Olive oil tourism: Promoting rural development in Andalusia (Spain)

Tourism Management Perspectives 21 (2017) 100–108

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Olive oil tourism: Promoting rural development in Andalusia (Spain) Maria Genoveva Millán-Vazquez de la Torre ⁎, Juan Manuel Arjona-Fuentes, Luis Amador-Hidalgo Faculty of Business, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Escritor Castilla Aguayo n° 4, 14004 Córdoba, Spain

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 22 July 2016 Received in revised form 19 December 2016 Accepted 22 December 2016

Keywords: Oil tourism Rural development Protected denomination of origin Gastronomy Spain Tourist perceptions

a b s t r a c t Foods with certificates of quality are gaining more and more relevance in people's diets. Every day there is more of a demand to visit production facilities, to learn how food products are elaborated and to sample them. These products include olive oil, a typical product from Andalusia (southern Spain). This study aims to analyze what olive oil tourism has to offer in this region. A survey was conducted on companies on the olive-oil gastronomic route and their designations of origin in order to determine their degree of involvement in the development of the tourism product of “olive oil tourism”. The main contribution of this study is that is the first to analyze several olive-oil Designations of Origin from all of Andalusia, looking for the synergies with other gastronomic routes in the region, which could increase visitors' demands and also the level of development and wealth in the area. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Gastronomic tourism is one of the tourist areas becoming more popular in Spain, due to a more selective demand on the part of tourist consumers who prefer a select quality product adapted to their tastes and needs. There is no one single profile for this type of tourist, but rather a variety depending on the type of tourism involved – wine lovers do not present the same characteristics as olive-oil enthusiasts (Millán & Pérez, 2014; Millán, Arjona & Amador, 2014; Moral & Orgaz, 2014), so it is necessary to know what they are looking for and what desires they seek to satisfy during the trips they take. Then strategies can be established, depending on the local tourism product, to increase demand without harming the local community, designing a sustainable tourism product. Cuisine is part of the cultural identity of a territory. Given its historical and cultural facets, food has become a tourism resource and not only as a facilitator of the tourist experience. Therefore, traditional food can be the element that differentiates a place (Renko & Bucar, 2014; Alonso & Krajsic, 2013). If the proper tourism products are identified, the products will not only increase the value of a destination but also their own; local identity is intertwined with the territory and its produce (Barrera & Bringas, 2008). Gastronomy, as a tourism resource, is not only appreciated for its own intrinsic value but also for its symbolic character in that it acts as an identifier of peoples and territories (Armesto & Gómez, 2004). Some traditional foodstuffs are protected as Intangible Heritage by the UNESCO, and the places where they are ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.G. Millán-Vazquez de la Torre), [email protected] (J.M. Arjona-Fuentes), [email protected] (L. Amador-Hidalgo).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2016.12.003 2211-9736/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

produced or manufactured are identified by this distinction (the gingerbread craft in northern Croatia). One can also call gastronomic tourism those visits to primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants and specific places where the sampling of dishes and/or experimentation with the attributes of a region specialized in the production of food is the main reason behind a journey (Schlüter & Thiel, 2008). In the Spanish tourism panorama, gastronomical tourism is one of the up-and-coming products in development in recent years. This type of tourism has gained the support of public entities such as the General Secretariat of Tourism within the Framework “Quality touristic products” and has encouraged the development of Gastronomic Routes, the most well-known being those of wine, although others exist, like cheese, ham or olive oil routes. The potential of the resources that Spain can offer underlies this growing development: geographical and cultural diversity provide a wide variety of foods and ways to prepare them (Gómez & Armesto, 2002). The enhancement of these resources is providing new opportunities in many territories, especially rural ones; this type of tourism is becoming an important stimulus for the economy and culture of these areas. The development of gastronomic tourism contributes to integrate the primary traditional productive function with a specialized tertiary one, increasing sources of income and improving earnings and employment levels in the local population, while endowing rural areas with multifunctionality. Among these agricultural products is olive oil, probably one of the most representative in the balance of payments of Spanish agricultural-food exportation and a symbol of its gastronomical wealth. Even so, due to its characteristics (not only oligopeptic, but also with respect to the traditions and emotional ties it can evoke), it transcends its merely nutritional aspect, and thus considered, can surround itself with an

M.G. Millán-Vazquez de la Torre et al. / Tourism Management Perspectives 21 (2017) 100–108

industry dedicated to attracting tourists, in order to simultaneously explain the real meaning of olive oil and create a new channel of economic diversification in the Spanish countryside for those dedicated to farming, and the environment that survives with them, developing ways to recuperate income levels that have been diminishing in recent years (Ruiz, Molina, & Martin, 2011). The territory is one of the key factors that determine the supply and demand of olive oil tourism. Spain, along with Italy Greece, France and Portugal, form the core of traditional olive-oil producing countries, the core of the economy of many regions and furthermore the basis of their ecological balance (Moreno, Rubio, & Guerra, 2011). This paper analyses the possibilities of olive oil tourism in a region of Spain (Andalusia) in order to study this tourist product, and the involvement of different agents in the development of olive-oil tourist routes, a basic pillar for developing this modality of tourism. 2. Literature review Gastronomy in Spain has revealed itself to be a diverse and rich tourism resource, which forms an intrinsic part of its culture far-removed from the hustle and bustle, relishing the present moment (López, 2006). Especially in rural zones, gastronomy involves introducing typical dishes to the consumer, cooked in traditional ways with natural and local elements, far removed from designer kitchens and devoid of fashionably foreign elements or the modernistic drizzling of brightly colored sauces that water down the splendor of the purest sovereign tradition of Spanish cuisine. Therefore, traditional cuisine predominates in rural areas while designer kitchens characterize urban areas, but what they both have in common is using food to satisfy the aspirations of gastronomic tourism travellers (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Hillel, Belhassen, & Shani, 2013). Gastronomy and therefore the foods that compose it, as well as supplying physical and nutritional needs, have the ability to confer a wide range of material and symbolic elements, since “just like spoken language, the food system contains and conveys the culture of those who practice it; it is the guardian of traditions and the identity of a group. Therefore, it is an extraordinary vehicle for self-representation and cultural exchange” (Montanari & Staniscia, 2009:1465). There are many studies on gastronomic tourism, some based on research about gastronomy in a specific geographic zone or for products like wine (Cohen & Ben-Nun, 2009; Mitchell, Charters, & Albrecht, 2012; Cho, Bonn, & Brymer, 2014; Alonso, Bressan, O'Shea, & Krajsic, 2015; Medina, 2015; Schlüter & Norrild, 2015; Stewart, Bramble, & Ziraldo, 2008), tequila (Camargo, Garza, & Morales, 2014; Millán, Caridad, Arjona & Amador, 2014), or cheese (Blanco, 2012; Marcoz, Melewar, & Dennis, 2016). Olive oil tourism is a relatively recent addition to the area of produce tourism and there are fewer studies into it than for other products, such as wine. However, there are a growing number of studies analysing this type of tourism, examining different aspects such as economic development in rural areas (Duarte & Northcote, 2010; Millán, Agudo, & Morales, 2011; Molina, Quesada, & Ruiz, 2011; Ruiz et al., 2011; De Salvo, Hernández, Di Clemente, & Calzati, 2013; Moral, Cañero, Orgaz, & López-Guzmán, 2014; Hernández, Folgado, & Campón, 2016), analysis of the tourist profile (Millán & Pérez, 2014; López-Guzmán, Cañero, Moral, & Orgaz-Agüera, 2016) or analysis of olive producing territories as a tourist resource (Barreca, Marcianò, & Menguzzato, 2014; Millán, Amador, & Arjona, 2015). Despite this, there are no studies analysing olive oil tourism exclusively from the point of view of the profile of the supplier. Gastronomic routes are an interesting instrument for positioning products and associating them with a geographic quality appellation (Barrera, 2003). According to Millán and Pérez (2014), gastronomic routes should be viewed as a rural product, thereby forming part of the tourism offer in territories. The promotion of food brands through these routes will be a means of promoting typical regional products, and adding value to the service/product offered to satisfy tourist demand. The promotion of culinary and gastronomical heritage does not

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only include sample tasting on the premises but also the acquisition of regional food products as souvenirs. These routes are defined as an itinerary that allows the agricultural and industrial productive process and the sampling of the regional cuisine that is considered an expression of cultural regional identity. They are made up of producers who receive tourists in their establishments and offer them samples to taste, and regional restaurants that showcase their traditional dish menus based on primary local production and agro-industries in the area. They are organized around a key product that characterises the route named after it or, in some cases, around a basket of products, and the itinerary is developed based on the roadway network (Schlüter & Thiel, 2008) (Fig. 1). The route should offer those who travel it a series of pleasures and activities related to the distinctive elements of the product itself: food, agricultural production, rural activities, entertainment within nature and activities typical of the regional culture. They are organized in order to: consolidate the productive culture of the region, enhance regional foods, stimulate the development of Quality Brands (including the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indications (PGI), organic products… etc.), boost regional economies, promote regional dishes and foment national gastronomical culture. The establishments that form part of the route receive tourists and serve them, while regional restaurants highlight traditional dishes in their menus based on primary local produce and the agro-industrial suppliers in the area. The routes can be organized differently (Barrera, 2006): • Gastronomical Routes by products: These are routes organised based on a specific product: wine, olive oil, cheese, etc. are the most frequent. • Gastronomic Routes by dishes: This refers to an organisation based on the most important dishes elaborated with the agrarian product, (for example, in the Mediterranean diet the essential element is olive oil). That is, the cuisine is the main theme of the organisation. Innumerable activities can be related to the products that characterise the route: visiting the producers, who receive tourists in their establishments showing them the process involved in their elaboration and offering samples of the products for tasting; restaurants that offer traditional dishes with local produce; museums, etc. All of these link the product to its place of origin. Public entities and producers should link tourism with food products when they are designing a gastronomic route. They should never ignore the annexes that link the cluster of foods and drinks to tourism, because this could lead to losing opportunities for development and markets for both the entities and producers. Among the elements that characterise a gastronomic route are: a) The product that distinguishes one region from another. b) The culinary trail developed using a highway network. c) The establishments found along the route named after the product, that distribute or promote the product in question. d) A minimum number of members on each route to justify its inauguration. e) A regulatory law that controls the functioning of its participants. f) A regional menu with dishes that have been prepared with the products that characterise the route. g) A local organisation, association or tourism office that offers information on the culinary trail. h) A map with information with explanations about the location and the product(s) in question. i) A culinary selection offering the product in restaurants and in local venues. In Mediterranean Europe, and Spain in particular, there is a vast tradition in designations of origin and geographical indications, denominations that link the quality of a food product to its geographical origin and that favour the creation of a tourist route based on gastronomy. There

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Fig. 1. Key elements of Gastronomic Tourism.

are multiple Spanish gastronomic routes linked to food products of quality and the most well-known deal with wine (PDO of Rioja by Martínez-Cámara, Blanco, Jiménez, Saenz-Díez, & Rioja, 2014; PDO Montilla-Moriles by Millán, 2012; PDO Sherry-Jerez by LópezGuzmán, Rodríguez-Garcia, Sánchez-Cañizares, & Luján-García, 2011; PDO Alicante by Melian, Millán, & López-Guzmán, 2008, among others). However, it is olive-oil routes that are being created currently, though they are still relatively unknown and little visited. Olive oil is a product obtained from the olive, the fruit of the olive tree. The cultivation of the olive grove can be traced to 500000 years ago in western Africa, later spreading to the Mediterranean area, where there are 260 olive varieties today. The use of oil and its later commercialisation are attributed to the Phoenicians (1500 BC) who introduced it into the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), where its cultivation was carried on by later inhabitants of the area (Romans, Moslems, Jewish, etc.). Today it has become an essential product of Spanish culture and gastronomy where it is known as “liquid gold” for its nutritional and medicinal qualities; this product has multiple uses as can be observed in Table 1. In recent years, olive oil is being discovered as a tourism product; olive oil tourism is this new type of tourism. Olive-oil tourists are people who dedicate some holiday time to a place other than their habitual residence in order to study more deeply the culture underlying the olive and its oil, without having to spend time in one particular place, and taking part in some of the following activities (tourism a la carte): • Visits to olive presses (there are over 800 in Andalusia), to old olive mills, to old farm manors (cortijos), to oleotecas and specialty shops or olive oil museums. In this way, it is possible to learn about the specific process behind olive oil production. • Visits to olive groves and the aesthetic contemplation of olive grove landscapes. In this section, as an outstanding activity, there are also visits to contemplate thousand-year-old olive trees. • Participation in olive oil festivals held in certain production locations. • Knowledge about different folk traditions linked to the cultivation of olive trees. • Participation in gastronomic activities featuring olive oil as the main attraction. • Tour routes linked to the 31 Olive-Oil Designations of Origin existing in Spain. • Attendance at trade shows related to the production of olive oil. • Learning about the characteristics of other industries related to olives and olive oil (cosmetics, canning, wood crafts, marinated olives, etc.)

Olive oil tourism is seen as a tourism modality motivated by anything that has to do with olive oil and resources related to olive cultivation, such as the land, water, countryside, the culture or the climate, among other things, its uniqueness making this a typically Mediterranean product (López, Montes, & Moreno, 2013). To foment sustainable tourism development, it is necessary to analyse especially the supply existing in Spain because olive cultivation contributes great landscape value to a particular geographic destination (olive growing

Table 1 Olive oil designations of origin in Spain. Compiled from information from the Ministry of Environment and Rural and Marine Affairs. Geographic area

Number of DO Denominations

ANDALUSIA

14

ARAGON CASTILLA-LA MANCHA

1 5

CATALUÑA

5

C FORAL DE NAVARRA MADRID COMUNIDAD VALENCIANA EXTREMADURA

1 1 1 2

ISLAS BALEARES LA RIOJA

1 1

-

ANTEQUERA SIERRA DE CADIZ ESTEPA LUCENA PRIEGO DE CÓRDOBA PONIENTE DE GRANADA BAENA JAÉN SIERRA SUR MONTES DE GRANADA SIERRA MÁGINA SIERRA DE CAZORLA SIERRA SEGURA CAMPIÑAS DE JAEN MONTORO-ADAMUZ BAJO ARAGON ALCARRIA CAMPO DE MONTIEL MONTES DE TOLEDO MONTES DE ALCARAZ CAMPO DE CALATRAVA BAJO EBRO-MONTSIÁ LAS GARRIGUAS EMPORDA U OLI DE L'EMPORDÁ SIURANA TIERRA ALTA NAVARRA MADRID VALENCIA GATA-HURDES MONTERRUBIO MALLORCA LA RIOJA


countryside), both culturally and environmentally. Furthermore, its tourism activity can contribute to both promoting its conservation and fomenting regional economic development due to the symbiosis existing in this sector (Fig. 2). 3. Description of the geographical area In Spain there are about 250 registered Protected Designations of Origin and Protected Geographic Indications that guarantee the quality of the products they certify (ranging from fish, vegetables and meat products to cheeses, wine and olive oil). Forty-seven of these denominations are located in Andalusia, this being the autonomous region with the greatest number of Origin Designations and Protected Geographic Indications, followed by the 32 in Castille-La Mancha and Catalonia, and 30 in Castille and Leon and Galicia. With respect to olive oil, there are 32 Designations of Origin for olive oil and extra virgin olive oil in Spain (Fig. 3) of which 14 are from Andalusia, representing 43.75% of the Designations of Origin registered in Spain for this product. Spain is the world's largest olive oil producer with an average production in recent seasons of 1.29 million tonnes, representing 60% of world production, and exporting 0.7 million tonnes, which makes it the top exporter worldwide, exporting to over 100 countries on five continents. Its estimated net worth amounts to 3000 million euros (Ruiz, 2011), although the economic impact of olive oil commercialization represents only 5% of the international market of vegetable fats (Molina et al., 2011). The area dedicated to olive cultivation in Spain is 2.59 of 1.29 million hectares (2014), of which 71.45% corresponds to rain-fed areas and 28.55% to irrigated ones, the main crop being the pressed olive (94.1% of total olive cultivation) and the remainder used for table olives (Ministry of Agriculture and Environment MAGRAMA, 2015). The distribution of olive groves in Spain is not uniform, as 35 of the 50 provinces that make up the country cultivate olives, these areas especially concentrated in the east, south and southeast of the peninsula. The olive is not only a product of Spain but also of other Mediterranean countries (Greece, Italy, Tunisia, Libya, etc.). The most outstanding area within the Spanish Communities is Andalusia, concentrating 59.98% of olive grove areas, followed in importance by Castille la Mancha (1.84%), Extremadura (10.51%), Catalonia (4.46%), Valencia (3.66%), Aragon (2.28%); the remaining 11 Autonomous Regions that make up Spain only account for 3.27%. of olive surface cultivation. On the other hand, according to De Salvo et al. (2013) Spain has become the main producer of olive oil with certificates of quality, with an

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economic value amounting to €139.28 million in 2014 (see Table 2). In this same sector, Andalusia is in first place in terms of the number of PDO cultivations and production and sales volumes with €79.64 million in 2014 (57.17% of the national total). Therefore, given that it is the most representative Autonomous Region in the national context, it has been chosen as a geographical area for research into olive oil tourism. Andalusia dedicates more than 1.5 million hectares to olive production, more than 43% of cultivated land, 60.15% of the olive crop in Spain and 35% of the European Union total. This also makes olives a crop of enormous social importance in Andalusia It is also the crop that generates the most employment per unit of land, giving rise to its nickname of “a very socially important crop”. According to the agricultural census, olive farming in Andalusia generated around 32% of the labour in the entire agricultural and livestock sector (Instituto Nacional de Estadítica, 2009). For many Andalusian regions, the olive crop is the only source of both indirect and direct income for the population, and is the main form of economic activity in more than 300 Andalusian towns and for 250,000 families (Table 3). This dependence on the olive crop in many Andalusian towns has led to the creation of the Master Plan for Directing Olive Cultivation to modernise and increase competition in the sector in Andalusia, with a budget of €304 million until 2020. This Plan aims to implement measures to ensure competitiveness, sustainability and Andalusia's leadership of the sector worldwide, a sector that currently provides 35% of agricultural employment and is the main source of economic activity in 350 Andalusian towns. The olive crop creates deep uncertainties for families with regards to their income, because the amount and quality of production every year is uncertain. This uncertainty is a result of unpredictable factors such as climate which play a fundamental role in agricultural production. The effects of these unpredictable factors are exacerbated by the seasonal nature of olive production, with the entire year work and income concentrated in a few months. In Spain for example, the production of olive oil in 2012 decreased by 41%, from 1.59 million tonnes in 2011 to 657,300 tonnes in 2012. In Andalusia, the decrease was a little lower, at 38.3% (from 1.35 million tonnes in 2011 to 519,300 tonnes in 2012). Nevertheless, in the 2013–2014 season, production in Andalusia increased by almost 60% (1.31 million tonnes) with respect to the previous season, which was exceptionally poor. These variations in production mean that profits obtained by farmers are not guaranteed in the future, requiring assistance programmes or schemes to expand the range of activities, to avoid farmers abandoning this crop. The Master Plan for Directing Olive Cultivation comprises 125 measures including a new Rural Development

Fig. 2. Uses of olive oil.

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Fig. 3. Olive oil designations of origin in Andalusia.

Programme (RDP) for the period 2014–2020 encompassing four blocks: 1st) farm: 2nd) industries and markets: 3rd) training and R + D; 4th) improved management of the olive crop, focusing on regions where olives and olive oil production are essential for the economy, employment, population maintenance and conservation of the countryside in its natural heritage, as well as for fomenting ecological olive crops by encouraging farmers to incorporate this practice. But the main part of the plan is to subsidise investments in physical assets (38%) to bolster competitiveness and sustainability in both the farms and industries related to the sector, while also promoting oil and olives with Designation of Origin in the European Union (Table 4). In addition to PDO and to cope with the fall in production in years with poor harvests, which leads to a decrease in income for those engaged in agriculture, a complementary activity can be generated to take advantage of this olive crop, thus generating a symbiosis between two sectors like agriculture and tourism. This latter is a modality with a special use for olive oil: its use as a tourist attraction for olive mills with their groves of thousand-year-old olive trees combining into an excellent untapped tourist product based on the raw material of olive oil which is renowned worldwide, not only for its organoleptic characteristics but also for its use in the Mediterranean diet (Table 5).

4. Methodology The methodology developed consisted of a random sample survey using the quantitative technique of questionnaires conducted in companies (olive presses, hotels, restaurants, regulatory boards and all those institutions through which extra virgin olive oil is made known) that make up the olive oil routes belonging to PDOs and PGIs in Andalusia, in order to verify the tourism potential in this field. This survey contains 25 questions grouped into three blocks: the first block covers information about the type of company, personnel and production; the second block is about assessments and opinions about the gastronomic route and oil PDOs; and the third refers to involvement in the gastronomic route and actions to promote the olive-oil tourism route (Table 6). The field work, based on conducting these surveys, took place between the months of September 2013 and October 2014. The items used in the survey are meant to respond to the measures and indicators proposed for carrying out the analysis of supply indicators. There were 25 items and four types of questions were used: first, those based on yes/no answers to gain a perspective on certain aspects of olive oil tourism, involvement in the route, if subsidies have been received, etc.; the second was based on a Likert scale of 5 points and

Table 2 Surface area and production of the olive crop in Spain and the producing Autonomous Regions (hectares, 2014). Compiled from information from the Ministry of Environment and Rural and Marine Affairs.

Spain Extremadura Andalucía Castilla la Mancha C. Valenciana Cataluña Aragón Other autonomous regions TOTAL %

Unirrigated

Irrigated

Total

1,853,011 229,090 974,978 362,825 79,755 93,510 47,317 65,536 71.45%

740,511 43,440 580,497 48,000 15,160 22,277 11,944 19,193 28.55%

2,593,523 272,530 1,555,475 410,825 94,916 115,786 59,261 84,729 2,593,523

% 10.51% 59.98% 15.84% 3.66% 4.46% 0.28% 3.27% 100.00%

Production millions € PDO

% Production DPO

139.28 2.03 79.64 3.04 2.02 42.05 9.42 1.08

100% 1.45% 57.17% 2.18% 1.45% 30.19% 6.76% 0.77%

M.G. Millán-Vazquez de la Torre et al. / Tourism Management Perspectives 21 (2017) 100–108 Table 3 Technical data from the surveys. The Authors.

Population Size of sample Sample error Confidence level Field work date

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Table 5 Univariate results of the personnel-production survey. The Authors. Surveys about the supply

Question

Firms forming part of the routes P. D.O.'s and P.G.I.'s 183 valid surveys ±4.2% 95%; p = q = 0.5 September 2013 to October 2014

Sector of the company

regarding the assessment of olive oil tourism in the area; the third questions were closed as well as open, where the businessmen being interviewed could make commentaries about this tourism experience; and finally, numeric questions mainly about any expenses in investment to adapt the companies to the oil route and any subventions received. It has been a complex process to learn about the initial population (companies related to the olive oil sector that form part of a gastronomic route, oil presses, restaurants, hotels, travel agencies, tourist boards, city halls, etc.). The distribution by province of the companies chosen has depended on the number of Designations of Origin existing in each one of them. Andalusia is made up of 8 provinces, two of which without a Designation of Origin for olive oil (Almeria and Huelva), and Jaen which is the province with the greatest number of businessmen surveyed (66) (Table 7). 5. Analysis of results

Percentage

Company standing

Number of employees

Training level

Investment in training

Media used for publicity

Sales euros

The profile of companies offering a gastronomic tour or some PDO or PGI dedicated to olive oil is of enterprises with the legal status of a cooperative (65.8%), dedicated to the production of olive oil (oil presses 80.6%), with hardly any organizational dimension. This is because they have few workers, between 5 and 9 (43.6%), with only a basic level of formation (63.7%) as they are not skilled workers, and the employer invests little in any ongoing training in the company. Formation is an essential pillar for company growth (Madsen, 2013) and it translates into an increase in both productivity (Ruiz, Gómez, & Narváez, 2010) and worker satisfaction (Yücel, 2012), while it also makes the tourist the final beneficiary of the treatment offered to them (Table 8). Regarding the economic result, the sales volume is between 100,001 and 500,000 euros a year (31.5%); only 5% of the companies reach 5.0 million euros, these being the oil pressing businesses dedicated to exporting olive oil. The demand for oil tourism is seasonal, and the most important time period coincides with the harvesting and processing of olives between late October and early February. This time span includes the Christmas

Restaurant Hotels Business Oil presses others Individual businessman Cooperative Limited society S.L Anonymous company, S.A. 1–4 employees 5 to 9 employees over 10 employees No studies Basic studies Higher studies Ongoing formation Occasionally Never Individual web page Commercial brochures Travel agencies Fairs, exhibitions Press notes, media relations Others (indicate)/specialised journals Denominations of origin/chamber of commerce/social networks Two or more ways of promotion Less than 50,000 euros a year 50,001–100,000 euros a year 100,001–500,000 euros a year 500,000–1,000,000 euros a year 1,000,001–5,000,000 euros a year More than 5,000,000 euros a year

12.4% 3.2% 2.5% 80.6% 1.3% 15.6% 65.8% 13.2% 5.3% 25.8% 43.6% 30.6% 12.1% 63.7% 24.2% 4.0% 73.2% 22.8% 2.7% 0.9% 0.1% 3.9% 0.2% 10.5% 81.4% 14.7% 22.7% 31.5% 23.4% 6.3% 1.4%

holidays when there is the greatest demand for oil tourism (40.4%); the least popular time is during the week (44.7%). One of the main problems is that only 65% of oil presses are open to the public, especially at weekends (32.4%). If more oil mills were open on weekends, the demand to visit them could increase. The fact that in some regions there is only one open does not make it a worthwhile option for the tourist as it implies travelling long distances in order to see only one establishment. This is the reason why most visiting tourists come from the region where the oil mill is located (54.3%). Therefore, to attract tourists from international markets, it could be an attractive strategy, in line with Molina et al. (2011), to open up more mill and olive-press installations. This would mean part of the mill could be dedicated to selling and the product could be purchased directly by visitors;

Table 4 Distribution of the sample. The Authors. Province

Denomination of origin

%

Number of surveys

Almería Cádiz (1 PDO) Córdoba (4 PDO)

– PDO Sierra de Cádiz PDO Baena PDO Lucena PDO Montoro-Adamúz PDO Priego de Córdoba PDO Montes de Granada PDO Poniente de Granada PDO Jaén Sierra Sur PDO Sierra Mágina PDO Sierra de Cazorla PDO Sierra de Seguraa PDO Campiñas de Jaén – PDO Antequera PDO Estepa

0 7.14 28.57

0 13 52

14.28

26

35.71

66

0 7.14 7.14 100

0 13 13 183

Granada (2 PDO) Jaén (5 PDO)

Huelva Málaga (1 PDO) Sevilla (1 PDO) TOTAL

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Table 6 Univariate results of demand. The Authors. Question

Percentage

When is your company's lowest demand period?

During the week At weekends In summer In winter Christmas. Weekends Holy Week Long weekends and holidays Summer Local area Province Region National International. Indicate the major country of origin

When is your company's peak demand moment?

Where do your clients come from?

If your business is an olive oil press, is it open for visits by the general public?

If your business is an olive oil mill, is it visited by the so-called “sun and sand tourists”? Have you received a subsidy or financial aid to launch your company or to reform it in the last five years?

this would open up a new marketing channel for the product and its derivatives, thus increasing tourism revenues and sales. Analyzing tourist characteristics, this would not really appeal to the “sun and beach” tourists but to an alternative tourism (81.6%) that is more selective and loyal as long as the quality is high standard (Millán & Pérez, 2014). To adapt the company, especially the mills for tourist visits, certain standards must be met, and these involve investments in infrastructure. Without subsidies, many companies prefer not to make these investments, losing out on the opportunity to attract “olive-oil tourism” clients who could become acquainted with their oil and later demand that local shops stock their shelves with this product, thus increasing these enterprises' sales. The assessments of business owners who form part of the olive oil routes or some PDO of Andalusian olive-oil are favourable, as over 50%, consider that their products are of the highest quality and can attract tourists (77.5%). The same applies to PDO olive oil (68.9%), considering that including PDOs is positive or very positive for attracting tourism (62%); gastronomy is also found to be the principal tourist attraction at (47.5%). The main problem to make this tourism sector successful is that there are different agents involved, and in the case of olive oil tourism, their level of involvement is only average (41.7%). The owner often chooses to advertise his company on his own and not jointly; these isolated actions hinder a general combined vision of the route. This weakness is perceived by those involved and corroborated by López et al. (2013), and should be addressed; to improve the demand for olive oil tourism they propose uniting synergies with other well-known gastronomic routes in Andalusia like those related to cheese, Iberian ham and wine. But first those who form part of these olive oil routes (businessmen, local authorities, etc.) have to unite their efforts. 6. Conclusions Olive oil tourism is a new sector of tourism, which is blossoming and typical of certain olive-growing zones, it is not as well-known as wine tourism, but in the last five years there have been attempts to internationally advertise especially the area of Andalusia (the southern region

Yes, every day Yes, by reservation Yes, only weekends and holidays Yes, sometimes Yes, for catering or other No Yes No Yes Less than 6000 euros 6000–12,000 euros 12,001–24,000 euros 24,001–50,000 euros Over 50,000 euros No

44.7% 15.8% 28.7% 10.8% 40.4% 34.9% 14.7% 10.0% 7.8% 12.1% 54.3% 23.4% 2.4% 9.4% 16.8% 32.4% 4.3% 2.1% 35.0% 18.4% 81.6% 12.4% 7.3% 2.5% 0.2% 0.1% 77.5%

of Spain) as it is the region with the highest olive-oil production, an element which olive oil tourism revolves around. It is a question of portraying olive oil as a world of sensations that the visitor can perceive through his senses and emotions. Therefore, the tourist's perception of the “olive-oil tourism” tourist product is influenced by the physiological characteristics of the users themselves, their character and personality, as well as by collective representations (social and cultural) that the tourist destination consists of (Rivera, 2015), contributing to preserving customs and helping the visitor to learn about traditional olive oil extraction and production methods. It is also good for preserving in pristine condition those ancient oil tools exhibited in museums and interpretation centers that would otherwise have fallen into oblivion with the passage of time. From the data obtained it can be concluded that there is not yet strong involvement on the part of the various agents who can offer the routes-of-oil product in Andalusia, as it is characterised by small companies of workers with little training, unable to draw quality tourist attention. There is a divergence between the Andalusia olive-oil product of the highest quality renowned in international fairs and the service attending the not-very-professional olive-oil tourist. Olive-oil tourism has yet to be the star of a major advertising campaign carried out by public authorities and private collaboration. It is a type of tourism that is still too new and lacks organisms for its regulation. The traditional model of tourism (seasonal mass tourism) is undergoing change, giving rise to multiple tourist realities characterised by the diversity seen in terms of segments and products. An integral part of this complex and continually changing scenario is the region of Andalusia, a destination with a huge potential and attraction. Agricultural systems such as olive farming generate or participate in tertiary economic activities such as olive oil tourism, allowing resources endogenous to the rural sector to be fully utilised. Ultimately, olive oil tourism is an activity which complements those considered as mainstays of the local economy, and is in line with the multifunctional concept of agricultural systems. The olive oil sector represents an important source of wealth, not only in economic terms, but also culturally and in terms of image and

M.G. Millán-Vazquez de la Torre et al. / Tourism Management Perspectives 21 (2017) 100–108 Table 7 Evaluation and opinion: route and PDO. The Authors.

Table 8 Involvement in the gastronomic route and actions taken to improve it. The Authors.

Question

Percentage

Question

Current state of gastronomical tourism in your area

5.4% 58.5% 23.2% 12.6% 0.3% 6.2% 59.1% 20.2% 11.4% 2.8% 10.6% 77.5% 8.4% 2.3% 1.2% 66.9% 27.8% 3.86% 1.5% 0.0% 5.4% 50.3% 35.6% 9.2% 0.0% 10.4% 47.5% 32.8% 9.3%

Degree of Involvement in the gastronomic route

Very Good Good Fair Bad Very Bad Assessment of the current situation of olive Very Good oil tourism in the Designation of Origin Good area Fair Bad Very Bad How would you rate the degree of Very High satisfaction of the clients who visit the High region? Average Low Very Low How do you rate the attractiveness of the Very High products in the province for drawing High tourists? Average Low Very Low How would you feel about including your Very Positive business (restaurant, hotel, olive mill, Positive etc.) on a gastronomic circuit of the Indifferent province to attract tourism to your Negative establishment? Very Negative What do you think is the main tourist As a complement for attraction of the DO for tourism? “sun and sand tourism” Gastronomy Landscape Climate How do you evaluate the power of Very High attraction of exclusive DO olive oil to High attract tourists? Average Low Very Low If your DO is not included in a gastronomic Very Positive route, how do you think its inclusion Positive would affect attracting tourism to the Indifferent area? Negative Very Negative

107

68.9% 28.4% 8.4% 2.3% 1.2% 5.4% 55.6% 36.3% 2.7% 0.0% 0.0%

identity. The need for Spanish land in general, and Andalusian land in particular, to generate new ways to diversify economically has led to the possibility, with an eye on recent trends in tourism, of utilizing of a segment which has been neglected until now, corresponding to the practice and productive and consumptive activities linked to olive oil (olive oil tourism seen as a rural tourist activity, industrial tourism or gastronomic tourism). Therefore, although farming production continues to be the main economic activity in rural Andalusia, it can no longer be considered the only pillar on which to base development. Rural development does not depend solely on the agricultural sector. It is vital to promote other forms of economic activity that contribute to maintaining the rural population and consolidate the economies of rural regions (Millán et al., 2015). It is also the crop that generates the most employment per unit of land, giving rise to its epithet of “a very socially important crop”. As a matter of fact, this dependence on the olive crop, demonstrated in many Andalusian towns, creates great uncertainties for producers in terms of profits. This is because the annual amount and quality of production is uncertain. This uncertainty is linked to certain unpredictable factors such as climate, that deeply affect agricultural production. The effect of these unpredictable factors is exacerbated by the seasonal nature of olive production, which concentrates work and profits in a few months of the year. To address production variability and as such the incomes of people working in olive production, some regions have begun to offer olive oil tourism as a complementary activity linked to olive-

Would it be a good idea to launch a Vocational Training Programme for the tourism sector in the region? Do you actively participate in decision-making and territorial planning in your area?

Actions to improve olive oil tourism

Percentage Very high High Average Low Very Low Yes No

15.6% 28.9% 41.7% 9.2% 4.6% 93.4% 6.4%

Yes. How? Business Associations Cooperatives Local Area Associations International Labour Conference City Hall Rural Development Group No

52.8%

Better complementary offer Join synergies with other gastronomic routes More publicity about the olive oil routes Improve infrastructures Increase the number of olive oil fairs More public support to improve routes Others

10.8% 35.6% 3.4% 0.00% 0.00% 3.00% 47.2% 25.8% 32.4% 15.2% 7.9% 2.5% 8.4% 7.8%

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Juan Manuel Arjona-Fuentes has a PhD in Economics and Business Sciences and is a professor of Statistics in the Loyola Andalucía University, Spain. His research areas include sustainable development with a special focus on renewable energies, and sustainable tourism which he has done several studies and publications about.

Luis Amador-Hidalgo has his PhD in Economics and Business Sciences and is a professor of Applied Economics in the Loyola Andalucía, Spain. The research areas that he specializes in and has done studies and publications about are ecological economy, sustainable development and sustainable tourism. He has published several articles in both national and international scientific journals.