... dan anggota setiap hari menjadi ajang timbulnya komunikasi dua arah antara ..... On the other hand, verbal communication with delivery man, as well as co-.
Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Pertanian, 14 (2004): pp. 51-60 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS AND ADVANTAGES OF THE JOINT BUYING SYSTEM IN JAPAN’S CONSUMER CO-OPERATIVES KARAKTERISTIK OPERASIONAL DAN KEUNTUNGAN SISTEM PEMBELIAN BERSAMA PADA KOPERASI KONSUMEN DI JEPANG H. Saediman1 and Masayuki Ono2 1
Faculty of Agriculture, Yamagata University, Japan (Research Fellow); Faculty of Agriculture, Haluoleo University, Indonesia 2 Faculty of Agriculture, Yamagata University, Japan
ABSTRACT Tulisan ini membahas karakteristik dan manfaat joint buying system (sistem pembelian bersama) pada koperasi konsumen di Jepang berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang dilakukan di Tsuruoka, Jepang pada bulan September 2003. Data dan informasi diperoleh melalui studi kepustakaan dan wawancara dengan staf koperasi dan anggota kelompok pembelian bersama. Sebagai produk gerakan koperasi konsumen pada tahun 1960-an, sistem joint buying menjadi pilar utama pengembangan koperasi konsumen. Pengoperasiannya berdasarkan pesanan dimuka (advance order), tidak memerlukan fasilitas pertokoan, dan distribusi barang di tingkat Han dilakukan secara sukarela oleh anggota. Bagi anggota, joint buying bersifat praktis karena barang diantarkan ke rumah,dan produknya sehat dan aman dikonsumsi. Kontak antara staf koperasi dan anggota setiap hari menjadi ajang timbulnya komunikasi dua arah antara anggota dan manajemen koperasi. Karakteristik-karakteristiknya yang menguntungkan anggota dan manajemen seperti itu merupakan kekuatan koperasi untuk terus mengembangkan bisnis joint buying di tengah persaingan industri distribusi yang semakin ketat. Keywords, consumer co-operatives, Japan, joint buying, operational characteristics
INTRODUCTION Japan’s consumer co-operatives are often said to be one of the most dynamic consumer co-operative movements in the world. Their achievements are especially noteworthy in the 1980s, when consumer co-operatives in industrialized countries were experiencing serious setbacks (Kurimoto, 1992). At present, co-operatives have become an integral part of the communities with around 30% of all households in Japan belonging to co-operatives, and with their share to food retailing amounting to 5.6%. Many studies have reported that the growth of Japanese consumer co-operatives is attributable to a number of unique characteristics and method of operations that they have developed to meet the members’ needs and to respond to changing environment
1
(Steinhoff, 1987; Kurimoto, 1992; Ada and Kawasaki, 1995; Hasebe, 1988). Joint buying is one of these features which has given the co-operatives a special place in the distribution industry. Though joint buying sales has shown slight decrease amidst keen competition in the distribution industry over the last few years (JCCU, 2001), its share from the total co-operative sales continues to increase. Under the joint buying system, members living in the same neighborhood form a group called Han which places orders weekly using a catalogue for delivery of their ordered products to the group in the following week. Han-based joint buying provides a venue for member economic participation at user level. This paper attempts to discuss operational characteristics and advantages of the joint buying system in Japan’s consumer co-operative movement.
METHODOLOGY This research was conducted in Tsuruoka, Yamagata Prefecture, Japan, in September 2003. In order to gather data and information used in this paper, we have used written sources, interviews, and direct observation. Analysis of written sources is used to understand the general condition of the joint buying system in Japan’s consumer co-operatives in general, namely background for its establishment, joint buying in the context of co-operative business, and distribution mechanism. Reports, leaflets, and the like issued by Kyoritsusha Seikyo, a co-operative selected for the study, were also utilized to gain more insights into the practice of joint buying. Interviews with members of a joint buying group were conducted to find out the delivery procedures at the Han level. There are four major groupings of consumer co-operatives, namely retail cooperatives, medical co-operatives, insurance co-operatives, and housing co-operatives.
2
However, the term ‘consumer co-operatives’ used throughout this paper refers to retail co-operatives, in particular to citizen or regional co-operatives (chiiki seikyo,) which serve local residents through stores, joint buying, and catalogue sales. In this respect, the consumer co-operatives hereafter will be sometimes referred to by their Japanese name, seikyo, or their popular abbreviation, co-op.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION Background for the Establishment of Joint Buying The history of the Japanese Consumer Co-operative movement dates back to as early as 1898 when the first consumer co-operative was established with a simple aim to improve the living standard of the people (Ada and Kawasaki, 1995). The number of co-operatives has then grown dramatically, particularly following the Second World War, but gained prominence only after the 1970s. The rapid economic growth that started in 1960 brought a variety of social economic problems such as environmental pollution, harmful food products, and malpractice in the market place. Consumers who were concerned about such problems found the co-operatives to be viable instruments for realizing their aspirations (Kurimoto, 1992). Most of these participants in the cooperative movement were housewives organized under the community-level cooperatives. The so-called milk movement is an example of how consumer movement started and developed. In the 1950s and early 1960s, as Japanese lifestyle underwent a general process of westernization, milk was gradually incorporated into the Japanese diet. But because the dairy industry dominated the market, there were various abuses, including controlled prices and mixing into milk of non-milk fats like coconut oil. A national consumer movement developed in reaction, demanding lower prices and pure,
3
unadulterated milk. This case gave rise to a movement supporting the joint buying of milk in which the co-operatives delivered milk to their members not as individuals but as members of the lowest-level units called Han organized for joint buying. This was the beginning of group-based joint buying (Nomura, 1993). The practice of joint buying spread to other food staples, such as eggs and rice, and other household necessities. It was a time when harmful food products were appearing and prices were often controlled because producers, for whom profits and market share were all that mattered, dominated the market, and joint buying became the driving force behind the development of the consumer co-operative movement through the organization of housewives concerned about food safety, quality, and prices. During the first oil crisis of 1973, consumers’ expectations of, and faith in, the co-operatives grew as prices rose and products became scarce, membership soared, and the number of products handled by co-operatives increased, making it necessary to revamp the joint buying system (Nomura, 1993). The development of co-op brand products and the use of innovative marketing method of direct transaction (sanchoku) were two factors that support the further expansion of the joint buying. Nomura (1993) stated that the expansion of consumer co-operatives from the late 1970s through the early 1980s was caused in large part by the systematization of joint buying through the utilization of computerized optical character readers (OCR). The adoption of a weekly cycle and the increase of the number of products handled through joint buying have lead to the ease of using the system, making many members to become familiar with it and be part of their daily lives.
4
Joint Buying in the Context of Co-operative Business The kinds of businesses handled may vary between one co-operative and another. In general, however, co-operative business activities can be divided into retailing, insurance, and other services (Figure 1).
Co-operative Business
Retail
Store Operation
Insurance
Non-store Operation
Han-based joint buying
Medical Services
Other Services
Nursing Care
Travel Services
Others
Individual-home delivery joint buying
(Source: Adapted from JCCU, 2003)
Figure 1. Outline of Co-operative Business Activities
Co-op insurance and services are offered to satisfy various needs of members. Co-op insurance is designed to protect members from economic risk in their daily life on the basis of mutual help among members themselves. There are four kinds of co-op insurance plan offered to members, and in recent times have become
important
business activities of the co-operatives. Services activities might include travel services, cultural education, and so on. Nevertheless, because retailing operation is the mainstay of a consumer co-operative, these service activities are usually developed only after the
5
concerned Seikyo has power on the management of the store and joint buying operations (Nihon Seikatsu Kyodo Kumiai Rengokai, 2002). Retailing consists of store and non-store (or, store-less) operations. As the name suggests, store operation involves the purchasing and selling of various goods, notably foods, through stores managed by the co-operatives. On the contrary, joint buying operation does not require the existence of store. Most established co-operatives carry out store and joint buying operations side-by-side. The opening of stores is considered important to cater to day-to-day necessities of members as their lifestyles diversifies, standard for selecting products broadens, and needs change very fast. Nevertheless, a number of Seikyos still focused their business exclusively on joint buying. Most Seikyos that do not own and run stores are relatively newer and are smaller in size.
S tore
Joint B uying
100
Percentage
80 60 40 20 0
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
00
Y ear
Figure 2.Share of Store and Joint B uying Sales from Total Sales of C onsum er C o-operatives
Source: Nisseikyo Soritsu Gojushunen Kinnen Rekishi Hensan Iinkai, 2002
The importance of joint buying in the co-operative business can be understood from Figure 2 which shows the increased share of joint buying from total sales of cooperatives. In 1973, the share of joint buying was 5.9% while that of store 85.7%. Since
6
1988, joint buying sales began to outweigh store sales. In the year 2000, the share of joint buying reached 55.0% compared to 43.6% of store sales. Within the joint buying system, however, there is the so-called individual home delivery, whose procedures are based on the joint buying system.
Under this
individual home delivery, members simply order products and have them delivered to their homes. Due to the changing conditions of members’ lifestyles, individual home delivery services are expanding rapidly. The ratio of individual home delivery services among the total sales of joint buying services was increasing by 32.1% in 2002. This growth has favorable offset the slight decrease of sales from the Han-based joint buying operation (JCCU, 2001). The establishment of joint buying system as well as the opening of stores required the coop to develop various kinds of coop products. Thus, JCCU (Japanese Consumer Co-operative Union) in conjunction with regional co-operatives develops coop brand products, which are then supplied nationally to member co-operatives. In 2002, the national program promoting the joint development of co-op products through cooperation among JCCU and other large co-operatives was launched. This shows that co-operatives take serious attempts to develop new products and improve existing ones, to satisfy member demand for more convenient services and cheaper, fresher and tastier food and beverages. The desire of co-operative members for greater food safety is recognized through stricter food quality standards, improved labeling practices, better sanitation management, and more rigorous, comprehensive quality control systems (JCCU, 2002a). In addition to improving the standard of product safety and reliability, and developing environment-friendly products, co-operatives also place greater emphasis on
7
direct transaction (sanchoku) with agricultural or fisheries producers and other local industry sources. This gives rise to the sanchoku movement and business created through cooperation between consumers and producers to achieve a stable supply of safe, high quality product at a stable and reasonable price. It is noteworthy that these sanchoku products, along with other co-op brand products, are made available to members through joint buying system (in addition to through store operation). The coop system of buying directly from producers and delivering directly to consumers, helps to ensure the freshness and the safety of the product.
Physical Flow of Goods Co-operatives carrying out joint buying system take the functions of marketing channel intermediaries that facilitate movement of products from the producers to the final consumers. However, different from other marketing intermediaries, co-operatives in the joint buying system perform several functions involved in the physical movement and storage of goods, namely retailing, transportation, and warehousing. For most goods under the co-op brand, co-operatives act also as manufacturers’ representatives or sales agent. In order to efficiently and effectively move goods to consumers, it is necessary to develop an appropriate physical distribution system. A characteristic of the physical distribution system of Seikyo is the existence of physical distribution for joint buying (Figure 3). In a growing number of co-operatives, the physical distribution system for joint buying exists side by side with that for store operations. Contrary to the store-based operations of major supermarket firms, Seikyo must contend with a more complicated task of providing home delivery services for their joint buying operations during specific hours of the day tailored to a more or less
8
fixed delivery schedule for each Han and coping with a greater fluctuation of delivery volume from one day of the week to the next (Nomura, 1993). At the Han level, distributive work is performed voluntarily by members themselves. Weekly orders are delivered to the Han and divided amongst the Han members according to their order. At the same time order sheets are compiled for the following week and are given to the co-operative staff making the delivery. The deliveryman takes the order back and the total orders are compiled and sent to data processing center where computers total the order and issue quantity orders to suppliers. Fresh goods are delivered from suppliers to physical distribution center where the goods are collated by district and Han and then distributed to the delivery center for delivery to the Han. For fresh goods, it takes one or two days to go from the suppliers to the consumer. This system results in a lower level of food waste than stores and lower overhead costs as stocks or goods are kept to a minimum (Nomura, 1993; Ada and Kawasaki, 1996). Suppliers of goods consist of wholesalers, manufacturers, JCCU, and farmerproducers. Depending on the products and contractual agreement, the goods might be transported to co-operative distribution center by manufacturer’s or co-operative’s truck. The transportation of goods to the Han members is done using co-op trucks. Co-operative distribution centers are intended to perform the major functions of storage, processing, assortment and delivery of coop merchandise. From a functional point of view, they may be divided into those that are exclusively for joint buying, those that are exclusively for store operations, and those that serve both functions. Whichever type they may be, they all share the characteristics of a merchandise control facility required for transporting large volumes of merchandise, and serve the following purposes: first, to prevent any shortage of goods at the store level or in deliveries to
9
each Han, which, in turn, necessitates the maintenance of appropriate levels of inventory for specific items at appropriate points in time; second, to maintain the desired level of quality and freshness of the merchandise and raw materials; and third, to reduce the total costs (Nomura, 1993). The distribution center, and the co-operative staff who deliver goods to members, hold crucial functions in the success of joint buying. First, they function to create a harmony with members through day-to-day communication. Being close to and having daily contact with members, they understand better members’ life, aspiration, and preferences. Second, they observe the contract with members. An order sheet is actually a contract that should be executed, and for this purpose, they place orders, deliver ordered goods, and respond appropriately to the claim possibly emerged. Finally, they implement business plan and budget of the co-operative (Yoshida and Saito, 1997). The use of computer in the joint buying system helps build a more efficient and effective movement of goods from producers to the final consumers. The introduction of the OCR (optical character reader) system replaces the cumbersome tasks of tabulating the weekly orders from the members of an entire Han with the submission of OCR order forms by individual households, and thus alleviates the work load of those members on order tabulation duty. A computer-assisted order processing system can speed up the process so that members can receive their goods more quickly and reduce errors in order transmittal. In addition, the use of picking directors (PDs) system increases the speed and accuracy in the assortment process for the delivery to each Han, leading to greater consumer satisfaction.
10
order form (dissemination)
Han (Members)
order form (retrieval)
Joint Buying Merchandising
Delivery Center
ordered goods payment bank transfer order form (dissemination)
retail sales data
Bank order form (OCR)
Wholesaler Manufacturer JCCU
order delivery
Physical Distribution Center
cumulative list of orders received
merchandising plan
Computer Center
Notes: Bold lines indicate physical distribution Source: H. Nomura (1993). A Comprehensive Analysis of Consumer Co-operatives in Japan. Otsuki Shoten Publisher. Tokyo. p.122
Figure 3. Overview of the Physical Distribution and Flow of Information in a Joint Buying Operation
Delivery Procedures at the Han Level
It has been stated above that joint buying is a product of consumer co-operative movement, and in many cases has become the basis for the establishment of Han. It is a type of business whose basis is laid on the advance order put together by Han. Han is an organization having functions of doing voluntary activities for members such as circulation of order sheets, submission of order sheets, and distribution of ordered goods. In short, as stated by Hasebe (1988), joint buying business depends totally on the active participation of the members organized into Han.
11
Co-op Delivery Center
Delivery man (co-op staff)
Han Delivery of ordered goods, order sheet, and catalogues
Collection of all order sheets to member in charge
Circulation of ordered goods, order sheets, and catalogues
The filling out of order sheets based on the catalogues
Figure 4. Delivery Mechanism at Han Level
The delivery procedure of the joint buying as observed at the surveyed Han is presented in Figure 4. It is noteworthy that the figure expresses the logical sequence of the joint buying process, and does not necessarily represent its time sequence. First, goods, which have been ordered jointly by Han members, are delivered to one member’s house. Other members then go to that house to take home their own orders along with the new catalogues and order sheet. On the basis of catalogues, each member fills out order sheet, which is taken later to the in-charge member (touban). Members approve the day of delivery suggested by the co-op on one day from Monday to Friday. For food items, the delivery is made one week after the receipt of the joint order, while for non-food items, approximately ten to fourteen days. Payment is made monthly by pre-authorized debit from each member’s bank account on the fifth of the following month.
12
Just as the nature and characteristics of member participation might show slight variations among Hans, so is also the way the ordered products are arranged within the Han. In the survey Han, the place for the delivery of ordered goods and for the collection of order sheets is located permanently at a member’s house, thus eliminating the necessity to change alternately the person in charge (touban) of joint buying within the Han. This might be different with other Hans, where the delivery place might change alternately according to the shifting of person in charge. Types and amount of products available to members through joint buying are diverse, ranging from food to non-food items. As shown in Table 1, available products cover all day-to-day needs of members presented in various catalogues. Food and beverages under the co-op brand are offered in the catalogue ‘product guide’ (shouhin annai),’ which is the most frequently purchased items by members. The use of co-op brand and sanchoku products for food items is vital, as Seikyo has long endeavored to provide safer and healthier foods. For non-food items, the manufacturers are not solely restricted to co-op brand. Rather, the co-operatives through JCCU makes tie-up with other manufacturer, such as mutou, to provide goods to members according to cooperative specification. It is worth mentioning that the co-operative does not only deliver goods catalogue and order sheet, but also various news related to co-operatives or co-operative products. The most important one is the monthly Han Dayori (Han newsletter), containing information on Han, membership, and co-op business and activities. Other co-op related news circulated at the time of survey by Kyoritsusha Seikyo includes, among others, co-operative insurance, call for investment to the co-operative, local products, joint buying advertisement, and kerosene availability.
13
For members who could not participate in the joint buying because of having no friends closer to their house or being too busy to go shopping, there is individual home delivery whose mechanism is based on the joint buying system. Under the individual home delivery, ordered goods can be delivered until the main door of a house, though the member is not at home. Delivery procedures and the available products are almost the same with that in the Han-based joint buying system, except for a small fee (￥200) charged by the co-operative as delivery cost. Therefore, it is convenient, especially for elderly members and for households where both husband and wife are working. Table 1. Title and Content of Catalogues Circulated to the Joint Buying Group No.
Title of catalogue
1
Product Guide (shouhin annai)
2
Life2
3 4
Be-Life New Life Special
5 6
Mutou3 Life and Seikyo
7 8
Health Support2 Carrot
9
Carrot Plaza
10
Delicacies
11
Smile Life
12
Book Spring
Contents and Remarks Foods (vegetables, fish, fruit, processed foods, seafood, egg, bread, and dairy products), beverages, and miscellaneous goods; mostly co-op (brand) products There are three catalogues under the title ‘life,’ focusing on, respectively, goods related to season, electrical goods, and underclothes. Focusing on cosmetics under co-op brand products House interior and daily life utensils; handled by Kyoritsusha Seikyo Various cloth products and fashion Thick bedquilt, bedclothes, foot warmer, coverlet, clothes, shoes, etc.; distributed by JCCU Health food, drinking, and supplements Floriculture, tableware, cooking utensils, popular goods, bedclothes, interior, bathroom goods; goods developed by JCCU Flower, music, children books; products developed by JCCU Vinegar, tea, jelly, cracker, boiled peas with honey and bean jam, bean curd, bean-meal soup, rice cake, fruits, etc.; products having met Seikyo’s standard regarding their healthiness and safety Various goods necessary for daily life, particularly those related to season; handled by Kyoritsusha Seikyo Children and recipe books; handled by Kyoritsusha Seikyo
Time of delivery1 1 week
10 – 14 days
2 weeks 2 weeks 2 weeks 1 – 2 weeks 2 weeks 10 – 14 days 10 – 14 days 2 weeks
2 weeks
2 weeks
Notes: 1 The time needed for delivering goods since the receipt of orders. 2 Goods distributed with the cooperation with other two Seikyos in Tohoku region (Sunnet). 3 The catalog is named after the company that manufactures the goods and has tie-up with JCCU Source: Catalogues from Kyoritsusha Seikyo sent out to the joint buying group (Han).
14
Advantages for Co-operative and Members The fact that joint buying occupies around half of the co-operative businesses shows that joint buying provides many advantages to the co-operative management and organization as well as to the members. In terms of co-operative management and organization, the benefit of joint buying is related to the presence of Han, whose establishment is actually based on joint buying. With Han being the most fundamental unit of individual members, Japanese consumer co-operative movement is characterized by a democratic structure that allows for a two-way flow of information so that the opinions of every member can become a part of organization-wide debates. Han provides a forum for members to express their opinions on co-operative operations and management policies, which are fed back to higher decision making committees (Saediman, 2002). Everyday contact with members during the delivery of goods serves as an important channel of two-way flow of communication between management and members. Joint buying provides a powerful feedback mechanism to the co-operatives. Comments, opinions, and criticisms of member regarding a product, for example, will become the basis for the improvement of that product or the development of the new one. Other forms of feedback include the involvement of members on other activities such as peace movement, environmental activities, and other issues of concern to consumers. On the other hand, verbal communication with delivery man, as well as cooperative news circulated along with the catalogues, keeps members informed with what is going on at their co-operatives. As mentioned earlier, part of the explanations for the growth of consumer cooperatives lays in the virtues of the joint buying system. This is because, as a ‘store-
15
less’ supply method based on advance order, the joint buying is inherently more efficient, at least during the starting of the business, as it preempts the need for store facilities, housing of inventory, and loss management which are liabilities for systems that supply goods through retail outlet. It consists of people in an organized structure; even with limited capital, it was easy to join and expand (Nomura, 1993). The greatest advantage for members is probably the delivery of goods to their own or nearby houses. This is particularly useful for housewives who cannot go shopping for having small children, and for the aged who might find it difficult to hold heavy articles. More complete information on the products written in the catalogues than those sold in the store is another advantage for members who want to know the details of the product. In addition, the joint buying saves members’ time and money by enabling them to shop at home. Further, household budgeting becomes easier and impulsive shopping is kept to a minimum since members must plan their purchases ahead of time. Best of all, members can enjoy the convenience of weekly home delivery of fresh foods and groceries. Another important feature of the joint buying is that it provides a weekly meeting for the members, who are mainly women. In the words of JCCU, as quoted by Ada and Kawasaki (1995), “joint buying fosters and strengthens the spirit of mutual sharing and caring among members.” In addition, as a scheme based on advance ordering, all members can be involved in the development and utilization of nonadditives co-operative products, direct-transaction products using low chemicals, etc.
16
CONCLUSION The joint buying is a product of consumer co-operative movement in the 1960s, and has been the mainstay of the co-operative businesses. Under the joint buying system, members form small group units called Han through which they place advance orders for various kinds of goods. As a ‘store-less’ supply method based on advance order, it is inherently more efficient than through retail outlet. It offers more flexibility as the business can be expanded without the involvement of any great amount of capital or high administrative costs. In order to support the efficient movement of goods, the cooperatives develop the physical distribution system for joint buying, in which the goods are transported using co-op trucks to members. The distributive work at the Han level is carried out voluntarily by Han members, so that its operation highly depends on the participation of members. The organization into consumer groups ensures problem-free functioning of distribution, ordering, and payment for the goods. For members, the joint buying is convenient because the goods are delivered to the own or nearby houses and the products are safer and healthier. Daily contacts between co-operative staff and members during the goods deliveries provide a venue for the emergence of two-way flow of communication between co-operative management and members. Through joint buying members can also be involved in the development and utilization of co-op and sanchoku products as well. Despite the beneficial characteristics of the joint buying operation, however, today’s co-operatives are operating amidst increasingly tougher competition in the distribution industry, changing membership lifestyles, and the aging society. The problems and prospects of the joint buying business in such conditions deserve investigation in the next surveys.
17
Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledge research fellowship from The Japan Foundation to conduct research on Japan’s consumer co-operatives.
REFERENCES Ada, R. and H. Kawasaki, 1995. Sanchoku in Japanese Consumer Co-ops. Department of Primary Industries. Queensland. Hasebe, M., 1988. “Confronting Competition: Consumer Co-operatives in Japan.” In J.E. Bayley and E. Parnell (eds.).Yearbook of Co-operative Enterprise. Plunkett Foundation. Oxford. JCCU, 2001. “Challenges Facing Japanese Consumer Co-ops Today.” Co-op Japan Information Co. 44 March 2001. (www.jccu.coop) JCCU, 2002a. “The Co-operative Movement in Japan – Achievements in 2001, and Objectives for 2002.” Co-op Japan Information No. 48 March 2002. (www.jccu.coop). JCCU, 2002b. “Non-Store Operations Today, and Innovation for Tomorrow.” Co-op Japan Information No. 49 June 2002 (www.jccu.coop) Kurimoto, A., 1992. “Japan’s Consumer Co-operative Movement: A Comparative Review.” In Robert Owen and the World of Co-operation. Chushichi Tsuzuki (ed). Robert Owen Association of Japan. Tokyo. Nihon Seikatsu Kyodo Kumiai Rengokai, 2002. Seikyo Handobukku. Kopu Shuppan. Tokyo. Nisseikyo Soritsu Gojunen Kinen Rekishi Hensan Iinkai, 2002. Gendai Nihon Seikyo Undoshi Gekan. Nihonseikatsu Kyodokumiai Rengokai, Tokyo. Nomura, H. (ed.), 1993. Seikyo A Comprehensive Analysis of Consumer Co-operatives in Japan. Otsuki Shoten Publishers. Tokyo. Saediman, H. 2002. “The Role of Han in Promoting Member Participation in Japanese Consumer Co-operatives.” Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Pertanian. No. 10. Steinhoff, D.S., 1987. Seikyo Japanese Consumer Co-operatives Organization and Management. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation. Hokkaido University, Japan. Yoshida, K. and A. Saito, 1997. Kyodo Konyu Jigyo no Amae o Do Kokufukusuru Ka. Kopu Shuppan. Tokyo.
18
