because each level of society has their own respective self-sufficiency. At the basis of society, however, is the fact that the human person is by nature “social”, even “domestic” (from the standpoint of his/her membership in a family) and needs to form community with others in order to pursue the common good. This is what we find in Thomas’s account in his commentary on Aristotle’s Politics and the Nichomachean ethics, among his writings9. In the 19th century, the study of St. Thomas had been neglected in favor of the fashionable philosophy du joir of Descartes and Idealism. A Jesuit priest, Fr. Luigi d’Azeglio, is credited with bringing back the study of Aquinas’s thought, at the cusp of the Industrial Revolution and National Liberalism. In many articles he contributed to the Cività cattolica (which he helped to form) he showed the heterodox, anti-social, and impractical nature of modern philosophy which was in part the raison d’être for the rise of the laissez-faire liberal and socialistic mindset. His interest was metaphysical; he attacked German Idealism and French eclecticism as the main culprit for the current state-of-affairs. His answer was to apply the teachings of St. Thomas to the social concerns of the time. He had a great influence on the future Pope Leo XII, who was one of his students10. He was the first in that age to enunciate an inchoate form of the principle of subsidiarity; but what is important here is that the source of the “help” that is part of the Latin meaning of the term “subsidiarity” (sub sedeo) is not only from the top layer of the more perfect associations down to the lowest, but also from the bottom up, where the inferior and mediating associations all participate N. Aroney, Subsidiarity in the writings of Aristotle and Aquinas, in: M. Evans, A. Zimmermann (eds.), Global perspectives on subsidiarity, Dordrecht – Heidelberg – New York – London 2014, p. 18–23. See also Aroney’s Subsidiarity, federalism and the best constitution: Thomas Aquinas on city, province, and empire, “Law and Philosophy” 2007, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 161–228. 10 T.C. Behr, Luigi Taparelli D’Azeglio, S.J. (1793–1862) and the development of scholastic natural-law thought as a science of society and politics, “Journal of Markets & Morality” 2003, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 99–115. However, in rejecting German idealism and French eclecticism, D’Azeglio did see some positive elements in John Locke’s empiricism which he saw as sharing a kindred spirit with Aquinas’s philosophy.

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and contribute to the common good of the more perfect associations11. Hence Patrick McKinley Brennan claims that commentators today who tend to treat subsidiarity merely as a matter of decentralization or smallness of scale miss the deep ontological springs of this principle12.

The principle of subsidiarity and Catholic social doctrine In his encyclical letter, Pope Leo also presented an inchoate form of the principle of subsidiarity. This is manifest on the one hand with his admonition to the State of the duty that it has for the building up of the commonwealth of society, but in the sense of aiding and guiding the different associations. However, they are not to assume a totalitarian posture and absorb individuals and associations into its own political entity13. The pontiff here has in mind particularly the plight of the human family, where all the members – father, mother, and even children – could be employees in the same factory. On the one hand the pope reminds employers to pay a just wage for workers, and lays out guidelines on the humane way to treat workers, setting limits on the way women and children are treated in the workplace14. On the other hand, he echoes St. Thomas’s teaching on the transcendental nature of the human person; such a one is endowed with reason and will, precisely because he also has a soul that is the substantial form of his body15. The human person then is endowed by God his Creator to work in the world, and to produce good things by which he can take care of the needs of his family and also enrich others in the common good. However, ownership of private property – or more precisely the means of production – is a right that a man has by nature16. He reminds us that both the human person and the human family precede the State, and thus the State is to honor and respect the dynamics of family life and the right that a human person has, particularly the

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T.C. Behr, op. cit., p. 105–109. P.M. Brennan, Subsidiarity in the tradition of Catholic social doctrine, in: M. Evans, A. Zimmermann (eds.), Global perspectives on subsidiarity, Dordrecht 2014, p. 36; see also R. Hittinger, Introduction to modern Catholicism, in: J. Witte, F.S. Alexander (eds.), The teachings of modern Christianity on law, politics, and human nature, vol. 1, New York – Chichester 2006, p. 33. 13 Leo XIII, Rerum novarum, Rome, 15 May 1891, 32–35; English version: Rerum novarum, New York 1939. 14 Ibidem, 20, 42–46. 15 Ibidem, 6, 40. 16 Ibidem, 8–11. 11

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artykuły father. Pope Leo teaches that the father has a natural right to work in order to preserve himself and his family17. The pope envisions human society as a hierarchy based upon the different capacities of people and the roles they play in the constitution of the life of society18. Hence what we have here is not a fully developed principle of subsidiarity; however, Pope Leo laid out the different elements which make up this principle, which will be more fully and deeply expounded upon by both Pope Pius XI and St. Pope John Paul II. It is with Pope Pius XI’s encyclical letter Quadragesimo anno that we find a “working definition” of the principle: “Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do. For every social activity ought of its very nature to furnish help to the members of the body social, and never destroy and absorb them”19. This is the definition of the principle still current and codified in the social doctrine of the Catholic Church20. Pope Pius then defines the proper role of the State: its power lies in its capacity to direct, watch, urge, and restrain, as occasion and necessity demands21. He also states that the basis for this principle is the order present in society: the different harmonious arrangements of the different groups. He has in mind here St. Thomas’s notion of a hierarchical order22. Pope Pius also adds an element to this principle in a later encyclical that at its basis cast aspersions on the free-market capitalism concept of “competition”. In this encyclical letter inveighing against the evils of communism (Divini Redemptoris), he contributes the notion of munus. The word itself at its root has the basic meaning in Latin as “gift”. However, Pope Pius, in assigning the principle of subsidiarity as a part of social justice, mentions the necessity of each individual, on the basis of his inherent dignity as a human person, to be “supplied

Ibidem, 7, 12–13. Ibidem, 17. 19 Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno, Rome, 15 May 1931, 79; English translation: Quadragesimo anno. Encyclical letter of Pope Pius XI on reconstructing the social order (with Study Club outline), New York 1931. 20 See, for example, Catechism of the Catholic Church, Città del Vaticano 1997, 1883 (p. 460). See also by the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, Compendium of the social doctrine of the Church, London – New Delhi – New York – Sydney 2015, 185–188 (p. 93–95). 21 Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno, 80. 22 Ibidem, 84. 17

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with all that is necessary for the exercise of his munus, or social functions”23. The concept of munus is ordered to the common good, which means that one’s labor contributes not only to his welfare but also to others’ welfare as well24. The connotative meaning of munus as “gift” is essential to understand what “social function” means. By using this term, Pope Pius is suggesting that, regardless of their status in society, individuals and associations have their individual and unique roles in contributing to the common good by sharing their gifts – the gifts of their labor – to others. This concept is also reflected in the term “distributism”, popularized by both Gilbert K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc. Hence the dynamics of the principle of subsidiarity goes two ways: in one way, the higher and more perfect associations help out the lower and less perfect associations, but on the other, it is the reverse: the lower less perfect associations help out the higher associations as well. The Pope here is offering a different vision of society and the work world from the secular-capitalist viewpoint. Instead of viewing labor from a competitive standpoint, which pits one man against another, the vision of the Pope is that of cooperation; all cooperate together, helping each other in their pursuit of those goods which satisfy their respective individual or familial needs (Sts. John XIII and John Paul II)25. Another element that is associated with the principle of subsidiarity is the concept of solidarity. Again it was presented in inchoate form by Pope Leo and developed further by St. John Paul and Pope Emeritus Benedict. Solidarity is also based upon the teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas. Solidarity, like the principle of subsidiarity, has an ontological basis; and it is the tenet that man is by nature social. In this context then solidarity is a human social virtue26. As we saw earlier, St. Thomas qualifies this term further by stating that man is by nature Pius XI, Divini redemptoris, Rome, 19 March 1937, 51; English version: Encyclical letter (Divini redemptoris) of His Holiness Pius XI by Divine Providence Pope to the patriarchs, primates, archbishops, bishops and other ordinaries in peace and communion with the apostolic see on atheistic communism, Washington 1937. The Latin text: “ad sociale munus cuiusque suum exercendum”. 24 R. Hittinger, Social pluralism and subsidiarity in Catholic social doctrine, “Annales Theologici” 2002, vol. 16, p. 393–394; see also T.C. Behr, op. cit., p. 36–37. 25 Both John XIII and John Paul II contributed a deeper understanding of the principle of subsidiarity by applying it to countries, where in a global setting each country has the capabilities which can help out other countries with fewer capabilities. In such an environment both sainted pontiffs refer to a world organization that would oversee and coordinate activities between countries. However, I will not treat this aspect of the principle due to the limited scope of this paper. 26 Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, op. cit., 192–193 (p. 98–99).

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artykuły domestic. Hence solidarity would apply first and foremost to family life. Pope Leo touches on this point in his encyclical letter in his discussion on “societies that are formed in the bosom of the commonwealth” that are private and rightly entered into by individuals for the purpose of serving the common good. It is these types of societies that are entered into naturally by human persons, which must be protected by the State27. Solidarity begins with the family structure and then branches outward as men and women join groups and organizations. In the context of labor and capital, St. Pope John Paul stresses the need of solidarity in the face of what could be called “law and supply forces” from which new types of work appear but to the detriment of other types of labor that disappear due to becoming antiquated with new levels of technology and mechanization. The Pope points to the inestimable dignity of the human worker and his labor as a contribution to culture, and the need for workers who experience in these types of working environments the degradation of their dignity as workers to unite in solidarity28. St. John Paul’s emphasis upon the dignity of the worker and his work has its basis in his philosophical Thomistic personalism which is based upon the human persons who are conscious subjects of their existence in the performance of their actions29. His vision of solidarity is further evidenced in a lecture he delivered shortly before he became Pope, in which he addressed the problem of participation or alienation in society. This talk was based on his teaching of the consciousness of the human person of himself as the “I” of his existence and activities, and his consciousness of another as “other”, participating in another’s humanity that is based upon the Gospel commandment to love one’s neighbor as one’s self; which has the potential to leave a positive mark on society, in the face of a secular and the then-Marxist socialistic ideology30. One can say that the principle of subsidiarity and the virtue of solidarity are based upon his unique vision of the human person as an incarnate spirit. This is, as we saw, Thomistic in its roots, but to which St. John Paul, as a representative of

Leo XIII, op. cit., 51; see also P.M. Brennan, op. cit., p. 41–42. John Paul II, Laborem exercens, Rome, 14 September 1981, 8; English version: Encyclical Laborem exercens: addressed by the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II to his venerable brothers in the episcopate to the priests, to the religious families, to the sons and daughters of the Church and to all men and women of good will on human work on the ninetieth anniversary of Rerum novarum, Pasay City 1996. 29 K. Wojtyła, The acting person, transl. A. Potocki, ed. A.T. Tymieniecka, Dordrecht – Boston – London 1979. See also A.N. Woznicki, A Christian humanism: Karol Wojtyla’s existential personalism, New Britain 1980. 30 K. Wojtyła, Participation or alienation?, in: A.T. Tymieniecka (ed.), The self and the other, vol. 6, Dordrecht 1977, p. 61–73. 27

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Lublin Thomism, contributed his own phenomenological method with Aquinas’s metaphysical and epistemological doctrine of the human person31. Understood from this perspective, it is easy to see a “mystic view of work” in his account of the human activity as a whole which contributes to a profound sense of understanding to the relationship between the human person and his labor32. I would like to add here an anecdotal remark (in the presence of the current audience) that our saintly Pope applies this view equally to the labor of intellectuals, of college and university professors who also toil for the bread they eat, and the plight of those who either lose their teaching jobs or are unemployed looking for a teaching position33. There is, perhaps, some confusion on what the term “property” means as it is used today, and how the Church herself understands it. For the Church, private property extends to the means of production. We can understand this from what St. Thomas says. While private property is a thing that one can by nature possess or own, this property is on the one hand the means one has to produce or obtain what one needs. The advantage to this is that private ownership encourages the owner to work more responsibly than if this property was held in common, and fosters a more peaceful state of affairs. However, Aquinas adumbrates Church’s recent teaching on the virtue of solidarity in adding that such ownership should be open to assist or share with others in their needs. Nevertheless, it is a sin for someone to steal or take by theft property that does not belong to him34. It follows that regarding property, its owner is called to be a virtuous citizen of the State; thus, for St Thomas both ownership of private property and the practice of virtues fosters societal peace35. In this way then we can understand why the Church has been a steadfast supporter of man’s natural right to possess this property. We can also understand the Church’s preferential option for the poor in connection to this right to own private property36. Based upon these

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John Paul II, Familiaris consortio, Rome, 22 November 1982, 11; English version: The role of the Christian family in the modern world. Familiaris consortio, Boston 2015. 32 T. Rowland, op. cit., p. 66–67. 33 John Paul II, Laborem exercens, 8. 34 Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, II–II, q. 66, arts. 2 and 6. 35 Idem, De regimine principum, book 1, chapters 15 and 16; English version: Saint Thomas Aquinas on the governance of rulers (De regimine principum), transl. G.B. Phelan, London 1938. 36 See, for example, John Paul II, Sollicitudo rei socialis, Rome, 30 December 1987, 42; English version: Encyclical letter Sollicitudo rei socialis of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II to the bishops, priests, religious families, sons and daughters of the Church and all people of good will for the twentieth anniversary of Populurom progressio, Washington 31

artykuły twin principles of subsidiarity and solidarity, businesses have arisen in which all those who work also own the business; in this sense, each shares with one another the means of production. This is particularly true in Mondragon which came about, through the genius of Fr. Jose Maria Arizmendi37. This corporate form of ownership of the property of the means of production is evident in Great Britain as well as here in the United States38. What is remarkable about such establishments is that corporate ownership of the means of production would enable owners to afford products of technology that could be possessed only by today’s huge conglomerates and multi-national companies. Thus, the principle of subsidiarity and the social virtue of solidarity, as they have been developed over this past century, offers us a vision of society in which each part collaborates with other parts to pursue the goods that are needed for self-preservation as well as to bene vivere, or live well (as St. Thomas reminds us). Pope Emeritus Benedict reminds us of the role the State has in respecting and supporting this collaboration of different groups in serving the needs of others (as part of their contribution to the common good); one such group or “living force” is the Church herself39. One final observation I would like to make in connection with the forming and molding of a Christian culture is the highly critical assessment Pope St. John Paul provides regarding capitalism and communist Marxism. On the one hand, he states that Karl Marx rightly criticized capitalist bourgeoisie for the commercialization and alienation in human existence; however, such a critique was itself based upon a merely materialistic vision of “market relationships” for which the solution was the collectivization of society. Nevertheless, he says that one aspect of this critique is valid in that there is a type of alienation in Western capitalist nations that has its source in consumerism40. It is seen in identifying people as either slave consumers or slave laborers. Such a classification does





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39





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1988; idem, Centesimus annus, Rome, 1 May 1991, 57; English version: Encyclical letter Centesimus Annus of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II on the hundredth anniversary of Rerum novarum, Boston 2000. K. Lux, op. cit., p. 179–190. E.F. Schumacher, Small is beautiful. Economics as if people mattered, New York 2010, p. 279–312. See also J. Pearce, Small is still beautiful. Economics as if families mattered, Wilmington 2006, p. 245–277. Benedict XVI, Deus caritas est, Rome, 25 December 2005, 28b; English version: Encyclical letter Deus Caritas Est of the Supreme Pontiff Benedict XVI to the bishops, priests and deacons, men and women religious, and all the lay faithful, on Christian love, Boston 2006. John Paul II, Centesimus annus, 41. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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not do justice to the innate dignity of the human person but reduces him to either one as a consumer who is treated as a slave ensnared in a drive to obtain what he wants that is based upon pure greed and selfishness, which focuses on “having” rather than on “being” (a notion John Paul borrows from the existential philosophy of Gabriel Marcel) or as a slave laborer reduced in the productive phase of labor to the level of a tool or a “beast of burden” for profit. The solution here is not simply “free market” capitalism in which freedom here refers to “blind market forces” which involves the machinations of Adam Smith’s invisible hand. On the one hand, what Pope John Paul points up here is that the place of the human person in a free market economy is not merely as homo oeconomicus, but is an incarnate spirit made in the image and likeness of God. On the other hand, he stresses that the economy itself cannot and should not be considered absolute in human culture. One must consider the economy within an ethical and religious dimension41. In her social doctrine, the course the Church charts is not simply a “third way” between liberal capitalism and Marxist collectivism but it is founded upon its own category (what could be termed the “human mode”); nor can the principle of subsidiarity or the virtue of solidarity be identified as either liberal or conservative. Rather the Church’s social doctrine is based upon her interest in the harsh and complex realities of human existence, and within this – on the transcendent nature of man’s vocation42 which itself refers to the very existence of the human person as an incarnate spirit, as both to his earthly and heavenly callings. Thus economics is related to social justice and as such comes under the purview of the Church in her social doctrine and can be analyzed, critiqued, and judged by her teaching on solidarity and the principle of subsidiarity.

References Aroney N., Subsidiarity, federalism and the best constitution: Thomas Aquinas on city, province, and empire, “Law and Philosophy” 2007, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 161–228. Aroney N., Subsidiarity in the writings of Aristotle and Aquinas, in: M. Evans, A. Zimmermann (eds.), Global perspectives on subsidiarity, Springer, Dordrecht – Heidelberg – New York – London 2014, p. 9–27. Behr T.C., Luigi Taparelli D’Azeglio, S.J. (1793–1862) and the development of scholastic natural-law thought as a science of society and politics, “Journal of Markets & Morality” 2003, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 99–115. 34

Ibidem, 39. John Paul II, Sollicitudo rei socialis, 41.

41

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artykuły Benedict XVI, Encyclical letter Deus Caritas Est of the Supreme Pontiff Benedict XVI to the bishops, priests and deacons, men and women religious, and all the lay faithful, on Christian love, Pauline Books & Media, Boston 2006. Brennan P.M., Subsidiarity in the tradition of Catholic social doctrine, in: M. Evans, A. Zimmermann (eds.), Global perspectives on subsidiarity, Springer, Dordrecht 2014, p. 29–47. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Città del Vaticano 1997. Copleston F.C., A history of philosophy, vol. 7: Fichte to Nietzsche, Image Books, Garden City 1963. Doolan G.T., Aquinas on the divine ideas as exemplar causes, Catholic University of America Press, Washington 2008. Drysdale C.R., The life and writings of Thomas R. Malthus, Kessinger Publishing, Whitefish 2007. Fawcett E.., Liberalism: the life of an idea, Princeton University Press, Princeton – Oxford 2014. Geiger L.B., La participation dans la philosophie de S. Thomas d’Aquin, Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, Paris 1953. Hegel G.W.F., Phenomenology of spirit, transl. A.V. Miller, Oxford University Press, Oxford – New York – Toronto – Melbourne 1977. Hittinger R., Introduction to modern Catholicism, in: J. Witte, F.S. Alexander (eds.), The teachings of modern Christianity on law, politics, and human nature, vol. 1, Columbia University Press, New York – Chichester 2006, p. 1–38. Hittinger R., Social pluralism and subsidiarity in Catholic social doctrine, “Annales Theologici” 2002, vol. 16, p. 385–408. John Paul II, Encyclical Laborem exercens: addressed by the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II to his venerable brothers in the episcopate to the priests, to the religious families, to the sons and daughters of the Church and to all men and women of good will on human work on the ninetieth anniversary of Rerum novarum, Daughters of St. Paul, Pasay City 1996. John Paul II, Encyclical letter Centesimus Annus of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II on the hundredth anniversary of Rerum novarum, Pauline Books & Media, Boston 2000. John Paul II, Encyclical letter Sollicitudo rei socialis of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II to the bishops, priests, religious families, sons and daughters of the Church and all people of good will for the twentieth anniversary of Populurom progressio, Office of Publishing and Promotion Services, United States Catholic Conference, Washington 1988. John Paul II, The role of the Christian family in the modern world. Familiaris consortio, Pauline Books & Media, Boston 2015. Leo XIII, Rerum novarum, Paulist Press, New York 1939. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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Lux K., Adam Smith’s mistake: how a moral philosopher invented economics & ended morality, Shambhala, Boston 1990. Pearce J., Small is still beautiful. Economics as if families mattered, ISI Books, Wilmington 2006. Pius XI, Encyclical letter (Divini redemptoris) of His Holiness Pius XI by Divine Providence Pope to the patriarchs, primates, archbishops, bishops and other ordinaries in peace and communion with the apostolic see on atheistic communism, National Catholic Welfare Conference, Washington 1937. Pius XI, Quadragesimo anno. Encyclical letter of Pope Pius XI on reconstructing the social order (with Study Club outline), Paulist Press, New York 1931. Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, Compendium of the social doctrine of the Church, Bloomsbury Publishing, London – New Delhi – New York – Sydney 2015. Rowland T., The culture and the Thomist tradition: after Vatican II, Routledge, London – New York 2003. Schumacher E.F., Small is beautiful. Economics as if people mattered, Harper Perennial, New York 2010. Thomas Aquinas, In librum de causis, in: H.D. Saffrey (ed.), Sancti Thomae de Aquino super librum de causis expositio, Société Philosophique – Éditions E. Nauwelaerts, Fribourg – Louvain 1954. Thomas Aquinas, Saint Thomas Aquinas on the governance of rulers (De regimine principum), transl. G.B. Phelan, Sheed & Ward, London 1938. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae. Latin text and English translation, introduction, notes, appendices and glossaries, vols. 1–61, eds. T. Gilby et al., Blackfriars in conjunction with Eyre & Spottiswoode & McGraw-Hill, London – New York 1964–1976. Wojtyła K., Participation or alienation?, in: A.T. Tymieniecka (ed.), The self and the other, vol. 6, Springer, Dordrecht 1977, p. 61–73. Wojtyła K., The acting person, transl. A. Potocki, ed. A.T. Tymieniecka, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht – Boston – London 1979. Woznicki A.N., A Christian humanism: Karol Wojtyla’s existential personalism, Mariel Publications, New Britain 1980.

Abstrakt Zasada pomocniczości w katolickiej nauce społecznej Zasada pomocniczości stanowi najzwyczajniejszą zasadę myśli katolickiej, wyrażoną po raz pierwszy przez papieża Leona XIII w encyklice Rerum novarum. Później zasada ta otrzymała honorowe miejsce w encyklice Piusa XI Quodragesimo anno i została wyartykułowana przez św. Jana Pawła II w Centesimus annus. Moim zamiarem jest umieszczenie nauczania zawartego w Rerum novarum w kontekście 36

artykuły wydarzeń historycznych, które przyspieszyły powstanie encykliki. Czymś oczywistym stanie się zderzenie idei występujące pomiędzy klasycznym liberalizmem i tradycyjnym monarchizmem, które rozgrywało się w historycznym teatrze u schyłku XIX wieku. Owe zderzenie idei zogniskowało się ostatecznie na relacji pomiędzy pracą i kapitałem, pomiędzy właścicielem fabryki a pracownikami, na kwestii traktowania pracowników przez właściciela, jak też prawa do posiadania własności prywatnej. To były główne kwestie poruszone w encyklice przez papieża Leona, które zwykł podejmować również papież Pius XI. Nastąpił jednak postęp, jeśli chodzi o pojmowanie tej zasady w zakresie własności prywatnej, które ujawniło się w pojęciu „dystrybucjonizmu”, przyjętym jako przeciwieństwo kapitalizmu. Gdy przejdziemy do encykliki św. Jana Pawła II, przyjrzymy się między innymi jego krytyce kapitalizmu oraz dostrzeżonej przez niego potrzebie rozwijania kapitalizmu z ludzką twarzą. W końcowej części dyskusji dokonamy analizy, w jaki sposób omawiana zasada może być odniesiona do bieżących problemów społeczno-gospodarczych. Słowa kluczowe: pomocniczość, solidarność, własność prywatna, munus

Abstract The principle of subsidiarity in Catholic social thought The principle of subsidiarity is a profoundly simple principle of Catholic thought which was enunciated at first by Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical Rerum novarum. After this the principle was given pride of place by Pope Pius XI in his encyclical Quodragesimo anno, and was again articulated by St. John Paul II in Centesimus annus. What I plan to do is to situate the teaching in Rerum novarum within the context of the historical events which precipitated the encyclical. What will become evident is the clash of ideas between classical liberalism and traditional monarchism that was being played out in the historical theater in the late 19th century. The clash of ideas ultimately revolved around the relation between labor and capital, between factory owner and workers, the treatment of workers by ownership, and the right to have private property. These were the main issues addressed by Pope Leo in his encyclical which would also be addressed by Pope Pius XI. However, there was development in the understanding of this principle regarding private property that was made manifest in the term “distributism” which was posited as a contrast to capitalism. As we fast-forward to St. John Paul’s encyclical, we will consider among other things his critique of capitalism, and the need he sees to develop a capitalism with a human face. The final part of this discussion will examine how this principle can be applied to current socio-economic problems. Key words: subsidiarity, solidarity, private property, munus

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Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 38–61 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Michael Farrell

The genocide-democide continuum of ideological and state-sponsored mass killing

Introduction Apparent similarities between the Nazi genocide of the Jews and the statesanctioned mass killings of abortion have inspired comparisons, as in the term “abortion Holocaust”, which are potentially offensive to many who feel, not without reason, that the Holocaust is sacred Jewish ground. Some feel that to compare the attempt to exterminate a race of people with the terminating of millions of unborn children is to trivialize the pain and suffering of both victims and survivors of the Nazis. For others, the expression “abortion Holocaust” is an appropriate and proper description for what they consider to be a more profound, fundamental state-sponsored evil, in which individual members of society are encouraged to destroy their family heritage by murdering their own children. In spite of the apparent similarities, abortion and euthanasia, as practiced in Western societies, are fundamentally different from the Nazi Holocaust. In some cases, targeted victims of the Nazi genocide were able to escape. Few “unwanted babies” escape abortion. Few targeted for “death with dignity” escape euthanasia. After the Second World War, many survivors of the Nazi Holocaust settled in Montreal. Well-known Quebec civil liberties lawyer, and member of the Jewish community, Julius Grey, has suggested that the effects of the Holocaust are 38

artykuły not just a Jewish concern1. On the one hand, society is called to bear witness to what happened to the Jews and to ensure that the memory of that Nazi crimes against humanity shall not die. Yet, if the Holocaust is associated only with its victims, it may soon be treated as just one more ethnic myth and discounted by everyone else as a story invented to rally members of that group. Maître Grey has taken a more general view and suggests that the Holocaust be regarded by society not as “a Jewish issue” but in the context of other genocides (Rwanda, Cambodia, Bosnia, Armenia). The lessons of history must be readily accessible and credible to all if the errors of the past are not to be repeated2. Never again must mean never again. Not for the Jews, not for the Bosnians, and not for the unborn, nor the aged.

The genocide-democide mass murder continuum The intuition that state-sponsored mass killing is version 2.0 of the Nazi Holocaust is well founded. The word “genocide” was first used by Raphael Lemkin, a Jewish lawyer from Poland. It describes the mass murder by the state that was intended: i) to destroy targeted racial groups, and ii) to demolish their cultural and intellectual life. He believed that the genocidal process was composed of two phases: i) the destruction of the national pattern of the targeted group, ii) the imposition of the national pattern of the oppressor on the territory of the targeted group. When the oppressed group is allowed to remain on their territory, the national plan of the oppressor is imposed on the oppressed population. When the oppressed population is removed from the territory, the area is then colonized by the oppressor’s own nationals3. Democide is a term which



M. Farrell, Abortion and anti-Semitism, “The Interim” November 1995, p. 5. See more: R. Dallaire, Shake hands with the devil, Toronto 2003. 3 In 1933, Lemkin proposed a law that would make attempts to destroy nations, races, and religious groups an international crime with “universal jurisdiction” that could be punished anywhere like slavery or piracy. After moving to the United States in 1941, he failed to win support for measures to protect imperiled Jews and others in Nazi controlled countries. However, he did become a major influence in the enactment of the first-ever United Nations human rights treaty, which was devoted to banning the newly named crime of genocide; see: Resolution 260 (III) A of the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948, New York 1948. 1

2

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describes the intentional, non-targeted, killing by government of innocent unarmed human beings4. As is the case with many government policies and practices, state-sponsored ideological mass murder is driven by a combination of political factors. It develops, one step at a time, in a coordinated plan of different actions of increasing ferocity and violence, along a five-stage genocide-democide mass murder continuum, from targeted genocide to non-targeted democide (Figure 1). Figure 1. The forced population transfer continuum

The genocide-democide continuum consists of four genocidal stages: (i) forced population transfers, (ii) emigration and population exchanges, (iii) ethnic cleansing, (iv) genocide in which victims are targeted but are not always murdered. In the fifth stage, (v) democide, victim groups are not targeted by the state but are murdered5. Some targeted victims of the Nazi genocide were able to escape. Few “unwanted babies” escape abortion. Few of those selected for “death with dignity” escape death. A forced population transfer involves the removal of members of a group differentiated by some undesirable trait – ethnic, religious, national, cultural, etc. – to render a geopolitical locality homogeneous in population with respect to ethnicity, religion, nationality, or culture6. Population transfers may be national

40

T. Abel, The sociology of concentration camps, “Social Forces” 1951, vol. 30, no. 2, p. 150–155; R.J. Rummel, Power predicts democide, http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/ JCR.ART.HTM (27 November 2002). 5 A. Bell-Fialkoff, Ethnic cleansing, New York 1996; R.J. Rummel, Power predicts democide (27 November 2002). 6 S. Stein, Ethnic cleansing, in: E. Cashmore (ed.), Encyclopedia of race and ethnic studies, London 2004, p. 136. 4

artykuły or international, and may develop continuously from emigration, to genocide, to democide7. Emigration may or may not be encouraged by the adoption of state policies which create a negative socio-economic climate for members of the undesired group who refuse to leave. The violence that accompanied the partition of India and Pakistan encouraged mass migrations in both directions. The next node of the forced population transfer continuum is population exchanges such as occurred over the time period from 1920 to 1923 between Greece and Turkey. Transfers of populations under pressure, deportations or expulsions, such as the Ugandan Asians in the 1960s and the Kosovar Albanians in the late 1990s, are situated toward the mid-point of the continuum. The term “ethnic cleansing”, which came into extensive use during the wars that accompanied the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia from 1991 to 1995, is the attempt to create ethnically homogeneous geographic areas through the deportation or forcible displacement of persons belonging to particular ethnic groups8. It may be described as: “a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. To a large extent, it is carried out in the name of misguided nationalism, historic grievances and a powerful sense of revenge. This purpose appears to be the occupation of territory to the exclusion of the purged group or groups”9. Genocide is the targeted, intentional killing by government of people because of their race, religion, ethnicity, political orientation or other indelible group membership. It is targeted on both the individual and the group. It is targeted on the individual because it is intended to eradicate the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and lives of individual members of the targeted group. It is targeted on the specific group because it attacks the essential foundations of the life of that group, its political and social institutions, its cultural and intellectual life, language, national feelings, religion, and economic existence, with the aim of annihilating the group itself10. Democide is the intentional, non-targeted killing of innocent people by agents of the state acting under the authority of government according to

A. Bell-Fialkoff, op. cit., p. 110. M. Chossudovsky, Dismantling former Yugoslavia: recolonising Bosnia, “Economic and Political Weekly” 1996, vol. 31, no. 9, p. 521–525. 9 S. Stein, op. cit., p. 136. 10 S. Power, Never again. The world’s most unfulfilled promise, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/ frontline/shows/karadzic/genocide/neveragain.html (31 December 1998). 7

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explicit or implicit policy or with the implicit or explicit approval of the highest officials of the state. It may be intentional (premeditated) or the result of a reckless and/or depraved indifference to human life, in which death occurs as though it was intended.

Genocide and abortion: similarities and differences In a genocide, victim groups are targeted but not always killed. In a democide, abortion or euthanasia, victim groups, the unborn, the elderly, are not targeted but are always killed. The similarities and differences between genocide and democide can be illustrated by the intersection of two overlapping circles: one representing all cases of democide (Sectors 1 and 2), the other, all cases of genocide (Sectors 2 and 3). The area outside of both circles (Sector 4) represents all other forms of behavior that is neither democide nor genocide (Figure 2). Figure 2. A comparison of democide and genocide

1. Cases of democide. Non-targeted abortion and euthanasia. 2. Cases of simultaneous democide-genocide. Targeted abortion and euthanasia. 3. Cases of genocide: (i) forced population transfers, (ii) emigration and population exchanges, (iii) ethnic cleansing. 4. Cases which are neither democide nor genocide.

Sector 1 represents cases of simple non-genocidal democide, a more general, non-targeted mass killing in which innocent people who do not belong to any targeted specific group are murdered by the state. It includes all cold-blooded 42

artykuły government killing such as starving civilians to death by a blockade or by creating a famine, executing prisoners of war, or murder by quota, as carried out by the Soviets, Chinese communists, and North Vietnamese11. It excludes the killing of those with weapons in their hands or those killed indirectly as a result of military action and judicial executions for capital crimes. In the United States, Canada, Western Europe and other “first world countries”, most victims of decentralized, legal, government-subsidized abortion and euthanasia are cases of non-genocidal democide. Although victims are targeted by identifiable age group, the very young unborn children and the elderly (Sector 1), abortion and euthanasia are not genocide. Victims come from all races and groups in society. They are murdered, at random, against their will, not because they are members of an identifiable racial group, but as the cumulative result of a series of individual decentralized decisions by institutional or family member caregivers. The refusal of the secular state to protect the right to life of all members of society undermines the traditional “expectation of trust”, whereby the individual agent caregiver puts the well-being of the patient/client above his own self-interest. A moral vacuum is created in which the power of life and death over the unborn and the elderly is been downloaded to the individual caregiver. Absent the external control of public morality, the decentralized caregiver may be tempted to substitute his own personal self-interest for that of the patient/ client, without fear of pursuit by the state. The result is mass ideological statesubsidized mass killing, an increase of costly agency problems (moral hazard and adverse selection), the destruction of the family, and long-term moral, spiritual, intellectual, and economic decline. When abortion and/or euthanasia is targeted, in an attempt to eliminate an identifiable racial group, or for financial reasons due to public sector budgetary constraints, it is genocidal democide. Sector 2, the overlapping common area, or intersection, of both circles represents cases of genocidal democide, acts of democide which are simultaneously acts of genocide, in which the victims: (i) are members of an identifiable national group, (ii) are targeted for intentional mass murder by the state because of their race, religion, and ethnicity, and (iii) are actually killed by the state; e.g. the mass murder of the Irish in the sixteenth



11

R.L. Rummel, Death by government, New Brunswick – London 2009, p. 4. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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century, the Holocaust of the Jews in the territories under Nazi control, or the mass murder of the Chinese by the Japanese in Nanking in 193112. Instances of targeted abortion and euthanasia are cases of simultaneous genocide-democide. In both cases, the victims are murdered because they are members of an “unwanted” racial group (Sector 2). Examples would include the targeted abortions and euthanasia of undesirable ethnic groups, such as the Irish in Canada, Afro-Americans, the national populations of the Third World countries in Africa or Asia, and others, promoted by eugenic planners, often with public funds, in an attempt to eliminate the undesired group13. Sector 3 represents cases of non-democidal genocide in which the targeted group is not actually murdered by the state but stripped of all cultural traces of their individual and cultural identity. This would include cases of: (i) forced population transfers, (ii) emigration and population exchanges, and (iii) ethnic cleansing. It takes centuries and sometimes thousands of years to create a natural culture. Genocide can destroy a culture instantly, like fire can destroy a building in an hour. Genocide is not necessarily intentional and may be spontaneous, as in the case of the Pequot Nation Genocide of New England, whose last members were unwittingly wiped out by English colonists14. A cultural genocide may occur in which no actual deaths occur as in the religious ethnic cleansing of Catholics, or the linguistic ethnic cleansing of Anglos, both in Quebec.

Ideology, technology and state-sponsored mass murder Historically, the crime of state-sponsored ideological mass murder of its citizens repeats itself with near “biological regularity” and tends to reoccur in mutated form. In the 20th century, approximately 281,361,000 unarmed and helpless men, women, and children, approximately the number that might be killed in a nuclear war, were killed for ideological reasons, by state and quasi-state regimes, and non-state groups (Table 1)15. Some estimates suggest that over the same time period a similar number of abortions may have been committed. See more: I. Chang, The rape of Nanking: the forgotten holocaust of World War II, New York 1997. 13 See more: A. McLaren, Our own master race: eugenics in Canada: 1885–1945, Toronto 1990. 14 S. Plourde, Democide, democracy and the man from Hawaii. R.J. Rummel’s democratic antidote to the scourge of democide, http://www.gse.harvard.edu/~t656_web/peace/ Articles_Spring_2004/Plourde_Shawn_Democide.htm (31 May 2004). 15 R.L. Rummel, op. cit., p. 4.

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artykuły Table 1. The statistics of democide in the 20th century 1.

Dekamega democides

Number of murders

(i)

The Soviet Gulag State

61,911,000

(ii)

The Communist Chinese State

35,236,000

(iii)

The Nazi Genocide State

20,946,000

(iv)

Nationalist China (Chiang Kai-Shek)

10,214,000

2.

Mega democides

Total

128,307,000

(v) Japan (pre 1945) (vi) Cambodia (Khmer Rouge) (vii) Turkey (viii) Vietnamese War State (ix) Poland (ethnic cleansing) (x) Pakistan (xi) Yugoslavia (Tito)

5,964,000 2,035,000 1,883,000 1,670,000 1,585,000 1,503,000 1,072,000 15,712,000

3.

Suspected mega democides

(xii) North Korea (xiii) Mexico

1,663,000 1,417,000

(xiv)

1,066,000

Feudal Russia

4,146,000 Total 20th century Pre 20th century democide victims Total democide victims

148,219,000 133,142,000 281,361,000

Note: battle deaths WWI WWII Other Total

9,000,000 15,000,000 11,654,000 35,654,000

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Of a total of 218 cases of state murder, in which a regime murdered or is suspected of murdering innocent people, including subjects and foreigners (141 state regimes and 77 quasi-state and group regimes), fourteen cases involve the killing of over 1,000,000. In four cases, the Soviet Union, communist China, nationalist China, and Nazi Germany, over 10,000,000 were killed. Over the same period, approximately 35,654,000 people were killed in all the international and domestic wars, revolutions, and violent conflicts. Preliminary analysis of the long history of state-sponsored ideological mass murder suggests that each occurrence is unique, driven by a combination of systematic and non-systematic causal factors. Non-systematic factors would include: time of occurrence (many occurred in different centuries), social and cultural differences, and lack of apparent sequence. Each individual case appears to have been influenced by: (i) a set of unique, specific conditions which existed in the society at the time, (ii) the combined effects of many individual human decisions made by members of different ideological groups, (iii) victim groups were selected, as if at random, from a vast spectrum of potential targets16. Systematic factors include: (i) ideology and (ii) technology. Ideology provides the motivation for mass murder and technology provides the means.

Metaphysics and ideology The ideological worldview of any society depends on the set of metaphysical assumptions concerning the origin and meaning of the universe and the value of human life, which underpin that society. Two contradictory, conflicting metaphysical paradigms – the Judeo-Christian worldview and methodological naturalism – have given rise to two conflicting cultures about the nature of the universe, the meaning of human existence, the definition of knowledge, and the relationship between faith (normative science) and reason (positive science), and man’s ability to know his place in the universe. The Culture of Life is the ongoing existential expression of the JudeoChristian worldview. It is founded on the belief that the universe is an open system in which new information is received exogenously, from an external source (God). Man is a hybrid creature composed of a physical body and a metaphysical soul, simultaneously a creature, created in the image and

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B. Kiernan, Blood and soil: a world history of genocide and extermination from Sparta to Darfur, New Haven 2007, p. 5–6.

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artykuły likeness of God, and a co-creator of the universe, who acts in concert with God in the unfolding of the universe. There is a knowable natural moral law which forms the basis for individual, bottom up personal responsibility, and ethical decision making. There is an intrinsic indissoluble unity of metaphysics and physics, faith and reason; a duality between the spiritual and material worlds. Reason is an analytical tool, a process which reveals previously unrecognized information. Faith provides the ethical content and meaning. The scientific knowledge of any society is a rational construct derived from the metaphysical and ethical components of the social system or worldview paradigm in which all human activity takes place17. The Judeo-Christian theological-scientific model is based on the metaphysical assumption that the universe is an open system a duality between the spiritual and material worlds. Normative science is based on faith and provides the ethical input to scientific decision making. Positive science is concerned with the discovery of results which can be verified empirically by reference to the real world18. Scientific consensus is invoked only in situations where: (i) the science is not solid enough (extraterrestrial life, nuclear winter and the effects of nuclear war, second hand smoke, man-made global warming, etc.), or where (ii) the scientific results are overwhelming but cannot be accepted politically or socially because it refutes the conventional wisdom. Positive science refers to the generation of knowledge based on reason. It is concerned with the detection of order but it cannot demonstrate, without faith, that the order in nature is intrinsic to it. Both types of knowledge are real and can be known through faith and reason. Both types of knowledge are mutually consistent and there is a profound and indissoluble unity between them. Throughout history, science and technology evolved as a result of the application of both faith and reason, to advance human understanding of God and the physical universe. Faith without reason lacks direction and degrades to sentimentality. Reason without faith lacks meaning. The Culture of Death is based on methodological naturalism, an incomplete, heretical, interpretation of the Judeo-Christian model. It rejects belief L.M. Farrell, The compatibility of science and the natural law, “Social Justice Review” November/December 2005, p. 176–179; idem, Darwinian evolution and false science, “Social Justice Review” November/December 2006, p. 173–176. 18 M. Crichton, Aliens cause global warming: a Caltech lecture, http://www.s8int.com/ crichton.html (17 January 2003).

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in God and claims, without proof, that the universe is an endogenous, closed, self-contained, self-explanatory, self-ordering system which derives its order intrinsically from within, through a random generating process devoid of external objective information. It denies the intrinsic duality between the spiritual and material worlds, the faith–reason spectrum, and the knowability of truth. It projects a universe devoid of external information, design and purpose, good and evil, which consists of nothing but irremovable ignorance, agnosticism, and pointless indifference. Absent the ethical content and meaning of faith, normative science, the decentralized moral knowledge of the society, which drives bottom-up, individual responsibility is ignored. In a Culture of Death, knowledge becomes the monopoly of reason. Bottom-up individual responsibility, which arises from the subjective and co-creative nature of man, is replaced by a top-down, collective responsibility which is determined by the positive science of the expert intellectual elite. Denied his exceptional nature, man is assumed to have no intrinsic fundamental value, no moral understanding. Man is ignorant, an object, just another piece of meaningless matter, spinning meaninglessly in a meaningless universe. The ideological motivation, the skills and the discipline necessary to undertake a state-sponsored mass murder result from various combinations of six recurring concepts: (i) racism19, (ii) political racism20, (iii) agrarianism21,



Racism is an ideology, a metaphysical concept, which lacks a material basis. It involves prejudice against a race or subgroup based on an imagined inferiority or threat. Race, like ethnicity, has long been considered by anthropologists to be a social construct. As is the case with skin color, race is not a useful predictor of ability or behavior. Attempts to classify the population of the world into different races, which display certain fixed characteristics, are not valid. 20 Political racism is often expressed as a phobia of contamination, in which biological metaphors are used to appeal to fetishes of purity and contamination. It may result in the imposition of a requirement on all members of one’s own group to maintain distance from another group. Political racism becomes genocidal when would be genocidaires imagine a world without certain people in it. 21 Agrarianism, the cult of the countryside and the myth of an untouched empty land was initially expressed as animosity toward nomadic non-agriculturalists. The association of agriculture with righteousness often played a key role in spurring the displacement and destruction of the actual inhabitants of the land. Conflicts over land use pitted farmers against ethnically alien town dwellers, contributed to the rise of anti-urban or monopolist thinking and an increase in hostility towards cities and commercial centers. Even as urbanization spread across the globe, a violent form of anti-urban agrarianism, based on a fetish for agriculture, still flourished through the final decades of the 20th century. 48

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artykuły (iv) pastoralism22, (v) cults of antiquity23, and (vi) expansionism24, which human exceptionalism and the intrinsic and fundamental value of human life deny.

Physics and technology: comparative advantage Differential rates of economic development create a comparative advantage which can be exploited by the technologically dominant society to create a technology gap between itself and less developed societies. In pre-modern and early modern mass murders, as for example the state-sponsored mass murder of the Irish in the sixteenth century, the macro inter-societal technological gap was based, for the most part, on physical force and the ability to project power to target specific groups in a foreign society. The ideological motivation, the skills and the discipline necessary to undertake this mass murder was derived from a combination of above-mentioned racism, agrarianism, and pastoralism, cults of antiquity and expansionism.

State ideological mass murder in Ireland In the sixteenth century, due to technological advances in agriculture, England was in the early phase of an international expansion. Like Spain before it, England was inspired by the ideological models of conquest and expansion of ancient Rome which denied human exceptionalism and the fundamental value of human life. If England was the heir of ancient Rome, Irish society and economy were compared to the ancient barbarians on the frontiers of Roman society25. In his book A view of the present state of Ireland26, Edmund



Pastoralism is a concept related to agrarianism that connects the concept of superior land use and inferior inhabitants with the notion of biological purity. It is based on the irrational belief that, through their efforts, farmers achieve equilibrium between the forces of nature. It implies that the inhabitants should be eliminated from the landscape. 23 Cults of antiquity encourage a sense of victimization based on the perceived loss of traditional homeland territories and ancient power. They justify the restitution of lost territories by conquest. 24 Expansionism of agriculture through imperial and territorial conquests of previously uncultivated areas of the globe was seem as transforming a flowed and deformed nature into a means to produce the necessities of human life. 25 B. Kiernan, op. cit., p. 176. 26 Quoted in ibidem. 22

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Spenser suggested that the Irish were worse than normal barbarians and may have descended from Rome’s ancient enemy, the Carthaginians. In England it was widely believed that the Irish were subhuman nomads who should be eliminated. The English mistakenly thought that the Irish did not cultivate or improve their land but wandered scattered and dispersed through very dense woods with the result that all of the counties of Ireland were waste and desolate. This racist perception may have arisen because the English, due to the particular characteristics of English agriculture, were unaware of the relative sophistication of the versatile subsistence economy, which had been created by the Irish to exploit the ecological diversity of the Irish landscape. Until 1677, ownership of the soil in English law required no documentation of landownership or land transfers27. Rather, ownership could be claimed on the basis of an exchange of goods or money, cultivation of the land or other labor performed on the land such as the construction of a house or fences. Prospective farmers had superior right to land over owners who failed to cultivate it. Unlike England, in which tillage agriculture was more feasible, much of the Irish countryside was hilly and boggy, suitable only for cattle and sheep. Arable land, although not enclosed, as was the case in England, was under extensive cultivation. Archaeological work in Ulster reveals regional patterns of land use including cereals, pasture, and woodlands28. Ireland was targeted to play the role of Carthage to be brought under English control. The genocide of Carthage was buried in Spenser’s book but the suspicion persisted in England that the “subhuman Irish” had descended from the Carthaginian barbarians that had been conquered and enslaved by the Romans. As such, the Irish had no more right to their lands in Ireland than any survivors of the scorched earth of Carthage. Others in England considered the Catholic Irish to be blinded through corruption of nature, evil up-bringing, continual acquaintance and customs of sin, that they were void of all knowledge of God, like heathen people, drowned in idolatry and infidelity with disobedience to God29. By the 1580s, the occupation of Ireland gathered force along a genocidal path30. During the decade, the Irish population was reduced by 30 per cent, the land wasted, and the towns were destroyed. 50

29 30 27

28

Ibidem, p. 177. Ibidem. Ibidem, p. 203. Ibidem.

artykuły The Nazi Holocaust: the genocide of the Jews The Nazi genocide of the Jews was an intra-societal mass murder which occurred in one of the most highly educated, scientifically and economically advanced countries in the world. In spite of significant intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews, an intra-societal ideology gap had developed over the years in German society, which questioned the humanity of the Jews. This ideology gap was exploited by the Nazis to attack and murder Jews and others judged “unworthy of life”. When Hitler took power in January 1933, the ideological and physical infrastructure necessary to commit mass murder was already in place. The prison structures at Dachau concentration camp were already in existence and were rapidly converted to imprison Catholic priests, communists and others. Much of the social elite of German society, as well as the general population, welcomed Hitler when he became Chancellor. German academics and students voluntarily joined the Nazis in burning books, many on Jewish science (nuclear physics) that were deemed subversive. The first direct order for euthanasia was issued by Hitler on September 1, 1939. All state institutions were required to report patients who had been ill five years or more. Citizens came to recognize the buses that were used to transport patients designated “socially unfit life” from their original institution to the intermediate institution and from there to the liquidating institution. When they saw the buses even the children called out: “They’re taking some more people to be gassed”31. It was a short step to the mass murder of millions of Jews and others as a result of racial hatred32.

Darwin and the intra societal ideology gap The second half of the nineteenth century, in Germany, was a period of rapid growth in science. Wissenschaft, the German term for science, incorporates a wide sweep of intellectual disciplines including: history, literary and scriptural criticism, philosophy, theology and psychology as well as the natural sciences and mathematics33. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Ger L. Alexander, Medical science under dictatorship, “The New England Journal of Medicine” 14 July 1949, vol. 241, no. 2, p. 39–47. 32 D.J. Goldhagen, Hitler’s willing executioners: ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, New York 1997, p. 145. 33 J. Cornwell, Hitler’s scientists. Science, war and the devil’s pact, New York 2003, p. 3.

31

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many had become the international mecca of science, both basic and applied. Researchers from all over the world flocked to German universities to learn German to be able to read the leading research journals in mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, and technology. The theory of evolution, and Darwinism in particular, had a tremendous effect on the German worldview34. In the guise of science, it proposed a normative, metaphysical argument, a form of biological determinism, to contest the traditional Judeo-Christian ethics, especially those pertaining to the sacredness of human life and individual responsibility. Darwin did not have to compete with other theories of the origin of man and the universe, and his metaphysical model cannot be tested empirically. Darwin did not explain the origin of human consciousness. He observed that there is variation in all species. He believed in the Malthusian mass death principle: because food supplies increase in a linear fashion and populations of organisms increase geometrically/exponentially, at some point, mass death on a genocidal scale would occur. Since the majority of all organisms must die without reproducing, those organisms whose chance variation gave them an advantage in the struggle for life would survive and reproduce, out-competing the less favored ones35. If the variations were inherited, the characteristics of the species would change over time; over great periods, he claimed, great changes might occur36. Though not the first to suggest that life evolves, Darwin’s proposal that even relatively small changes could occur in nature was a great conceptual advance37. His arguments were the most systematic, and his theory of how natural selection, working on variation, drives evolution was supported empirically when used to describe small, cumulatively complex, micro-evolutionary changes in nature. Darwin’s description of the origins of life is incomplete because, using the microscope, the latest technology of the time, he was unable to see into the cell. He did not realize that, since each cell is an individual unit with a life of its own, the question of the origin of life is essentially a question of the origin of the cell38.

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R. Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler: evolutionary ethics, eugenics, and racism in Germany, New York 2004, p. 233. 35 Ibidem, p. 183–206. 36 M.J. Behe, Darwin’s black box: the biochemical challenge to evolution, New York 1998, p. 15. 37 Ibidem. 38 L.M. Farrell, Darwinian evolution and false science, p. 173–176. 34

artykuły Darwinism was widely accepted by the intellectual elite in Germany and elsewhere because it claimed to provide a scientific explanation of the origin of man without God, based exclusively on reason. It denies free will and claims that zoological man is an animal, descended from lower forms of life, who cannot be held ethically responsible for his own actions. It claims, without proof, that human behavior is biologically programmed into each individual; only natural biological processes are necessary to account for all aspects of human society and behavior39. Reproduction, sexual instincts, and sexual selection were central to a Darwinian understanding of life and human behavior. Many Darwinists were social engineers who wanted to speed up evolution, or hinder biological degeneration, which they feared was happening, by revising all human institutions. Toward the end of the nineteenth century many Darwinists40 began to apply moral relativism to the analysis of ethical issues, including questions about the value of human life and eugenics, the pseudo-science of improving human heredity by controlling reproduction41. Evolution became the new arbiter for sexual morality: whatever improved biological quality was good, while whatever hindered it was evil. Traditional ideas about sex, marriage, and the family which stood in the way of the upward evolution of the species were to be undermined and overthrown42. Ernst Haeckel, the most famous German Darwinist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, believed that Darwinism was the central component of a new worldview (The Culture of Death) which was locked in combat with the traditional dual spiritual-material Judeo-Christian worldview (The Culture of Life). Haeckel believed that infanticide for the congenitally disabled would benefit both the victim and society. Like many modern-day abortionists, Haeckel rejected the theory that states that human life begins at conception, and erroneously claimed that embryological development (ontogeny) recapitulated evolutionary ancestry (phylogeny) that each individual person, as it develops from conception to adulthood, passes through the evolutionary

The concept of zoological man can be used to justify animal rights because in the natural selection process humans were luckier than lower form animals, to have evolved into humans; in other circumstances they may have evolved into a lower form of life. Failure by humans to recognize the common bonds between themselves and other animal groups is seen as chauvinism. 40 Francis Galton, Darwin’s cousin and founder of the modern eugenics movement, developed his ideas after reading Darwin. 41 R. Weikart, op. cit., p. 129–144. 42 Ibidem. 39

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stages of its ancestors (the recapitulation theory). Haeckel claimed that each newborn child was still in an evolutionary stage equivalent to his animal ancestors and did not possess a soul – no consciousness, no reason – but was dumb and only gradually developed the activity of the senses and the mind (Figure 3)43. For Haeckel killing a newborn baby was no different from killing animals. Figure 3. Romane copy of Haeckel embryo drawings

Research in human embryology shows that Haeckel’s theory of recapitulation is incorrect. Each person has a unique beginning at conception, which occurs at the moment the 23 chromosomes carried by the spermatozoa encounter the 23 chromosomes carried by the ovum. An entirely new DNA map, which describes the complete information set, which is necessary

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M.K. Richardson, G. Keuck, Haeckel’s ABC of evolution and development, “Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society” 2002, vol. 77, no. 4, p. 495–528.

43

artykuły and sufficient to define a new unique human being, is contained by the microscopic human embryo. Any attempt to disrupt the unfolding of this new universe, at any stage of the process, is murder44. The emphasis on variation within species implied biological inequality which was used by many biologists, anthropologists, and social thinkers to justify social, biological, and racial inequality. Haeckel claimed that the differences between the lowest humans and the highest apes are smaller than between the lowest and highest humans. This was the first step toward a genocidal mentality because it devalued the less developed races and placed them on a par with animals45. In 1910, the Kaiser Wilhelm Research Society and associated institutes (renamed the Max Planck Institute after the Second World War) was established by the German Emperor in the hope of establishing a “German Oxford” in Berlin. German research abandoned any lingering association between the natural sciences and philosophy, the animate and the inanimate, and became mathematical, empirical and mechanistic. Science was assumed to be a value-free, morally neutral, apolitical intellectual exercise in which the scientist discovered the laws of nature and invented the applications. The good and evil perpetrated by those applications was on the consciences of others46. At the outbreak of the First World War, Darwinists had developed an amoral attitude toward human society by which the supposed good of the race was considered the sole criterion of public policy and racial hygiene47. On April 23, 1915, German pre-eminence in chemical research culminated in the first deployment of a weapon on mass destruction when poison gas was used against French troops. In 1941, the pesticide prussic or hydrocyanic acid, Zyklon B, was first used at Auschwitz to murder 250 incurable camp inmates and 600 prisoners of war48. In the 1920s, in Germany, a propaganda barrage insisted on the rejection of traditional compassionate attitudes toward the chronically ill and the adoption of a utilitarian, Hegelian attitude which called for the sterilization and euthanasia of persons with chronic mental illness. By 1936, the extermination of the physically or socially unfit was openly practiced. Adults

F. Baumgartner, Life begins at the beginning (a doctor gives the scientific facts on when life begins), www.prolife.com/life_begins.html (12 April 2005). 45 R. Weikart, op. cit., p. 103–126. 46 J. Cornwell, op. cit., p. 50. 47 L.M. Farrell, Darwinian evolution and false science, p. 173–176. 48 J. Cornwell, op. cit., p. 354.

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were propagandized by motion pictures, and children were introduced to the ideology of mass murder at schools. A widely used high school mathematics text included problems which questioned the cost of caring for and rehabilitating the chronically sick and crippled, the criminal and the insane49. Under the influence of the Darwinist writings of Haeckel and others, the intra-societal ideology gap widened as several generations of young Germans, at an age decisive to the formation of their metaphysical worldview, were stripped of all traces of religious faith. They were indoctrinated in the belief in evolutionary ethics and the philosophy of monism, which regards matter and mind as inextricably united everywhere. Many in the academic community, especially the younger generation, adopted social Darwinist racism and considered racial extermination scientifically inevitable50.

The abortion-euthanasia Holocaust Since the Second World War, the combined effects of ideological and technological change, and the seduction of science by politics, has transformed the Hitlerian concept of “life unworthy of life” into a more general non-targeted democidal ideology of “life indifferent to life”. The secular state no longer defends the traditional “expectation of trust” of public morality whereby the individual agent-caregiver puts the well-being of the patient-client above his own self-interest. Like “a universal acid”, the Darwin explanation of the origin of the universe has undermined the central tenet of the JudeoChristian worldview that undergirds the belief in the sanctity of life and prohibits abortion, euthanasia and infanticide51. Many members of society have accepted the Darwinian explanation and have become completely oblivious, uncaring and indifferent to the fate of other innocent human life. They seldom question the practice of state-sponsored mass murder, abortion, and euthanasia as an inexpensive solution to difficult social problems. The process of natural selection is a potentially powerful scientific tool which can be used to explain scientific phenomena but it is unsuitable as

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L. Alexander, op. cit., p. 39–47. D.J. Goldhagen, op. cit., p. 74. 51 D.C. Dennett, Darwin’s dangerous idea: evolution and the meaning of life, New York 1995, p. 1.

49

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artykuły an explanation of the origin of the universe because it lacks a normative dimension. Darwinian metaphysics, which claims to “prove” that God does not exist, is false science because it relies on reason alone without faith. Nevertheless, due to the combined effects of politics, public relations, and media savvy propagandists, the Darwinian worldview has been widely accepted by consensus as scientific fact. Complacency in the scientific profession, the lack of good science education, the rise of specialized advocacy groups, and the decline of the media as an independent assessor of fact have contributed to the creation of an irrational ambivalence to violence and death in which scientific consensus is imposed on scientific fact. The conventional wisdom refuses to accept the empirical evidence of embryological science which has determined that human life begins at conception. To resolve the conflict, a scientific consensus, based on the philosophical personhood argument, is proposed which claims that personhood, when the unborn baby becomes a person, and not conception, should be used to determine the value of a human life. The deaths of innocent victims of high school massacres are truthfully decried as murder. The reality of the unnecessary murder of millions of innocent babies, aborted through surgery, and pharmaceutical methods, like the birth control pill, RU486, and Depo-Provera, is concealed and hidden; falsely described, with possibly a dishonest shrug of discomfort, as an “unfortunate necessity”52. The development of new technologies in the life sciences, including biochemical methods of artificial birth control, in vitro fertilization, abortion and euthanasia, has resulted in the creation of a micro-technology gap, at the person to person level, which can be used to control, prolong or shorten human life. A moral vacuum has been created in which the power of life and death over the unborn and the elderly is downloaded to the individual caregiver. Caregivers have been empowered to impose their wishes or decisions on their patients, and commit decentralized, non-targeted democidal acts of abortion and euthanasia which are contrary to the wishes of their patients. Absent the external control of public morality, the decentralized caregiver may be tempted to substitute his own personal self-interest for that of the patient-client, without fear of pursuit by the state. The result is mass ideological state subsidized mass killing, an increase of costly agency problems:

F. Baumgartner, op. cit. (12 April 2005).

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(i) moral hazard and (ii) adverse selection, the destruction of the family, and long-term moral, spiritual, intellectual and economic decline.

References Abel T., The sociology of concentration camps, “Social Forces” 1951, vol. 30, no. 2, p. 150–155. Alexander L., Medical science under dictatorship, “The New England Journal of Medicine” 14 July 1949, vol. 241, no. 2, p. 39–47. Baumgartner F., Life begins at the beginning (a doctor gives the scientific facts on when life begins), www.prolife.com/life_begins.html (12 April 2005). Behe M.J., Darwin’s black box: the biochemical challenge to evolution, Touchstone, New York 1998. Bell-Fialkoff A., Ethnic cleansing, St Martin’s Press, New York 1996. Chang I., The rape of Nanking: the forgotten holocaust of World War II, Penguin Books, New York 1997. Chossudovsky M., Dismantling former Yugoslavia: recolonising Bosnia, “Economic and Political Weekly” 1996, vol. 31, no. 9, p. 521–525. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, adopted by Resolution 260 (III) A of the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948, United Nations General Assembly, New York 1948. Cornwell J., Hitler’s scientists. Science, war and the devil’s pact, Penguin Group, New York 2003. Crichton M., Aliens cause global warming: a Caltech lecture, http://www.s8int. com/crichton.html (17 January 2003). Dallaire R., Shake hands with the devil, Random House Canada, Toronto 2003. Dennett D.C., Darwin’s dangerous idea: evolution and the meaning of life, Simon and Schuster, New York 1995. Farrell L.M., Darwinian evolution and false science, “Social Justice Review” November/December 2006, p. 173–176. Farrell L.M., The compatibility of science and the natural law, “Social Justice Review” November/December 2005, p. 176–179. Farrell M., Abortion and anti-Semitism, “The Interim” November 1995, p. 5. Goldhagen D.J., Hitler’s willing executioners: ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, Vintage Books, New York 1997. Kiernan B., Blood and soil: a world history of genocide and extermination from Sparta to Darfur, Yale University Press, New Haven 2007. McLaren A., Our own master race: eugenics in Canada: 1885–1945, Oxford University Press, Toronto 1990.

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artykuły Plourde S., Democide, democracy and the man from Hawaii. R.J. Rummel’s democratic antidote to the scourge of democide, http://www.gse.harvard. edu/~t656_web/peace/Articles_Spring_2004/Plourde_Shawn_Democide. htm (31 May 2004). Power S., Never again. The world’s most unfulfilled promise, www.pbs.org/wgbh/ pages/frontline/shows/karadzic/genocide/neveragain.html (31 December 1998). Richardson M.K., Keuck G., Haeckel’s ABC of evolution and development, “Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society” 2002, vol. 77, no. 4, p. 495–528. Rummel R.J., Death by government, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick – London 2009. Rummel R.J., Power predicts democide, http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/JCR. ART.HTM (27 November 2002). Stein S., Ethnic cleansing, in: E. Cashmore (ed.), Encyclopedia of race and ethnic studies, Routledge, London 2004, p. 136–138. Weikart R., From Darwin to Hitler: evolutionary ethics, eugenics, and racism in Germany, Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2004.

Abstrakt Ludobójcze kontinuum ideologicznie motywowanych i popieranych przez państwo masowych zabójstw Aborcja i eutanazja różnią się od nazistowskiego Holokaustu. W trakcie Holokaustu Żydzi stali się celem państwa nazistowskiego dla motywowanego ideologicznie masowego morderstwa. W społeczeństwach zachodnich przypadki aborcji i eutanazji są w większości democydem, tj. popieranymi przez państwo, motywowanymi ideologicznie masowymi zabójstwami, których ofiary nie są jawnym celem ze strony państwa. W przypadku genocydu grupy ofiar stanowią cel, ale nie zawsze są mordowane. Gdy mowa o democydzie, określone kategorie ofiar nie są celem, ale w zasadzie zawsze tracą życie. Podczas gdy niektóre ofiary nazistowskiego genocydu były w stanie uciec, niewiele „niechcianych dzieci” unika aborcji. Jeśli celem aborcji i/lub eutanazji jest wyeliminowanie możliwej do zidentyfikowania grupy rasowej, lub stoją za tym przyczyny finansowe wywołane budżetowymi ograniczeniami sektora publicznego, mówimy wtedy o genocydzie. Systemowe czynniki napędzające popierane przez państwo masowe morderstwa obejmują: (i) ideologię, która opiera się na dominującym w społeczeństwie światopoglądzie, oraz (ii) technikę, która określa zdolność państwa do użycia siły. Przed nastaniem XX wieku Niemcy stały się międzynarodową mekką dla nauki. Ewolucja, a zwłaszcza darwinizm społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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miały ogromny wpływ na niemiecki światopogląd, bo rościły sobie prawo do udzielania naukowych wyjaśnień pochodzenia człowieka, jednak pozbawionych czynnika Boga, a opartych wyłącznie na rozumie. Nastąpił wewnątrzspołeczny rozdźwięk ideologiczny, który kwestionował człowieczeństwo Żydów. Gdy Hitler przejął władzę w 1933 roku, ideologiczna i fizyczna infrastruktura konieczna do realizacji masowych morderstw była już gotowa. Od końca drugiej wojny światowej łączne następstwa ideologicznych i technicznych przeobrażeń oraz uwiedzenie nauki przez polityków przekształciło hitlerowski koncept „życia niegodnego tego, by żyć” w bardziej ogólną, niezorientowaną na określony cel democydalną ideologię „życia obojętnego na życie”. Popierane przez państwo masowe zabójstwa – aborcja i eutanazja – są szeroko akceptowane jako proste, uniwersalne rozwiązanie trudnych problemów społecznych. Słowa kluczowe: genocyd, democyd, popierane przez państwo masowe morderstwa, Kultura Życia, Kultura Śmierci, Holokaust, aborcja, eutanazja

Abstract The genocide-democide continuum of ideological and state-sponsored mass killing Abortion and euthanasia are different from the Nazi Holocaust. The Holocaust was a genocide in which the Jews were targeted by the Nazi state for ideological mass murder. In Western societies most cases of abortion and euthanasia are democides, i.e. state-sponsored ideological mass murders in which the victims are not explicitly targeted by the state. In a genocide, victim groups are targeted but not always murdered. In a democide, victim groups are not targeted but are always killed. Some targeted victims of the Nazi genocide were able to escape. Few “unwanted babies” escape abortion. When abortion and/or euthanasia is targeted, in an attempt to eliminate an identifiable racial group, or for financial reasons due to public sector budgetary constraints, it is genocide. Systematic factors which drive state-sponsored mass murder include: (i) ideology which is based on the worldview of the society, and (ii) technology which determines the ability of the state to project power. By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany had become the international mecca of science. Evolution and Darwinism, in particular, had a tremendous effect on the German worldview because it claimed to provide a scientific explanation of the origin of man without God, based exclusively on reason. An intra-societal ideology gap developed which questioned the humanity of the Jews. When Hitler took power in 1933, the ideological and physical infrastructure necessary to commit mass murder was already in place. Since the end of the Second World War the combined effects of ideological and technological change and the seduction of 60

artykuły science by politics has transformed the Hitlerian concept of “life unworthy of life” into a more general, non-targeted democidal ideology of “life indifferent to life”. State-sponsored mass murder – abortion and euthanasia – is widely accepted as a simple, all-purpose solution to difficult social problems. Key words: genocide, democide, state-sponsored mass killing, Culture of Life, Culture of Death, Holocaust, abortion, euthanasia

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Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 62–70 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Anh Thi Kim Tran

Leisure as blessing and obligation: a vital need in the lives of Vietnamese women

Introduction If Jesus Christ came to earth so that we may have abundant life, how can the Church in Vietnam proclaim this Good News to the Vietnamese people, especially to women? As we know, the Ten Commandments are a gift – a blessing – for human beings to approach the abundant life. The third Commandment, to keep holy the Sabbath, promotes the common good by which human beings find rest from labor for recreation and worshipping God. In addition, this commandment deals with justice and compassion. All human beings need recreation, and keeping the Sabbath protects the poor, the vulnerable, and the powerless, who are often overworked1. Just as the Sabbath is a blessing for human beings, so, too, everyone has a right and obligation to leisure. In this paper, I focus on leisure rooted in the Bible and the teaching of the Church that leads to the necessary project of promoting the dignity of women in Vietnam. My paper consists of four sections: 1) Leisure in the Bible: the Sabbath, 2) Leisure for women’s vocations and gifts, 3) Leisure in women’s lives in Vietnam, 4) Leisure: a proposal to improve the lives of Vietnamese women to promote leisure for their well-being.

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P.D. Miller, The Ten commandments, Louisville 2009, p. 153–154.

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artykuły Leisure in the light of the Bible In Genesis, God created all things, including time and the Sabbath (Gen. 2:2–3). God is the Creator, the Alpha and Omega. Right after creating, God was the Incarnation for God rested on the seventh day. God blessed the Sabbath; therefore, rest is a blessing for human beings. This blessing of rest was later given by God to Moses when God gave the Ten Commandments: the Third Commandment is to keep holy the Sabbath (Exod. 20). This commandment belongs to the first tablet of the Decalogue: love of God; however, it is a gateway to the second tablet: love of neighbor2. Keeping the Lord’s Day means both rest from work and sanctification of the Lord’s Day. The Sabbath seems to be interrupting the routine of our daily work and lives to refresh and restore not only ourselves but also other human beings and animals. Throughout the Old Testament, God reminded the people of Israel to keep the Sabbath. For example, the book of Exodus states “You shall keep the Sabbath because it is holy for you” (Exod. 31:13–14) and “Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy” (20:8). Remembering and keeping holy the Sabbath means remembering God’s love and gifts to us, including creation, identity, freedom, redemption, and hope. The declaration “You shall rest” (Exod. 34:12), therefore, generates the memory of the Third Commandment; so, it also generates compassion, worship, and just acts. Jesus provides a good example of the value of leisure. Once Jesus sent the disciples to preach the Kingdom of God, and the disciples returned and were excited to report what they had done. And Jesus said to them: stay away from service and rest for a while. Through the New Testament, Jesus Himself rests. Just as work is important for human beings, so is leisure. Saint Pope John Paul II taught that the dignity of work involves transforming human nature. Work makes a person more human. It constitutes a foundation for the formation of family life3. However, he also puts emphasis on recreation. In Dies Domini, the Pope stated that Sunday is the day of the Risen Lord. Sunday is the day of the Gift, the Holy Spirit. Sunday is the day of joy, rest, and solidarity. The Heart of Sunday is the Eucharistic Assembly. It recaptures the spontaneity and joy of



2

Ibidem, p. 122–123. John Paul II, Laborem exercens, Vatican City 1981, 9.

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creation4. Rest or leisure involves at least Sundays, holidays, and vacation times5. Thus, leisure is both a human blessing and obligation by which each person may guide his or her life in the right direction. The question of how women can have leisure leads to the following section, which discusses how leisure relates to women’s particular gifts.

Leisure in the light of women’s vocations and gifts The Church considers the family to be a “domestic church”6. The family is a cradle, the first school where a person is formed to become more human, where a person experiences being loved and loving others, where a person learns social responsibility and solidarity. Just as Christians glorify God by doing their work, so, too, they rest and take leisure for God’s glory. In the family, leisure brings family members together to worship God and cultivate their love for one another. To talk about family is to talk about women because their vocation and gifts are special. We need to ask who women are and what their vocations are? The story of creation of human beings demonstrates the dignity of women, like men, created in the image and likeness of God (Gen. 1:27). Pope Saint John Paul II interpreted this passage and stated that women were created as part of the primacy of the “being” and “existing” of both sexes: male and female7. Love is the fundamental vocation of everyone. Love is human identity. The Pope says: “Man cannot live without love”8. Women find their joy and happiness through relationships: accepting, giving, and serving. The Pope further stated: “Women can only find themselves by giving love to others”9. They tend to build interpersonal relationships. Motherhood is a gift given to women so that they may be life-giving to other persons10. Childbearing is their unique

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Idem, Dies Domini, chap. 3. Idem, Laborem exercens, 19. See further: Catholic Church. Pontificium Consilium de Iustitia et Pace, Compendium of the social doctrine of the Church, Strathfield 2004, 284. 6 Compendium of the social doctrine of the Church, 212–217. 7 John Paul II, Man and woman He created them: a theology of the body, Boston 2006, 133. 8 Idem, Redeemer of man, Washington DC, 4 March 1979, 10. 9 Ibidem, 30. My note: because love is a human vocation, men and women can only find themselves by giving love to others; however, in the context of talking with women, this makes even more sense. 10 John Paul II, On the dignity and vocation of women, in: B.W. Deely (ed.), Pope John Paul II speaks on women, Washington DC 2014, 14. 4

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artykuły gift (Gen. 3) to bear a life: thus, a new human life is born. This gift establishes a relationship between mothers and children, and between women and other human beings: their lives create new lives11. Because of this relationship, the religion of the mothers is often the religion of their children. The mother can direct the mind and heart of the child to God12. Children can learn and grow to become more gentle beings in the family. Particularly, children can learn from their mothers how to love truth and justice, gain a sense of responsibility, and respect others. Indeed, women tend toward being in solidarity and being companions with/for people. The Pope recognizes that women are able to form consistently a culture of peace in their “domestic church”. He names them teachers of peace13. Yet how can women offer their gift when they lack a positive sense of their well-being?

Leisure in the lives of women in Vietnam If the Church must understand the secular world in order to carry her mission, so, too, must the members of the Dominican Order. To understand the world is to be with and listen to it in the light of Scriptures. Mary C. Hilkert, a theologian and Professor at the University of Notre Dame, writes: “[Edward Schillebeeckx] tried to listen to the questions and struggles of ordinary people and to probe the depths of their experience until he heard an echo of the gospel”14. As a Dominican Sister, I have been with women and listen to their experience through my ministry. In this section, I analyze how women in Vietnam experience a very limited amount of leisure time. Vietnamese cultural and social perspectives consider that a model woman should demonstrate tam tòng tứ đức, which translates as three forms of obedience and four virtues. To follow these three forms of obedience, unmarried women must obey their fathers, married women must obey their husbands, and, when their husbands have passed away, they must obey their oldest son. The four virtues can be summed up as công dung ngôn hạnh. Công means: Vietnamese

13 14 11

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Paul VI, Gaudium et spes, Vatican City 1965, 52. John Paul II, Women: teachers of peace, in: B.W. Deely (ed.), op. cit., 6. Paul VI, Gaudium et spes, 52. M.C. Hilkert, Edward Schillebeeckx: theologian of the Christian Life, “U.S. Dominican” 1985, vol. 5, no. 2, p. 17. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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women are expected to be good at housework, nursing children, and caring for their family members. Dung means: women should have a beautiful shape and be both discreet and charming. Ngôn means: women should be amiable, gentle, and polite. Hạnh means a good sense of morality, mercy, faithfulness, and selfless love15. These three forms of obedience and four virtues cause Vietnamese women work hard to become model women. In Vietnam, ever since 1954, and especially after the Reformation policy in 1986, women have overworked. Particularly, female garment workers are overworked, so leisure is basically unknown among them. Although relaxation time is clearly defined for permanent and full-time employees, how this designated time is used depends on the employers. For example, employers may use this leisure time to take staff away to popular resort towns, or they may use this time for a training weekend16. Catherine Earl, a sociologist who studies Southeast Asia, states: “[These female garment workers] did not take part in cultural sessions or recreation organized by their workplaces”17. They have the “double burden” of productive and domestic labor. Now, how do Vietnamese women have double burdens? First, they have a job, like men, to earn money or to work at the fields18. Second, women fulfill their housework by themselves and/or with a little help from their daughters. Without an awareness of the injustice of gender discrimination, a sense that work should be shared with their partner, women continue building up a culture of gender inequality in their families. For example, they expect their daughters to do housework but not their sons19. Indeed, in Vietnam often overwork! How can women fulfill their vocation and gifts when they lack a sense of well-being, have no time for leisure? This question leads to the project

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Công dung ngôn hạnh là gì?, https://linhhoangdinh.wordpress.com/2013/05/26/congdung-ngon-hanh-la-gi/ (26 May 2013). 16 C. Earl, Leisure and social mobility in Ho Chi Minh City, in: P. Taylor (ed.), Social inequality in Vietnam and the challenges to reform, Singapore 2004, p. 362. 17 Ibidem, p. 360. 18 L. Thi, Women, marriage, family, and gender equality, in: K. Barry (ed.), Vietnam’s women in transition, New York 1996, p. 71. 19 Gender inequality also reveals the limited opportunities for women to go to school. According to P. Taylor, 43.3 percent of children coming from poor families drop out of secondary school, and a majority of these children who drop out of secondary school are girls. Although girls are able to attend school, girls often have to yield educational opportunity to boys because boys are more highly valued by teachers and are more encouraged to succeed; see: P. Taylor, Introduction: social inequality in a socialist state, in: idem (ed.), op. cit., p. 3–4. 15

artykuły of giving women more opportunities for leisure in light theological virtues. Here, Christianity brings the hope to women in Vietnam.

Leisure: a proposed guide to improve the well-being of Vietnamese women The First Letter of John declares: “We love God because He first loved us” (1 John 4:19). We are called by His name. Yes, we are loved unconditionally. Leisure provides opportunities for us to deepen our love of God and of our neighbor. Because of the double burden of Vietnamese women, the Church leaders, pastors, and women religious should pay attention to caring for women and provide them space and time for their leisure20. On the diocesan level, women need to be invited to gather twice a year for Advent and Lenten reflection days. Women should be able to understand that their dignity and rights rest in the loving God. They need opportunities to discuss in what ways they can live out their dignity. At the parish level, pastors should offer more opportunities for women’s gatherings. For example, the pastor may create monthly gatherings to invite women to engage in half-day or full-day reflection time. Women religious congregations should expand and advocate leisure with and for women. They may invite and facilitate women’s gatherings in their convents. Being women, religious sisters would be of great help in assisting women to use their leisure in a productive way. I suggest three forms of leisure that the Church and, in particular, pastors and religious sisters should consider: 1. Leisure for the body: –– Self-help to assist in recreation, such as having enough time to sleep, –– Sunday meals/reception – a relationship with others, –– The outdoors – a relationship with nature. 2. Leisure for the mind: –– Education for women to become more aware of their dignity, –– Reading and discussing articles/Church leaders’ letters/books, –– Conversations about family issues and women’s issues. 3. Leisure for the soul and spirituality: –– Theological reflection and Lectio Divina, –– Retreat and spiritual direction, –– Pilgrimages.

See more in Gaudium et spes, and Laborem exercens, 8.

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These forms of leisure may become a model of gathering women. I believe that women in Vietnam are in need to get input and discuss their vocation and gifts in light of the Bible. They must have an opportunity to share their experience, suffering, and challenges. One example is the program which I founded, Formation for the poor children and women in Vietnam, in order to help the poor grow in theological virtues through which they recognize their dignity. Some Dominican Sisters and pastors joined this program. For example, we organize conferences for women by which all local women are invited. Women have time off to relax, enjoy meals, and listen to lectures on different topics such as nutrition, health care, teaching children, and prayer. They are encouraged to share their experience and desires. They also listen to topics related to human dignity and their vocation and gifts. They are invited to pray together during the conference. The program helps women’s lives significantly. Most women report feeling renewed and that they have grown in faith and hope by cultivating attitudes toward life, which channel their energies back to their families. They have the opportunity to deepen their faith. They recognize that God loves and accompanies them. From my experience, applying these forms of leisure as discussed above will be a helpful project to promote the dignity and vocation of women in Vietnam. They may become more aware of their dignity, vocations, and gifts. This formation also assists them to fulfill their beings that may bring human development of both domestic and national Church in Vietnam as well as its society.

Conclusion The first line of Gaudium et spes states: “The joys and the hopes, the griefs and the anxieties of the men of this age, especially those who are poor or in any way afflicted, these are the joys and hopes, the griefs and anxieties of the followers of Christ”21. How can the followers of Christ in Vietnam practice this principle? Just as human beings have the right to work (Gen. 2), so, too, they must rest, since rest is also their blessing, obligation, and right. Women in Vietnam are in great need of leisure now more than ever before. My hope is that the Church in Vietnam, with the help of my pastoral proposal, will care more about women and guide them to have significant leisure time for physical, mental, and spiritual 68

Paul VI, Gaudium et spes, 1.

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artykuły self-improvement. This may also be an important step for the ministry of married couples and family lives.

References Catholic Church. Pontificium Consilium de Iustitia et Pace, Compendium of the social doctrine of the Church, St Pauls Publications, Strathfield 2004. Công dung ngôn hạnh là gì?, https://linhhoangdinh.wordpress.com/2013/05/26/ cong-dung-ngon-hanh-la-gi/ (26 May 2013). Earl C., Leisure and social mobility in Ho Chi Minh City, in: P. Taylor (ed.), Social inequality in Vietnam and the challenges to reform, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore 2004, p. 351−379. Hilkert M.C., Edward Schillebeeckx: theologian of the Christian Life, “U.S. Dominican” 1985, vol. 5, no. 2, p. 17. John Paul II, Dies Domini, Vatican Press, Vatican City 1998. John Paul II, Laborem exercens, Libreria Editrice, Vatican City 1981. John Paul II, Man and woman He created them: a theology of the body, Pauline Books & Media, Boston 2006. John Paul II, On the dignity and vocation of women, in: B.W. Deely (ed.), Pope John Paul II speaks on women, The Catholic University of America Press, Washington DC 2014, p. 121–179. John Paul II, Redeemer of man, Washington DC, 4 March 1979. John Paul II, Women: teachers of peace, in: B.W. Deely (ed.), Pope John Paul II speaks on women, The Catholic University of America Press, Washington DC 2014, p. 229–235. Miller P.D., The Ten commandments, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville 2009. Paul VI, Gaudium et spes, Libreria Editrice, Vatican City 1965. Taylor P., Introduction: social inequality in a socialist state, in: idem (ed.), Social inequality in Vietnam and the challenges to reform, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore 2004, p. 1−40. Thi L., Women, marriage, family, and gender equality, in: K. Barry (ed.), Vietnam’s women in transition, St. Martin’s Press, New York 1996, p. 61–73.

Abstrakt Czas wolny jako błogosławieństwo i zobowiązanie: istotna potrzeba w życiu wietnamskich kobiet Jak praca jest ludzkim obowiązkiem i prawem, tak wszystkie istoty ludzkie mają prawo do czasu wolnego. Nauczanie Kościoła katolickiego podnosi kwestię ludzkiej godności jako przynależnej każdemu człowiekowi, bez względu na to, kim się społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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jest i skąd się pochodzi. Celebrowanie czasu wolnego zostało wskazane w trzecim przykazaniu. Bóg ustanowił szabat, podczas którego ludzie mogą znaleźć odpoczynek od pracy, aby oddawać cześć Bogu, ale i spędzać miło czas. Czas wolny jest dla wszystkich ludzi zarówno błogosławieństwem, jak i obowiązkiem. W niniejszym artykule koncentruję się na czasie wolnym zakorzenionym w Biblii i uzasadniam, dlaczego stanowi on absolutną konieczność w życiu wietnamskich kobiet. Artykuł składa się z czterech części: 1) czas wolny w Biblii, 2) powołanie i dary kobiet, 3) analiza pracy kobiet w Wietnamie, wreszcie 4) zaplanowanie programu czasu wolnego dla wietnamskich kobiet, który zakłada proces wzrastania kobiet poprzez rekreację, wychowanie i duchowość, dzięki czemu mogą one stać się lepszymi córkami, siostrami, żonami i matkami. Słowa kluczowe: czas wolny, błogosławieństwo, zobowiązanie, społeczeństwo wietnamskie, kobiety w Wietnamie

Abstract Leisure as blessing and obligation: a vital need in the lives of Vietnamese women Just as labor is a human obligation and right, so, too, all human beings have the right to leisure time. The teaching of the Catholic Church addresses human dignity as a inherent to all, no matter who they are or where they come from. Leisure comes from the Third Commandment. God created the Sabbath so that human beings may find rest from labor to worship God but also to recreate. Leisure is both a blessing and obligation for all human beings. In this paper, I focus on leisure rooted in the Bible and argue why leisure is vital need in the lives of women in Vietnam. The work consists of four sections: 1) leisure in the Bible, 2) vocations and gifts of women, 3) analysis of women’s labor in Vietnam, and 4) planning a leisure program for women in Vietnam, which is a process of growing through recreation, education, and spirituality for women so that they may become better daughters, sisters, wives, and mothers. Key words: leisure, blessing, obligation, Vietnamese society, women in Vietnam

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artykuły Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 71–92 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Ayotunde Adebayo, Alex Friday Obaje

Corruption in Nigeria: bane to an effective realization of social studies educational objectives at the basic level of education

Introduction Social studies as a value-laden subject and promotion of social values is concerned with organization of social relations between communities and their values, social norms, beliefs and customs that need to be reformed to promote social order in the society. The essence of social studies is to study man’s social, physical, cultural, economic, political and religious environment and how human beings interact and control the social environment, as well as to provide human needs, aspirations by solving human problems in the society1. Social studies is a complex and organized process through which individual acquire knowledge, attitude, values, skills and competences that are vital for self-fulfillment and effective contribution to the survival of the society. These



F.A. Olatunde, A.F. Obaje, A. Adebayo, Student’s perception of character education and social values for greater productivity in Social Studies Education, “Nigerian Journal of Social Studies” 2016, vol. 19, no. 2, p. 50–66.

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definitions imply that social studies have the attribute to develop desirable qualities for an all-round development of rich personality2. Social studies education, among other school subjects, is primarily designed and taught in schools to address issues relating to right type of values, attitudes and behavior with a view to achieving national development. Based on this, social studies education seems to have failed in its laudable objectives at the basic level of education because of the failure in achieving the objectives in area of teaching and learning. According to Otoja Reuben3, social studies education teachers have to draw attention of their learners to the societal vices, which are bedeviling our national life and how to avoid them. By doing this, social studies education will be achieving one of its objectives which is creating awareness and sensitivity to the seriousness of man’s environment. Effective teaching and learning of social studies education will also encourage peace and security education, inculcate intercultural studies and equip the learners with social interaction skills for harmonious coexistence. According to Victor Dike, any society that is confronted with the endemic challanges of corruption will continually find ways to stop the cycle. This author advocated and argued elsewhere that Nigeria cannot effectively and seriously control the menace of corruption by merely instituting probe panels. It was suggested that the general population needs reorientation to pursue better values system4. Corruption is one of the social problems that Nigerian society is facing today. The high rate of this practice makes one wonder whether it is as a result of ignorance and greed among Nigerians or of poverty, economic imbalance, and insecurity, among others. Corruption has eaten deep into the fabric of almost all Nigerian society, which has in turn threatened the economic growth and development of the country. Corruption has destroyed the value system of Nigerian society and is killing the conscience of the nation. Brian Erard5 writes that morals which used to be the pegs on which our societal values and

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E. Ndan Danladi, Social studies perspectives in Nigeria, vol. 1, Anambra State 2005, p. 44–56. 3 O.I. Reuben, The place of Social Studies Education in fighting corruption for national transformation in Nigeria, “African Review of Arts, Social Sciences and Education” 2013, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 133–147. 4 V. Dike, The philosophy of transforming Nigeria into a corrupt-free society: are the probes the solution?, http://www.nigeriaworld.com/feature/article/corruption.html (4 January 2017). 5 B. Erard, A critical review of the empirical research on Canadian tax compliance, paper prepared for the Technical Committee on Business Taxation, Ottawa 1997, p. 10–19. 2

artykuły norms were anchored have been abandoned totally that one with justification will wonder if it would be possible to revive public morality. Corruption had caused enormous damage to the country’s corporate life and economic, political, social and ethical existence. Corruption affects the perversion of integrity of state affairs through bribery, favoritism and moral depravity, the use of state power to satisfy private interest, heartless manipulation of government machineries, direct embezzlement, inflation of contract costs, over-invoicing and other kinds of illegal activities by a person in position of authority6. Corruption causes a reduction in quality of teaching and learning as many teachers are not rewarded the way they should. A corollary of corruption is late payment, delays or refusal in payment for services already rendered what directly impacts on the country’s educational enterprise. According to Victor Dike7, evils or consequences of corruption have taught Nigerians wrong lessons that it does not really pay to be honest, law-abiding and hardworking. Through corrupt means and channels, many political office holders tend to acquire wealth and properties in and outside Nigeria, and many often display their wealth and the society does seem to permit it. Since the Nigerian national policy on education is government’s way of attaining that part of its national mandate and its objectives that can be achieved using education as a tool, no policy on education can be meaningfully formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and objectives of the nation which is in line with the philosophy of social studies. The five national objectives of Nigeria stated in the second National Development Plan and endorsed as the crucial foundation for the National Policy on Education are the building of: –– a free and democratic society; –– a just and egalitarian society; –– a united, strong and self-reliant nation; –– a great and dynamic economy; –– a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens8. Nigeria’s philosophy of education is therefore based on the integration of the individual into a sound, efficient and effective citizen and equal educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at the three levels of education: primary, secondary and tertiary, both inside and outside the formal school



V. Dike, op. cit. (4 January 2017). Ibidem. 8 Federal Republic of Nigeria, National policy on education, Lagos 2004, p. 6.

6

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system. Consequently, the quality of instruction at all levels has to be oriented and geared towards inculcating the following values: –– Respect for the worth and dignity of persons. –– Faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions. –– Moral and spiritual values in interpersonal and human relations. –– Shared responsibility for the common good of society. –– Promotion of the physical, emotional and psychological development of all children. –– Acquisition of competencies necessary for self-reliance9. Social studies objectives are derived from the National Policy on Education and are aimed at the realization of the aspirations of the Nigeria’s educational objectives. The social studies objectives and Nigeria’s educational objectives are similar because they aim at achieving of similar goals, such as national consciousness, national unity, development of positive attitudes towards democratic values and citizenship, training and development with acquisition of skills and knowledge (e.g. facts, concepts and generalizations). Social studies objectives and Nigeria’s educational objectives cover the three educational domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Thus social studies objectives are the most adequate subject for the realization of the national educational objectives. Here are some of the objectives of social studies at the basic educational level which are to: –– create deep awareness and sensitivity to man’s environment; –– influence human’s attitudes positively to social, cultural, political values and total environment; –– enable men to acquire and develop skills for solving societal and environmental problems; –– equip human being with the basic understanding and knowledge of their environment; –– encourage voluntary exploration and participation in social and civic duties while developing sense of responsibility; –– create deep awareness in the learners about their surroundings; –– develop specific fundamental dispositions, such as the attitudes, values, norms of the society; –– promote effective and active citizenship; –– promote and establish an understanding of the social problems of the locality and finding possible solutions to them; 74

Ibidem, p. 8.

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artykuły –– help the learners develop the right attitudes towards the government; –– create an understanding of the citizens’ role during elections, especially on how to discharge their national duties efficiently; –– demonstrate flexibility, adaptability and willingness to accept necessary mutations within a system, such as education, government or law for the good of all; –– appreciate our cultural heritage; –– promote international understanding, peaceful coexistence, cooperation and understanding among nations; –– afford the learners the opportunity of knowing about the positive aspects of national life; –– appreciate the structures, rules and regulations that guide behaviors for mutual respect very important, regardless of our differences; –– create awareness that discipline is essential for an orderly society; –– give man adequate information and knowledge about his society and the wider world; –– help human being develop proper value judgment and ability to criticize, analyze, select and evaluate issues and events in their proper perspectives; –– help human being develop valuable and socially acceptable concepts, ideas and philosophies of life among others. The above-mentioned objectives are not successfully achieved in the country because of the anti-social behaviour conferring improper and inappropriate benefits contrary to legal and moral norms and which undermine the authority’s efforts to improve the living conditions of the people. It is described as the perversion of integrity through bribery, favoritism and moral depravity either from the teachers to the students or from the students to the teachers. Social studies objectives deal with improper transactions aimed at changing the normal course of events and altering judgments and positions of trust what simply connotes the givers and receivers use of informal and illegal acts to facilitate undue privileges. David Edenyang and Eloma Usang identify the causes of corruption in Nigeria which include the following: weak government institutions, poor pay incentives, lack of transparency and openness in public service, absence of key anti-corruption tools, ineffective political processes, culture and adaptation to the acceptance of corruption by the populace, absence of effective political

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financing, ethnic and religious differences, and scrambling for resources10. According to Otoja I. Reuben, the causes of corruption which has been a stumbling block to national development in Nigeria include: poor reward system and greed, lack of ethical standards in most of the government agencies and business organizations, the change in African values, and lack of effective taxation system11. It is common to see that when the government does not cater for all the basic needs of the people any more, there is the tendency for people to get corrupted in order to be able to cater for such needs.

Forms of corruption According to Victor Dike, there are the following forms of corruption: a) bribery: this is often a payment (in kind or cash) that is given or taken in a corrupt meetings which includes gratuities, payoffs, kickbacks, sweeteners, greasing palms, etc.; b) fraud: it involves some kind of trickery, swindle and deceit, counterfeiting, racketing, smuggling, and forgery; c) embezzlement: this is usually theft of public resources by public officials; it is when a state official pilfers from the public coffers in which (s)he works; d) extortion: these are resources or money extracted by the use of violence or threats and also to use force or coerce someone; it is often termed as extraction “from behind” – the customs, immigration and police officers are the main culprits in Nigeria; e) favoritism: this is often exhibited in the form of power abuse which implies a highly partial distribution and allocation of state quintessential resources; most times this is seen as a natural human proclivity to favor friends, family and anybody closely trusted; f) nepotism: this is often termed a special form of favoritism in which an office holder prefers his/her relatives; nepotism (a common feature in Nigeria) occurs when an individual or a group of people are exempted from the execution of certain laws and regulations or are given undue preferences in the allocation of scarce resources12.

D. Edenyang, E. Usang, The roles of social studies education in stemming corruption for national transformation in Nigeria, “British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences” 2012, vol. 9, no. 1, p. 97–101. 11 O.I. Reuben, Corruption and sustainability of democracy in Nigeria, “Journal of Social Studies Association of Nigeria” 2005, vol. 8, no. 1, p. 199–202. 12 Ibidem.

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artykuły Purpose of the study The purpose of this study was to examine corruption in Nigeria as bane to an effective realization of social studies educational objectives at the basic level of education.

Research questions Four research questions were raised to guide the study: 1. To what extent has corruption affected the realization of social studies educational objectives? 2. What is the extent of corruption at the basic educational level in Nigeria? 3. What are the causes of corruption at the basic level of education? 4. How do teachers encourage corruption among the male and female students at schools?

Hypotheses The following hypotheses were stated for testing in this study: H01: Corruption will not significantly promote the realization of social studies educational objectives. H02: There is a significant relationship between corruption in Nigeria and the basic educational level. H03: Causes of corruption are significantly related to the basic level of education. H04: There is a significant relationship between different ways teachers encourage corruption among the male and female students at the basic educational level.

Methodology The study adopted a descriptive survey design which focused on investigating corruption in Nigeria as bane to an effective realization of social studies educational objectives at the basic level of education. The target population for the study comprised all the basic schools at Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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State. The sample size was 120 primary and junior secondary school teachers. These teachers were selected using purposive sampling technique from the selected primary and junior secondary school teachers at Ikeja Local Government Area. The researchers constructed questionnaire titled “Corruption in Nigeria as bane to an effective realization of social studies educational objectives” (CNBERSSEO) to measure corruption and effective realization of social studies educational objectives. The instrument had 20 items of a four-point Likert scale of “strongly agree” (SA), “agree” (A), “strongly disagree” (SD) and “disagree” (D). The instrument was subjected to scrutiny and validation by experts in the field of social studies education and experts on measurement and evaluation. The researchers distributed and collected the copies of questionnaire from the primary and secondary schools with the help of four research assistants. The data collected was subjected to analysis using simple percentage, standard deviation and mean for research questions, and the inferential statistic of chi-square was used to test the stated null hypotheses. The level of statistical significance was set at α = 0.05. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 16.0 was used to analyze the data while results and discussions followed sequentially.

Research question one To what extent has corruption affected the realization of social studies educational objectives? Table 1 reveals that the respondents agreed to the statement that corruption in Nigeria is a curse rather than blessing to the realization of social studies educational objectives with a mean score of 3.3. As to item 2, 82% of the respondents agreed that corruption destroys the values, norms and tradition of a nation while 18% disagreed with the statement. In case of item 3, 37% of the respondents strongly agreed and 43% agreed with the statement that a country can be looked down upon due to corrupt practices while 13% disagreed and 7% strongly disagreed with the statement. As to item 4, the respondents agreed, with a mean score of 3.3, that corrupt practices have greater effect to collapse the societal values as a result of people’s attitude. Also in case of item 5, the respondents agreed, with a mean of 3.4, that corruption thrives in Nigeria because the society encourages it.

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artykuły Table 1. Effects of corruption in the realization of social studies educational objectives S/N Statements/items SA (4) Corruption in Nigeria is rather than blessing to 53 1 a curse the realization of social studies 44% educational objectives Corruption destroys the 31 2 values, norms and tradition of 26% a nation can be looked down 44 3 A country upon due to corrupt practices 37% Corrupt practices affects the 71 4 societal values as a result of 59% people’s attitude Corruption thrives in Nigeria 66 5 because the society encoura55% ges it Weighted mean

A (3) D (2) SD (1) X mean Remark 62 52%

-

5 4%

3.3

Agree

67 56%

10 8%

12 10%

2.9

Agree

51 43%

15 13%

10 7%

3.1

Agree

23 19%

19 16%

7 6%

3.3

Agree

38 32%

10 7%

6 6%

3.4

Agree

3.2

Source: field survey 2017

Research question two What is the extent of corruption at the basic educational level in Nigeria? Table 2 shows that the respondents agreed with the statement that corrupt practices at the primary and junior secondary school are high with a mean score of 3.2. As to item 7, 89% of the respondents agreed that high corruption rate kills the conscience of a nation, while 11% disagreed with the statement. In case of item 8, 51% of the respondents strongly agreed and 34% agreed with the statement that both teachers and pupils are involved in corrupt practices while 10% disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed with the statement. As to item 9, the respondents agreed, with a mean score of 3.1, that pupils who are involved in corruption do not concentrate on their learning. Also in case of item 10, the respondents agreed, with a mean of 3.0, that pupils in both primary and junior secondary schools give bribe to their teachers to upgrade their scores.

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Table 2. The extent of corruption at the basic educational level in Nigeria S/N Statements/items SA (4) Corrupt practices at the primary 43 6 and junior secondary school 36% is high corruption rate kills the 56 7 High conscience of a nation 47% teachers and pupils are 61 8 Both involved in corrupt practices 51% Pupils who are involved in 46 9 corruption do not concentrate 38% on their learning Pupils in primary and junior schools give bribe to 34 10 secondary their teachers to upgrade their 28% scores Weighted mean

A (3) D (2) SD (1) X mean Remark 60 50%

10 8%

7 6%

3.2

Agree

50 42% 41 34%

11 9% 12 10%

3 2% 6 5%

3.3

Agree

3.3

Agree

48 40%

21 18%

5 4%

3.1

Agree

55 46%

29 24%

2 2%

3.0

Agree

3.2

Source: field survey 2017

Research question three What are the causes of corruption at the basic level of education? Table 3. Causes of corruption at the basic level of education S/N Statements/items Greediness among the teachers 11 causes corruption in Nigerian schools Poor reward system are the 12 main causes of corruption in schools home training causes 13 Wrong corruption in schools influence causes corrup14 Peer tion in schools condition of service cau15 Poor ses corruption in schools Weighted mean Source: field survey 2017

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SA (4) A (3) D (2) SD (1) X mean Remark 35 29%

66 55%

9 8%

10 8%

3.1

Agree

59 49%

44 37%

11 9%

6 5%

3.3

Agree

33 28% 65 54% 71 59%

50 42% 42 35% 31 26%

25 21% 5 4% 2 2%

12 9% 8 7% 16 13%

2.9

Agree

3.4

Agree

3.3

Agree

3.2

artykuły Table 3 shows that 84% of the respondents agreed that greediness by the teachers seem to cause corruption in Nigerian schools while 16% disagreed with the statement. As to item 12, the respondents agreed to the statement that poor reward system are the main causes of corruption in schools with a mean score of 3.3. In case of item 13, the respondents agreed that wrong home training causes corruption in schools with a mean score of 2.9. As to item 14, 54% of the respondents strongly agreed, 35% agreed with the statement that peer influence causes corruption in schools while 4% disagreed and 7% strongly disagreed with the statement. Also in case of item 15, the respondents agreed, with a mean of 3.3, that poor condition of service causes corruption in schools.

Research question four How do teachers encourage corruption among the male and female students at schools? Table 4. Different ways teachers encourage corruption S/N Statements/items SA (4) A (3) D (2) Teachers encourage corrup48 21 29 16 tion through extortion of 40% 18% 24% money from the students Teachers encourage corrup41 23 38 17 tion through collection of 34% 19% 32% gift items from students Teachers encourage 29 15 44 18 corruption through family 24% 13% 37% influence Teachers encourages corrup- 41 23 42 19 tion through receiving of 34% 19% 35% bribes from the students Teachers encourages corrup- 54 50 10 20 tion through unethical 45% 42% 8% favoritism Weighted mean

SD (1) X mean Remark 22 18%

2.8

Agree

18 15%

2.7

Agree

32 26%

2.3

Disagreed

14 12%

2.8

Agree

6 5%

3.3

agree

2.8

Source: field survey 2017

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Table 4 reveals that 58% of the respondents agreed that teachers encourage corruption through extortion of money from the students while 42% disagreed with the statement. As to item 17, 53% of the respondents agreed that teachers encourage corruption through collection of gift items from the students while 47% disagreed with the statement. In case of item 18, the respondents disagreed to the statement, with a mean score of 2.3, that teachers encourage corruption through family influence. As to item 19, the respondents agreed, with a mean score of 2.8, that teachers encourage corruption through collection of bribes from the students. The last item, with a weighted mean of 3.3, indicates that teachers encourage corruption through unethical favoritism.

Testing of hypotheses Hypothesis one Based on the results derived from the questionnaire, the researchers used chi-square to test the hypothesis which stated that corruption will not significantly promote the realization of social studies educational objectives. Below we will find the chi-square formula: X2 = where “O” represents “Observation frequency”, and “E” represents “Expected (theoretical) frequency”. Using CT × RT ÷ GT: 506 × 120 ÷ 600 = 101 94 × 120 ÷ 600 = 19

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artykuły Table 5. Hypothesis 1 O

E

O-E

(O-E)2/E

115

101

14

1.94

5

19

-14

10.32

98

101

-3

0.09

22

19

3

0.47

95

101

-6

0.36

25

19

6

1.89

94

101

-7

0.49

26

19

7

2.58

104

101

3

0.09

16

19

-3

0.47 18.7

X2 cal = 18.7 Degree of freedom (df) = (R-1) (C-1) = (2-1) (3-1) =3×2=6 Level of significance = 0.05 Tabulated value X2 tab = 7.815

Decision rule Since X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, the hypothesis is accepted. From this test, it is deduced that corruption will not significantly promote the realization of social studies educational objectives.

Hypothesis two Based on the results derived from the questionnaire, the researchers used chi-square to test the hypothesis which stated that there is a significant relationship between corruption in Nigeria and the basic educational level. Below we will find the chi-square formula:

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X2 = where “O” represents “Observation frequency”, “E” represents “Expected (theoretical) frequency”. Using CT × RT ÷ GT: 494 × 120 ÷ 600 = 99 106 × 120 ÷ 600 = 21 Table 6. Hypothesis 2 O

E

O-E

(O-E)2/E

103

99

4

0.16

17

21

-4

0.76

106

99

7

0.49

14

21

-7

2.33

102

99

3

0.09

18

21

-3

0.43

94

99

-5

0.25

26

21

5

1.19

89

99

-10

1.01

31

21

10

4.76 11.47

X2 cal = 11.47 Degree of freedom (df) = (R-1) (C-1) = (2-1) (3-1) =3×2=6 Level of significance = 0.05 Tabulated value X2 tab = 7.815

Decision rule Since X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, the hypothesis is accepted. From this test, it is deduced that there is a significant relationship between corruption in Nigeria and the basic educational level.

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artykuły Hypothesis three Based on the results derived from the questionnaire, the researchers used chi-square to test the hypothesis which stated that causes of corruption are significantly related to the basic level of education. Below we will find the chi-square formula: X2 = where “O” represents “Observation frequency”, and “E” represents “Expected (theoretical) frequency”. Using CT × RT ÷ GT: 494 × 120 ÷ 600 = 99 104 × 120 ÷ 600 = 21 Table 7. Hypothesis 3 O

E

O-E

(O-E)2/E

101

99

2

0.04

19

21

-2

0.19

103

99

4

0.16

17

21

-4

0.76

83

99

-16

2.59

37

21

16

12.19

107

99

8

0.65

13

21

-8

3.05

102

99

3

0.09

18

21

-3

0.43 20.15

X2 cal = 20.15 Degree of freedom (df) = (R-1) (C-1) = (2-1) (3-1) =3×2=6 Level of significance = 0.05 Tabulated value X2 tab = 7.815

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Decision rule Since X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, the hypothesis is accepted. From this test, it is deduced that the causes of corruption are significantly related to the basic level of education.

Hypothesis four Based on the results derived from the questionnaire, the researchers used chi-square to test the hypothesis which stated that there is a significant relationship between different ways teachers encourage corruption among the male and female students at the basic educational level. Below we will find the chi-square formula: X2 = where “O” represents “Observation frequency”, “E” represents “Expected (theoretical) frequency”. Using CT × RT ÷ GT: 494 × 120 ÷ 600 = 99 106 × 120 ÷ 600 = 21 Table 8. Hypothesis 4 O 103 17 106 14 102 18 94 26 89 31

86

E 99 21 99 21 99 21 99 21 99 21

O-E 4 -4 7 -7 3 -3 -5 5 -10 10

(O-E)2/E 0.16 0.76 0.49 2.33 0.09 0.43 0.25 1.19 1.01 4.76 11.47

artykuły X2 cal = 11.47 Degree of freedom (df) = (R-1) (C-1) = (2-1) (3-1) =3×2=6 Level of significance = 0.05 Tabulated value X2 tab = 7.815

Decision rule Since X2 cal is greater than X2 tab, the hypothesis is accepted. From this test, it is deduced that there is a significant relationship between different ways teachers encourage corruption among the male and female students at the basic educational level.

Findings –– Corruption in Nigeria is a curse rather than blessing to the realization of social studies educational objectives because it destroys the values, norms of the society since the Nigerian society encourages it. –– Corrupt practices at the basic educational level are high. –– Greediness, poor reward system, wrong home training, peer influence, poor condition of service causes corruption in Nigeria. –– Teachers encourage corruption through extortion, collection of gift items, receiving of bribes and unethical favoritism. –– Corruption will not significantly promote the realization of social studies educational objectives. –– There is a significant relationship between corruption in Nigeria and the basic educational level. –– Causes of corruption are significantly related to the basic level of education. –– There is a significant relationship between different ways people perpetrate corruption among the male and female students at the basic educational level.

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Discussion The data in Table 1 shows that corruption in Nigeria is a curse rather than blessing to the realization of social studies educational objectives because it destroys the values, norms of the society since the Nigerian society encourages it. These findings are in line with the hypothesis that corruption will not significantly promote the realization of social studies educational objectives. The findings seem to agree with the views of Bernedeth N. Ezegbe et al.13 that social studies education in many countries is a necessity. This implies that the whole essence of introducing social studies in most countries’ curricula was to heal some social ills towards national development. Social studies education will assist in reducing corruption and corrupt practices to the barest minimum. Social studies education influences the attitudes of the youth through early inculcation of good value system in their early life to enhance spirit of nation-building14. Based on the research, we may say that corrupt practices at the basic educational level are high what is in line with the hypothesis that there is a significant relationship between corruption in Nigeria and the basic educational level. Emman Osakwe15 writes that Nigeria is a failed state because of endemic corruption and inability to control poverty in the midst of abundant national resources. Corruption in Nigeria has assumed a critical proportion that is often exhibited at the state level, it thrives since the society sanctions and encourages it16. Furthermore, the data gathered on greediness, poor reward system, wrong home training, peer influence, poor condition of service tend to cause corruption in Nigeria and the research revealed that causes of corruption are significantly related to the basic level of education. In response to the findings, Francis Nnjoku argues that the causes of corruption are traceable to the factors which arise from social value system, the radical change in the value system or breakdown in social norms, interplay of politics, the problem of ethnicity, tribalism and sectionalism, unfavorable economic environment, poor reward system, and social or cultural B.N. Ezegbe, M. Eskay, J. Anyanwu, G.C. Abiogu, Role of Social Studies Education in citizenship training: implication for national development, “International Journal of Scientific Research” 2014, vol. 3, no. 8, p. 54–58. 14 Ibidem. 15 E. Osakwe, Social studies and politics in Nigeria: some developmental concerns, in: idem (ed.), Social studies and integrated national development in Nigeria, Ibadan 2012, p. 256–269. 16 M. Yusif, Causes and effects of corruption on society development, paper presented at a seminar organized by the Code of Conduct Bureau, Kano, 14 November 2000.

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artykuły pressure17. What is more, the research revealed that teachers encourage corruption through extortion, collection of gift items, receiving of bribes, unethical favoritism, and the hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship between different ways teachers encourage corruption among the male and female students at the basic educational level. Emmanuel Otoja18 affirms that once corruption becomes entrenched, its negative effects multiply. It induces cynicism because people will begin to regard it as the norm. It also undermines social values because people find it easier and more lucrative to engage in corruption than to seek legitimate work or business. Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny sum it up that the effect of corruption on education comes from the fact that the government inflates prices of items to make room for graft by shifting the money in both state and federal government on projects where they can get bribes easily19.

Conclusion Corruption has hindered attaining social studies educational objectives and it is hopeful that to achieve the laudable objectives of social studies education, social studies have to inculcate worthy attitudes and habits that will go a long way in eliminating corruption and by attending to the national values to achieve its paramount objectives at the basic educational level.

Recommendations 1. Nigerian government should intensify effort to address the issue of corruption which has become endemic in the institution of learning, especially at the basic educational level so as to achieve social studies educational objectives. 2. Nigerian government, private individuals and various institutions should be holistic in organizing campaigns, seminars which will

F. Nnjoku, Effects of corruption and sustainability of democracy, M.Ed. dissertation proposal, Lagos 2011, p. 46–68. 18 Ibidem. 19 A. Shleifer, R.W. Vishny, Corruption, “The Quarterly Journal of Economics” 1993, vol. 108, no. 3, p. 599–617.

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educate the citizens on embracing good governance, accountability and transparency. 3. Teachers should be contented with what they have, and government should equally introduce good reward system and improved condition of service to the teachers. 4. Teachers should stop encouraging corruption through extortion, collection of gift items, receiving bribes, among others, and they should try to embrace good moral values as role models.

References Dike V., The philosophy of transforming Nigeria into a corrupt-free society: are the probes the solution?, http://www.nigeriaworld.com/feature/article/corruption. html (4 January 2017). Edenyang D., Usang E., The roles of social studies education in stemming corruption for national transformation in Nigeria, “British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences” 2012, vol. 9, no. 1, p. 97–101. Erard B., A critical review of the empirical research on Canadian tax compliance, paper prepared for the Technical Committee on Business Taxation, Carleton University, Ottawa 1997. Ezegbe B.N., Eskay M., Anyanwu J., Abiogu G.C., Role of Social Studies Education in citizenship training: implication for national development, “International Journal of Scientific Research” 2014, vol. 3, no. 8, p. 54–58. Federal Republic of Nigeria, National policy on education, Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council, Lagos 2004. Ndan Danladi E., Social studies perspectives in Nigeria, vol. 1, Rex Charles and Patrick, Anambra State 2005. Nnjoku F., Effects of corruption and sustainability of democracy, M.Ed. dissertation proposal submitted to the School of Postgraduate Studies, University of Lagos, Lagos 2011. Olatunde F.A., Obaje A.F., Adebayo A., Student’s perception of character education and social values for greater productivity in Social Studies Education, “Nigerian Journal of Social Studies” 2016, vol. 19, no. 2, p. 50–66. Osakwe E., Social studies and politics in Nigeria: some developmental concerns, in: idem (ed.), Social studies and integrated national development in Nigeria, Kraft Books, Ibadan 2012, p. 256–269. Reuben O.I., Corruption and sustainability of democracy in Nigeria, “Journal of Social Studies Association of Nigeria” 2005, vol. 8, no. 1, p. 199–202.

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artykuły Reuben O.I., The place of Social Studies Education in fighting corruption for national transformation in Nigeria, “African Review of Arts, Social Sciences and Education” 2013, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 133–147. Shleifer A., Vishny R.W., Corruption, “The Quarterly Journal of Economics” 1993, vol. 108, no. 3, p. 599–617. Yusif M., Causes and effects of corruption on society development, paper presented at a seminar organized by the Code of Conduct Bureau, Bayero University, Kano, 14 November 2000.

Abstrakt Korupcja w Nigerii: zmora dla skutecznej realizacji celów kształcenia w zakresie wiedzy o społeczeństwie na podstawowym poziomie edukacji Korupcja w nigeryjskich instytucjach jest niczym gąsienica, która wgryzła się głęboko w tkankę tak środowiska nauczycieli, jak i uczniów na podstawowym poziomie edukacji. Kształcenie w zakresie wiedzy o społeczeństwie stanowi sposób, dzięki któremu pożądana kultura, wartości i normy społeczne wpajane są młodzieży. Kształcenie w zakresie wiedzy o społeczeństwie jest też wyrazem uznania dla dziedzictwa kulturowego. W niniejszym artykule podjęto kwestię korupcji w Nigerii będącą zmorą dla skutecznej realizacji celów kształcenia w zakresie wiedzy o społeczeństwie na podstawowym poziomie edukacji. Docelowa grupa obejmowała wszystkie szkoły podstawowe i gimnazjalne w obszarze samorządowym miasta Ikeja, będącym stolicą stanu Lagos, a próbę badawczą stanowiło 120 nauczycieli. Dobór próby był celowy. Uzyskane wyniki pokazują, że korupcja w Nigerii stanowi problem dla realizacji wspomnianych celów kształcenia, gdyż zniszczyła wartości i normy społeczne. Badanie ujawniło, że społeczeństwo nigeryjskie zachęca do praktyk korupcyjnych, które są powszechne na podstawowym poziomie edukacji. Wśród czynników wpływających na korupcję należy uznać zachłanność, marny system nagród, niewłaściwe wychowanie wyniesione z domu, wpływ rówieśników i słabą jakość usług. Nauczyciele sprzyjają korupcji poprzez wyłudzenia, przyjmowanie podarunków, przekupstwo i kumoterstwo. Rząd nigeryjski powinien zintensyfikować wysiłki w celu rozwiązania problemu korupcji, która rozpowszechniła się w instytucjach oświatowych, zwłaszcza na podstawowym poziomie edukacji. Słowa kluczowe: korupcja w Nigerii, wiedza o społeczeństwie, cele kształcenia w zakresie wiedzy o społeczeństwie, podstawowy poziom edukacji

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Abstract Corruption in Nigeria: bane to an effective realization of social studies educational objectives at the basic level of education Corruption in Nigerian institutions is a cankerworm which has eaten deep into the fabric of both the environment of teachers and the pupils at the basic educational level. Social studies education is the vehicle through which the desired culture, values and norms of the society are inculcated to the youth. Social studies education is also an appreciation of cultural heritage. The paper examines corruption in Nigeria as bane to an effective realization of social studies educational objectives at the basic level of education. The target population comprised all the basic schools in Ikeja Local Government Area, Lagos State, and the sample comprised 120 primary and junior secondary school teachers. These teachers were selected using purposive sampling technique. The findings showed that corruption in Nigeria is a problem to the realization of these objectives because it destroyed the values and norms of the society. The research revealed that Nigerian society encourages corrupt practices and this is high at the basic educational level. Greediness, poor reward system, wrong home training, peer influence and poor condition of service tend to cause corruption. Teachers encourage corruption through extortion, acceptance of gift items, bribery, and favoritism. Nigerian government should intensify effort to address the issue of corruption which has become endemic in the institutions of learning, especially at the basic educational level. Key words: corruption in Nigeria, social studies education, social studies educational objectives, basic level of education

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artykuły Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 93–105 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Marek Kluz

The role of punishment in the process of education and spiritual growth of child’s personality

Introduction For centuries, there has been a battle between good and evil as well as its dramatic consequences. A man, being punished for a sin, renounced “the paradise of freedom” and has gone into “the slavery of this world”1. The punishment – in its source – is not only an answer to evil but also constitutes an educational element which significantly influences the shaping of the human personality. Disciplining is particularly important in case of children. Therefore, an attempt to show the importance of punishment in young person’s life and – more precisely – in the process of upbringing and formation of child’s personality at home and at school will be made in this paper. Parents and teachers play a crucial role in shaping proper moral attitudes. Their special concern and duty are to prepare the youth to uphold the law and customs with dignity as well as to serve God and society2. In this perspective, it is extremely important to present the proper and improper methods of punishment. Main errors committed by parents and teachers will be also presented.



Catechism of the Catholic Church, Bloomingdale 1994, no. 2061. Benedykt XVI, Rodzina chrześcijańska wspólnotą wychowania i wiary. Do uczestników Kongresu Diecezji Rzymskiej, “L’Osservatore Romano” (Polish edition) 2005, no. 9, p. 33.

1 2

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Punishment as a part of the educational process in family “Upbringing – most generally speaking – leads to changes in the individual’s mental structure and activities. In analyzing the educational activity: its goals, results and consequences, the major conceptual category, i.e. personality that plays an important role in psychology, theology, social sciences and the humanities, cannot be omitted”3. Shaping personality constitutes a fundamental educational task, particularly for families. In the family, under the influence of education, changes are taking place in the personality of human being4. Accordingly, as Pope Francis rightly points out, “[f]amilies cannot help but be places of support, guidance and direction, however much they may have to rethink their methods and discover new resources”5. Shaping child’s personality is a long-lasting process6. Sometimes personality changes are not perceptible. “The myth is that a child or teenager can draw conclusions from their mistakes and effectively motivate themselves to change their behavior without experiencing painful consequences of these mistakes”7. Therefore, only such educational systems which expose human predispositions or limitations and take into account the external conditions have a real impact on the process of the individuals’ formation and serve the individuals’ weal8. Disciplining plays a significant role in the development of child’s personality. “The child must be punished for bad deeds, (s)he must realize that (s)he has done wrong. Consequently, punishment is a specific educational process”9. The practice of disciplining in family is a subject of controversies. Some people provide a number of arguments to support the use of punishment and its positive effects while the others point to the harm caused by the use of brutal corporal punishment10. Critics of punishment argue that it would be wiser to reinforce positive behavior. The example of a child who is praised for washing hands before eating than reprimand for sitting at the table with dirty hands

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M. Przetacznikowa, Z. Włodarski, Psychologia wychowawcza, Warszawa 1983, p. 380. John Paul II, The apostolic exhortation on the family: Familiaris consortio, Collegeville 1994, no. 37. 5 Pope Francis, Amoris laetitia – the joy of love, New York 2016, no. 260. 6 J. Majka, Wychowanie personalistyczne wychowaniem chrześcijańskim, in: F. Adamski (ed.), Wychowanie w rodzinie: praca zbiorowa, Kraków 2010, p. 18–20. 7 M. Dziewiecki, Kochać i wymagać. Pedagogia Ewangelii, Kraków 2006, p. 20. 8 Ibidem, p. 29. 9 J. Chmiel, Trudne miejsca w Biblii, Kraków 2009, p. 23. 10 S.R. Rybicki, Kara i nagroda w procesie wychowawczym, in: idem (ed.), Wprowadzenie do pedagogiki chrześcijańskiej, Częstochowa 1997, p. 83. 3

4

artykuły can be applied. The harmfulness of punishment is also indicated, what is often based on ethical considerations and springs from the conviction that punishment, especially its cruel forms, contradicts humanitarian principles. What is more, punishment causes fear that leads to frustration and neurosis, which – as a result – undermine the foundations of mental health11. So in what conditions can we avoid punishment during educational process? Certainly, it is possible in an atmosphere of joy, mutual trust and understanding, when it is easier for spouses to be consistent in dealing with a child, and – above all – when mutual love of parents creates a successful family. Healthy relationships within a family help children to acquire proper knowledge about themselves, to meet their own needs, to develop attitudes of respect for their and others’ dignity and to acquire responsibility12. Thus, “properly formed inner-family bonds are one of the main conditions of appropriate education in which punishment becomes superfluous”13. The knowledge about children and their education, based on understanding of their needs and application of correct educational methods, is of great importance. Children develop their habits of observing moral principles and polite forms in contact with the others since the early age. Again, some light must be shed on the family background where “child’s admission to a mistake or an oversight excludes the need for punishment. Parents adjust their requirements to the child’s abilities, explain their meaning and try to get his/her approval. If they adopt appropriate educational attitudes and are able to create a favorable educational environment, punishment becomes redundant”14. Educational psychology supports the position of counteracting punishment as a disciplining practice. You can only resort to it in exceptional situations. The person who imposes punishment is perceived as a pattern of strength and “carrier” of aggression. Frequent use of severe punishment is particularly harmful. Pope Francis in the apostolic exhortation Amoris laetitia claims that “[a] child who does something wrong must be corrected, but never treated as an enemy or an object on which to take out one’s own frustrations. … An attitude constantly prone to punishment would be harmful and not help children to realize that M. Przetacznik-Gierowska, Z. Włodarski, Psychologia wychowawcza, Warszawa 1994, p. 54. 12 John Paul II, The apostolic exhortation on the family: Familiaris consortio, no. 36; D. Kornas-Biela, Ku dojrzałemu przeżywaniu płciowości, in: J. Nagórny, M. Pokrywka (eds.), Płciowość ludzka w kontekście miłości. Przesłanie moralne Kościoła, Lublin 2005, p. 150–153. 13 I. Jundziłł, Nagrody i kary w wychowaniu, Warszawa 1986, p. 58. 14 Ibidem, p. 59.

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some actions are more serious than others”15. Rigorism combined with the lack of emotional support in family inhibits child’s free development, triggering a state of permanent danger. A hyperactive child reacts with rebellion, arrogance, obstinacy and defiance against severe discipline, which – consequently – results in breaking up of the emotional bonds between child and his/her parents. The young person who is resistant to all kinds of stimuli and perceives the reality with the critical eye, may finally get accustomed and the punishment will mean nothing16. On the other hand, mild punishments are worthless as children do not take them seriously. The child badgered with continuous punishments is discouraged from self-development, loses self-esteem, sometimes hopelessly fights for his/her rights. So what guidance should be given to parents? Do not punish so often. Do not make the child get accustomed to the same kind of punishment. While considering the manner of punishing for particular misconduct, it is necessary to take into account child’ sensitivity, character, frequency of offences17. Social immaturity has been observed in neurotic patients during the clinical trials. This immaturity resulted from the lack of requirements imposed on them, inconsistency in their enforcement and the lack of discipline applied in the childhood. To make punishment effective, the child must first accept the norm for which (s)he has been punished and should have a positive attitude towards the person who punishes him/her. In this way, the punishment will not be understood as an act of aggression and will cause an appropriate sense of shame in the young person. “Punishments and rewards control human action as they provide the information about the results of the action”18. However, punishment constitutes one of the components of the education system. The family is a central educational environment19. By imitating parents and other relatives, the child acquires a proper attitude towards the other people and masters moral norms. In the favorable arrangement of all elements of the family system, children can be properly brought up without punishment but also without rewards in the form of benefits for fulfilling duties. It is good if both parents prefer the same values ​​and educational views. Unfortunately, it happens that they have a different baggage of experiences brought from their

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17 18 19 15

16

Pope Francis, op. cit., no. 269. S. Kuczkowski, Przyjacielskie spotkanie wychowawcze, Kraków 1985, p. 109. Ibidem, p. 102. M. Przetacznikowa, Z. Włodarski, op. cit., p. 367. John Paul II, The apostolic exhortation on the family: Familiaris consortio, no. 36; Jan Paweł II, List do Rodzin, Wrocław 1994, no. 16.

artykuły family homes and want to raise their children the way they were raised. In result, the child learns to maneuver between the conflicting requirements of parents20. Family that does not fulfill its function constitutes a serious threat to the proper development of a child. In broken families, where daily conflicts create the aftertaste of hell, the child loses self-confidence, the sense of security, resents his/her parents and – finally – stops recognizing their authority. What is more, the low level of pedagogical culture and over-spoiling of children are not conducive to good behavior in the future. A considerable danger comes from the parents arguing in front of their children. In such situation, children may feel threatened and uncertain of their lot, which – within a longer time frame – may cause neurotic states and disorders in the development of their personality21. Another mistake is imposing requirements with absolute severity and maintaining home regime. Children in such families have only duties. There is a lack of love and understanding22. “The child is strictly subordinated to the parents who direct all his or her activities. There is rarely laughter here, common happy conversations are heard even more rarely. This manner of upbringing can be compared to training”23. In so excessive rigor, the children will grow up as passive individuals who are too dependent on their superiors. On the other hand, we have another unfavorable tendency, i.e. the excessively relaxed atmosphere in the family where everybody lives according to their own preferences, without major control. Appropriate upbringing requires establishing transparent rules, boundaries that must not be exceeded. Each family member is responsible for specific duties. Child’s freedom is controlled as far as it is necessary due to the lack of his/her experience and possibility of making a mistake. Parents are aware of the basic educational requirements and, if necessary, they apply awards and punishments in a proper way. In case of their own mistake, they admit being wrong. Child knows about parents’ successes at their vocational work and also knows about the difficulties they experience. There is a full respect for the personal affairs of each family member. Child is a living image of parents, their behavior, lifestyle, etc. Close attachment to parents is the strongest motivation for proper behavior24.

I. Jundziłł, op. cit., p. 7. G. Malcher, Wychowanie do miłości – rodzina szkołą miłości, in: F. Adamski (ed.), op. cit., p. 185. 22 M. Bula, Rodzina środowiskiem pełnego rozwoju człowieka, in: F. Adamski (ed.), op. cit., p. 58. 23 I. Jundziłł, op. cit., p. 139. 24 J. Hennelowa, Role wychowawcze rodziców, in: F. Adamski (ed.), op. cit., p. 93. 20 21

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Moral responsibility requires predicting the possible consequences of one’s act. People with a low intelligence level will not be able to predict the consequences of their actions. It is also important to evaluate such actions. To this end, the principles acting as educational factors and restrictions to eliminate adverse behavior were established. The rules must be consistent, otherwise the young person will be confused. Children want to know what they are allowed and not allowed to do, how far they are allowed to go25. Discipline serves as a kind of motivation for children to do what they are expected to do. As the inner voice, discipline helps the young individuals to develop conscience. “A child who lacks discipline cannot become a happy, well-adjusted person”26. Genuine upbringing has the great advantage of being associated with total justice and every child will recognize it. Having the understanding of children’s deficiencies constitutes an epicenter for developing noble feelings in them. “Adults also need to realize – Pope Francis writes – that some kinds of misbehavior have to do with the frailty and limitations typical of youth”27. Moral excellence cannot be required from children. Higher morality, similarly as higher intelligence, is achieved by gradual development. The most important goal of upbringing is to prepare a child for life, to educate a responsible and valuable citizen who can make his or her way in the world28. “If no system of moral culture can forthwith make children altogether what they should be; if, even were there a system that would do this, existing parents are too imperfect to carry it out; and if even could such a system be successfully carried out, its results would be disastrously incongruous with the present state of society; does it not follow that a reform in the system now in use is neither practicable nor desirable?”29. It seems that the educational methods should be improved gradually. There must also be a particular ideal that can be approached step-by-step. Only those educational systems that perceive extraordinary possibilities and painful limitations of children and take into account their external conditions, have a significant impact on the process of

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E.B. Hurlock, Rozwój dziecka, transl. B. Hornowski, S. Kowalski, B. Rosemann, Warszawa 1961, p. 461. 26 Ibidem, p. 463. 27 Pope Francis, op. cit., no. 269. 28 M. Kluz, Wychowanie chrześcijańskie w rodzinie w dobie permisywizmu moralnego, “Śląskie Studia Historyczno-Teologiczne” 2007, no. 2, p. 364–374. 29 H. Spencer, Education: intellectual, moral, and physical, New York – London 1860, p. 173. 25

artykuły human moral formation and development30. Therefore, it must be emphasized that punishment in the process of children’s moral growth has a great impact on their personality in the future. Due to consistent discipline, young persons will gradually acquire knowledge about the moral order. The use of disciplining in the family should be approached with great caution. Common sense and some didactic skills are required.

Punishment as a part of the educational process at school School constitutes the environment which supports the family in bringing up children in a most significant way31. However, the task of the school is not to substitute the family but only to support parents and to supplement their work32. This is clearly emphasized by Pope Francis in the above-mentioned exhortation of Amoris laetitia: “Parents rely on schools to ensure the basic instruction of their children, but can never completely delegate the moral formation of their children to others”33. School is one of the fundamental goods of the human civilization, having a special significance for young people and influencing the future of the whole societies. Teachers play a particularly important role here, especially in the development of personality and promoting the culture of moral life34. They should teach the lifestyles leading to happiness and inner peace35. One of the most familiar ways of the teacher–student interaction is punishment. We distinguish its more drastic forms (physical punishment) and those that can be used in the form of deprivation. It is postulated “not to punish at all



Z. Sękowska, Współzależność wychowania i rozwoju dziecka, in: F. Adamski (ed.), op. cit., p. 31–46. 31 Deklaracja o wychowaniu chrześcijańskim Gravissimum educationis, in: J. Groblicki, E. Florkowski (eds.), Sobór Watykański II: konstytucje, dekrety, deklaracje, Poznań 1968, no. 5–8. 32 Jan Paweł II, op. cit., no. 16; Kongregacja ds. Wychowania Katolickiego, Wytyczne wychowawcze w odniesieniu do ludzkiej miłości: zasadnicze cechy wychowania seksualnego, ed. F. Mąkinia, Poznań 1984, no. 69; Papieska Rada ds. Rodziny, Ludzka płciowość: prawda i znaczenie. Wskazania dla wychowania w rodzinie, ed. K. Majdański, Łomianki 1996, no. 64. 33 Pope Francis, op. cit., no. 263. 34 S. Jasionek, Wychowanie moralne, Kraków 2004, p. 93–94; W.E. Pabis, Wychowanie dzieci i młodzieży do dojrzałego życia i miłości, “Studia nad Rodziną” 1997, no. 1, p. 86–88. 35 E.B. Hurlock, op. cit., p. 459–467.

30

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if the punishment was to provoke rebellion, to cause disorder in class, if it was to undermine the authority of the teacher”36. It is important to avoid all words and gestures that can disturb the teacher–student relationship. Young person should be ashamed of his or her mistake rather than be afraid of punishment. This educative sense of shame could significantly eliminate punishment. “With the measure of punishment, the student is only informed that the undesirable behavior in the present situation should be abandoned”37. Punishment may cause a student to be scared or angry. In case of repetitive punishment, the young person can attribute his or her aggressive feelings to the teacher or any school-related subject. Such a student is trying to stay away from school. If (s)he does not succeed, (s)he may “mentally” withdraw from participation in the classes38. If the child returns from school with a failing grade, it is necessary to find a cause of failure and remedy it. Such grade itself constitutes a punishment. Punishing for the lack of capability is painful, deepens humiliation experienced towards more talented colleagues. The child may be accompanied by fear of negative judgment, anger of teachers or stronger colleagues, which – in turn – may hinder his/her emotional adjustment. School refusal can develop and cause difficulties in acquiring the knowledge. “School education stimulates emotions related to cognitive activities and school successes are the cause of positive emotional experiences”39. In the initial period of school education, children create a number of emotional ties with their peers and teachers. Unfair treatment of young persons by teachers, school failures and bad peer relations make their emotions negatively colored. As early as in the kindergarten, the role of teachers is to take care of child’s activities. Appropriate emotional relationships between teachers and children are essential to ensure proper educational conditions. Teachers vary in their styles of education, i.e. autocratic or democratic behavior. Management of the class team by the teacher is more democratic when (s)he rewards more frequently, encourages students to express their opinions, formulates rules and regulations in a more liberal way, makes decisions about the class with the team as well as tries to minimize tensions and the sense of danger. Teachers with dominance of autocratic behavior often punish, use orders and bans, make

S.R. Rybicki, op. cit., p. 86. G. Mietzel, Psychologia kształcenia, transl. A. Ubertowska, Gdańsk 2002, p. 168. 38 Ibidem. 39 M. Przetacznik-Gierowska, G. Makiełło-Jarża, Psychologia rozwojowa i wychowawcza wieku dziecięcego, Warszawa 1985, p. 186.

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artykuły decisions about the tasks of the team on their own, express hostility, arouse tensions and anxiety40. Unfortunately, the younger the children, the less effective the democratic style is. Realism and moral rigorism are conducive to autocratic management. Effective autocratic management is only possible if the teacher’s behavior is just, kind, and punishment is applied in moderation. In classes managed in a democratic way, the distance between teacher and students is reduced. Consequently, the sense of danger decreases and confidence in the teacher increases. Such a teacher uses rewards more frequently than punishment, establishes close relationships with the youth and tries to increase their self-esteem. Another important factor is the fair assessment of the students41. The teacher– –students relationships are close although they are official. Neutral relations occur when a teacher is not interested in the results of students’ performance or problems. There are also conflicting relationships where one can observe an ongoing battle between students and their teacher. In this situation, the teacher’s decisions and views are imposed on the students. The teacher applies severe discipline which dominates over awards, and students are constantly threatened. Younger school children describe a bad teacher as the one who often screams without a reason, is unjust, favors certain pupils and is nervous. It may be assumed that the more accurate the mutual relationship, the deeper the child’s involvement with the school42. The research confirms that the so-called problem students learn badly and behave badly, average students are among the ones who cause problems, and outstanding ones are the students worth imitating. Difficult students did not change their improper behavior under the influence of educational practices, including punishment, while outstanding pupils changed their behavior, which means that applied disciplining was effective. The fact that pupils punished ineffectively have a negative attitude towards the person who punishes them, i.e. the school as an institution and the teacher as a person imposing the punishment, may not be ignored. “In the situation of ineffective interaction, it is understandable that students who have a negative attitude towards school get worse grades and behave worse than students who have a positive attitude towards school”43. A competent teacher shows mistakes

Ibidem, p. 336. J. Hennelowa, Rodzina wobec szkoły jako instytucji wychowania, in: F. Adamski (ed.), op. cit., p. 246. 42 M. Przetacznik-Gierowska, G. Makiełło-Jarża, op. cit., p. 338. 43 S. Mika, Społeczne podstawy zachowania, in: T. Tomaszewski (ed.), Psychologia, Warszawa 1969, p. 166. 40 41

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to a student who is in the wrong, reveals the possible consequences of his/her negative behavior, e.g. getting a fail, repetition of a school year, lowered conduct grade, and even expulsion from school. “Slogans about raising without stress or learning without tests are utopias”44. Therefore, students with school failures have difficult experiences when they expect their parent’s return from the school meeting. Fear of punishment makes them seek justification, e.g. the responsibility for all their problems is born by teachers who do not like them or peers preventing them from working. The situation of children who do not cope with school requirements due to the lack of natural abilities is much more serious. They are faced with fourfold punishment: humiliation in front of colleagues, failing grades, anger of teachers, and finally rebukes from their parents. Such child should not be punished at all but must undergo comprehensive psychological examinations and, if necessary, compensatory measures must be implemented. Various types of neurosis trigger anxiety in children and severe school-related punishment may become the cause of school refusal. Aversion to school is manifested in the form of diarrhea, abdominal pain, headaches. As well, playing truant has its source here45. All the above implies that the requirements imposed on children should be adequate to their abilities. And, certainly, it is not advisable to use punishments if we are not able to meet them. The proper attitude of the people imposing punishment, especially parents and teachers, influences appropriate upbringing of children. Well-adjusted and properly used punishment contributes to appropriate growth of child’s personality.

Conclusions The issue of punishment in child’s life, as a factor which motivates, threatens and teaches, was discussed in this paper. The approach of a person imposing punishment and a punished one has been analyzed. This study allowed us to indicate the importance of the punishment applied in child’s life, both at home and at school. We discussed how the punishment influences the process of upbringing and shaping child’s personality. We tried to answer the question if it is worth applying these or those forms of punishment, which – in their assumption – are expected to produce the desired effect.

M. Dziewiecki, op. cit., p. 65. Z. Sękowska, op. cit., p. 43–46.

44

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artykuły During the above analysis, the issue of purely subjective, emotional motives of punishment clearly emerged. The aspect of rewarding which brings significantly better results than punishing for sometimes very trivial reasons was emphasized. It must be remembered that only God is the just Judge who rewards good and punishes evil. Listening to His voice, staring at His Blessed Sacrament enables us to focus on our own conscience: what parent or teacher am I?, which kind of punishment can be applied to lead the entrusted children through the life in a responsible way.

References Benedykt XVI, Rodzina chrześcijańska wspólnotą wychowania i wiary. Do uczestników Kongresu Diecezji Rzymskiej, “L’Osservatore Romano” (Polish edition) 2005, no. 9, p. 32–34. Bula M., Rodzina środowiskiem pełnego rozwoju człowieka, in: F. Adamski (ed.), Wychowanie w rodzinie: praca zbiorowa, Petrus, Kraków 2010, p. 47–60. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Apostolate for Family Consecration – John Paul II Holy Family Center, Bloomingdale 1994. Chmiel J., Trudne miejsca w Biblii, Petrus, Kraków 2009. Deklaracja o wychowaniu chrześcijańskim Gravissimum educationis, in: J. Groblicki, E. Florkowski (eds.), Sobór Watykański II: konstytucje, dekrety, deklaracje, Pallottinum, Poznań 1968, p. 313–323. Dziewiecki M., Kochać i wymagać. Pedagogia Ewangelii, Wydawnictwo eSPe, Kraków 2006. Hennelowa J., Rodzina wobec szkoły jako instytucji wychowania, in: F. Adamski (ed.), Wychowanie w rodzinie: praca zbiorowa, Petrus, Kraków 2010, p. 241–252. Hennelowa J., Role wychowawcze rodziców, in: F. Adamski (ed.), Wychowanie w rodzinie: praca zbiorowa, Petrus, Kraków 2010, p. 61–98. Hurlock E.B., Rozwój dziecka, transl. B. Hornowski, S. Kowalski, B. Rosemann, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1961. Jan Paweł II, List do Rodzin, Tum, Wrocław 1994. Jasionek S., Wychowanie moralne, Ignatianum – Wydawnictwo WAM, Kraków 2004. John Paul II, The apostolic exhortation on the family: Familiaris consortio, Human Life Center, St. John’s University, Collegeville 1994. Jundziłł I., Nagrody i kary w wychowaniu, Nasza Księgarnia, Warszawa 1986. Kluz M., Wychowanie chrześcijańskie w rodzinie w dobie permisywizmu moralnego, “Śląskie Studia Historyczno-Teologiczne” 2007, no. 2, p. 364–374.

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Kongregacja ds. Wychowania Katolickiego, Wytyczne wychowawcze w odniesieniu do ludzkiej miłości: zasadnicze cechy wychowania seksualnego, ed. F. Mąkinia, Pallottinum, Poznań 1984. Kornas-Biela D., Ku dojrzałemu przeżywaniu płciowości, in: J. Nagórny, M. Pokrywka (eds.), Płciowość ludzka w kontekście miłości. Przesłanie moralne Kościoła, Wydawnictwo KUL, Lublin 2005, p. 119–164. Kuczkowski S., Przyjacielskie spotkanie wychowawcze, Wydawnictwo Apostolstwa Modlitwy, Kraków 1985. Majka J., Wychowanie personalistyczne wychowaniem chrześcijańskim, in: F. Adamski (ed.), Wychowanie w rodzinie: praca zbiorowa, Petrus, Kraków 2010, p. 15–30. Malcher G., Wychowanie do miłości – rodzina szkołą miłości, in: F. Adamski (ed.), Wychowanie w rodzinie: praca zbiorowa, Petrus, Kraków 2010, p. 175–192. Mietzel G., Psychologia kształcenia, transl. A. Ubertowska, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk 2002. Mika S., Społeczne podstawy zachowania, in: T. Tomaszewski (ed.), Psychologia, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1969, p. 154–166. Pabis W.E., Wychowanie dzieci i młodzieży do dojrzałego życia i miłości, “Studia nad Rodziną” 1997, no. 1, p. 74–88. Papieska Rada ds. Rodziny, Ludzka płciowość: prawda i znaczenie. Wskazania dla wychowania w rodzinie, ed. K. Majdański, Instytut Studiów nad Rodziną Akademii Teologii Katolickiej, Łomianki 1996. Pope Francis, Amoris laetitia – the joy of love, Lulu.com, New York 2016. Przetacznik-Gierowska M., Makiełło-Jarża G., Psychologia rozwojowa i wychowawcza wieku dziecięcego, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa 1985. Przetacznik-Gierowska M., Włodarski Z., Psychologia wychowawcza, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 1994. Przetacznikowa M., Włodarski Z., Psychologia wychowawcza, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1983. Rybicki S.R., Kara i nagroda w procesie wychowawczym, in: idem (ed.), Wprowadzenie do pedagogiki chrześcijańskiej, Kuria Metropolitalna – Tygodnik Katolicki “Niedziela”, Częstochowa 1997, p. 79–89. Sękowska Z., Współzależność wychowania i rozwoju dziecka, in: F. Adamski (ed.), Wychowanie w rodzinie: praca zbiorowa, Petrus, Kraków 2010, p. 31–46. Spencer H., Education: intellectual, moral, and physical, D. Appleton and Company, New York – London 1860.

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artykuły Abstrakt Rola kary w procesie wychowania i duchowego rozwoju osobowości dziecka W niniejszej publikacji podjęto próbę ukazania znaczenia kary w życiu dziecka, a dokładniej w procesie wychowania i formowania się jego ludzkiej osobowości w rodzinie i w szkole. Kara stanowi ważny element wychowawczy, znacząco wpływa na kształtowanie się ludzkiej osobowości. Rodzice, nauczyciele, wychowawcy są fundamentalnymi podmiotami oddziałującymi na kształtowanie się właściwych postaw moralnych dziecka. Ich szczególną troską i obowiązkiem jest takie przygotowanie młodych ludzi do życia, aby umieli sobie radzić w trudnych okolicznościach i zawsze postępować zgodnie z zasadami moralnymi. Słowa kluczowe: kara, dziecko, rodzina, szkoła, nauczyciel, osobowość, wychowanie

Abstract The role of punishment in the process of education and spiritual growth of child’s personality In this publication an attempt to show the importance of punishment in the life of the child, more precisely in the process of upbringing and formation of his or her human personality in the family and in the school, was presented. The punishment constitutes an important pedagogical element, significantly influencing the development of human personality. Parents, teachers, educators are fundamental entities who have impact on shaping the moral attitudes of the child. Their particular concern and duty are to prepare young people for life so that they could cope in difficult circumstances and always follow moral principles. Key words: punishment, child, family, school, teacher, personality, upbringing

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Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 106–120 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Danuta Grzesiak-Witek

Language trapped in the body: why Stephen Hawking does not speak? Speech therapy for patients with ALS

Introduction Stephen Hawking, who is a well-known British cosmologist, creates brilliant mathematical constructions and explains the Universe, but does it exclusively in his own thoughts. His mind is forever trapped in his body. The cosmologist turned 75 on the 8th of January 2017 and is the longest living man suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. It is a disease described by various names and acronyms: ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), SLA (sclerosis lateralis amyotrophica), Charcot disease, MND (motor neuron disease). The paper presents the problem of ALS, ways of diagnosing, speech therapy, and the specific speech disorders accompanying this disease.

Epidemiology and clinical forms of ALS ALS occurs among the population worldwide At the frequency of 0.7–1.5 per 100 thousand. The existence of this disease has no connection with the race, geographical location, although the data provide that the Swedes suffer from it the most in Europe. The disease affects middle-aged people, more often men. The average age of the onset of the disease is 55. Five percent of cases happen before the age of 30, while in 10 percent of cases, the disease starts before the 106

artykuły age of 40. There are also cases of this disease reported in much younger people as well as among the elderly. The disease usually lasts 2–3 years but the cases of shorter progression were also reported. In Poland, ALS affects about 2.5–3 thousand people. The symptoms of the disease appear suddenly. While studying at Oxford, Stephen Hawking noticed for the first time that his feet and hands do not obey him. Without any apparent reason he fell down the stairs. The truth about his heath condition was revealed when he decided to work on his doctoral thesis in Cambridge. It was when ALS was diagnosed in this well-known cosmologist. The disease terminally destroys the neurons in the brain and in the spinal cord, which are responsible for limb movement control, swallowing, and breathing. It spares consciousness, emotions, and mental abilities. Directly, it does not cause any pain. However, pain may be indirectly caused by the disease, e.g. problems with breathing may cause headaches and the lying position may lead to painful bedsores. The studies of ALS revealed the following clinical forms of ALS: 1) principal ALS syndrome, 2. primary lateral sclerosis, 3) progressing bulbar palsy, 4) syndrome imitating spinal muscular atrophy1.

ALS etiology The disease is incurable and quite puzzling, and it was also Stephen Hawking who contributed to his fact. The cosmologist managed to live until the old age, although others died even within several months since the disease had been diagnosed. In this case, the relatives played an important role. These were Dennis Sciama, his dissertation supervisor, and Jane Wilde, his fiancée and later his wife. They helped him to break away from depression. Yet, he was still nagged with the question why he developed ALS. The analysis of the causes of ALS leads to distinguishing two groups of factors: endogenous and exogenous ones. In the first group, one should mention the genetic concept as 5–10 percent of illnesses are family cases in which the onset of the disease occurs at an early age and the first symptoms usually include lower limbs. “So far only 25 percent of genes were identified as the ones responsible for the family disease. Of the disease inherited in the family autosomally, in 15–20 percent of cases dominates

D. Adamek, B. Tomik, Stwardnienie boczne zanikowe, Kraków 2005, p. 15.

1

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the mutation of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase gene (SOD1)”2. Beside this genetic concept, the cause of ALS is indicated as defective DNA synthesis which leads to the synthesis of protein in nerve cells and their premature death3. The next concept indicating the endogenous causes points to the importance of cytotoxic factors in the ALS development. The analysis of the ALS etiology indicates also the relation between ALS and hyperthyroidism and the connection with calcium metabolism. Of the endogenous etiology concepts, it is also necessary to indicate the connection between ALS and carbohydrate disorders4. Whereas in the group of exogenous causes, there is heavy metal poisoning mentioned, such as lead, mercury, and manganese. There are scientists who point out viral etiology as well. The literature indicates that some cases of thickborne encephalitis and myelitis which imitate ALS were put under observation. Some studies conducted in the past tried also to connect this disease with postpolio, however, scientists eventually failed to isolate the virus5.

The characteristics of speech disorders The diagnostics aimed to confirm or rule out ALS is of primary importance. Diagnostic tests include: the basic biochemical and analytical profile, blond morphology with the blood smear and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), liver tests, thyroid hormones, chest and spine x-ray, EEG pathologies, EMG (visible denervation with fasciculation in the limb and slight muscle atrophy). EMG may also assess the extent of the process and its dynamics, muscle biopsy makes it possible to observe the denervation features, CT allows us to exclude the disease processes other than ALS, spirometry and arterial blood gas test the level of respiratory failure6. Diagnostic criteria have undergone certain modifications. Scientists have published revised El Escorial criteria, also described

A. Słowik, A. Golenia, Genetyka stwardnienia bocznego zanikowego, “Polski Przegląd Neurologiczny” 2010, vol. 6, supp. A, p. 60. 3 J. Kubiszewska, H. Kwieciński, Stwardnienie boczne zanikowe, “Postępy Nauk Medycznych” 2010, no. 6, p. 440–448. 4 P. Bała, Podstawowe informacje o chorobie, in: P. Bała (ed.), Poradnik dla chorych na SLA/MND, Nowy Targ 2009, p. 19–28. 5 Ibidem. 6 M. Rubinowicz-Zasada, A. Orczyk, M. Orczyk, J. Pasek, Stwardnienie boczne zanikowe – choroba neuronu ruchowego. Prezentacja przypadku, “Pediatria i Medycyna Rodzinna” 2015, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 114. 2

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artykuły as Airlie House criteria: “According to these criteria, patients are classified into one of the four categories: 1) definite ALS, 2) probable ALS, 3) possible ALS confirmed by laboratory tests, 4) possible or suspected ALS”7. ALS diagnostics must include the necessity of differentiation of this disease and other diseases of similar symptoms, i.e. vascular diseases, cerebellum disorders, Parkinson disease, neuropathies, brain and brain stem tumors, motor neuron diseases, myopathies, myositis, myasthenia, and musculoskeletal diseases. The ALS patients demonstrate speech disorder similar to dysarthria which is defined as: –– Speech disorder resulting from the injury of nerve centers and routes of the speech apparatus. As a result of these injuries, there are disorders in the tension of muscles participating in the speech act, which causes disorders in control and coordination of these muscle functions8. –– A group of motor-speech disorders resulting from a focal lesion, multifocal lesion or diffused damage to the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system or both. The definition of dysarthria emphasizes that abnormalities which are of organic origin affect the functional sphere of the language, i.e. articulation phonation and the elements of language prosody such as: rhythm, tempo, stress and intonation9. –– A speech disorder connected with the distorted articulation of sounds resulting from damaged nerve centers and routes of the speech apparatus (articulation, phonation and respiration). The disorders in the innervations are caused by the changes in the muscle tension and their paralysis. Here there appear disruptions of neural mechanisms in the area of voice emission, its resonance volume and formation of articulated speech sounds10. One of the symptoms of dysarthria is articulation disorder, therefore, in the area of symptoms, it resembles dyslalia. This fact drew the attention of Leon Kaczmarek who included dysarthria in the symptomatologic classification of dyslalia11. Nevertheless, in dysarthria there are additional symptoms which do not appear in dyslalia, such as disorders in the muscle tension, phonation, res

H. Grzelec, Rozpoznawanie SLA: aktualne kryteria diagnostyczne, “Polski Przegląd Neurologiczny” 2010, vol. 6, supp. A, p. 61. 8 I. Styczek, Logopedia, Warszawa 1981, p. 302. 9 I. Gatkowska, Diagnoza dyzartrii u dorosłych w neurologii klinicznej, Kraków 2012, p. 19. 10 E.M. Skorek, Z logopedią na ty. Podręczny słownik logopedyczny, Kraków 2000, p. 52–53. 11 L. Kaczmarek, Nasze dziecko uczy się mowy, Lublin 1966, p. 89–90. 7

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piration, speech fluency and allied reflexes. In dysarthria, articulation disorders can vary in their intensity, i.e. from partial distortion of phonic substance (dysarthria) to total inability of speech (anarthria). Also, the disorders of segmental and suprasegmental components are affected by impaired resonance (i.e. changes of sounding in the oral, nasal and pharyngeal cavity) and the phonation disorders mentioned earlier (i.e. generating sounds in the larynx)12.

Characteristics of types of dysarthria Dysarthric speech disorders do not present a uniform pattern but differ with respect to the degree of intensity and other symptoms, depending on the level of damage to the patient’s central nervous system. The following types of dysarthria can be distinguished: 1. Cortical dysarthria “appears when the cortex is damaged in the motor area, connected with the area of speech”13. It results in articulation, phonation and breathing impairment as well as with increased muscle tension. There appear also changes in speech tempo and the disruptions in tone and stress. “More complex communication structures become impaired, which means that the patient has not much difficulty expressing short and simple words; problems appear only while articulating more complex words”14. 2. Pyramidal dysarthria, called pseudo-bulbar dysarthria, results in excessive and discoordinated articulatory movements caused by increased muscle tension of the speech apparatus. The speech is slow and nonfluent, pronunciation of sounds is distorted. There are visible difficulties in breathing and speech tempo and tone impairment. During the act of speech some muscle pareses and allied reflexes are apparent. The depth of speech disorder depends on the level and type of muscle paresis15. 3. Subcortical dysarthria, called extra-pyramidal dysarthria, includes increased muscle tension. Milos Sovak distinguished its two types: hypertonic dysarthria – speech is unclear and slow, pronunciation is

I. Styczek, op. cit., p. 302. Ibidem. 14 G. Jastrzębowska, A. Kozołub, Dysartria, anartria, in: T. Gałkowski, G. Jastrzębowska (ed.), Logopedia – pytania i odpowiedzi: podręcznik akademicki, Opole 2001, p. 615. 15 I. Styczek, op. cit., p. 303. 12 13

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artykuły stiff, utterances are broken with a tendency to muttering (e.g. in case of patients with Parkinson disease); hyperkinetic dysarthria – inaccurate articulation, speech apparatus movements poorly precise, fast speech tempo, impaired voice pitch, tone and rhythm16. 4. Cerebral dysarthria, called ataxic dysarthria, is characterized by lowered muscle tension and the appearance of the, so-called, chanted speech, irregular speech tempo, balance disorders and problems with deliberate movements, incapability of slowing down articulatory movements and changes of tongue positions while speaking. It appears as a result of damage to the speech coordination centre in the cerebellum17. 5. Bulbar dysarthria, indicating the increased muscle tension, excessive and discoordinated articulation movements, tongue tremor, problems with chewing and swallowing “caused by damage of nerve nuclei in the bulbar, often coexisting with the damage of corticobulbar tracts and bulbar nerve nuclei”18. In this type of dysarthria, the paralysis of the muscles of the speech apparatus is either partial or total. Another classification of dysarthria includes the criteria which are significant not only for diagnostics but also therapeutic actions. It is a typology prepared in the Mayo Clinic and used in the USA. It distinguishes six types of dysarthria: flaccid dysarthria, resulting from weakening of tension in the muscles of the speech apparatus; spastic dysarthria, resulting from excessive tension of muscles of the speech apparatus; hyperkinetic dysarthria, connected with too fast movements of the muscles of the speech apparatus; hypokinetic dysarthria, caused by too slow movements of the muscles of the speech apparatus; ataxic dysarthria, resulting from disturbed coordination of movements of the speech apparatus; mixed dysarthria, characterized by a mixture of symptoms of five above-mentioned dysarthrias. This classification includes the motor system of speech organs, i.e. muscle tone (tonus), kinetics (speed of movements), coordination (coherence of movements)19. In ALS, there usually appears spastic or flaccid dysarthria which manifests itself in extreme effort during the act of speech, slow speech tempo and short phrases. ALS patients pronounce consonants imprecisely, make pauses

18 19

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I. Gatkowska, op. cit., p. 41–42. Ibidem, p. 46. I. Styczek, op. cit., p. 302. H.S. Kirshner, Zaburzenia języka i mowy, in: A. Prusiński (ed.), Neurologia w praktyce klinicznej, vol. 1: Zasady diagnostyki i postępowania, transl. J. Barycki et al., Lublin 2006, p. 195–196. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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inappropriately during the speech and their speech demonstrates excessive nasality and speech rhythm disorders20. Such people speak more slowly, which does not mean they think more slowly as the brain speech centers are usually not affected by ALS. The faster the disease progresses, the slower the speech tempo becomes, and individual words become less intelligible. Whereas breathing problems additionally weaken the voice strength, as a result of which it is monotonous and suppressed. The patient is unable to articulate even a short lexeme on exhalation and his speech must be interrupted with inhalation. The speech is highly limited in terms of syntax. Messages are short, consisting of one component, often even single words remain broken off. In the event of the soft palate and the uvula palsy, there occurs open nasality as a result of which all the sounds (even oral vowels) are articulated nasally. In case of ALS patients, speech problems result from the impaired functionality of muscles. “Respiratory muscles take part in exhaling the air from the lungs, which makes vocal cords in the larynx vibrate and causes the sounds to appear, which are next reinforced by throat and palate muscles and, finally, processed into words by tongue and lip muscles”21. In case of ALS patients, due to improper functioning of the muscles which take part in sound creation and the respiratory system, the process of speech emission becomes significantly distorted. Stephen Hawking, a scientist suffering from ALS, also had serious problems with speech emission. His speech was so unclear and slurred that people around him found it unintelligible. One of his doctoral students repeated his words during lectures. In 1985, after he had aspiration pneumonia, he lost his voice completely. In the beginning, he communicated using an alphabet board, i.e. he raised his eyebrow to point to a proper letter. Next, he used a system specially constructed for him, which consisted of a computer built into the wheelchair and an infrared sensor located on his lips. Stephen Hawking had to choose a letter with his eyes, then select a word from a virtual keyboard on a big board, using the system of auto-completion based on first letters. “Initially, the scientist was able to write 15–20 words per minute but later the speed decreased significantly”22.



Ibidem, p. 195. Problemy z mówieniem, http://mnd.pl/zaburzenia_mowy.htm (12 June 2017). 22 P. Cieśliński, O. Woźniak, Niezwykłe przypadki Stephena Hawkinga, “Gazeta Wyborcza” 21 June 2017, no. 142 – supp. “Nauka dla Każdego Extra. Astronomia”, p. 24.

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artykuły Disorders accompanying dysarthria In ALS, dysarthric disorders are also accompanied by other disorders. These are: hypersalivation, difficulties in taking food or even liquids, excessive secretion in the bronchial tree, choking, insomnia and anxiety. The most exhausting for patients is dysphagia, i.e. impaired swallowing of food, whose beginning relates to the oral phase of disorders, followed by weakening of throat and larynx muscles. The patient remains fully aware of his illness, every day copes with intensified symptoms. He becomes more and more dependent on others. Due to the spasticity of limbs, there appears pain. Anxiety and insomnia are often accompanied by depression and emotional instability: “weeping or pathological laughter are the symptoms of pseudo-bulbar syndrome, often occurring with dysarthria, dysphagia and hypersalivation, becoming also an evidence of helplessness of the patient struggling to overcome an involuntary affect”23. The voice is sharp and harsh, at the same time forced and soundless. With the development of the disease, it becomes quiet, turning into aphonia in the end. In ALS, the extremely difficult moment is the respiratory muscles atrophy, as a result of which the patient must be supported with a respirator. Usually the patient is forced to stay in hospital where he is connected to the machine. Treatment and therapy of ALS patients should include all the difficulties and disorders. Assistance should be organized so that all the patient’s needs are catered for.

Speech therapy in ALS Speech therapists’ task is to maintain the patient’s ability to emit speech as long as possible, and “it is important not only to focus on the dysarthric patient but also to maintain the ability to communicate partner-to-partner (i.e. patientto-caregiver)”24. It is essential not only to create communications in the form of sounds but also to work out non-verbal communication methods with the patient, as it is important that the patient is not left without the possibility of expressing his needs. While organizing assistance for ALS patients, a speech therapist should, first of all, bear in mind the quality of speech. He should try to maintain the

D. Adamek, B. Tomik, op. cit., p. 61. Ibidem, p. 68.

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efficiency of patient’s speech organs by encouraging him to make simple and complex movements of the tongue and lips. First, it is the speech therapist who presents the exercises, then asks the patient to imitate them. It is important that the exercises are done precisely and regularly. Beside exercises improving the tongue and lips, it is also recommended to exercise the soft palate and improve the sensory sensitivity in the oral cavity by presenting the places of articulation essential for speech production. It is also recommended to maintain the jaw efficiency by lowering and raising it, as well as by making controlled movements horizontally. Thanks to systematic exercises, the clarity of pronouncing specific phones can be improved. In order to minimize distorted articulation, some articulation exercises should be performed with the patient. It is reasonable to include these type of exercises into the speech therapy because it influences the intelligibility of patient’s communication by the nearest. Here, the speech therapist should focus on improving the production of those phones the articulation of which is distorted (in isolation, in syllables, and in words). When the patient’s speech demonstrates nasality resulting from soft palate muscle atrophy, it is recommended to use an insert stiffening the palate, which will close the nasal part of the throat. During the exercises one cannot forget about practicing the phones produced properly so that their proper sound is maintained as long as possible. The improvement of muscle tautness in the larynx and throat is made by using another group of exercises, i.e. vocal exercises. They help achieve proper pitch of voice and manage its intensity. To achieve these aims, the patient must be encouraged to articulate oral vowels (a, i, u, e, o, y) on one exhalation independently or in specific groups. It is also important to train the articulation of vowels at various pitches. “Then the patient links vowels with the consonant m or n. The syllables are repeated many times with prolonged articulation of consonants (mmma, mmmo, mmmu, etc.). Quiet murmuring eliminates larynx and throat muscle tension”25. While working on the improvement of speech intelligibility, one must not overlook breathing exercises which prolong the speech phase, i.e. exhalation phase. In case of ALS patient, they are important in training the skill of synchronizing breaks for breath with communication. Moreover, they are relaxing for the patient and stress-relieving. They can be used at the beginning of the therapy or during the therapy as a break in wearisome and exhausting exercises.

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M. Kierska, Przykładowy schemat terapii logopedycznej dla chorych na SLA, “Kwartalnik dla Chorych na SLA/MDN” 2011, no. 2, p. 11.

artykuły The patient’s body position is also important while exercising: “straight position facilitates inhalation while it makes exhalation more difficult; whereas, the bent position facilitates exhalation, making inhalation difficult”26. One cannot forget learning air-saving speech, i.e. selecting a small number of words carrying a high information content. The last group of exercises are the efforts of the speech therapist to improve speech prosody. Prosodic exercises are responsible for that. As the patients’ speech is monotonous, lacking in intonation and stress, it must be enlivened, if possible, and made more communicative in this way. To achieve that, there are exercises based on reading texts with punctuation marks, grammatical and logical stress, and increased or decreased tempo. When speech disorders intensify, it is necessary to use the following supporting strategies: “1) non-verbal strategies: drawing attention to communicating by gestures, eye contact and facial expression of the speaking patient, 2) strategies used during the speech: repeating, spelling, emphasizing (stressing) a key word, using a deep breath, focusing only on speaking, relaxation, saving energy – proper selection of words, 3) strategies used during a conversation: humor, proper interpretation by a partner, confirming understanding by a patient, giving the patient a clue of the proper context, focusing on one issue”27. Speech therapy may not be possible if the therapist does not make an effort to minimize dysphagia and forgets to instruct the family on how to feed the patient. Recommendations should include guidelines on slow eating, small intakes of food, using thickened liquids, blending or mashing food, using a semiliquid diet. It is also essential to control the patient’s nutrition and body weight regularly. Proper speech therapy also needs reducing excessive hypersalivation. To this aim, a group of exercises are introduced to strengthen facial muscles (Morales’ technique) and neck muscles. Additionally, some changes in the diet may be recommended, introducing liquids which dehydrate mucosa in the oral cavity, e.g. grapefruit juice. Reducing drooling has both practical advantages, connected with facilitating speech, and hygienic ones. “The patient may also be protected from choking by lying him on the side and protecting the mouth area with absorbable padding”28.



M. Zychowska, Opieka nad obłożnie chorym, in: P. Bała (ed.), op. cit., p. 64. D. Adamek, B. Tomik, op. cit., p. 68. 28 M. Zychowska, op. cit., p. 61.

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Moreover, it is important to make it easy for the patient to cough up the secretion from the bronchial tree by using properly selected breathing exercises to increase the breathing volume and by recommending cough stimulation. It is also essential to use inhalation in certain cases. When these recommended actions are not sufficient, bronchial toilet must be performed. “Bronchial toilet is an action of removing (suctioning) the secretion mechanically from the oral cavity and tracheostomy tube by means of an electric suction pump. It assures the airways are clear and breathing normal”29. In ALS, beside speech therapy, there are also neurological treatment and general active and passive rehabilitation used to limit muscle atrophy progression. Some of such exercises and treatments support speech therapy. For example, physiotherapy, i.e. treatment with electric current of alternating voltage, has a positive impact on increasing the sensitivity of facial muscles30. Disorders of ALS patients are progressing, thus increasing their scope. Therefore, the speech therapy cannot continue according to a strictly established action plan but should be constantly adapted to the existing conditions. It is also important that ALS patients read aloud as much as possible, exercising their phonatory, respiratory and articulatory apparatus in this way. When the patient loses his ability of communicating verbally, alternative methods of communication must be adopted. A speech therapist may help the patient and his nearest to work out an individual system of communication using writing, gestures, facial expressions, and sometimes eye movement. If such systems appear insufficient, the therapist may suggest using “an alphabet board on which the finger is moved and the patient indicates proper letters by nodding or blinking”31. The same principle may be used in computer-assisted communication. Similar possibility is offered by using communicators, i.e. small devices which enable the patient to record short messages and then play them back in specific situations. Of various types of communicators, we can use user-friendly ones, e.g. to call the nearest person, or more advanced, multilevel devices. “Some communicators have an additional plug to manage the environment (electronic control units) which enables switching on or off electronic equipment (e.g. a lamp or a TV). Others have an external memory or are launched thanks to a motion detector, which is essential for patients unable



Ibidem. R. Janicki, Rehabilitacja, in: P. Bała (ed.), op. cit., p. 34–37. 31 Problemy z mówieniem (12 June 2017).

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artykuły to press a button”32. Using a computer with proper software also offers large possibilities of communication for people with dysarthria or anarthia. Among them, there are such valuable applications which allow for efficient writing with mouse cursor and, then, processing the written message by a speech synthesizer. When the hand strength weakens, the patient can move the cursor by the system of eye or head movement tracking, or “a prototype way in which the cursor is moved by means of brain waves tracked and processed by the electrodes placed on the head of the patient”33. While working on keeping the sound form of speech, and later on facilitating communication with the surroundings, the speech therapist cannot overlook the experience, feelings, even despair which the patient struggles with at the bottom of his heart. Therefore, it is worth for the ALS patient and his family to use the assistance of a psychologist when it is difficult for them to accept the disease. It is important that the patient, despite the incurable illness progression, tries to find a way of living with the disease. Stephen Hawking, mentioned in this text, found a way to live with the disease: “It was a blessing in disguise, the illness deprived me of the ability to move but it did not cut me off two main joys of life: physics and music”34. He recalls that while listening to music (e.g. Beethoven’s compositions) he engaged in physics and, exactly, in cosmology. This illness did not hinder him from writing a scientific bestseller A brief history of time, which sold more than 10 million copies. In his book, the scientist inspired the faith in the power of human mind, thanks to which the man will be able to discover the secrets of the Universe. Despite his disease and the disability resulting from it, Stephen Hawking has been participating in global events, festivals and scientific conferences.

Conclusion Speech disorders of people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are a great problem for them, as well as a great challenge for speech therapists. Speech therapy is a long-term process and assumes the realization of many goals during various E. Zwonik, Wyjście ze świata ciszy… czyli alternatywne i wspomagające metody komunikacji, “Kwartalnik dla Chorych na SLA/MDN” 2011, no. 2, p. 15. 33 Problemy z mówieniem (12 June 2017). 34 P. Cieśliński, Krótka historia geniuszu, “Gazeta Wyborcza” 24 December 2013, no. 299 – supp. “Gazeta na Wigilię”, p. 12.

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phonatory exercises, reinforcing the muscles of speech organs, articulatory, respiratory and prosodic exercises. The type of exercises and the time must be specially tailored to the ALS person and his current needs and capabilities. It is important that the exercises are frequently performed, and the training which is too intense may lead to muscle fatigue. Speech therapy conducted in a sound and systematic way with conscious participation of the patient and full commitment of the therapist is a chance to maintain clear articulation, vibrant voice and the efficiency of speech organs essential for speaking as long as possible. Verbal communication, and later alternative communication, guarantees the patient longer living activity. Due to the fact that, presently, there is no effective rational treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, most attention is given to symptomatic treatment (minimizing spasticity, hypersalivation, emotional lability, depression). This approach includes also the actions of a speech therapist aimed at maintaining the patient’s verbal activities the longest. While deliberating on the sense of conducting a speech therapy with ALS patients, there comes up a short story Kamizelka (Waistcoat) by Bolesław Prus: “Today, while looking at an old waistcoat, I can see that there were two people working on its turnbuckle. The master adjusted the buckle every day to reassure his wife, and the mistress shortened the belt every day to lift her husband’s spirits”35. A speech therapist, just like the wife of the sick man, “shortens the belt of the waistcoat” to give hope that the illness is not progressing. In the end, there is one more question to be asked: how long should speech therapists conduct the therapy? Here come the words of Bożena Jóźwiak (ALS patient): “One day I asked my doctor: How long? I heard: Till the end”36.

References Adamek D., Tomik B., Stwardnienie boczne zanikowe, ZOZ Ośrodek Umea ShinodaKuracejo, Kraków 2005. Bała P., Podstawowe informacje o chorobie, in: P. Bała (ed.), Poradnik dla chorych na SLA/MND, Wydawnictwo Dignitas Dolentium, Nowy Targ 2009, p. 15–31. Cieśliński P., Krótka historia geniuszu, “Gazeta Wyborcza” 24 December 2013, no. 299 – supp. “Gazeta na Wigilię”, p. 12–13. Cieśliński P., Woźniak O., Niezwykłe przypadki Stephena Hawkinga, “Gazeta Wyborcza” 21 June 2017, no. 142 – supp. “Nauka dla Każdego Extra. Astronomia”, p. 24–25.

B. Prus, Nowele wybrane, Warszawa 1976, p. 37. B. Jóźwik, Od autorów, in: P. Bała (ed.), op. cit., p. 4.

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artykuły Gatkowska I., Diagnoza dyzartrii u dorosłych w neurologii klinicznej, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2012. Grzelec H., Rozpoznawanie SLA: aktualne kryteria diagnostyczne, “Polski Przegląd Neurologiczny” 2010, vol. 6, supp. A, p. 61–62. Janicki R., Rehabilitacja, in: P. Bała (ed.), Poradnik dla chorych na SLA/MND, Wydawnictwo Dignitas Dolentium, Nowy Targ 2009, p. 34–37. Jastrzębowska G., Kozołub A., Dysartria, anartria, in: T. Gałkowski, G. Jastrzębowska (ed.), Logopedia – pytania i odpowiedzi: podręcznik akademicki, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, Opole 2001, p. 611–622. Jóźwik B., Od autorów, in: P. Bała (ed.), Poradnik dla chorych na SLA/MND, Wydawnictwo Dignitas Dolentium, Nowy Targ 2009, p. 4. Kaczmarek L., Nasze dziecko uczy się mowy, Wydawnictwo Lubelskie, Lublin 1966. Kierska M., Przykładowy schemat terapii logopedycznej dla chorych na SLA, “Kwartalnik dla Chorych na SLA/MDN” 2011, no. 2, p. 11–12. Kirshner H.S., Zaburzenia języka i mowy, in: A. Prusiński (ed.), Neurologia w praktyce klinicznej, vol. 1: Zasady diagnostyki i postępowania, transl. J. Barycki et al., Wydawnictwo Czelej, Lublin 2006, p. 194–198. Kubiszewska J., Kwieciński H., Stwardnienie boczne zanikowe, “Postępy Nauk Medycznych” 2010, no. 6, p. 440–448. Problemy z mówieniem, http://mnd.pl/zaburzenia_mowy.htm (12 June 2017). Prus B., Nowele wybrane, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1976. Rubinowicz-Zasada M., Orczyk A., Orczyk M., Pasek J., Stwardnienie boczne zanikowe – choroba neuronu ruchowego. Prezentacja przypadku, “Pediatria i Medycyna Rodzinna” 2015, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 112–118. Skorek E.M., Z logopedią na ty. Podręczny słownik logopedyczny, “Impuls”, Kraków 2000. Słowik A., Golenia A., Genetyka stwardnienia bocznego zanikowego, “Polski Przegląd Neurologiczny” 2010, vol. 6, supp. A, p. 60–61. Styczek I., Logopedia, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1981. Zychowska M., Opieka nad obłożnie chorym, in: P. Bała (ed.), Poradnik dla chorych na SLA/MND, Wydawnictwo Dignitas Dolentium, Nowy Targ 2009, p. 55–77. Zwonik E., Wyjście ze świata ciszy… czyli alternatywne i wspomagające metody komunikacji, “Kwartalnik dla Chorych na SLA/MDN” 2011, no. 2, s. 14–16.

Abstrakt Język uwięziony w ciele: dlaczego Stephen Hawking nie mówi? Pomoc logopedyczna u pacjentów ze stwardnieniem zanikowym bocznym Artykuł prezentuje kierunki pomocy logopedycznej organizowanej w odniesieniu do osób cierpiących na SLA (stwardnienie zanikowe boczne). Jest to choroba społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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nieuleczalna, która powoduje uzależnienie od osób trzecich. Postępując, zabiera możliwość samodzielnego poruszania się, spożywania posiłków. Powoduje niedowłady, zaburzenia połykania, trudności z oddychaniem. Na wycofanie się osoby chorej z życia mają wpływ także zaburzenia mowy w postaci dyzartrii (anartrii). Tekst pokazuje, w nawiązaniu do historii najsłynniejszego pacjenta cierpiącego na SLA – Stephena Hawkinga, w jaki sposób logopeda może pomóc chorym w utrzymaniu werbalnego porozumiewania się. Prezentuje zakres terapii logopedycznej wobec pacjentów z SLA, tj. ćwiczenia narządów mowy (języka, warg, podniebienia miękkiego, żuchwy), fonacyjne, oddechowe, artykulacyjne, prozodyczne oraz inne – służące np. ograniczeniu nadmiernego ślinienia, zminimalizowaniu zaburzeń połykania, odkrztuszaniu wydzieliny z drzewa oskrzelowego. Słowa kluczowe: stwardnienie zanikowe boczne, Stephen Hawking, pomoc logopedyczna, dyzartria

Abstract Language trapped in the body: why Stephen Hawking does not speak? Speech therapy for patients with ALS The paper presents the trends in speech therapy organized for people suffering from ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). It is an incurable disease which causes dependence on other people. While progressing, it eliminates the ability to move and eat meals. It causes pareses, swallowing disorders, breathing difficulty. People suffering from this disease withdraw from life also due to speech disorders such as dysarthria (anarthria). With reference to the story of the most famous ALS patient – Stephen Hawking, the paper shows how a speech therapist can help people with ALS to maintain verbal communication. It presents the scope of speech therapy for ALS patients, i.e. exercising speech organs (the tongue, lips, the soft palate, the mandible), doing breathing and vocal exercises, articulation and prosodic exercises, as well as others which serve to, e.g. minimize hypersalivation, swallowing disorders, and expectoration of secretions from the bronchi. Key words: amyotrophic Lateran sclerosis, Stephen Hawking, speech therapy, dysarthria

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artykuły Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 121–131 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Urszula Kempińska

Socio-cultural implications of reading novels from the series “Fifty shades of Grey” by E.L. James

Introduction On February 7, 2017, the world film premiere of Fifty shades darker took place – a screen version of the second volume of the novel by E.L. James1. The film brought in $378,827,494 (data for the day of May 16, 2017)2. The first part of the trilogy titled Fifty shades of Grey (world premiere on February 9, 2015) earned $570,489,358. In Poland, the film set a cinematic record. During the first three days it was seen by 834,479 spectators. Only on the Valentine’s Day (February 14, 2015), 425,000 tickets were sold – this day went down as the most profitable in the history of Polish cinema3. It should be also mentioned that the dates of the premieres of subsequent films about Grey influenced the calendar of the entire film market. The popularity of the films reached the fame of the books4. Fifty shades of Grey climbed to the top of the bestseller list in many countries, including the United Kingdom, France and the United States. In the US, in just six weeks the first part of the trilogy was

The Polish premiere took place on 10 February 2017. Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya (2015), http://www.filmweb.pl/film/Pi%C4%99%C4%87 dziesi%C4%85t+twarzy+Greya-2015-655761 (16 May 2017). 3 P. Witczuk, Na czym polega fenomen Greya?, http://artykulypatrykwitczuk.blox. pl/2015/03/Na-czym-polega-fenomen-Greya.html (10 May 2017). 4 The series consists of 50 shades of Grey, Fifty shades darker, and Fifty shades freed. 1

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sold in more than 10 million copies5, in France in 2012 and 2013 – in 2.4 million copies6. The copyright laws to translation were sold to 37 countries and the first volume broke the record of the fastest-selling soft-cover book of all time, being ahead of the Harry Potter books and it topped the “New York Times” bestseller list for ten weeks. The next parts, the second and the third volume, took up next places7. According to Eva Illouz, the popularity of the book has influenced the sale of erotic gadgets and games in the world. Since placing of the first volume on the market (January 2012), a sex-shop in Manhattan has remarkably increased the sale of specific erotic toys used by the heroes of the book. The shop also organizes theme-inspired workshops where participants (mostly women) learn how to use them. On the other hand, the company Pure Romance which runs intimate competence training revealed the information that from May to August 2012 the sales of bondage accessories increased by 186 percent, of masks – by 121 percent, and of product named Personal Trainer (vaginal balls on cord) by 772 percent in comparison with the corresponding period of 20118. On February 16, 2017, there was placed on the market the board game 50 shades of Grey9. In France, in only two days, 150,000 copies were sold (27.98 euros per copy), 40 million – in the world. Average buyer rating was above 4.7 out of 5 points10. In 2012, the author appeared on the list of “100 most influential people in the world”, drawn up by the magazine “Time”11.

The phenomenon of the books The fact that Grey’s saga has become a bestseller makes us realize that in the Western culture profound changes in values have taken place. Banal vocabulary, mass repetitions, wrong text editing, and despite those faults the book is still

E. Illouz, Hardkorowy romans. “Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya”, bestsellery i społeczeństwo, transl. J. Konieczny, Warszawa 2015, p. 12. 6 M. Bigey, 50 nuances de Grey: du phénomène à sa réception, “Hermès, La Revue” 2014, vol. 2, no. 69, p. 88. 7 E. Illouz, op. cit., p. 12 and 53. 8 Ibidem, p. 126 and 129. 9 50 nuances de Grey, le jeu de société, https://www.jeu-de-soiree.fr/jeux-de-societe/50nuances-de-grey-30 (20 March 2017). 10 50 nuances de Grey – Jeu de société – Imc Toys, http://www.priceminister.com/offer/ buy/254951731/50-nuances-de-grey-jeu-de-societe.html (20 March 2017). 11 E. Podsiadły-Natorska, Na czym polega fenomen „Pięćdziesięciu twarzy Greya”?, http://kobieta.wp.pl/na-czym-polega-fenomen-piecdziesieciu-twarzy-greya5982753062757505a (10 May 2017). 5

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artykuły popular. As is well-judged by Eva Illouz, “bestselling publications increasingly differ from what critics consider aesthetically important literature. This divergence between the economic and cultural areas is itself the result of the intense commodification of the latter. On the bestseller lists, there appear more and more authors who are created by the system in which the market and marketing techniques are the most important”12. “The book that starts to function as a bestseller becomes fashionable and some people want to read it for that reason. This involves imitation, the desire to know what other people already know”13. The success of Fifty shades of Grey is also due to the high availability of the novel via the Internet14 and e-readers, as well as to its rhetorical force included in pornographic/erotic content and – finally – in the interaction with culture which gives rise to an increasingly autonomous sexuality, making its sphere of action ruled by separate principles and moral values. In addition, the novel mobilized the activities of film industries, gadget manufacturers, newsgroups. Finally, it has made a significant impact on the sexual lives of readers15 and provided many people with quick and easy entertainment. The views expressed in this book were so attractive that they entered the cultural circuit (and became iconic for some people). E.L. James hit perfectly a target of social changes. She has made millions of women realize that it is worth talking openly about their desires and needs. Sex has ceased to be a taboo topic. It seems that the strength of the popularity of the series is also based on the fact that it refers to the fantasy of many women. Fantasies, being exceptional and worth doing. An innocent, sensitive, timid, ordinary girl meets her knight on a white horse, a rich prince who desires her and only her and is ready to do anything for her. The book used pleasure as a useful method of transferring fantasy to readers’ lives. Fantasy, as Eva Illouz asserts, “is pleasant because it eliminates scarcity and conflict, simply denying their existence; moreover, it is a way not only to overcome the limitations of reality, but also to incorporate this reality into an escape gesture”16. For many women, fantasizing is an escape from daily problems. This book is also popular because it points to male sexuality and emotionality. Increasingly, this kind of sexuality is referred to as recreational, which involves the accumulation of further erotic experiences. This creates a culture of anxiety about the ability of men

E. Illouz, op. cit., p. 17–18. Ibidem, p. 31. 14 In the Internet version, the first volume was created as a fan fiction, i.e. the inclusion of the reader-consumer in co-creation of the product. During the process of writing, the author was taking into account the suggestions of the readers (E. Illouz, op. cit., p. 33). 15 Ibidem, p. 29. 16 Ibidem, p. 45–46 and 48. 12 13

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to engage in emotional problems. The main protagonist of the novel is such a “typical” man filled with fright while thinking of emotional engagement. Changing from a sadist into a romantic lover, he meets the deep-seated fantasies of women about a man who changes under the influence of affection for his beloved girl17.

Looking for the advantages of Fifty shades The edition and sale of the series gave grounds for the statement that the fashion for the novel by E.L. James can save Polish readership. It also allowed us to think that after reading little ambitious literature we would reach for books from the upper shelf. According to the data published by the National Library, “in 2014, the percentage of readers reading at least one book as well as intense readers (reading 7 books and more) got stabilized respectively around 40 percent and 11 percent”. The most popular was the series about Grey18. A year later, when the first enthusiasm for these books passed, only 37 percent of Poles read at least one book, which in practice means the lowest result in the history of research on reading in general19. Taking the above into consideration, it seems that the only good thing about the series is the fact that the women – especially the mature ones – have rediscovered their own sexuality, they started to fight with shame and inhibition. LELO’s international survey carried out among 10,000 women from eight countries (including England, the USA, Japan, France and Germany, among others), aged 25–50, showed that more than 76 percent of them influenced by the series about Grey finally told openly their partners what they really expected from them. Three out of four stated that their sexual intercourses lasted much longer than before, they were more frequent and more regular20. Whereas in Poland, according to Zbigniew Izdebski, “social-cultural changes” influence more significantly people’s sexual behaviors than the contents of the book21.

Ibidem, p. 70, 74. I. Koryś, D. Michalak, R. Chymkowski, Stan czytelnictwa w Polsce w 2014 roku, Warszawa 2015, p. 5 and 39. 19 D. Michalak, I. Koryś, J. Kopeć, Stan czytelnictwa w Polsce w 2015 roku, Warszawa 2016, p. 4. 20 B. London, 2012 is the year vanilla turned grey, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/ article-2242741/2012-year-vanilla-turned-grey-The-nations-sex-lives-50-kinkierresult-fifty-shades-effect.html (18 May 2017). 21 Z. Izdebski, “Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya” a seks polski (interviewed by J. Noch), http:// natemat.pl/46485,piecdziesiat-twarzy-greya-a-seks-polski-prof-izdebski-ta-ksiazkawielu-mogla-dac-inspiracje (27 May 2017). 17

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artykuły The effects of obsession with E.L. James’ book When we talk about human sexuality, it seems easy to put a border between the norm and pathology. It is really weird enough as sexual life is closely related to what is defined as a sexual drive, a basic biological need, or a conditioned reflex. So it should run within the narrow limits of the innate functional structure. These structures, however, as Antoni Kępiński asserts, “being burdened with a strong emotional load, are easily fixed”22. American researchers at the University of Michigan have examined 655 women aged 18–24 (219 who have read at least the first novel of the trilogy and 436 who have not read any parts). According to Amy Bonomi, research coordinator, the book in a veiled manner “fixes the standard of dangerous abuse” by introducing romantic stories into the plot. Christian Gray, the charming main character, applies “typical abusive strategies” to his partner including persecution, intimidation, social isolation and sexual violence. Researchers have found that reading the books by E.L. James is conducive to the development of undesirable and destructive behaviors, such as excessive drinking, eating disorders, risky sexual behavior and toxic relationships. Up to 25 percent female readers has not left their partner who shouted at them or humiliated them. Women who have read more than one part of the trilogy showed the more frequent tendency to such attitudes and life decisions. Thirty-four percent of women did not give up on relationships with men who tended to stalking behavior. In addition, the researchers found that the respondents were prone to eating disorders. Up to 75 percent of them admitted that they had been abstaining from eating for at least one day or had used substances that were supposed to speed up slimming (the main character, Anastasia Steele, refuses to eat). Women who have read all three books in the series, 65 percent more often had consumed at least five or more alcoholic beverages for six or more days in the last month and were more likely to have five or more sexual partners than those who have not read any book. Scientists have not explicitly determined whether such inclinations appeared only after reading the saga by E.L. James: “if women experienced adverse health behaviors first (e.g., disordered eating), reading Fifty shades might reaffirm those experiences and potentially aggravate related trauma. Likewise, if women read Fifty shades before experiencing the health behaviors assessed in our study, it is possible that the book influenced the onset of these behaviors by creating an underlying context for the



A. Kępiński, Z psychopatologii życia seksualnego, Kraków 2003, p. 8 and 13.

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behaviors”23. What is more, the LELO survey shows that the number of people taking risky and atypical sexual behaviors has increased following the placing of the discussed books on the market. 73 percent of the respondents admitted to having sex in their cars, 36 percent – in the park, 22 percent – in the office; 73 percent of the women had “sex on the phone”24. According to Eva Illouz, “the series in question does not advocate conventional bourgeois morality, but introduces into the mainstream underground sexual practices: bondage, whipping, sadism and masochism (BDSM). The series represents the ultimate triumph of female cultural perspectives absorbed in love and sexuality, emotions and the ability to create a lasting love bond with a man”25 (of course, someone very rich and influential). We do not need to transfer all elements taken from books or films to our lives, especially those which are fear-inspiring. Undue or unintentional imitation is associated with negative effects. You have to distance yourself from everything that you read or watch (especially images with romantic themes). Some people may like Grey’s story. We are not allowed to deprive women of a right to read what they want and make their own choices in their love life. Adults usually have a clear view at their mutual relationship, so reading a pornographic novel or watching a movie of that genre will not make much difference in their lives. A mature woman will read a book, perhaps with flush on her face, will fantasize about the “ideal” partner, or will suggests him the erotic fun described in the novel. However, we may be sure that she will not dream about the partner who will show disrespect to her feelings, humiliate, control and delimit her rights. She knows what a healthy sexual relationship is, and she is aware of the fact that imposing someone’s own lifestyle is a sort of psychological violence. Just like you cannot forbid adults to read such “masterpieces”, you cannot look indifferently at why teens enjoy this literature and find it attractive. For many years, I have been researching the causes and effects of minor parenting, and above all – marriages with the consent of the guardian court. I mean the marriages imposed by pregnancy26.



A.E. Bonomi, J.M. Nemeth, L.E. Altenburger, M.L. Anderson, A. Snyder, I. Dotto, Fiction or not? Fifty Shades is associated with health risks in adolescent and young adult females, “Journal of Women’s Health” 2014, vol. 23, no. 9, p. 720–728. 24 B. London, op. cit. (18 May 2017). 25 E. Illouz, op. cit., p. 7–8. 26 U. Kempińska, Małżeństwa młodocianych. Ciąża, ślub i co dalej...?, Toruń 2012; idem, Wybory życiowe dzieci małżonków młodocianych, Poznań 2013; idem, Potrzeba pracy socjalnej z nastoletnimi małżeństwami i ich rodzinami, “Praca Socjalna” 2015, no. 2, p. 23

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artykuły The results show the following causes of premature sexual initiation: emotional coldness, child’s loneliness in the family and the lack of knowledge about sexual life. Fortunate are the girls who, after having read this book, could discuss it with a mature person, such as mother. Romantic novels always influenced generations of women. Many readers wanted to meet romantic heroes like Józef Tolibowski, Jan Bohatyrowicz, Waldemar Michorowski, or having worldwide fame Romeo and Rhett Butler, about whom they dreamed and fantasized. However, in such fantasies the knight loves, demonstrates courtly etiquette, brings flowers, yearns for his beloved, and dreams about her, and not just has sex, often based on BDSM practices. It should be borne in mind that the forms of sexual life of adults often reflect the memories of the first sexual experiences. This applies both to the situation and the partner. In each person’s sexual style, one can easily discover repetitive patterns. The new sexual partner often reminds the former one, especially someone from the youth27. Therefore, you must not leave adolescent girls alone with such contents. They do not yet know what a healthy relationships between people mean. Thus, if they do not have proper patterns in their home, they will not be able to talk with an adult about their doubts or fantasies. It may happen that after reading the third volume of the trilogy they may encode in their minds that a successful relationship is based on violence and that after sex with handcuffs, after being humiliated, their partner will have a guilty conscience, so he will buy them a platinum bracelet. Will such a girl be able to set moral limits for her future partner? That is why reading this book by teens is so dangerous. The danger is also in the promotion of “heroine’s mediocrity” which strengthens the power of fantasy since it makes the heroine similar to all the women who secretly tremble with fear that they are not sufficiently unique and unusual. And yet Christian (a billionaire) is choosing Ana (short for Anastasia) – a simple, ordinary, clumsy girl. The novel also contains a fantasy that “our ordinariness can transform into uniqueness when one affirms our value by giving us love”28. The danger of reading these books, especially with regard to the teenagers, also stems from the fact that: 1. Their contents tells about crossing of moral boundaries (transgression). 2. They describe love afflicted with difficulties but only before marriage. 3–19; idem, Mother’s age and the marital-parental role fulfillment: the research report, “Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” 2015, no. 44 (3), p. 174–185. 27 A. Kępiński, op. cit., p. 13–14. 28 E. Illouz, op. cit., p. 89 and 92. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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3. They promote patterns of female–male relations which are far from healthy relationships. 4. Although the novel is not a formal textbook, it depicts the techniques and suggests solutions that the reader can directly use in his or her erotic life. 5. They contain untrue information. The main character calls himself a “priapic president”29 and is proud of it; and one should add that priapism is a disease symptom consisting of a long-lasting painful erection of a penis that is not associated with sexual arousal or excitement30, so this physiological symptom is manifested only by a sick man. 6. They show the objectification of the other person. The partner ceases to be a human being and becomes a means of discharging sexual drive. And just on 1800 pages we are witnessing the gradual animalization, not only of Ana. 7. Christian Grey does not exist, his whole world is fictional.

Conclusion Sexuality has a variety of shades and it is important to explain to teens that what they see while watching pornographic films or reading such books is not real. Teaching young people to distinguish fiction from reality is a task for parents, teachers, and sexual health professionals. They should engage children in constructive conversations and discussions about sexuality, body image, sexual roles and healthy relationships before they begin to form their own relationships. Well, they should, but... The study conducted in 2014 by TNS shows that in Poland only 46 percent of parents talk with their kids about various everyday life problems31. Thus, what is the chance that they will start talking to teenagers on such a difficult topic as sex in a BDSM convention? In such situation, it seems that the role of educator should be taken over by the school, but nowadays only 14 hours a year are assigned for the family life education32. Young people who do not have the proper knowledge, after reading books so strongly influencing the imagination and

31 32

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E.L. James, Ciemniejsza strona Greya, transl. M. Wiśniewska, Katowice 2017, p. 534. Z. Lew-Starowicz, Encyklopedia erotyki, Warszawa 2004, p. 474. Ile czasu rodzice poświęcają swoim dzieciom?, report no. K.047/14, Warszawa, July 2014. Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej w sprawie sposobu nauczania szkolnego oraz zakresu treści dotyczących wiedzy o życiu seksualnym człowieka, o zasadach świadomego i odpowiedzialnego rodzicielstwa, o wartości rodziny, życia w fazie prenatalnej

artykuły stimulating fancy, can take risky sexual behaviors, as evidenced by the example from the Philippines. “Because of the bleeding, a 14-year-old girl died; together with her boyfriend she tried to imitate scenes from Fifty shades of Grey. The partner tied her hands and feet with rubber bands. In addition, as he could not find the belt, he was whipping the girl with… the tail of the flatfish. An unusually sharp tail lacerated her body, leaving deep wounds almost to the bones, which quickly led to her bleeding to death. The 14-year-old girl died in real physical suffering”33. Summing up, the teenagers cannot be left alone with their questions after reading such books. The adults should encourage them to explore their sexuality gradually, in compliance with their age. In any case, they should not be forced to anything. The popularity of the series Fifty shades of Grey means a slow decline in values, such as love, respect, freedom, independence. Perhaps the phenomenon of these books will start the discussion on the need to change the approach to sexual education in Polish families and schools.

References 50 nuances de Grey: jeu de société – Imc Toys, http://www.priceminister.com/offer/ buy/254951731/50-nuances-de-grey-jeu-de-societe.html (20 March 2017). 50 nuances de Grey, le jeu de société, https://www.jeu-de-soiree.fr/jeux-de-societe/50nuances-de-grey-30 (20 March 2017). Bigey M., 50 nuances de Grey: du phénomène à sa réception, “Hermès, La Revue” 2014, vol. 2, no. 69, p. 88–90. Bonomi A.E., Nemeth J.M., Altenburger L.E., Anderson M.L., Snyder A., Dotto I., Fiction or not? Fifty Shades is associated with health risks in adolescent and young adult females, “Journal of Women’s Health” 2014, vol. 23, no. 9, p. 720–728. Ile czasu rodzice poświęcają swoim dzieciom?, report no. K.047/14, TNS, Warszawa, July 2014. Illouz E., Hardkorowy romans. “Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya”, bestsellery i społeczeństwo, transl. J. Konieczny, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2015. Izdebski Z., “Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya” a seks polski (interviewed by J. Noch), http:// natemat.pl/46485,piecdziesiat-twarzy-greya-a-seks-polski-prof-izdebski-taksiazka-wielu-mogla-dac-inspiracje (27 May 2017). oraz metodach i środkach świadomej prokreacji zawartych w podstawie programowej kształcenia ogólnego (Journal of Laws of 1999, no. 67, item 756). 33 Nie żyje, bo chciała być jak bohaterka “Pięćdziesięciu twarzy Greya”, http://film.interia. pl/wiadomosci/news-nie-zyje-bo-chciala-byc-jak-bohaterka-piecdziesieciu-twarzy,nId,2352746 (3 March 2017). społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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James E.L., Ciemniejsza strona Greya, transl. M. Wiśniewska, Wydawnictwo Sonia Draga, Katowice 2017. Kempińska U., Małżeństwa młodocianych. Ciąża, ślub i co dalej…?, Wydawnictwo Edukacyjne “Akapit”, Toruń 2012. Kempińska U., Mother’s age and the marital-parental role fulfillment: the research report, “Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” 2015, no. 44 (3), p. 174–185. Kempińska U., Potrzeba pracy socjalnej z nastoletnimi małżeństwami i ich rodzinami, “Praca Socjalna” 2015, no. 2, p. 3–19. Kempińska U., Wybory życiowe dzieci małżonków młodocianych, Instytut Naukowo-Wydawniczy Maiuscula, Poznań 2013. Kępiński A., Z psychopatologii życia seksualnego, Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków 2003. Koryś I., Michalak D., Chymkowski R., Stan czytelnictwa w Polsce w 2014 roku, Biblioteka Narodowa, Warszawa 2015. Lew-Starowicz Z., Encyklopedia erotyki, Muza, Warszawa 2004. London B., 2012 is the year vanilla turned grey, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/ article-2242741/2012-year-vanilla-turned-grey-The-nations-sex-lives-50kinkier-result-fifty-shades-effect.html (18 May 2017). Michalak D., Koryś I., Kopeć J., Stan czytelnictwa w Polsce w 2015 roku, Biblioteka Narodowa, Warszawa 2016. Nie żyje, bo chciała być jak bohaterka “Pięćdziesięciu twarzy Greya”, http://film. interia.pl/wiadomosci/news-nie-zyje-bo-chciala-byc-jak-bohaterkapiecdziesieciu-twarzy-,nId,2352746 (3 March 2017). Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya (2015), http://www.filmweb.pl/film/Pi%C4%99%C4% 87dziesi%C4%85t+twarzy+Greya-2015-655761 (16 May 2017). Podsiadły-Natorska E., Na czym polega fenomen „Pięćdziesięciu twarzy Greya”?, http://kobieta.wp.pl/na-czym-polega-fenomen-piecdziesieciu-twarzy-greya5982753062757505a (10 May 2017). Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej w sprawie sposobu nauczania szkolnego oraz zakresu treści dotyczących wiedzy o życiu seksualnym człowieka, o zasadach świadomego i odpowiedzialnego rodzicielstwa, o wartości rodziny, życia w fazie prenatalnej oraz metodach i środkach świadomej prokreacji zawartych w podstawie programowej kształcenia ogólnego (Journal of Laws of 1999, no. 67, item 756). Witczuk P., Na czym polega fenomen Greya?, http://artykulypatrykwitczuk.blox. pl/2015/03/Na-czym-polega-fenomen-Greya.html (10 May 2017).

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artykuły Abstrakt Społeczno-kulturowe implikacje lektury powieści z serii „Pięćdziesiąt twarzy Greya” E.L. James Książka 50 twarzy Greya autorstwa E.L. James wspięła się na szczyt list bestsellerów w wielu krajach, m.in. w Wielkiej Brytanii, Francji czy Stanach Zjednoczonych, gdzie trafiła do słynnego zestawienia „New York Timesa”. To, że saga o Greyu stała się tak popularna, uświadamia nam, że w kulturze Zachodu zaszły głębokie przemiany wartości moralnych. Banalne słownictwo, masa powtórzeń, niepoprawne zredagowanie całego tekstu, a książka wciąż się sprzedaje. Amerykańscy badacze stwierdzili, że lektura tych książek sprzyja rozwijaniu się niepożądanych i destrukcyjnych zachowań, takich jak: nadmierne picie alkoholu, zaburzenia odżywiania, podejmowanie ryzykownych zachowań seksualnych i trwanie w toksycznym związku. Celem artykułu jest ukazanie implikacji, jakie wiążą się z czytaniem książek o zabarwieniu pornograficznym, w szczególności przez nastoletnie dziewczęta. Jest też próbą zwrócenia uwagi na konieczność zmian w polskiej edukacji seksualnej. Słowa kluczowe: 50 twarzy Greya, bestseller, czytelnictwo, przemiany wartości moralnych, nastolatki

Abstract Socio-cultural implications of reading novels from the series “Fifty shades of Grey” by E.L. James The book 50 shades of Grey by E.L. James got to the top of bestseller lists in many countries, including the United Kingdom, France or the USA, where it hit the famous “New York Times” list. The fact that the saga about Grey has become a bestseller makes us realize that Western cultures have profoundly transformed moral values. Banal vocabulary, lots of repetitions, wrong redaction of the whole text, and despite such faults the book still sells. American researchers have found that reading these books leads to the development of undesirable and destructive behaviors such as excessive drinking, eating disorders, risky sexual behavior and toxic relationships. The purpose of the article is to show the advantages and effects of reading pornographic books. This remark relates especially to teenage girls. It is also an attempt to draw attention to the necessity of some changes in Polish sexual education. Key words: 50 shades of Grey, bestseller, reading, transformation of moral values, teenagers

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Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 132–146 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Emilia Kramkowska

Violence against elderly people as a dark side of functioning of the modern family

Introduction A wide range of attributions can be ascribed to the modern societies including Poland. There has been a lot of discussion about the knowledge-based society, the consumer society, the risk society, the civil society, or the somatic society. Our reality is constantly being analyzed and studied, in result we know more and more about it. These analyses or studies also suggest that the modern family, as a basic social unit, is in crisis. Over 30 years ago, Franciszek Adamski defined the family as a social group, which is distinguished by “a spiritual union of a small number of people focused on their hearth with acts of mutual support and care; based on the belief in true or alleged biological connection, family, and social tradition”1. Family defined in such a manner emphasizes the unique link between family members as well as the shared care of each other’s well-being. Therefore, the family is one of the main areas in human’s life. Not surprisingly, regular surveys indicate that when Polish people are asked about their system of values, they put family, more precisely family happiness, in the first place (over 82 percent of declarations)2. It is difficult to estimate the percentage of respondents who already have a happy family life and the percentage of

F. Adamski, Socjologia małżeństwa i rodziny: wprowadzenie, Warszawa 1984, p. 21. R. Boguszewski (ed.), Normy i wartości, research report no. BS/111/2013, Warszawa, August 2013, p. 2.

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artykuły respondents who would also like their next of kin to have a happy family life. Modern family is experiencing a number of difficulties: behavior issues, more and more varied and sneaky addictions enslaving family members and making the life unbearable for the rest, the growing number of divorces, etc. There is also one more malady in modern families, i.e. violence. Anthony Giddens defines violence as “physical force directed against the self or others”3. Małgorzata Halicka and Jerzy Halicki state that violence is imposing your will on somebody or coercing somebody into something4. Krzysztof Frysztacki, on the other hand, believes that the definition of violence is heavily dependent on culture, customs and is a result of social relations5. Regardless of the context, violence is always an example of violation of another person’s rights and dignity. It is also an abuse and there is always a disparity between the perpetrator and the victim. The specificity of domestic violence is the fact that it appears in relations of people who should be bound by a very particular type of relation. That might be the reason why domestic violence is such a painful experience. The configuration of violence between family members might vary. It might appear between spouses, a parent and a kid, a grandchild and grandparents, or between parents-in-law and son-in-law/daughter-in-law6. Each case is definitely worth scrutinizing, however, this article will only deal with violence against elderly people inflicted by grown-up children. It seems that presenting the problem stated in the paper’s title through the reference to the special parent–child bond is the best way to illustrate the issue. Moreover, this article is based on interviews with mothers who are victims of aggressive behavior of their sons and daughters. Consequently, the presented material is based on true stories of people for whom family ceased to be a safe haven. The aim of this paper is to show the problem of domestic violence against elderly people through the description of selected aspects of abuse carried out by grown-up children towards elderly parents. It is violence against children which is usually analyzed, but this problem has also the opposite vector. The article presents the circumstances of the violence of grown-up children against



A. Giddens, Sociology, Cambridge 2006, p. 169. M. Halicka, J. Halicki, Przemoc wobec ludzi starych jako przedmiot badań, in: idem (eds.), Przemoc wobec ludzi starych. Na przykładzie badań środowiskowych w województwie podlaskim, Białystok 2010, p. 20. 5 K. Frysztacki, Socjologia problemów społecznych, Warszawa 2009, p. 112. 6 See more: E. Kramkowska, Człowiek stary jako ofiara przemocy w rodzinie, Gdańsk – Białystok 2016, p. 154–280. 3

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elderly parents, the types of aggressive behavior, the victims’ reaction to the abuse, and the forms of dealing with it.

Some information about the research and the study sample The empirical data, which is the foundation of this article, was collected while conducting research amongst old people living in Podlaskie Voivodeship. The first stage of the research was the interview with Social Welfare Centre workers (n = 145) about the domestic violence experienced by the elderly, i.e. men and women at/over the age of 60. Social workers were asked about their experience in working with elderly victims of domestic violence. If an interviewee knew such situations7, they were asked to contact with the victim and inquire if such a person would like to tell their story to the author of this paper. Twelve people agreed to share their life stories. The interviews with the victims were conducted from July 2011 to December 2011. Each person agreed to have their conversation recorded. It usually lasted 100–140 minutes. The interviews generally took place in the victims’ houses, however, at times, at the victim’s request, the author met with them in the Social Welfare Centre. After each conversation, a transcript was written, which was later analyzed. Each interviewed victim of domestic violence was a woman. Seven of them suffered violence from a grown-up child (five women were abused by a son, two – by a daughter), one was abused by both husband and a grown-up child, while the remaining four suffered violence from a husband. Mothers and wives who took part in the research are women aged 61–86. Four of them did not turn 70 yet (aged 61, 62, 64 and 67). Two were aged 74, one – 76, and one – 77. The remaining four were women over the age of 80, i.e. one was 81, another – 84, and the last two were 86. The interviewees’ education was varied: four women had incomplete primary education, three completed primary school. Four narrators said they had secondary school education, and one – basic vocational education. All respondents admitted to having health problems: neurosis, heart problems (inserted pacemaker), arterial hypertension. One woman suffered three ischemic strokes, as a result of which she had problems with speaking. At the time of the interviews, all of the women were pensioners receiving monthly pension, which was the main source of their income.

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Amongst 145 interviewed employees, 85 had worked with a victim of domestic violence.

artykuły An ungrateful child – the circumstances of violence While examining the phenomenon of violence against elderly people, Irena Pospiszyl notices that ever since the issue became a topic of interest, the question “if violence against elderly people is a specific category of flawed intergenerational relations or if it follows the same patterns as those which accompany violence against other family members still remains unresolved”8. It is difficult to unequivocally answer such a question. It seems that violence against elderly people as well as violence against other family members have a lot in common. Moreover, the age variable definitely determines various aspects of violence. Basing on the stories of mothers who are victims of domestic violence inflicted by their sons and daughters, several circumstances surrounding the problem might be noticed. The first of the women was a 67-year-old active and headstrong woman trying different things to change in her son’s behavior. She mentioned that he had always been a difficult kid, “it was always hard to understand him, what he wanted. And now it is even worse. He is an adult, but his life didn’t go the way he planned because his wife went to the USA with their son, divorced him and he stayed behind” (N1/67)9. The victim mentioned that the reason of her son’s divorce was his party lifestyle and alcohol urge. After the man was left by his wife, he asked his mother to move in with her. She agreed because, as she explained, she felt sorry for him, “because he tugged at my heartstring, he is my child after all and when I registered him for permanent reside, he started being unruly, he already started getting at me” – the woman said (N1/67). A similar story has been told by another woman, a 74-year-old mother: “my son came and begged me on his knees to take him, because when he went to Belgium to his wife, who left him, she already had another man. And he came back to Poland and how I could not have taken him in when he asked” (N8/74). Or another mother’s explanation: “it’s hard for me, son doesn’t work, he’s 55. He lived in his house and had a wife who liked to drink. And they didn’t pay the electricity bill, the rent, nothing. He complained to me about the situation, so I gave him the money, paid for everything and then took him in” (N9/86). Both women talked about son’s alcohol abuse and they mentioned that the daughterin-law liked to drink and that she dragged them into addiction.

I. Pospiszyl, Przemoc w rodzinie, Warszawa 1994, p. 84. The interview description: N (narrator), digit indicates which interview it was, last figure is interviewee’s age.

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Another woman’s son also had alcohol problems. In his case, the addiction was a consequence of his destructive way of dealing with the death of his wife. The narrator said: “he was married, his wife died of cancer. Later he had a concubine, but with her he didn’t live, he just kept partying with her and that’s how he started to drink. Probably because of sadness or anguish. And that concubine kicked him out and where he should go, to mother he came” (N7/86). Similar experiences were also shared by a mother whose son living with her kept failing in every undertaking he tried. From the mother’s narration it appeared that her son tried to find release from his failures in alcohol, and while being intoxicated he became extremely aggressive, which affected not only her but also her grandson. The narrator said that her son’s marriage fell apart when his wife left for Belgium, leaving her husband and son. She, the grandmother, took care of grandson’s upbringing and her son didn’t help her, in fact, he hampered it. Life failures and alcohol problems touched him so much that it evoked aggression. There are two more women, victims of domestic violence inflicted by their daughters. The reason for one daughter’s violence was her alcohol abuse, which began because of an unsuccessful marriage. “When she got married, she was 20. I couldn’t say anything negative about her – the narrator said. – She was a good girl. But later, when her husband left her, she started to be unruly; she started to drink, started to go out with guys, started to causing rows and my peaceful life ended. I have no peace and quiet anymore, you can’t stand her, I don’t know how I will live with her” (N4/77). Basing on these narrations, it is evident that adult children’s failures evoked aggressive behavior. Alcohol abuse also played an important factor – perpetrator’s addiction was the reason or result of failures in life. In the literature we could find many publications basing on the study results confirming the coexistence of alcohol consumption and the emergence of domestic violence10. Analyzing this issue, Krzysztof Frysztacki notes that “the coexistence of alcohol and violence is more complex than one might think, we should take into consideration many variables, both strictly biological and socio-demographic ones, and the social definitions of specific situations are further modifying factors. Alcohol and violence often occur

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M. Halicka, J. Halicki, A. Szafranek, E. Kramkowska, Kobiety doświadczające przemocy w rodzinie i ich ochrona. Aspekty prawne i społeczne, Białystok 2017, p. 172–173; D. Dyjakon, Diagnoza i psychoterapia sprawców przemocy domowej. Bezpieczeństwo i zmiana, Warszawa 2014, p. 27–28; P. Antoniak, Silna bezradna. O kobietach współuzależnionych doświadczających przemocy w rodzinie, “Świat Problemów” 2008, no. 11 (90), p. 21–25.

artykuły together, it is undoubted, though caution should be exerted while expressing cause and effect of relationship between them”11. It is vital to add one fact disturbing family life and causing that a man might doubt in the institution of family. Małgorzata Halicka and Anna Sidorczuk, basing on the interviews conducted with elderly people in Podlaskie Voivodeship, conclude that an important factor which may lead to conflict or violence is property12. One of the mothers who was a victim of domestic violence emphasized this issue. One of the interviews was conducted with a woman who got thrown out of her home by her daughter. The woman was reluctant to talk about this situation, but the information gathered showed that she had been working with her husband abroad for 23 years and had been sending money to their daughter who was taking care of their farm. Thanks to systematic income, they were able to build a house and run their big farm. After parents’ return to Poland, more precisely a year after their return, narrator’s husband died and then the problems began. The woman was horribly treated by her daughter and granddaughter. The victim explained that she was useless in her daughter’s eyes because she didn’t have as much money as before and due to her old age she couldn’t work on the farm. “They didn’t like me and I was an obstacle for them” – the narrator explained (N10/80). The woman confessed that the house and the farm inherited by her daughter were soon signed over to her granddaughter. The granddaughter claimed that it wasn’t her duty to provide her grandmother with care until her death, so she with her mother did everything to get rid of her grandmother and they were successful. The victim moved into a house which she had bought with her husband in a nearby city. They planned to move there when they were elderly to have everything within walking distance: a doctor, a church, and a shop. It is a sad story of a woman who was treated instrumentally by her daughter. Taking into consideration all the presented information, one finding emerges: because of the relation with the child, mothers gave their children a helping hand in a difficult life situation or gave them everything they had since this is the reason why you have a family. Unfortunately, persons inflicting violence didn’t appreciate the gesture.



K. Frysztacki, op. cit., p. 104. M. Halicka, A. Sidorczuk, Sprawcy przemocy w rodzinie, in: M. Halicka, J. Halicki (eds.), op. cit., p. 208–210.

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Perpetrator’s behavior impeding everyday functioning In the reference books, various types of aggressive behaviors are described, such as physical violence, emotional violence, financial abuse, sexual violence or neglect (refusal to help a person in need)13. During the conversation with mothers who were victims of domestic violence, they were asked to describe the types of aggressive behavior. According to the women, alcohol abuse by their son/daughter intensified the harm. One of the mothers said: “yesterday when he had come drunk, he was frying something and throwing it. In my kitchen, there is a fitted carpet and there is a rug on it. He spilled the soup on the rug and trampled it. A week ago, I scoured this rug, my hands hurt so much and I got so tired. What’s more, he drops dishes, pots on the ground, makes noise at night at 11 or 12. You know, if a mother asks him to calm down, he will make even more noise, shove bags” (N1/67). The woman also said that her son didn’t allow her to enter the kitchen when he was in, used household cleaning products but didn’t pay for them, ate everything from the fridge, etc. A similar account was given by a victim of violence inflicted by her daughter. The perpetrator wanted to eat at her mother’s expense, didn’t pay for anything but used everything. The narrator also said that when her daughter came back home intoxicated, she was extremely vulgar, noisy and sometimes aggressive. Once she broke a glass window in the door and tore out a telephone cord to prevent her mother from calling the police (N4/77). Other women admitted that their son demands money for alcohol or wants cigarettes: “In the morning, when he gets up and eats breakfast, he then stands in front of my door, or even starts knocking at night and wakes me up at 2 a.m. to give him cigarettes – one of the victims said. – I give him three or four because he would smoke the whole pack right away, in two hours he knocks again and demands cigarettes. I don’t sleep a wink” (N7/86). The same narrator mentioned that when her son drinks, he behaves like an insane person: “He burnt my pots, wants me to get out of the kitchen, starts cleaning stove burners, damages them, he insults me, and that’s how it is with him” – she said (N7/86). Next victim’s experiences are similar, she always had to have some spare coins to give her son for a beer, because “he came, sat next to me and didn’t move until I gave him” (N9/86). The stories of the remaining narrators were remarkably alike: drunk and disorderly son with whom there was no possibility to have a normal conversation

G.J. Anetzberger, Elder abuse, in: C.M. Renzetti, J.L. Edleson (eds.), Encyclopedia of interpersonal violence, Thousand Oaks 2008, p. 215.

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artykuły even when he was sober, because he either started to get angry or pretended not to remember any his bad behavior. While listening to the women and analyzing the facts given by them, one just wants to say: it’s hard to believe that a child might behave in such a way toward a parent. Unfortunately, they can. How could the mothers stand it? What did they do to cope with it?

Motherly methods of dealing with the situation Initially, all of the women who were the victims of violence inflicted by their grown-up kid decided to call the police when they felt in danger. It can be said that they displayed an active attitude and gave the perpetrator no permission to use violence. However, it quickly turned out that such a method of dealing with the situation was ineffective: “I call the police every week – one of the mother explained – and the police told me that they would not arrest my son and would not tell him not to drink. The constable and the police only come but they take no interest. And when I called the police, later my son got aggressive and he was even worse. So I stopped calling them because they didn’t help, they did nothing” (N8/74). Other victims had a similar opinion about the police. They underlined, first of all, the ineffectiveness of the police and, secondly, the deterioration in perpetrator’s behavior. The women said the police took their son to a sobering station. One of them mentioned that when her son came back and told her what it was like, she felt remorse. This is how she described it: “I felt sorry for him, I am also a human and I felt sorry when he came and said that they had doused them with water and they hadn’t had anything to drink. I am sensitive” (N9/86). Two other mothers also decided to do something with their situation and as their sons had problems with alcohol, they intervened in appropriate services (Commission for Solving Alcohol-related Problems) to send their children for treatment. One of the narrators said: “he is completely useless, a prison is not a place for him, because when a man is ill, they should be sent for treatment” (N7/86). Another woman had similar afterthoughts: “he should only be treated. He won’t be sent to prison because what will prison give him? He needs an institution where alcoholics and drug addicts are treated. But it seems that nobody can get him into one. And his consent is needed but he doesn’t want to be treated and doesn’t want to go there” (N12/76). It appears that the women notice their son’s addiction problem but at the same time they admit that sending him for treatment isn’t an easy thing to do. “I don’t know how to do it – one of społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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the mothers said – but I know nothing will help him if he stays withdrawn, if he doesn’t keep in touch with anyone” (N12/76). The son of one of the mothers ran away from hospital in which he was undergoing treatment while another mother’s son was sent to an outpatient alcohol treatment program; he went to the meeting every day and came back drank. The victims saw the futility of their actions and with time their activities disappeared. The strategy adopted by five women was installing a lock in the door to their room and as a result, it increased their sense of security: “I had a lock installed and I sit in my room, doors locked and even when he acts up, I don’t react. My daughter has the key to my room. If she wants, she will come in. I don’t ever pick up the entry phone unless he is out” – one of the narrators said (N1/67). Another added: “I have to sleep with locked door, otherwise, I don’t know what might happen” (N8/74). The next step was to move the fridge from the kitchen to their room. There were two reasons behind this decision. Firstly, the desire to avoid leaving the room and meeting their son/daughter. Secondly, unwillingness to feed the perpetrator who always found the money for alcohol but never for food. “This is how to take food from him – one of the mothers said. – I must tell you that my heart is bleeding but I can’t give up, I must teach him respect because this can’t go on like this” (N1/67). Another way of dealing with perpetrator’s aggressive behavior was turning up the radio. “What I do is to lock myself and to stop her – one of the narrators said. – I turn up the radio to the maximum and then she becomes quiet” (N4/77). The same woman offered one of the grandsons to move in with her for some time. The grandson agreed and the victim felt more secure. She explained that the boy could pacify his brawling aunt because she felt respect for him. There were mentioned two more ways of dealing with violence. One mother who feared her son always cooked him dinner: “because when I make him soup, he won’t hit me” (N8/74). It means that as a co-dependent person she did everything not to provoke the perpetrator. In the literature we could read that “co-dependence is not a disease such as alcohol dependence but a harmful form of adaptation to a pathological family system”14. As a result of domestic experiences, the codependent people have a problem with a good definition of their reality, have a lower self-esteem15 and often show an attitude of consent for the aggression H.D. Sasal, Niebieskie karty: przewodnik do procedury interwencji wobec przemocy w rodzinie, Warszawa 2005, p. 67. 15 See more: P. Mellody, Toksyczne związki. Anatomia i terapia współuzależnienia, transl. A. Polkowski, Warszawa 1993, p. 21–63.

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artykuły that they experience. The aforementioned mother who moved out from her daughter (from the house which currently belongs to the granddaughter) said: “I’ve already forgotten everything. I don’t want to go back to it, think about it. I go to a confession, take Holy Communion, I won’t keep confessing. Because it is a sin to talk about someone behind their back, to complain about somebody” (N10/80). It seems as if the person thought this problem was over and decided to take a forgiving attitude: “you have to forgive everything, Jesus Christ forgives everyone and so do I” (N10/80).

The reasons of mothers’ passive attitude to their children’s aggressive behavior Scrutinizing both the reason of domestic violence and the coping mechanisms adopted by the victims, it is reasonable to conclude that the victims took a passive attitude to their experience. Some of them did try to get help from the police but quickly gave up as the attempts proved ineffective. None of the mothers decided to take their children to court nor take any decisive actions against them, by which they enabled their children to continue using violence against them. Why didn’t the women stop this violent circle, or rather didn’t try to break it? The most likely answer was motherly love, which they understood and phrased as “mother’s heart”. Here are some of mothers’ statements: “what do you think, my heart bleeds, I was going to stop feeding him, I wanted to teach him respect, but when he comes and knocks, he says he’s hungry, to give him food. You wouldn’t give him? You will give the unfamiliar but not your child?” (N7/86). Another quotation from the interview with a different victim: “I take care of him, because he is my child, I can’t maltreat him and throw him out because he is ill, healthy people don’t behave in such a way” (N8/74). The woman also added: “I have no right to throw him out. It’s hard, I’m suffering but he is my child and I must fight for myself and him because he doesn’t know what is right and what is wrong” (N8/74). Such an attitude is definitely an example of motherly love but it is not a proper relationship. Alexandra Maciarz writes: “in the colloquial language, excessive submission is sometimes called ‘monkey love’ in the meaning of a feeling which is deprived of control. Mothers who are mentally impaired, restrained, subordinate their own existence to the needs of the child or want to compensate themselves and their children some unfulfilled

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desires, shortcomings or failures”16. It seems that the quoted fragment of the literature reflects the specificity of the maternal relationship of older women with their adult children using violence against them. Another reason is embarrassment. The women said that they undertook actions aiming at changing son’s behavior. Two of them, having been encouraged by a social worker, decided not to let the perpetrator into their flat. However, son’s clamorous behavior resulted in letting the son in, because of the feeling of embarrassment in front of the neighbors. “What should I do? If I lock the door, don’t let him in, he will break all the neighbors’ windows, this is how he threatens me because he is insane” – one mother explained (N7/86). The woman also added: “people can’t understand he’s my child. Would you like your son to behave this way and not let him in? He’s an embarrassment to the whole family but he is my child” (N 7/86). Another narrator had similar experiences and said: “the director of the social institution came to me and told me not to let him in. But how to do it? He will stand in front of my door and ring the bell all night. What solution is it?” (N12/76). The woman also said: “I am ashamed of my son but he is my son” (N12/76). There are two more reasons: intimidation and the fear of the deterioration of the situation. According to Iwona Gawrecka, “elderly people are afraid that telling the truth will lead to the increase in aggressive attacks of the aggressor. It’s possible that old people are blackmailed with being put into a nursing home and this fear leads to their silence. Moreover, senility, old people’s helplessness, ignorance of their rights, and inability to fight for them are other reasons preventing elderly people from changing their situation”17. Victim of violence might suppose that revealing the situation could anger their son/daughter. However, there were cases when the son threatened to kill himself if the narrators took any actions. “I don’t want to have a guilty conscience” – one of the women confessed (N12/76). Another who started to oppose her son and look for help said: “once he came, sat next to time, looked at me with his eyes wide open and said, ‘mother, I will hang myself here where you sleep, before your very eyes, if you tell anyone about the situation’” (N9/86).



A. Maciarz, Macierzyństwo w kontekście zmian społecznych, Warszawa 2004, p. 48. I. Gawrecka, Agresja i przemoc a starość, in: A. Tokaj (ed.), Starość w perspektywie studiów pedagogicznych: praca zbiorowa, Leszno 2008, p. 219.

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artykuły Conclusion As Małgorzata Halicka explains, “family in our country regardless of the living environment (city/village) is still the most important support group for elderly people and the most important place to fulfill their emotional, caring and social needs”18. Remembering all the stories of mothers who are victims of domestic violence inflicted by their grown-up children we conclude that there are also families in which the above-mentioned needs are not fulfilled. What is more, instead of care and support from their families, seniors citizens experience pain, suffering and each day is a challenge for them. As it was described above, the situation of elderly mothers suffering of violence inflicted by their sons/ daughters was a consequence of their decisions to help the child who needed help, because of their unsuccessful life. However, this unsuccessful life was usually a consequence of son’s or daughter’s alcohol abuse, and this abuse made mothers’ life unbearable. The victims passively accepted their fate due to family relationship, embarrassment, or fear of deterioration of the situation. The victims also developed ways of dealing with the problem, such as installing a lock in the room door, moving the fridge to the room, etc. Important questions arise: Does it have to be like this? What can be done to stop violence from being the dark side of a modern family? It is definitely a very individual matter because without the involvement and willingness of the victim to change the situation not much can be done. Nevertheless, taking into consideration above-mentioned information, it seems that the methods, e.g. means of addiction prevention, are imperfect. Many cases of domestic violence took place when the perpetrator was under the influence of alcohol. The legal system in Poland does not elaborate effective mechanism to fight with addictions19. It is true that to be successful one must want to face the addition and break the habit. However, outpatient alcohol treatment in which an alcoholic has to go to a therapy every day and after which they can buy a beer (it is not alcohol according to alcoholics) is definitely not a proper method of rehabilitation for a chronic severe alcoholics. Another issue is acknowledging the M. Halicka, Problemy rodziny w opiece nad człowiekiem starym niesprawnym, in: M. Halicka, J. Halicki (eds.), Zostawić ślad na ziemi. Księga pamiątkowa dedykowana Profesorowi Wojciechowi Pędichowi w 80 rocznicę urodzin i 55 rocznicę pracy naukowej, Białystok 2006, p. 245. 19 See more: M. Halicka, J. Halicki, E. Kramkowska, A. Szafranek, Law enforcement, the judiciary and intimate partner violence against the elderly in court files, “Studia Socjologiczne” 2015, no. 2 (217), p. 195–214.

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special bond between a parent and a child. As it was mentioned above, mothers who are victims of violence inflicted by their son or daughter in most cases couldn’t replace motherly love with willingness to bring their child to justice. Parents often blame themselves for the situation, look for mistakes in the upbringing process. Even though many people might consider those mothers as blinded by love, their love should be respected and they should be supported in bearing their burden. It is possible that various paradoxes, which might be noticed in the functioning of help institutions or in Polish law concerning the elderly, are a result of the disparity between the proposed solutions and the needs of the aging society. Poland is an aging country but this topic only recently has started to be widely debated. Since it is being debated and there is research being conducted on different aspects of functioning of the old people, there is no excuse for not adjusting the existing mechanisms. In fact, we should all care for the development of these mechanisms.

References Adamski F., Socjologia małżeństwa i rodziny: wprowadzenie, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1984. Anetzberger G.J., Elder abuse, in: C.M. Renzetti, J.L. Edleson (eds.), Encyclopedia of interpersonal violence, Sage, Thousand Oaks 2008, p. 215–217. Antoniak P., Silna bezradna. O kobietach współuzależnionych doświadczających przemocy w rodzinie, “Świat Problemów” 2008, no. 11 (90), p. 21–25. Boguszewski R. (ed.), Normy i wartości, research report no. BS/111/2013, Centrum Badania Opinii Społecznej, Warszawa, August 2013. Dyjakon D., Diagnoza i psychoterapia sprawców przemocy domowej. Bezpieczeństwo i zmiana, Difin, Warszawa 2014. Frysztacki K., Socjologia problemów społecznych, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar, Warszawa 2009. Gawrecka I., Agresja i przemoc a starość, in: A. Tokaj (ed.), Starość w perspektywie studiów pedagogicznych: praca zbiorowa, Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna im. Króla Stanisława Leszczyńskiego, Leszno 2008, p. 208–229. Giddens A., Sociology, Polity, Cambridge 2006. Halicka M., Problemy rodziny w opiece nad człowiekiem starym niesprawnym, in: M. Halicka, J. Halicki (eds.), Zostawić ślad na ziemi. Księga pamiątkowa dedykowana Profesorowi Wojciechowi Pędichowi w 80 rocznicę urodzin i 55 rocznicę pracy naukowej, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2006, p. 242–254. Halicka M., Halicki J., Przemoc wobec ludzi starych jako przedmiot badań, in: idem (eds.), Przemoc wobec ludzi starych. Na przykładzie badań środowiskowych 144

artykuły w województwie podlaskim, Temida 2 Wydawnictwo Stowarzyszenia Absolwentów Wydziału Prawa Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2010, p. 19–44. Halicka M., Halicki J., Kramkowska E., Szafranek A., Law enforcement, the judiciary and intimate partner violence against the elderly in court files, “Studia Socjologiczne” 2015, no. 2 (217), p. 195–214. Halicka M., Halicki J., Szafranek A., Kramkowska E., Kobiety doświadczające przemocy w rodzinie i ich ochrona. Aspekty prawne i społeczne, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2017. Halicka M., Sidorczuk A., Sprawcy przemocy w rodzinie, in: M. Halicka, J. Halicki (eds.), Przemoc wobec ludzi starych. Na przykładzie badań środowiskowych w województwie podlaskim, Temida 2 Wydawnictwo Stowarzyszenia Absolwentów Wydziału Prawa Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2010, p. 194–211. Kramkowska E., Człowiek stary jako ofiara przemocy w rodzinie, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Katedra – Wydział Pedagogiki i Psychologii Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Gdańsk – Białystok 2016. Maciarz A., Macierzyństwo w kontekście zmian społecznych, Żak, Warszawa 2004. Mellody P., Toksyczne związki. Anatomia i terapia współuzależnienia, transl. A. Polkowski, Jacek Santorski & Co, Warszawa 1993. Pospiszyl I., Przemoc w rodzinie, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, Warszawa 1994. Sasal H.D., Niebieskie karty: przewodnik do procedury interwencji wobec przemocy w rodzinie, Wydawnictwo Edukacyjne PARPA, Warszawa 2005.

Abstrakt Przemoc wobec ludzi starych ciemną stroną funkcjonowania współczesnej rodziny Wśród różnych problemów, które nękają współczesną rodzinę, pojawia się przemoc, czyli różne formy nadużyć praktykowane przez tych, których powinna łączyć szczególna i bliska więź. Powinna, ale niestety nie zawsze tak jest. Przemoc w rodzinie może występować w różnych konfiguracjach: między małżonkami, między rodzicami a dziećmi, między rodzeństwem, między dziadkami a wnukami itd. Niezależnie od tego, z jaką relacją mamy do czynienia, przemoc doświadczana w rodzinie jest bolesnym przeżyciem. W artykule omówiono problem przemocy doznawanej przez rodziców w podeszłym wieku ze strony ich dorosłych dzieci. Na podstawie wywiadów przeprowadzonych z matkami doświadczającymi różnych form nadużyć ze strony synów i córek, wskazano na okoliczności zaistniałej sytuacji, przejawy agresywnych zachowań sprawcy, jak też opisano postawy matek wobec doznawanych krzywd. Celem artykułu jest ukazanie, iż przemoc, również wobec najstarszych, a nie tylko najmłodszych członków rodziny, może być jej ciemną stroną. Słowa kluczowe: rodzina, starszy człowiek, przemoc w rodzinie, alkoholizm

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Abstract Violence against elderly people as a dark side of functioning of the modern family Violence is one of various problems experienced by a contemporary family. Domestic violence means various forms of abuse practiced by those who should be bound by a very particular type of relation. It should be the case but unfortunately not always is. The violence configuration between family members may vary. It appears between spouses, a parent and a kid, a grandchild and grandparent, etc. Regardless of the relationship which we deal with, family violence is a painful experience. The problem of violence against elderly people inflicted by grown-up children is discussed in the article. Based on interviews with mothers experiencing various forms of abuse on the part of sons and daughters, the author indicates the circumstances of the situation, the types of aggressive behavior of the perpetrators, the victims’ reaction to the abuse and the forms of dealing with it. The aim of such content is to present that violence against the oldest, not only the youngest members of the family, may be its dark side. Key words: family, elderly man, family violence, alcoholism

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artykuły Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 147–160 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Anna Róg, Monika Wojtkowiak

Perception of a mother by young people from the Youth Educational Center in  Kielce

Introduction Social maladjustment of young people has been the subject of various research for many years. However, significant dynamics of development of this problem can be currently observed. Previous record of signs of maladjustment is increasing constantly, and many types of behavior, which so far have been associated with social disorders, are not disapproved but on the contrary – they are accepted. So far, as such behavior as disregard of principles of social coexistence, swearing, playing truant has been considered the manifestation of demoralization, nowadays they are not condemned as they used to be in the past. This fact has various determinants, however, it should be ascertained that the analysis of social maladjustment, including its symptoms, is insufficient1. In order to prevent social maladjustment or help the maladjusted individuals, the reasons thereof should be recognized – this obvious fact has been justified by searching and planning the methods of effective assistance, since only recognizing etiology allows taking suitable actions. Searching for reasons of



1

M. Gołembowska, Rodzina jako podstawowe środowisko socjalizacyjno-wychowawcze a niedostosowanie społeczne dzieci i młodzieży, in: A. Jaworska (ed.), Resocjalizacja. Zagadnienia prawne, społeczne i metodyczne, Kraków 2009, p. 290. społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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social maladjustment of young people, first of all family environment, should be focused on. Among pathogenic factors, the following ones should be mentioned: –– disrupted family structure (one-parent family does not have to be the pathologic environment but the absence of one parent may cause serious difficulties regarding satisfaction of needs and educational efficiency)2; –– pathology of family emotional bonds (it has negative implications, especially for the satisfaction of needs, such as the need for love, security and affiliation)3; –– improper educational methods (liberal or autocratic)4; –– pathology in family members’ life (alcohol abuse, addictions, long-term diseases)5. Properly operating family provides harmonious child development, safe environment, opened to the needs of its members, it uses internal and external resources which enable the development thereof6. However, contemporary families face economic and social difficulties: lack of time, conflicts, or foreign departures for earning purposes, among others7. Parents, focused on providing financial resources, often need support in educating their children. As well, they are “responsible for recognizing negative types of behavior of children and teenagers”8, they should reinforce child development, help in school problems, and react to the first symptoms of disorders. Nevertheless, not always they want to, or are able to do so. Undoubtedly, being raised in a dysfunctional family may bring negative consequences, which are experienced strongly by young people. Dysfunctional family is the source of tensions and emotional dilemmas, causes the increase of child’s anxiety, reduces the sense of security, and disturbs the process of socialization9. In dysfunctional family, parents fulfill their functions

One of the effects of disrupted family structure may be the problem of overpotectiveness (see more: P.T. Nowakowski, The problem of overprotectiveness, “Journal of Educational Review” 2013, vol. 6, no. 4, p. 559–563). 3 B. Hołyst, Kryminologia, Warszawa 2004, p. 828. 4 M. Gołembowska, op. cit., p. 292. 5 J. Molenda, Środowisko rodzinne a aspiracje młodzieży niedostosowanej społecznie, in: K. Marzec-Holka, T. Głowik, E. Bilska, H. Iwanicki (eds.), Profilaktyka i resocjalizacja. Od dysfunkcji do funkcjonalności, Warszawa 2012, p. 77–79. 6 M. Kulesza, Rodzinne zasoby w pedagogice społecznej i praktyce psychopedagogicznej, Warszawa 2017, p. 106. 7 B. Więckiewicz, Eurosieroty – cena emigracji, in: idem (ed.), Problem eurosieroctwa. Wybrane aspekty, Stalowa Wola 2011, p. 11–32. 8 M. Gołembowska, op. cit., p. 294 9 P.T. Nowakowski, Rozważania o rodzinie funkcjonalnej i dysfunkcjonalnej, “Cywilizacja” 2005, no. 13, p. 46–47. 2

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artykuły incompletely or do not fulfill them at all10, and disturbed interpersonal relations have a negative influence on the entire family system. Quite often, in such families standards and performed roles were not clearly specified and approved. Relations with other people are also disturbed11. Therefore, we can conclude that dysfunctional families present improper behavior patterns which may be repeated by their offspring in the future. Another effect of growing up in a dysfunctional family is improper perception of parental roles by a young individual. This paper will refer to the perception of a mother by young people from the Youth Educational Center in Kielce. The purpose of the research was the picture of parenthood gained from own family environments as well as creating a picture of an ideal father/mother based on the list of character features created by the respondents. However, due to restrictions of this article, it will only refer here to the picture of a mother.

The necessity of assessment of a family environment of a young individual Young people from the Youth Educational Centers come from different environments which show various deficiencies with regard to social relationships. Quite often, they repeat a class, face educational deficiencies, have difficulties with adaptation to a new environment. They are directed to the Centers pursuant to the decisions of District Courts (Departments of Children and Family) regarding the corrective training. The reasons for placing an adolescent in the Center are specified by the Act on Juvenile Delinquency Proceedings12. Youth Educational Centers fulfill certain objectives in order to reduce the effects of social maladjustment. Among these objectives, there are the two leading ones: –– eliminating reasons and manifestations of social maladjustment, M. Błendowska, Przemiany w rodzinie: próba odczytania współczesnej debaty na temat małżeństwa i rodziny, “Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” 2015, no. 45 (4), p. 139. 11 K. Sigda, R. Matusiak, Dysfunkcjonalność współczesnej rodziny skutkiem różnego rodzaju uzależnień, “Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” 2016, no. 46 (1), p. 151. 12 According to art. 4 § 1 of the Act of 26th October 1982 on Juvenile Delinquency Proceedings (consolidated text of the Journal of Laws of 2010, no. 33, item 178), demoralization of adolescents is indicated by the following: violation of principles of community life, committing offence, regular avoidance of compulsory school education or vocational training, using alcohol or other intoxicants in order to cause self-induced intoxication, prostitution, vagrancy, participation in organized criminal groups.

10

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–– preparing young individuals for social reintegration, professional independence, and for life in accordance with generally applicable legal and social rules13. Actions taken with respect to young people from the Youth Educational Centers are preceded by individual evaluation, verified while an individual is staying in the Center. Further plans and procedures introduced by staff members are based on the assessment of individuals and their family situation. The assessment includes the actions aiming at: –– recognizing family situation: collecting information regarding family life, life history of individuals, possible situations which might influence the social maladjustment, –– conversations with parents, relatives, teachers and tutors in order to define the reasons for educational problems and demoralization, –– analysis of family situation, establishing contact and cooperation with court officers within the place of residence. The above-mentioned actions are taken in order to: –– recognize all factors which may influence children socialization process, their possible negative behavior, –– define the path of cooperation with family environment, –– assess the opportunity to use home environment resources as readaptation environment14. Therefore, the Center is in contact with caregivers, monitors and encourages young people to maintain relations with family (or family members), informs parents about progress in learning and possible problems. However, it should be emphasized that the families young children come from do not often show the will of cooperation. It happens that not parents but brothers or sisters, grandparents or distant relatives are the only family members who are interested in the future life of adolescents. Therefore, the assessment of family environment is based not only on the analysis of documents and previous situation of a young individual but also on the detailed reference to individual experience, often from the early life incidents. It concerns both family structure disorder and occurring pathologies. Recently, also progressive deficiencies in providing B. Zajęcka, A. Kamiński, Resocjalizacja nieletnich w warunkach młodzieżowego ośrodka wychowawczego – teraźniejszość i przyszłość, in: A. Jaworska (ed.), op. cit., p. 345. 14 J. Siemionow, Możliwości pracy z rodzinami nieletnich niedostosowanych społecznie przebywających w Młodzieżowych Ośrodkach Wychowawczych, “Probacja” 2012, no. 1, p. 129.

13

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artykuły tutelary functions can be observed15. Unemployment or (paradoxically) extended working hours and disarrangement of family life resulting therefrom leads to the lack of parents’ care and control over their children. Professionally active parents are quite often frustrated and tired and do not pay sufficient attention to the fact how their children spend free time or in what type of peer environment they make new friends. Finally, it happens that they overlook worrying symptoms of antisocial behavior. Properly made diagnosis allows answering the question how family environment works and what patterns of behavior a young individual can draw in this regard. With reference to the fact that most often these elements are assessed negatively, one of the responsibilities of the Youth Educational Centers is life education passed to young individuals, which would prepare them for proper social roles and will be in accordance with generally applicable legal and social principles. Undoubtedly, taking such actions by the institutions which induce young people to performing school and professional duties, but also those related to future parental roles, is of crucial importance. In many cases, it is necessary to introduce changes in the current perception of the reality by a young individual. Opinions about oneself and own capabilities, about the world, people, relationships with others are subject to change. The question arises: where the present negative judgments of children and teenagers come from? According to Katarzyna Sawicka, they “result from difficult emotional states experienced currently or in the past, which a child was or is unable to cope with. They may result from violence experienced from parents, emotional rejection by parents, sustained influence of deprivation, absence of satisfactory relations with close relatives, absence of support by the family in difficult situations”16. Young people from the Youth Educational Centers experience many of these situations before they get to the institution. How the previous experience influences the perception of parents, especially a mother?

E. Kiliszek, Czynniki ryzyka sprzyjające niedostosowaniu społecznemu i przestępczości nieletnich, “Profilaktyka Społeczna i Resocjalizacja” 2013, vol. 21, p. 173. 16 K. Sawicka, Socjoterapia jako forma pomocy psychologiczno-pedagogicznej, in: idem (red.), Socjoterapia, Warszawa 1999, p. 12.

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Research assumptions The research was conducted among the young people from the Youth Educational Center in Kielce in spring 2015. Respondents were 16–18-year-olds; they come from families of various structures, status and upbringing capacities. Thirty individuals participated in the research while staying in the Center. Diagram 1. Family structure of respondents

The purpose of the research was the description, analysis and interpretation of respondents’ opinions regarding the view of features an ideal mother should have and what features distinguish their real mother. It should be emphasized that the research is the part of a wider project, the assumption of which has been to obtain the information of how young people perceive their parents and to determine the traits of an ideal parent. Before starting collecting the data, qualitative research assumptions were taken into consideration. Method of focus groups was used, thanks to which it was possible to prepare the list of qualities a mother may be distinguished by. This list was created according to free statements of the respondents and it included the following positive features of character: loving, good, protective, caring for house, wise, smiling, warm, close, dedicated, gentle, fair, hard-working, independent, understanding, kind-hearted, strong, calm, concerned, devoted. However, it should be noted that when young people were asked what a mother may be, they also indicated negative traits of character: absent, impatient, strict and tired, among others. Free statements about a mother made in the course of qualitative, nonstandardized survey were supplement information to the research. These were personal reflections of the respondents. They selected features of character which described their mother with regard to own individual experience. Excerpts of 152

artykuły their statements will be quoted below. The selection of methods was influenced by the willingness of discovering individual determinants which influence their life experience. Moreover, the results obtained after this research, along with a wider study conducted at the Youth Educational Center in Kielce, are to contribute to improve education and prevention programs. For the purpose of this paper, the obtained data was presented in a slightly shorter form.

Results of the research For many years, a mother has played a crucial role in a family. She took care of hearth and home. She was responsible for providing calm, carefree life to both her children and her husband. She was the one to satisfy children’s needs – not only basic ones, biological, but also emotional. Mother has always been present at home, ready to care about her family members. This situation changed after the Second World War when women became not only mothers and wives but also employees who performed their duties at work17. This combination of two roles – a mother and an employee – undoubtedly contributed to the increase of social position of a woman both at home and within a community. On the other hand, this fact caused the necessity to create partnership model of marriage and family life18. According to contemporary trends, a father performs his role equally to a mother’s role. It refers to upbringing and childcare as well19. However, the view of the sex roles which was developed for centuries (a woman who takes care of a household and a man who earns a leaving) cannot be changed easily. Some stereotypes stay deep inside people’s consciousness and it is hard for them to understand the developments which occur in the modern world. Differences in perception of a mother and a father refer to the features of character they should have. Let us attempt to answer the question how mother’s role is perceived by the respondents from the Youth Educational Center in Kielce. Table 1 includes the information concerning which character features are recognized by respondents with regard to their mothers and to an ideal mother. F. Adamski, Rodzina – wymiar społeczno-kulturowy, Kraków 2002, p. 15. S. Cudak, Znaczenie kobiety-matki w rodzinie tradycyjnej, in: D. Ruszkiewicz, S. Cudak (eds.), Kobieta i jej wielopostaciowość we współczesnym świecie, Kielce 2008, p. 22. 19 A. Kwak, Rozwojowy charakter rodzicielstwa – podstawowe zakresy zmian, in: J. Brągiel, B. Górnicka (eds.), Rodzicielstwo w różnych fazach rozwoju rodziny, Opole 2017, p. 47.

17

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Table 1. Features of character of own mother and an ideal mother according to the respondents Feature of character

My mother

Ideal mother

N

%

N

%

Loving

18

60

20

70

Good

16

53

18

60

Protective

15

50

14

47

Kind-hearted

13

43

7

24

Warm

12

40

10

33

Caring for house

12

40

12

40

Dedicated

12

40

10

33

Smiling

12

40

11

36

Wise

11

36

12

40

Strong

10

33

5

17

Gentle

9

30

9

30

Helpful

9

30

-

-

Hardworking

9

30

7

24

Understanding

8

27

7

24

Concerned

8

27

4

13

Calm

7

24

4

13

Close

6

20

-

-

Fair

6

20

8

27

Devoted

6

20

3

10

Good-natured

5

17

5

17

Tired

3

10

-

-

Absent

2

0,7

-

-

Impatient

1

0,3

-

-

Strict

1

0,3

-

-

Independent

1

0,3

7

13

Source: own research

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artykuły The list of character features, prepared during the brainstorming, was used as the initial one to specify the record of qualities of own mother. Such description was not limited to the imposed number of choices and allowed to determine parameters which occur most often in this regard. According to the information included in the aforementioned table, the respondents assess their mothers quite positively. Only a few single statements indicate that the adolescents who participated in the research perceive their mothers as tired, absent, impatient and strict, which refer probably to being charged with significant amount of responsibilities. Many times, the respondents describe their mothers as good, loving, caring or kind-hearted, which proves a close emotional bond with them. It seems that the respondents identify mother with a guardian of hearth and comfort of family life, which is indicated by such character features as caring for house, dedicated, hardworking, and devoted. Mother, according to the respondents, is also wise, cheerful (smiling), strong or gentle. The above-mentioned features may refer to the sense of closeness or bond between the respondents and their mothers. The next stage of the research was to determine an ideal mother. This task was not difficult for the young people. The list of features included those which prevailed in the previous descriptions: loving, good, protective, but also fair and independent. What is interesting, sometimes there are differences between what mothers are like in reality and what they should be like, according to the young people. Kind-heartedness is the feature of character which can be an example in this regard, i.e. 43 percent of respondents indicate this feature in case of their mothers and every fourth of them believes such feature should refer to their mother. Similarly, 33 percent of respondents describe their mothers using the adjective “strong” but only 17 percent believe that this feature is required. Thought-provoking is the fact that almost every third respondent perceives their mother as helpful but none of them indicates this feature as to an ideal mother. It is similar in case of the feature “close”. None of the respondents mentioned this feature in regard to an ideal mother. Interviews with the young people, the excerpts of which were presented below, were additional information to the research20. Adrian: “A woman should take care of home and raise children, and a mother deserves the highest respect. My mother is just as she should be. Sometimes,



For the purposes of this publication, personal details of respondents were changed; however, the original text retained.

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she is tired, sometimes she shouts, but she does her best so that we [children] were fine”. Tomek: “My father left us when I was young and my mother figured out everything. Sometimes, I can see it is hard for her, but she takes care of me and she loves me more than anything – as a mother should love a child [laugh]”. Łukasz: “My mum gave birth to me when she was a bit older than I am right now and she was left alone. She could make it because she is strong and wise, many other women would break down. When something happens, she shouts, when there is something wrong at school … she cries sometimes and then I feel bad for her because we cause troubles”. Michał: “My mum is just as a mother should be, she is good, takes care of us [children] and a household, there is always dinner on the table and the laundry is done. It’s not her fault that her life didn’t turn out the way she thought. When I was younger, she laughed a lot, now she is older, more tired and it is probably difficult for her to have so many things to worry about”. Taking into consideration the aforementioned statements, we can observe that young people perceive their mothers as caring for children, devoted to family. Even when their father failed, the mother is a loving person and it seems that she represents the only parental love, young people are aware of. It should be noticed that these character features were present in the previous descriptions of a mother (the first part of the research). There, also majority of young people referred to their mother as caring for them and a household, and most of all – a loving person. Sometimes, it is love despite lots of distress which she experiences from her children. Among the respondents, there is a tendency to excuse their mothers – the fact they feel tired, sometimes impatient – saying that it is not their fault that the life did not turn out the way it should have. Despite the fact that mothers face difficulties, they do their best to be good mothers. Now, let’s go on to the description of an ideal mother. Tomek: “In my opinion, an ideal mother is a loving woman who is always close, warm, helpful, does not get irritated, who is patient and gentle. She always takes sides with me”. Bartek: “I am independent, so an ideal mother would support me but she will not interfere in my affairs. And she would love me”. Damian: “My ideal mother is a person who could take care for me, who would be a support to me, who would show understanding, someone who I could always come to when I need help. Hardworking and independent, independent of men. I want to feel I could rely on her”. 156

artykuły Daniel: “My mother left us when I was young. If I could imagine a mother, I wish she was always present by my side to protect me against stupid things which I sometimes do. She would be hardworking and independent because it would grant her strength to protect us”. Rafał: “A mother is someone who would give you support, who would sometimes watch over whether I do not do stupid things, a mother is someone who would protect me against everyone, someone I could run to and hide myself ”. In the initial part of the research, the respondents indicated the following features of character of an ideal mother: loving, good, protective, and caring for the household. Opinions of young people refer, among others, to the issue of “taking sides with the child”, providing support and some independence. An ideal mother is the one who, apart from taking care of a child and meeting emotional needs, is also supportive to a young individual who expects patience, assists to get along with life, is helpful, however open to child’s independence.

Conclusion The purpose of the research was to know the respondents’ opinions concerning their perception of a mother and what a mother should be like, according to them. Anonymously conducted research allowed to create a list of features which describe a mother. This list has become a matrix which included the picture of own mother and an ideal mother. It appears that the picture of a mother in many cases coincides with the list of features which refer to an ideal mother. According to the young people, mother is a loving, good, caring, wise and gentle person. She takes care of hearth and home and her children, she is strong, hardworking and understanding. Mother’s role described by the young people is not the same as the role of a housewife, caregiver, tutor, guardian of hearth and home. Loving and beloved, open to the children’s needs. Mother, according to the respondents, is the closest person, often the only one, the one they can come back to when they leave the Youth Educational Center. As mentioned before, young people from the Center are individuals who mainly come from dysfunctional environments, where parents not always present suitable types of behavior and attitudes towards their children and rarely take actions necessary to meet children’s needs. Maybe, in the course of adolescents’ social rehabilitation process more advertent attention should be paid to their education for the future, where it is important to be a partner in a relationship as well as a parent. Drawing attention to the development społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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of the sense of responsibility related to raising children and sharing parental responsibilities between both caregivers is an important path to create in future a well-functioning family.

References Adamski F., Rodzina – wymiar społeczno-kulturowy, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków 2002. Błendowska M., Przemiany w rodzinie: próba odczytania współczesnej debaty na temat małżeństwa i rodziny, “Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” 2015, no. 45 (4), p. 130–144. Cudak S., Znaczenie kobiety-matki w rodzinie tradycyjnej, in: D. Ruszkiewicz, S. Cudak (eds.), Kobieta i jej wielopostaciowość we współczesnym świecie, Karad, Kielce 2008, p. 22–34. Gołembowska M., Rodzina jako podstawowe środowisko socjalizacyjno-wychowawcze a niedostosowanie społeczne dzieci i młodzieży, in: A. Jaworska (ed.), Resocjalizacja. Zagadnienia prawne, społeczne i metodyczne, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2009, p. 287–296. Hołyst B., Kryminologia, Wydawnictwo Prawnicze “LexisNexis”, Warszawa 2004. Kiliszek E., Czynniki ryzyka sprzyjające niedostosowaniu społecznemu i przestępczości nieletnich, “Profilaktyka Społeczna i Resocjalizacja” 2013, vol. 21, p. 165–222. Kulesza M., Rodzinne zasoby w pedagogice społecznej i praktyce psychopedagogicznej, Difin, Warszawa 2017. Kwak A., Rozwojowy charakter rodzicielstwa – podstawowe zakresy zmian, in: J. Brągiel, B. Górnicka (eds.), Rodzicielstwo w różnych fazach rozwoju rodziny, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, Opole 2017, p. 37–49. Molenda J., Środowisko rodzinne a aspiracje młodzieży niedostosowanej społecznie, in: K. Marzec-Holka, T. Głowik, E. Bilska, H. Iwanicki (eds.), Profilaktyka i resocjalizacja. Od dysfunkcji do funkcjonalności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej, Warszawa 2012, p. 62–80. Nowakowski P.T., Rozważania o  rodzinie funkcjonalnej i  dysfunkcjonalnej, “Cywilizacja” 2005, no. 13, p. 41–51. Nowakowski P.T., The problem of overprotectiveness, “Journal of Educational Review” 2013, vol. 6, no. 4, p. 559–563. Sawicka K., Socjoterapia jako forma pomocy psychologiczno-pedagogicznej, in: idem (red.), Socjoterapia, Centrum Metodyczne Pomocy Psychologiczno-Pedagogicznej Ministerstwa Edukacji Narodowej, Warszawa 1999, p. 9–29. Siemionow J., Możliwości pracy z rodzinami nieletnich niedostosowanych społecznie przebywających w Młodzieżowych Ośrodkach Wychowawczych, “Probacja” 2012, no. 1, p. 126–132. 158

artykuły Sigda K., Matusiak R., Dysfunkcjonalność współczesnej rodziny skutkiem różnego rodzaju uzależnień, “Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” 2016, no. 46 (1), p. 143–154. The Act of 26th October 1982 on Juvenile Delinquency Proceedings (consolidated text of the Journal of Laws of 2010, no. 33, item 178). Więckiewicz B., Eurosieroty – cena emigracji, in: idem (ed.), Problem eurosieroctwa. Wybrane aspekty, Wydział Zamiejscowy Nauk o Społeczeństwie KUL, Stalowa Wola 2011, p. 11–32. Zajecka B., Kamiński A., Resocjalizacja nieletnich w warunkach młodzieżowego ośrodka wychowawczego – teraźniejszość i przyszłość, in: A. Jaworska (ed.), Resocjalizacja. Zagadnienia prawne, społeczne i metodyczne, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”, Kraków 2009, p. 345–367.

Abstrakt Obraz matki w oczach wychowanków Młodzieżowego Ośrodka Wychowawczego w Kielcach Niedostosowanie społeczne jest zjawiskiem o niejednolitej etiologii, w powstaniu którego ogromną rolę odgrywa na ogół środowisko rodzinne. Niestety, mimo przypisanych jej zadań, niejednokrotnie rodzina jest źródłem zaburzeń, a jej niewydolność odbija się w sposób szczególnie dotkliwy na funkcjonowaniu dzieci. Z uwagi na to, że szczególną rolę w rodzinie przypisuje się matce, artykuł jest próbą odpowiedzi na pytanie, jak tę rolę postrzegają wychowankowie młodzieżowego ośrodka wychowawczego. W trakcie badań respondenci stworzyli listę cech odpowiadających matce, a następnie grupowali je w dwóch wariantach „moja matka” i „matka idealna”. Otrzymane wyniki pozwoliły na stworzenie obrazu tego, jak postrzegają własne matki i jakie według nich przymioty powinny charakteryzować matkę idealną. Otwarte pozostaje pytanie, na ile owe cechy odzwierciedlają środowisko rodzinne wychowanków, a na ile są wynikiem odczuwania pewnych braków w tym zakresie. Słowa kluczowe: matka, młodzież, niedostosowanie społeczne, młodzieżowy ośrodek wychowawczy

Abstract Perception of a mother by young people from the Youth Educational Center in Kielce Social maladjustment is a phenomenon of non-uniform etiology, in case of which family environment plays a major role. In spite of responsibilities referred to a family, quite often it is the source of functional disorders and its inefficiency is reflected in children’s behavior. Due to the fact that mother plays a particular role in a family, this paper is an attempt to provide an answer to a question how this role is perceived by

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young people from the Youth Educational Center. In the course of the research, the respondents created the list of features of character which described a mother and then they divided them into two groups: “my mother” and “an ideal mother”. The obtained results allowed to create the picture, how they perceive their mothers and what character traits should characterize an ideal mother. Still, there is a question to what extent these features reflect the youth’s family environment and to what extent they result from the feeling of some deficiencies in this regard. Key words: mother, adolescents, social maladjustment, Youth Educational Center

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biografie Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 161–165 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Piotr T. Nowakowski

Rodem z Niska: sylwetka księdza profesora Mariana Wolickiego

W dniu 22 października 2017 roku zmarł w Przemyślu ks. Marian Stefan Wolicki, profesor zwyczajny, teolog o specjalnościach: liturgika i teologia praktyczna, jak też psycholog o specjalnościach: psychologia pastoralna, psychologia społeczna i psychopedagogika. Osoba ks. prof. Wolickiego wymaga przynajmniej paru akapitów wspomnienia, zwłaszcza że był on przez wiele lat dziekanem Wydziału Zamiejscowego Nauk o Społeczeństwie KUL w Stalowej Woli, ale i członkiem Rady Naukowej naszego kwartalnika, w tym autorem szeregu wartościowych tekstów zamieszczonych na łamach „Społeczeństwa i Rodziny”.

Kariera naukowa Ksiądz Wolicki urodził się 19 grudnia 1941 roku w Nisku, gdzie w 1959 roku uzyskał maturę. W latach 1969–1971 studiował teologię (specjalność liturgika) na Papieskim Wydziale Teologicznym w Krakowie – Sekcja Zaoczna w Rzeszowie; tytuł jego pracy magisterskiej brzmiał: O duchu liturgii Romano Guardiniego, a promotorem był ks. dr Wacław Świerzawski. W latach 1971–1974 studiował filozofię (specjalność filozoficzno-psychologiczna) na Wydziale Filozofii Chrześcijańskiej KUL; praca magisterska nosiła tytuł: Znaczenie ojca w procesie społecznego rozwoju dziecka, a promotorem była dr Teresa Kukołowicz. W dniu 3 czerwca 1980 roku uzyskał doktorat z filozofii na Wydziale Filozofii Chrześcijańskiej KUL w oparciu o rozprawę pt. Problem swoistości psychologii filozoficznej. Aspekt historyczno-metodologiczny, pod kierunkiem o. prof. dra hab. Mieczysława A. Krąpca OP. W dniu 22 lutego 1994 roku na Papieskim społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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Fakultecie Teologicznym we Wrocławiu uzyskał stopień doktora habilitowanego nauk teologicznych (specjalność teologia pastoralna) na podstawie pracy pt. Egzystencjalnoanalityczna koncepcja autotranscendencji i jej teologiczno-pastoralne aplikacje. W dniu 14 maja 2002 roku został profesorem tytularnym na podstawie książki pt. Relacje osoby a jej samorealizacja. Na Wydziale Zamiejscowym Nauk o Społeczeństwie KUL w Stalowej Woli pracował w okresie od 1 października 2004 roku do 30 września 2014 roku. Wcześniej, w latach 2002–2004, był zatrudniony na stalowowolskiej filii Wydziału Nauk Społecznych KUL. Funkcję dziekana WZNoS KUL pełnił w latach 2004– –2012, w tym samym okresie był członkiem Senatu KUL, Senackiej Komisji Administracyjnej, Senackiej Komisji ds. Współpracy z Zagranicą, Senackiej Komisji Odwoławczej. Nieco dłużej, bo w latach 2004–2014, był kierownikiem Katedry Pedagogiki Rodziny. Współpracował też z Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Przemyślu (1976–1996; prefekt 1976–1991, wicerektor 1991–1996), Papieskim Wydziałem Teologicznym we Wrocławiu (1994–2001), Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Gródku Podolskim na Ukrainie (1998), Metropolitalnym Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym we Lwowie (1998–1999), Państwową Wyższą Szkołą Zawodową im. ks. B. Markiewicza w Jarosławiu (2001–2006), Państwową Wyższą Szkołą Zawodową w Przemyślu (2001–2006), Wyższą Szkołą Inżynieryjno-Ekonomiczną w Rzeszowie (2013–2015), Państwową Wyższą Szkołą Techniczno-Ekonomiczną im. ks. B. Markiewicza w Jarosławiu (2014–2017). Był ponadto kierownikiem naukowym Instytutu Wyższej Kultury Religijnej w Stalowej Woli (1984–1993) i dyrektor Kolegium Teologiczno-Katechetycznego przy Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Przemyślu (1991–2002).

Osiągnięcia naukowo-badawcze Ksiądz prof. Wolicki opracował filozoficzne podstawy analizy egzystencjalnej i logoterapii. Był autorem ponad 400 publikacji, w tym kilkunastu książek. Najważniejsze prace: Podstawy psychoterapii, Przemyśl – Sandomierz 2015; Elementy psychologii ogólnej, Stalowa Wola 2012; Elementy psychologii osobowości, poradnictwa i psychoterapii, Stalowa Wola 2011; Relacje osobowe, Sandomierz 2008; Logoterapeutyczna koncepcja wychowania, Stalowa Wola – Sandomierz 2007; Otwartość osoby ludzkiej: interpretacja filozoficzna, Wrocław 2005; Wpływy filozoficzne w analizie egzystencjalnej i logoterapii, Wrocław 2002; Dojrzała osobowość, dojrzałe sumienie, Wrocław 2000; Relacje osoby a jej 162

biografie samorealizacja, Przemyśl – Wrocław 1999; Człowiek w analizie egzystencjalnej Viktora Emila Frankla, Przemyśl 1986. Na łamach kwartalnika „Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” opublikował następujące artykuły: Komunikacja interpersonalna w małżeństwie i rodzinie: zarys problematyki (2014, t. 39, nr 2), Uwarunkowania wolności człowieka w nauczaniu Jana Pawła II (2011, t. 27, nr 2), Potrzeba ustawicznego kształcenia (2010, t. 22, nr 1), Powstanie, istota i znaczenie hagioterapii (2009, t. 21, nr 4), Problem cielesności w ujęciu filozoficznym (2009, t. 20, nr 3), Duchowe skutki przynależności do sekt (2009, t. 19, nr 2), Psychologiczne uwarunkowania i konsekwencje konsumpcjonizmu (2009, t. 18, nr 1), Badania nad problemem nieświadomości w psychologii (2007, t. 13, nr 4), Życie i twórczość Dietricha von Hildebranda (2007, t. 12, nr 3), Błogosławiony ks. Bronisław Markiewicz jako pedagog (2006, t. 9, nr 4), Psychologiczne uwarunkowania procesu wychowania w rodzinie (2006, t. 6, nr 1), Intencjonalność według analizy egzystencjalnej i logoterapii (2005, t. 5, nr 4), Prenatalne czynniki wpływające na rozwój i wychowanie dziecka (2004, t. 1, nr 1). Marian Wolicki był członkiem Polskiego Towarzystwa Teologicznego w Krakowie (w latach 1995–2009 członkiem Zarządu Głównego i prezesem sekcji terenowej w Przemyślu), członkiem sekcji psychologiczno-pedagogicznej Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk w Przemyślu (od 1976 roku; Członkiem Honorowym w latach 2012–2017), członkiem-korespondentem austriackiego towarzystwa logoterapeutycznego „Gesellschaft für Logotherapie und Existenzanalyse” w Wiedniu (od 2004 roku) oraz członkiem-korespondentem Lubelskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego (od 2006 roku). Najważniejsze nagrody: Medal Złoty za Długoletnią Służbę (2013), Medal Komisji Edukacji Narodowej (2010) i Brązowy Krzyż Zasługi (2007).

Działalność pozanaukowa Ksiądz prof. Wolicki był wikariuszem w parafii Przybyszówka (1969–1971) i w parafii Łańcut Fara (1975–1976), sędzią Sądu Biskupiego w Przemyślu I i II instancji (1976–2006), prałatem, prepozytem Brzozowskiej Kapituły Kolegiackiej (1998–2013), opiekunem duchowym Archidiecezjalnego Chóru „Magnificat” (1995–2017), członkiem Diecezjalnej Rady ds. Rodziny (1996–2002). Otrzymał odznaczenie kościelne „Rokieta i Mantolet” (1983), odznaczenie „Zasłużony dla Gminy i Miasta Nisko” (2003) i tytuł Honorowego Obywatela Gminy i Miasta Nisko (od 2009).

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Jeszcze w listopadzie 2016 roku miałem przyjemność, wraz z grupą 34 studentów pracy socjalnej, pedagogiki, socjologii i prawa, złożyć wizytę Księdzu Profesorowi w Przemyślu. Gospodarz przyjął gości w swym mieszkaniu oraz uraczył kawą, herbatą i słodyczami. Był czas na wspomnienia i anegdoty. Ksiądz prof. Wolicki zapisał się w pamięci akademickiego środowiska w Stalowej Woli jako twórczy i aktywny badacz, płodny autor, wyrozumiały przełożony, przede wszystkim zaś jako życzliwy człowiek, który zawsze służył dobrą radą zwłaszcza tym, którzy dopiero zaczynali swą wędrówkę po intrygującej krainie nauki.

Bibliografia Hasło: Ks. Marian Wolicki, w: I. Dec (red.), Papieski Wydział Teologiczny we Wrocławiu 1968–2001: pracownicy naukowo-dydaktyczni, wykaz prac dyplomowych, sympozja, działalność wydawnicza, Papieski Wydział Teologiczny, Wrocław 2000, s. 231–241. Hasło: Ks. Marian Wolicki, w: S. Bartmiński, Introibo ad altare Dei: dzieje służby ministranckiej przy katedrze przemyskiej p.w. św. Jana Chrzciciela i Wniebowzięcia NMP w latach 1946–2008, Parafia Archikatedralna p.w. św. Jana Chrzciciela i Wniebowzięcia NMP – Parafia św. Marcina, Przemyśl – Krasiczyn 2008, s. 145–146. Hasło: Ks. prof. dr hab. Marian Wolicki, w: I. Dec (red.), 300 lat Wydziału Teologicznego we Wrocławiu: zarys historii i pracownicy naukowi PWT we Wrocławiu, Papieski Wydział Teologiczny, Wrocław 2002, s. 149. Hasło: Marian Wolicki, w: J. Jaśtal (red.), Informator filozofii polskiej, t. 12, Aureus, Kraków 1995, s. 241. Hasło: Wolicki Marian Stefan, w: J. Kapuścik (red.), Współcześni uczeni polscy. Słownik biograficzny, t. V: Suplement A–Ż, Ośrodek Przetwarzania Informacji, Warszawa 2006, s. 833–834. Hasło: Wolicki Marian Stefan, w: J. Szumowska, T. Pietrzyk (red.), Informator Nauki Polskiej, t. 4B: Ludzie nauki P–Ż, Ośrodek Przetwarzania Informacji, Warszawa 2006, s. 973. Hasło: Wolicki Marian Stefan, w: K. Pikoń, A. Sokołowska, K. Pikoń, Złota księga nauki polskiej 2006, Mastermedia – Wydawnictwo Helion, Gliwice 2006, s. 921. Hasło: Wolicki Marian Stefan, w: K. Pikoń i in. (red.), Złota księga nauk humanistycznych 2004, „Helion” – Polski Instytut Biograficzny „Mastermedia”, Gliwice 2004, s. 440. Hasło: Wolicki Marian Stefan, w: M.R. Bombicki (red.), Kto jest kim w  Polsce nowego millenium (2000–2002): encyklopedia actus purus, 164

biografie Polsko-Europejskie Towarzystwo Finansowe Pol-Euro-Business, [Poznań] [2002], s. 577. Hasło: Wolicki Marian Stefan prof. dr hab., w: Who is who w Polsce: leksykon biograficzny z ok. 10.600 nowymi wprowadzeniami, z ok. 5.930 zmianami i z ok. 50.780 wymienionymi nazwiskami znanych polskich osobistości, częściowo ze zdjęciami, [cz. 2: Mal–Ż], Who is Who, Verlag für Personenenzyklopädien, Zug 2006, s. 4156. Hasło: Wolicki, Marian Stefan, w: B. Cynkier i in. (red.), Kto jest kim w Polsce, Wydawnictwo Polskiej Agencji Informacyjnej, Warszawa 2001, s. 1040–1041. Kowalik M. (red.), 90 lat Gimnazjum i Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. Stefana Czarnieckiego w Nisku, Regionalne Centrum Edukacji Zawodowej, Nisko 2002, s. 299–300.

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Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 165–170 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Bogdan Więckiewicz

O religijności Polaków w dobie sekularyzacji Europy

Pod koniec XX i na początku XXI wieku socjologowie zawracają uwagę na dostrzegalny kryzys religijnej tożsamości chrześcijańskiej. Następuje proces sekularyzacji Europy. Sekularyzacja najpierw upowszechniła się w Europie Północnej, a następnie w takich krajach zachodnich, jak Francja, Holandia, Belgia czy Hiszpania. Obecnie proces ten obserwuje się także w krajach Europy Środkowej, chociaż Czechy już od dawna uważane są za jeden z najbardziej zsekularyzowanych krajów europejskich. Zainteresowanie religią nie zanika całkowicie, lecz zmieniają się jej formy. Współczesna kultura postmodernistyczna sprzyja pluralizmowi religijnemu oraz kształtowaniu się nowej tożsamości religijnej. Wielu ludzi porzuca praktykę, lecz nadal deklaruje wiarę w Boga, tyle że nie zawsze osobowego. Religijne przekonania coraz częściej wykraczają poza ramy chrześcijańskiej doktryny, czego konsekwencją jest wzrost popularności religii wywodzących się ze Wschodu. Niektórzy socjologowie uważają, że ponowoczesność nie przyczyniła się do całkowitego upadku religii, ale doprowadziła do jej przekształcenia. Współcześnie obserwuje się nie tyle zanik religii, a jej pluralizację, która rozwija się tak na płaszczyźnie indywidualnej, jak i zbiorowej. Jednostki same konstruują swój system wartości moralnych, światopogląd, określają własne tożsamości, a wybór religii staje się świadomą decyzją człowieka. Dzieje się tak ze względu na to, że postmodernizm przeciwstawia się tradycyjnemu systemowi wierzeń. Wszystko wyrażane jest w sposób subiektywny i zindywidualizowany, stąd w sposób dowolny i selektywny można praktykować i łączyć elementy różnych religii w zależności od własnego upodobania, z każdej z nich wybierać to, co jest atrakcyjne i odpowiada osobistym potrzebom. Ta synkretyczna tendencja sprawia, że ludzie łączą w całość różne przekonania, 166

recenzje a także samodzielnie formułują postawy i zachowania religijne. Chociaż wielu socjologów, zwłaszcza z krajów zachodnich, już od dawna prognozuje szybką sekularyzację w polskim społeczeństwie, to wciąż na tle dechrystianizującej się Europy Polska wydaje się być wyjątkiem. Postępujące procesy modernizacji polskiego społeczeństwa, zmiany społeczno-polityczne, kulturowe oraz poprawa materialnych warunków życia mogą powodować zmiany orientacji życiowych, uznawanych wartości, religijności i moralności. Jednak jak wynika z badań socjologicznych, w Polsce po prawie trzech dekadach od transformacji w niewielkim stopniu zaobserwowano zmiany religijności i moralności Polaków. Książka podejmuje istotny temat religijności, jakim jest tożsamość religijna społeczeństwa polskiego. Tożsamość ta kształtuje się na podstawie wartości, norm moralnych, wspólnych rytuałów i przeżyć z nimi związanych, prawd wiary, więzi społecznych i religijnych z parafią oraz Kościołem. Janusz Mariański jest socjologiem, który szczególnie dużo miejsca w swych licznych książkach i publikacjach poświęca socjologii religii i moralności oraz zmianom w tych sferach w społeczeństwie polskim. Spośród szerokiej gamy opracowań teoretycznych i empirycznych, przykładem wnikliwych rozważań na temat znaczenia religii Polaków w wielu aspektach ich życia jest jedno z ostatnich opracowań naukowych autora, a mianowicie książka zatytułowana Tożsamości religijne w społeczeństwie polskim. Studium socjologiczne. W publikacji tej autor skupia się szczególnie na zagadnieniach najważniejszych aspektów tożsamości religijnej Polaków, jak autoidentyfikacja wyznaniowa, wierzenia, moralność, praktyki religijne oraz znaczenie wspólnot religijnych w życiu człowieka. Książka składa się z przedmowy, wstępu, siedmiu rozdziałów i zakończenia. Pierwszy zatytułowany jest: Autoidentyfikacje wyznaniowe i religijne w społeczeństwie polskim. Drugi: Wiara i wierzenia religijne. Trzeci: Religia i moralność w świadomości Polaków – współzależność i autonomia. Czwarty: Moralność małżeńska i religijna. Piąty: Praktyki religijne w społeczeństwie polskim w regresie. Szósty: Kościół katolicki jako instytucja religijna i społeczna w świadomości Polaków. Wreszcie siódmy nosi tytuł: Parafia katolicka w Polsce w procesie przemian. Książka zawiera bogatą literaturę socjologiczną, polską i zagraniczną, co w sposób szczególny podkreśla jej wartość pod względem solidności i merytoryczności publikowanego materiału. We wstępie autor opisuje procesy sekularyzacji oraz zmiany religijności, które dokonują się we współczesnej Europie. Wyjaśnia, jak te zmiany przebiegają oraz jakie są podstawowe przyczyny tego procesu. Opisuje również prognozy socjologów zagranicznych na temat zmian religijności w Polsce, tj. jej osłabienia (s. 23). Gdy mowa o indywidualizmie, pluralizmie religijnym i sekularyzmie, autor w swych socjologicznych rozważaniach społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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poszukuje odpowiedzi na pytanie, jaka jest religijna tożsamość Polaków, czy religia wciąż ma ważne znaczenie w ich życiu codziennym, czy może pod wpływem laickiej kultury zachodniej religijność Polaków słabnie. Znaczenie religii w ważnych dla każdego człowieka aspektach, jak choćby życie małżeńskie i rodzinne, nie ma już tak dużego znaczenia, stąd też słabnie religijna tożsamość Polaków oraz identyfikacja ze wspólnotami kościelnymi. Recenzowana książka jest próbą szerszego spojrzenia na religijność Polaków w pierwszych dwóch dekadach XXI wieku. Autor dokonuje najpierw charakterystyki polskiego katolicyzmu szczególnie w kontekście znaczącego wpływu sekularyzacji i laicyzacji we współczesnej Europie. Przedstawia liczne badania socjologiczne oraz sondaże opinii publicznej dotyczące autoidentyfikacji wyznaniowej. Konkluduje, że tożsamość religijna Polaków coraz wyraźniej różnicuje się. Znacznie częściej za osoby wierzące uważają się osoby starsze niż młodzież (s. 97). Ważny komponent postawy religijnej stanowi wiara i wierzenia religijne. Modernizacja społeczeństwa polskiego ma również wpływ na przemiany religijności Polaków. Religia przybiera coraz częściej pozainstytucjonalne formy, a świadomość nowoczesnego człowieka staje się coraz częściej zdystansowana i zrelatywizowana wobec własnej religii i Kościoła. Uwzględniwszy liczne badania socjologiczne na temat wierzeń oraz praktyk religijnych i pozareligijnych, w opinii Janusza Mariańskiego, scenariusz zachodnioeuropejskiej sekularyzacji jest sprawą odległą, a kierunek ewolucji religijnej wyznaczony przez kraje Europy Zachodniej nie determinuje sytuacji Polski (s. 128). W kolejnym rozdziale autor poświęca wiele miejsca na rozważania dotyczące współzależności religii i moralności Polaków. Zwraca uwagę na liczne badania socjologów po roku 1989, które dotyczyły kryzysu moralnego. Cześć wartości i norm traci swą nośność społeczną. Współcześnie mamy do czynienia z destrukcją normatywności i chaosem w tym zakresie. Należy jednak zaznaczyć, że moralność pozostaje wciąż ważnym sektorem życia ludzkiego, a religia dostarcza wielu norm i reguł ogólnych o charakterze etycznym, które osoby wierzące realizują w życiu codziennym. W przedstawionych badaniach Janusz Mariański próbuje określić, co jest dla Polaków bardziej, a co mniej ważne w sferze religijnej i moralnej. Konstatuje on, że w Polsce obserwowany proces odchodzenia od uniwersalnych wartości i norm moralnych wydaje się zjawiskiem trwałym (s. 171). Autor w rozdziale IV opisuje moralność małżeńską i rodzinną. Zwraca uwagę na badania socjologów, z których wynika, że w społeczeństwach współczesnych moralność prorodzinna staje się coraz bardziej autonomiczna i niezależna od religijności. Istnieje swego rodzaju dysharmonia między doktryną moralną Kościoła a rzeczywistymi postawami katolików w zakresie moralności rodzinnej 168

recenzje i małżeńskiej. Opisując przemiany w tym zakresie w Polsce, Janusz Mariański przedstawia analizy teoretyczne i badania empiryczne prowadzone przez socjologów polskich i zagranicznych. Tym sposobem można dostrzec podobieństwa i różnice w stosunku do zmian przebiegających w społeczeństwach zachodnich. Mariański podkreśla, że w planach życiowych młodych Polaków coraz ważniejsza jest kariera i sukces zawodowy. Wzrasta ranga wartości materialnych oraz związanych z pracą i wykształceniem. Tracą na znaczeniu wartości prospołeczne i do pewnego stopnia religijne. Obserwuje się też powolny proces deinstytucjonalizacji rodziny. Z tego względu zawód i dobra praca są na pewnym etapie życia bardziej preferowane niż małżeństwo i rodzina (s. 201). Rozdział V poświęcony jest analizie praktyk religijnych w społeczeństwie polskim. Autor zadaje pytanie: jak przedstawiają się praktyki religijne Polaków w warunkach modernizującego się społeczeństwa pod wpływem wzorców zachodnioeuropejskich? Opisuje socjologiczne pomiary praktyk religijnych, zwracając szczególną uwagę na obowiązkowe praktyki religijne, praktyki wielkanocne i modlitwę codzienną. Konstatując wyniki tych badań, Mariański podkreśla wzrost odsetka osób absentujących się od praktyk religijnych, a zwłaszcza od Kościoła instytucjonalnego. Zaznacza przy tym, że dokładne scenariusze przemian religijności, w tym także praktyk religijnych, są trudne do określenia. Rozdział VI poświęcony jest analizie Kościoła katolickiego jako instytucji religijnej oraz społecznej świadomości Polaków. Autor zwraca uwagę na specyficzne relacje Kościoła katolickiego i religii w społeczeństwie polskim. W sposób wnikliwy opisuje wpływ różnych czynników na zmiany pozycji i znaczenia Kościoła katolickiego w naszym kraju. Prezentowane badania empiryczne skoncentrowane są na takich zagadnieniach, jak Kościół instytucjonalny versus Kościół wspólnotowy, zaufanie do Kościoła katolickiego jako do instytucji religijnej oraz instytucji społecznej, a także Kościół katolicki a zaangażowanie polityczne i społeczne oraz krzyż i symbole religijne w przestrzeni publicznej. Ostatni rozdział poświęcony jest analizie parafii katolickiej w Polsce w procesie przemian. Autor opisuje różne funkcje parafii – tak religijne, jak i społeczne. Najwięcej miejsca poświęca takim zagadnieniom, jak: identyfikacja z parafią katolicką, udział katolików w ruchach i wspólnotach religijnych oraz w stowarzyszeniach katolickich, udział katolików w życiu społecznym parafii oraz partycypacja w decyzjach parafialnych. Książka zawiera bogatą literaturę socjologiczną, a analizy przeprowadzone są wnikliwie. Janusz Mariański przedstawił liczne badania socjologów i ogólnopolskich instytucji badawczych. Opierają się one na dużych próbach, co podnosi ich wartość merytoryczną oraz daje podstawę do formułowania uprawomocnionych społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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uogólnień. Dużą zaletą książki jest wnikliwa analiza teoretyczna powiązana z badaniami empirycznymi, co dodatkowo podnosi zaletę naukową prezentowanego tematu. Konkludując, uważam, że recenzowaną książkę można polecić wszystkim, którzy zajmują się opisywanym zagadnieniem naukowo, jak i tym, którzy chcieliby uzyskać wiedzę na temat współczesnych przemian religijności Polaków.

Janusz Mariański, Tożsamości religijne w społeczeństwie polskim. Studium socjologiczne, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2017, stron: 513.

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sprawozdania i komunikaty Społeczeństwo i Rodzina nr 53 (4/2017) / s. 171–177 / ISSN 1734-6614 / © by WZPiNoS KUL

Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba

O autorytecie w wychowaniu

W dniu 5 października 2017 roku w Gimnazjum Jana Śniadeckiego w Solecznikach na Litwie odbyła się Międzynarodowa Konferencja Naukowa pt. „Rodzina – autorytet w wychowaniu. Transgraniczne poszukiwania”, zorganizowana przez Katedrę Pedagogiki Rodziny Wydziału Studiów nad Rodziną UKSW oraz Samorząd Rejonu Solecznikowskiego, reprezentowany przez mera Zdzisława Palewicza. Współorganizatorami konferencji byli: Wydawnictwo Prospekt PR, Stowarzyszenie Współpracy Polska–Wschód – oddział w Olsztynie, Fundacja Krzysztofa Hołowczyca „Kierowca Bezpieczny” oraz burmistrz Szczytna Danuta Górska. Patronat honorowy nad konferencją objęli: mer rejonu solecznickiego Zdzisław Palewicz oraz J.M. Rektor Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie ks. prof. dr hab. Stanisław Dziekoński. W konferencji udział wzięli naukowcy z wielu polskich ośrodków naukowych, m.in. z Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, Akademii Polonijnej w Częstochowie, Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w  Lublinie, Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego, Akademii Techniczno-Humanistycznej w Bielsku Białej, Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu, Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego im. KEN w Krakowie, Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Łodzi, Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, Uniwersytetu Warmińsko-Mazurskiego w Olsztynie, Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. Marii Grzegorzewskiej w Warszawie, Akademii Humanistyczno-Ekonomicznej w Łodzi (Wydział Zamiejscowy w Wodzisławiu Śląskim), Karkonoskiej Państwowej Szkoły Wyższej w Jeleniej Górze oraz Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie. Wśród prelegentów znaleźli się też przedstawiciele Fundacji „Kierowca Bezpieczny”, Fundacji Projekt ROZ oraz III Zespołu Kuratorskiej Służby Sądowej w Sądzie społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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Rejonowym w Grodzisku Mazowieckim. Zagraniczne ośrodki naukowe reprezentowali zaś prelegenci z Uniwersytetu Mateja Bela w Bańskiej Bystrzycy (Słowacja), Uniwersytetu Michała Römera w Wilnie (Litwa), Uniwersytetu Trenczyńskiego Alexandra Dubčeka (Słowacja) oraz Muzeum Anny Krepsztul w Taboryszkach (Litwa) i Gimnazjum im. S. Rapolonisa w Ejszyszkach (Litwa). Rozpoczęcie konferencji zainaugurował taniec uczniów Gimnazjum Jana Śniadeckiego w Solecznikach. Gości przywitała ze strony litewskiej Regina Markiewicz, kierownik Wydziału Oświaty Samorządu Rejonu Solecznickiego, a ze strony polskiej – Waldemar Ziarek, prezes oddziału Związku Piłsudczyków RP w Olsztynie. Następnie odczytano list od pani wicemarszałek Senatu RP Marii Kocz. Gości przywitał także mer rejonu solecznikowskiego Zdzisław Palewicz oraz dziekan Wydziału Studiów nad Rodziną UKSW ks. prof. dr hab. Mieczysław Ozorowski, życząc owocnych i konstruktywnych obrad. Dyskusje nad autorytetem w rodzinie odbywały się na wielu płaszczyznach i w wielu obszarach, obejmujących m.in. poszukiwania autorytetu w rodzinie, instytucjonalne i środowiskowe (nie)budowanie autorytetu wśród dzieci i młodzieży, instytucjonalne i pozainstytucjonalne formy wsparcia rodziny w wychowaniu dziecka i budowaniu autorytetu w rodzinie. Pierwszej sesji obrad plenarnych przewodniczyły prof. nadzw. dr hab. Lidia Kataryńczuk-Mania z Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego oraz prof. nadzw. dr hab. Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba z Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie. Obrady plenarne zainaugurował wykład rektora Akademii Polonijnej w Częstochowie ks. prof. dr. hab. Władysława Majkowskiego na temat Współpracy rodziców i szkoły w wychowaniu dziecka. Ksiądz rektor podkreślił ważność współpracy obu instytucji, które mają znaczący wpływ na kształtowanie i budowanie autorytetu u dzieci. Wskazał, że „w społeczeństwie preindustrialnym wychowanie w rodzinie było kompletne, a wychowawcza funkcja rodziny niekwestionowana, w nowoczesnym społeczeństwie zaś rodzina przestała mieć w tym zakresie monopol. Nowoczesna rodzina utraciła część swoich funkcji na rzecz innych instytucji. Pierwszą z nich jest szkoła. Utrata przez rodzinę monopolu na wychowanie nie ma sama w sobie charakteru antyrodzinnego. Rektor wskazał, że pomoc rodzinie w zakresie socjalizacji dzieci jest rzeczą ze wszech miar właściwą i pożyteczną. To, co jest niedopuszczalne to pozbawianie rodziny tej funkcji lub jej ograniczanie w sytuacji, gdy rodzina jest w stanie ją pełnić”. Następnie głos zabrał dziekan Wydziału Studiów nad Rodziną UKSW ks. prof. dr hab. Mieczysław Ozorowski, który jako wzór autorytetu ojca wskazał sylwetkę św. Józefa w chrześcijańskiej rodzinie, akcentując jednocześnie jego ważną rolę w wychowaniu. Ksiądz prof. Ozorowski podkreślił, że „podstawą 172

sprawozdania i komunikaty miłości Józefa do Matki Syna Bożego jest zaufanie rodzące się z głębokiej wiary. Jednak Jego miłość wyrażała się przede wszystkim w pokornej służbie i oddaniu Małżonce. Dojrzała postawa Józefa nie skupiała się na przeżyciach emocjonalnych, lecz objawiała się poprzez troskę o Jezusa, Jego Matkę, ich wspólny dom oraz przez wspólne rozwiązywanie pojawiających się trudności”. Kolejna z prelegentek – Danuta Mołoczko, kierownik Muzeum Anny Krepsztul w Taboryszkach – przedstawiła referat pt. Autorytet rodziny Krepsztul, wskazując na ważne czynniki rodziny, takie jak ciepło, miłość ojcowska i matczyna, wzajemne wsparcie, które kształtują jej autorytet. Z kolei prof. nadzw. dr hab. Marzenna Magda-Adamowicz z Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego przedstawiła wyniki badań dotyczące Autorytetu rodziców w percepcji studentów pedagogiki. Prelegentka przeanalizowała m.in. takie kwestie, jak termin „autorytet”, rodzaje autorytetu, rola i znaczenie autorytetu, treść autorytetu rodziców. Prof. nadzw. dr hab. Izabela Krasiejko z Akademii im. Jana Długosza w Częstochowie przedstawiła modelowe i faktycznie realizowane koncepcje asystentury rodziny oraz ich wpływ na odbudowywanie autorytetu rodziny. Wskazała na współcześnie występujące kontinuum rozumienia roli asystenta rodziny: od wyręczania przez (modelowe) wspieranie, aż po wymuszanie. Następnie dr hab. Marta Czechowska-Bieluga z Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie odniosła się do pracownika socjalnego jako inicjatora zmian w rodzinie z problemem bezrobocia. Wskazała m.in. na konieczność podnoszenia kompetencji zawodowych, co następuje podczas edukacji przygotowującej bezrobotnego do pracy i w trakcie obligatoryjnego doskonalenia zawodowego. Później Elżbieta Matusiak, prezes Fundacji Projekt ROZ, wygłosiła referat pt. Opiekun zastępczy – autorytet dla dziecka powierzonego i jego rodziny. Czy to możliwe? Na podstawie własnych doświadczeń, ale i doświadczeń innych opiekunów zastępczych, udowodniła, że można być autorytetem tak dla dzieci powierzonych, jak i ich rodzin. Obrady plenarne części pierwszej zakończono wystąpieniem prof. nadzw. dr hab. Małgorzaty Przybysz-Zaremby z Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie, która na przykładzie Polski, odniosła się do pomocy i wsparcia rodziny z problemem alkoholowym, wskazując, że pomoc ta wymaga holistycznych działań, które dotyczyć powinny poszczególnych członków rodziny, ale i całego jej systemu. Części drugiej sesji plenarnej przewodniczyły prof. nadzw. dr hab. Ewa Pasterniak-Kobyłecka i prof. nadzw. dr hab. Zdzisława Janiszewska-Nieścioruk, obie reprezentujące Uniwersytet Zielonogórski. Obrady rozpoczęło wystąpienie Rimy Časokienė i Tatjany Babkiny z Gimnazjum im. S. Rapolonisa w Ejszyszkach pt. Family and school collaboration. Prelegentki przedstawiły wyniki badania społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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uczniów gimnazjum dotyczące współpracy rodziny ze szkołą. Kolejny referat, pt. Muzyczne tradycje jako fundamenty współczesnej rodziny, przedstawiła prof. nadzw. dr hab. Lidia Kataryńczuk-Mania z Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego, podkreślając ważną rolę rodziny w kultywowaniu tradycji, szczególnie związanych z obrządkiem świąt Bożego Narodzenia. Z kolei prof. nadzw. dr hab. Ewa Pasterniak-Kobyłecka z Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego odniosła się do badań dotyczących Członków rodziny na tle wzorców osobowych młodzieży z wybranych krajów europejskich, wskazując, że młodzi ludzie często odwołują się do autorytetu osób im najbliższych. Następne wystąpienie dotyczyło Więzi emocjonalnych w rodzinach wychowujących osoby z zespołem Downa, które przedstawiła prof. nadzw. dr hab. Teresa Żółkowska z Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego. Uzupełnieniem tegoż wystąpienia był referat prof. nadzw. dr hab. Zdzisławy Janiszewskiej-Nieścioruk z Uniwersytetu Zielonogórskiego pt. Możliwości wspierania osób z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną i ich rodzin w perspektywie społeczno-ekologicznej koncepcji niepełnosprawności intelektualnej. Prelegentka, odnosząc się do walorów społeczno-ekologicznego ujmowania niepełnosprawności intelektualnej, wskazała możliwości spersonalizowanego wspierania osób z tą niepełnosprawnością oraz ich rodzin. Z kolei prof. nadzw. dr hab. Sławomira Sadowska z Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, w oparciu o wyniki przeprowadzonych badań, przeanalizowała Adekwatność poczucia jakości życia dziecka z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną w stopniu lekkim w szkole do ocen wyrażanych przez rodziców i nauczycieli. Prof. nadzw. dr hab. Izabela Bieńkowska z Akademii Techniczno-Humanistycznej w Bielsku-Białej przedstawiła referat pt. Rola matki i ojca w życiu dziecka w wieku przedszkolnym, wskazując na kluczowe czynniki w budowaniu autorytetu. Natomiast dr hab. Joanna Truszkowska z Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie odniosła się do Rodzinnych i pozarodzinnych ról społecznych seniora. Prof. nadzw. dr hab. Agnieszka Wałęga z Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu podjęła kwestię Autorytetu nauczyciela w przekazie galicyjskiej „Szkoły” (1868–1918), wskazując, w jaki sposób współpracownicy pierwszego galicyjskiego czasopisma pedagogicznego, założonego przez nauczycieli i do nich kierowanego, ujmowali znaczenie autorytetu pedagoga w procesie wychowania. Prof. nadzw. dr hab. Peter Jusko i dr Peter Papšo z Uniwersytetu Mateja Bela w Bańskiej Bystrzycy (Słowacja) przedstawili referat pt. Absence of family background as a potential factor in socio-pathological phenomena in young adults. Prelegenci wskazali na ważność rodziny w życiu młodego człowieka i zaburzenia w ich funkcjonowaniu w przypadku „nieobecności” rodziny w procesie wychowania. Obrady plenarne zakończyło wystąpienie prof. nadzw. dr. hab. Macieja 174

sprawozdania i komunikaty Kołodziejskiego z Karkonoskiej Państwowej Szkoły Wyższej w Jeleniej Górze pt. Zdolności muzyczne rozwijające się u dziecka 8-letniego. Studium przypadku. Po przerwie obiadowej rozpoczęto obrady w trzech sekcjach. Sekcji pierwszej, zatytułowanej „Poszukiwania autorytetu w rodzinie”, przewodniczyły dr Anna Pierzchała z Akademii im. Jana Długosza w Częstochowie oraz dr Ewa Barnaś-Baran z Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego. Znalazło się w niej dziesięć wystąpień: Rola autorytetu w kształtowaniu tożsamości dziecka (dr Ewa Śliwa, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. KEN w Krakowie), Autorytet w relacji rodzic–dziecko w perspektywie analizy transakcyjnej (dr Anna Pierzchała, Akademia im. Jana Długosza w Częstochowie), Rola autorytetu rodzicielskiego w optymalizacji procesów socjalizacyjnych (dr Justyna Tomczyk, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. KEN w Krakowie), Relacje wnuków z dziadkami jako płaszczyzna budowania autorytetu (dr Urszula Bejma, Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie), Dziadkowie autorytetem w zabawie (dr Ewa Barnaś-Baran, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski), Autorytet rodzica z dzieckiem z niepełnosprawnością. Potencjał mało znany (dr Irena Ramik-Mażewska, Uniwersytet Szczeciński), Autorytet żydowskiej matki – portret współczesny (dr Joanna Cukras-Stelągowska, Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu), Rola autorytetu w wychowaniu dziecka w retrospekcji studentów (dr Małgorzata Rozenbajgier, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. KEN w Krakowie), Rola autorytetu wychowawczego w rodzinach migrantów wahadłowych (dr Agnieszka Pawlak, Uniwersytet Medyczny w Łodzi) oraz Wpływ autorytetu rodziców na wychowanie dzieci (Marta Chojnacka i Patrycja Skoneczna, Akademia Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. Marii Grzegorzewskiej w Warszawie). Sekcji drugiej, zatytułowanej „Instytucjonalne i środowiskowe (nie)budowanie autorytetu wśród dzieci i młodzieży”, przewodniczyły dr Ewa M. Pomirska z Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego i dr Elżbieta Dolata z Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego. Sekcja obejmowała dziewięć wystąpień: The issues of parents’ dissatisfaction with school environment (prof. nadzw. dr hab. Gražina Čiuladienė, Uniwersytet Michała Römera w Wilnie), Autorytet i rola wychowawców w kształtowaniu prospołecznych postaw dzieci podczas wakacyjnych wyjazdów kolonijnych (dr Justyna Modrzejewska, mgr Jolanta Walaszek-Latacz, Akademia Humanistyczno-Ekonomiczna w Łodzi, Wydział Zamiejscowy w Wodzisławiu Śląskim), Znaczenie pielęgnowania tradycji i zwyczajów w rodzinach galicyjskich okresu autonomicznego dla budowania autorytetu wychowawczego (dr Elżbieta Dolata, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski), Rodzina przewodnikiem życiowym, czyli o sposobach budowania profilaktyki opartej na rodzicach (mgr Sławomir Kania, Uniwersytet Opolski), Identyfikacja z ojcem a wzór idealnego mężczyzny w percepcji społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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młodzieży przestępczej i nieprzestępczej (dr Beata Zajęcka, Akademia im. Jana Długosza w Częstochowie), Rola szkoły katolickiej w budowaniu autorytetu rodziny jako środowiska wychowawczego dzieci i młodzieży (dr Aldona Zakrzewska, Uniwersytet Warmińsko-Mazurski w Olsztynie), Autorytet w twórczości pedagogicznej i literackiej Janusza Korczaka (dr Ewa M. Pomirska, Uniwersytet Gdański), Autorytet w pracy sądowego kuratora rodzinnego (mgr Agnieszka M. Strumińska, Akademia Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. M. Grzegorzewskiej w Warszawie) oraz Krzysztof Hołowczyc jako ważny autorytet w oddziaływaniach profilaktycznych (mgr Waldemar Ziarek, Fundacja „Kierowca Bezpieczny”). Sekcji trzeciej, zatytułowanej „Instytucjonalne i pozainstytucjonalne formy pomocy i wsparcia rodziny w wychowaniu dziecka. W kierunku budowania autorytetu w rodzinie”, przewodniczyły dr Magdalena Lubińska-Bogacka i dr Jolanta Urbanek, obie reprezentujące Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej w Krakowie. Przedstawiono jedenaście referatów: Social support for children affected by parents’ emigration (prof. nadzw. dr hab. Violeta Jegelevičienė, mgr Agata Katkonienė, Uniwersytet Michała Römera w Wilnie), Dobro dziecka w perspektywie przedstawicieli wybranych środowisk zawodowych a problemy w rodzinie jako czynniki zaburzające proces wychowania (dr Magdalena Arczewska, Uniwersytet Warszawski), Długotrwałe nadzory kuratora w sprawach opiekuńczych – wsparcie czy interwencja sądu wobec rodziny przeżywającej trudności w wypełnianiu funkcji opiekuńczo-wychowawczych (mgr Alina Prusinowska-Marek, III Zespół Kuratorskiej Służby Sądowej w Sądzie Rejonowym w Grodzisku Mazowieckim), Institutional and extra-institutional forms of support for a family of an adventitiously blind child (dr Kornelia Czerwińska, Akademia Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. M. Grzegorzewskiej w Warszawie), Wsparcie rodziców w procesie zapobiegania trudnościom behawioralnym dzieci z niepełnosprawnością wzrokową (dr Izabella Kucharczyk, Akademia Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. M. Grzegorzewskiej w Warszawie), Przekazywane wartości i autorytet rodziny wśród wyznawców wybranych religii mniejszościowych we Wrocławiu (mgr Joanna Tomaszewska, Uniwersytet Wrocławski), Co-operation of a family on the treatment regimen (dr Nikoleta Poliaková, dr Eva Králová, Uniwersytet Trenczyński Alexandra Dubčeka), Warunki socjalno-edukacyjne polskich rodzin (dr Magdalena Lubińska-Bogacka, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej w Krakowie), Rodzina w systemie opiekuńczo-wychowawczym w Polsce (dr Jolanta Urbanek, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny im. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej w Krakowie), Rodzina i opiekunowie osób niepełnosprawnych jako ważny element ciągłości procesu wychowania do pracy w instytucjach wsparcia (dr Tomasz E. Wardzała, Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny 176

sprawozdania i komunikaty im. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej w Krakowie), The importance of the family in caring for seniors with loss of self-sufficiency (dr Iveta Matišáková, dr Katarína Gerlichová, Uniwersytet Trenczyński Alexandra Dubčeka). Podsumowania i zakończenia konferencji dokonała prof. nadzw. dr hab. Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, podkreślając, że „autorytet w wychowaniu dzieci i młodzieży nie powstaje z dnia na dzień, ale kształtuje się latami, a głównym jego fundamentem jest rodzina”. Podziękowała wszystkim uczestnikom konferencji i jej współorganizatorom za chęć włączenia się w głos dyskursu, którego przesłanie miało wymiar niezwykle ważny, ponieważ głównymi odbiorcami tego wydarzenia byli dyrektorzy i nauczyciele polskich szkół na Litwie, borykający się z szeregiem ograniczeń, do których należy m.in. utrudniony dostęp do osiągnięć współczesnej nauki polskiej. Wygłoszone wystąpienia choć w pewnym stopniu uzupełniły i wzbogaciły wiedzę wspomnianych nauczycieli.

społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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Planowane konferencje

Ogólnopolska Konferencja Naukowa

Patriotyzm wczoraj i dziś 18 maja 2018 roku, godz. 18.00 Katolicki Dom Kultury „Arka” im. św. Jadwigi Królowej w Racławicach Organizatorzy: Koło Naukowe Studentów WZPiNoS KUL Polonia Semper Fidelis, Katedra Filozofii Prawa i Praw Człowieka (KUL Lublin), Katedra Pedagogiki Pastoralnej i Teologii Wychowania (KUL Stalowa Wola), Katedra Pedagogiki Społecznej i Pedagogiki Opiekuńczej (KUL Lublin), Katolicki Dom Kultury „Arka” im. św. Jadwigi Królowej w Racławicach, Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Zespołu Pieśni i Tańca „Racławice”, Stowarzyszenie Stalowi Patrioci, Fundacja Uniwersytecka w Stalowej Woli. Program konferencji: –– Powitanie gości – Anna Zbrożyna-Tutak, przewodnicząca Koła Naukowego Polonia Semper Fidelis (KUL – Stalowa Wola) –– Poloneza czas zacząć! – prezentacja Zespołu Pieśni i Tańca „Racławice” im. Rodziny Mireckich –– Czym jest patriotyzm? – prof. nadzw. dr hab. Włodzimierz Dłubacz (KUL Lublin) –– Aktywność obywatelska jako przejaw postawy patriotycznej – prof. nadzw. dr hab. Franciszka W. Wawro (KUL Lublin) –– Patriotyzm w Biblii na przykładzie wybranych ksiąg sapiencjalnych (Prz, Jdt, Tb) – ks. prof. nadzw. dr hab. Roman B. Sieroń (KUL Stalowa Wola) –– Patriotyzm polski w kontekście koncepcji multi-kulti – o. prof. nadzw. dr hab. Roman Jusiak OFM (PWSZ Chełm) 178

sprawozdania i komunikaty –– Funkcje nowoczesnych technologii edukacyjnych w wychowaniu patriotycznym – ks. prof. nadzw. dr hab. Mariusz Śniadkowski (Politechnika Lubelska) –– Patriotyzm w przekazie międzypokoleniowym – ks. dr Jerzy Smoleń (Ignatianum, Kraków) –– Patriotyczny wymiar pracy socjalnej we współczesnych uwarunkowaniach – dr hab. Marta Czechowska-Bieługa (UMCS Lublin) –– Rodzina jako środowisko kształtowania postaw patriotycznych – ks. dr hab. Andrzej Łuczyński (KUL Lublin) –– Patriotyzm w dziejach narodu polskiego – od zaborów po współczesności – lic. Justyna Bieszczad (PSP nr 11 im. Szarych Szeregów w Stalowej Woli) –– Wychowanie patriotyczne dzieci i młodzieży na przykładzie działalności Koła Naukowego Polonia Semper Fidelis – lic. Anna Zbrożyna-Tutak (KUL Stalowa Wola) –– Psychologiczne aspekty patriotyzmu – dr Grzegorz Kida (KUL Lublin) –– Spotkanie Zespołu Pieśni i Tańca „Racławice” ze Świętym Janem Pawłem II jako wspomnienie przeżycia patriotycznego – dr Ewa Sęk (KUL Stalowa Wola) –– Dyskusja –– Poczęstunek

społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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Noty o autorach

Ayotunde Adebayo – doktor, Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education,

University of Lagos, Lagos (Nigeria); zainteresowania badawcze: problemy społeczne, wiedza o społeczeństwie. ks. Paul Dudzinski – doktor, absolwent The Catholic University of America,

Washington, DC (Stany Zjednoczone); zainteresowania badawcze: katolicka nauka społeczna, średniowieczna epistemologia i metafizyka; kontakt: [email protected]. Michael Farrell – profesor, Département de finance et économique, École de

Gestion, Université du Québec, Trois-Rivières, Québec (Kanada); zainteresowania badawcze: ekonomia stosowana, finanse; kontakt: [email protected]. Danuta Grzesiak-Witek – doktor habilitowany, Wydział Zamiejscowy Prawa

i Nauk o Społeczeństwie KUL w Stalowej Woli; zainteresowania badawcze: organizacja pomocy logopedycznej osobom dorosłym i dzieciom; kontakt: [email protected]. David P. Harris – profesor ekonomii, Department of Economics at Benedictine

College, Atchison (Stany Zjednoczone); zainteresowania badawcze: ekonomia społeczna, historia myśli ekonomicznej, ekonomia behawioralna; kontakt: [email protected]. Urszula Kempińska – doktor, Wydział Nauk Pedagogicznych Kujawskiej

Szkoły Wyższej we Włocławku; zainteresowania badawcze: pedagogika społeczna, pedagogika rodziny, edukacja seksualna, praca socjalna; kontakt: [email protected]. 180

noty o autorach s. Anh Thi Kim Tran OP – magister, doktorantka na Uniwersytecie Notre Dame

(Stany Zjednoczone); zainteresowania badawcze: katolicka nauka społeczna, rola kobiet w życiu społecznym; kontakt: [email protected].

ks. Marek Kluz – doktor habilitowany, prof. UPJPII, prodziekan Wydziału

Teologicznego Sekcja w Tarnowie Uniwersytetu Papieskiego Jana Pawła II w  Krakowie; zainteresowania badawcze: moralność małżeńsko-rodzinna, wychowanie moralne, etyka cnót, moralność życia społecznego, bioetyka, działalność socjalno-charytatywna; kontakt: [email protected].

Emilia Kramkowska – doktor, Wydział Pedagogiki i  Psychologii Uniwer-

sytetu w  Białymstoku; zainteresowania badawcze: socjologia, socjologia ludzi starych i  starości, socjologia ciała, gerontologia społeczna; kontakt: [email protected]. Piotr T. Nowakowski – doktor habilitowany, prof. KUL, Wydział Zamiejscowy

Prawa i Nauk o Społeczeństwie KUL w Stalowej Woli; zainteresowania badawcze: profilaktyka społeczna, patologie społeczne, praca socjalna, pedagogika resocjalizacyjna, pedagogika mass mediów; kontakt: [email protected]. Alex Friday Obaje – doktor, Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education,

University of Lagos, Lagos (Nigeria); zainteresowania badawcze: problemy społeczne, wiedza o społeczeństwie.

Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba – doktor habilitowany, prof. UKSW, Wydział Stu-

diów nad Rodziną UKSW w Warszawie; zainteresowania badawcze: pedagogika społeczna, pedagogika rodziny, problemy społeczne i uzależnienia, pedagogika resocjalizacyjna; kontakt: [email protected].

Anna Róg – doktor, Zakład Pedagogiki Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jana Kocha-

nowskiego w Kielcach; zainteresowania badawcze: funkcjonowanie współczesnej rodziny, samotne macierzyństwo, profilaktyka społeczna; kontakt: [email protected]. Bogdan Więckiewicz – doktor, Wydział Zamiejscowy Prawa i Nauk o Społe-

czeństwie KUL w Stalowej Woli; zainteresowania badawcze: socjologia rodziny, socjologia kultury, demografia; kontakt: [email protected].

społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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Monika Wojtkowiak – doktor, Zakład Profilaktyki Społecznej i Resocjalizacji Uni-

wersytetu Jana Kochanowskiego w Kielcach; zainteresowania badawcze: patologie społeczne, poradnictwo i pomoc realizowana w resocjalizacji (zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do nieletnich), zastosowanie mediacji i negocjacji w resocjalizacji.

182

contents

Contents

3 Roman B. Sieroń

Foreword

ARTICLES 7 David P. Harris

Does the wealth of nations uphold the dignity of work? An analysis of Saint John Paul II and Adam Smith regarding the consequences of technology and idea of work

24 Paul Dudzinski

The principle of subsidiarity in Catholic social thought 

38 Michael Farrell

The genocide-democide continuum of ideological and state-sponsored mass killing 

62 Anh Thi Kim Tran

Leisure as blessing and obligation: a vital need in the lives of Vietnamese women  

71 Ayotunde Adebayo, Alex Friday Obaje

Corruption in Nigeria: bane to an effective realization of social studies educational objectives at the basic level of education 

93 Marek Kluz

The role of punishment in the process of education and spiritual growth of child’s personality 

106 Danuta Grzesiak-Witek

Language trapped in the body: why Stephen Hawking does not speak? Speech therapy for patients with ALS  społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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121 Urszula Kempińska

Socio-cultural implications of reading novels from the series “Fifty Shades of Grey” by E.L. James

132 Emilia Kramkowska

Violence against elderly people as a dark side of functioning of the modern family 

147 Anna Róg, Monika Wojtkowiak

Perception of a mother by young people from the Youth Educational Center in Kielce 

BIOGRAPHIES 161 Piotr T. Nowakowski

Born in Nisko: the profile of the Reverend Professor Marian Wolicki

REVIEWS 166 Bogdan Więckiewicz

On the religiousness of Poles in the age of secularization of Europe (review of Janusz Mariański, Tożsamości religijne w społeczeństwie polskim. Studium socjologiczne, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2017, pages: 513)

R EPORTS

AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

171 Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba

About the authority in education

178 Planned conferences N OTES

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

185 List of reviewers cooperating with the quarterly

“Society & Family” in the year 2017

184

Zestawienie recenzentów współpracujących z kwartalnikiem „Społeczeństwo i Rodzina” w roku 2017 prof. dr hab. Wadym Wasiutyński, Narodowa Akademia Nauk Pedagogicznych Ukrainy (Ukraina) prof. dr Maria Mojzešova, Vysoká škola zdravotnícka a sociálnej práce sv. Alžbety, Bratysława (Słowacja) prof. dr Mohd Sofian Bin Omar-Fauzee, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok (Malezja) prof. dr Arzu İçağasıoğlu Çoban, Başkent Üniversitesi, Ankara (Turcja) prof. Malkhaz Makashvili, Ilia State University, Tbilisi (Gruzja) prof. dr Ionuţ Şerban, Universitatea din Craiova (Rumunia) prof. dr Valdonė Indrašienė, Mykolas Romeris University, Wilno (Litwa) prof. dr Ineta Kristowska, University College of Economies and Culture, Ryga (Łotwa) dr Seda Attepe Özden, Başkent Üniversitesi, Ankara (Turcja) dr Gonca Polat, Ankara Üniversitesi (Turcja) dr Jeff Langan, University of Notre Dame (Stany Zjednoczone) dr Adam Okulicz-Kozaryn, Rutgers University, Camden (Stany Zjednoczone) dr Silvia Capíková, Uniwersytet Komeńskiego w Bratysławie (Słowacja) Minna Veistilä M.Sc., Kymenlaakso University of Applied Sciences, Kouvola (Finlandia) prof. zw. dr hab. Roman Pelczar, KUL (Stalowa Wola) dr hab. Aleksandra Korwin-Szymanowska, prof. nadzw., WSFiZ w Warszawie dr hab. Małgorzata Przybysz-Zaremba, prof. nadzw., UKSW w Warszawie dr hab. Małgorzata Duda, prof. nadzw., Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II w Krakowie dr hab. Beata Szluz, prof. nadzw., Uniwersytet Rzeszowski ks. dr hab. Paweł Prüfer, prof. nadzw., Akademia im. Jakuba z Paradyża w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim dr hab. Jarosław Macała, prof. nadzw., Uniwersytet Zielonogórski ks. dr hab. Czesław Kustra, prof. nadzw., Uniwersytet Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu ks. dr hab. Witold Jedynak, prof. nadzw., Uniwersytet Rzeszowski dr hab. Anna Kanios, prof. nadzw., UMCS w Lublinie dr hab. Agnieszka Lewicka-Zelent, prof. nadzw., UMCS w Lublinie ks dr hab. Bogdan Zbroja, Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawła II w Krakowie ks. dr hab. Andrzej Łuczyński, KUL (Lublin) dr Agnieszka Regulska, UKSW w Warszawie dr Monika Wojtkowiak, UJK w Kielcach dr Ewa Dybowska, Akademia Ignatianum w Krakowie dr Beata Wołosiuk, PSW im. Papieża Jana Pawła II w Białej Podlaskiej dr Małgorzata Szyszka, KUL (Lublin)

społeczeństwo i rodzina nr

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