ORIGINAL PAPER Effect of apple pomace powder ...

Chemical Papers 68 (8) 1059–1065 (2014) DOI: 10.2478/s11696-014-0567-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

Effect of apple pomace powder addition on farinographic properties of wheat dough and biscuits quality Zlatica Kohajdová*, Jolana Karovičová, Michal Magala, Veronika Kuchtová Department of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Biotechnology and Food Science, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Radlinského 9, SK-812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia Received 15 August 2013; Revised 5 February 2014; Accepted 7 February 2014

In the present study, dietary fibre rich powders obtained from two apple cultivars (Gala, Golden Delicious) were analysed for their chemical composition and functional properties. Apple powders contained more than 50 mass % of total dietary fibre and showed high values of hydration properties such as water holding (11.73–18.34 g g−1 ), water retention (11.31–11.68 g g−1 ) and swelling capacity (7.19–8.03 cm3 g−1 ). Incorporation of apple pomace powders (5 mass %, 10 mass %, and 15 mass %) to wheat dough resulted in a significant increase of water absorption (58.60–71.80 mass %), dough development time (from 3.43 min to 5.53 min) and dough stability (from 9.40 min to 10.90 min). The results also indicate that an addition of higher amounts (10 mass % and 15 mass %) of apple pomace powders negatively affects the volume, thickness, width, and spread ratio of biscuits and reduces their overall acceptance. Sensory analysis also showed that no significant differences between the control biscuits and biscuits containing 5 mass % of apple pomace powder from cultivar Gala were found. c 2014 Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences Keywords: apples, by-products, farinograph, biscuits, quality

Introduction Recently, new sources of functional compounds such as dietary fibre (DF) and bioactive compounds have been sought after, and by-products (such as peels and pomaces) (Kim et al., 2013) from the food and drink industry have been examined for their potential to increase the nutritional value of food products (Ktenioudaki et al., 2013). Cereal based food products are consumed in large quantities daily and they provide a convenient medium for delivering DF and other healthy compounds to consumers (Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012). In large scale apple industry, about 75 % of apple is utilised for juice and the remaining 25 mass % are the by-product, apple pomace (AP) (Shalini & Gupta, 2010; O’Shea et al., 2012). AP poses serious environmental problems due to the large amounts (millions of

tonnes in EU alone) produced every year (Reis et al., 2012). Alternatively, it is used as animal feed (Gupta, 2006; Shalini & Gupta, 2010; O’Shea et al., 2012). Efforts have been made to utilise AP in the preparation of edible products like AP jam and sauce or to make citric acid (Shalini & Gupta, 2010) and for the extraction of pectin and alcohol and some other products (Gupta, 2006). AP is a rich source of carbohydrates (Gupta, 2006; Shalini & Gupta, 2010, Reis et al., 2012), total dietary fibre including cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and galacturnic acid (Chen et al., 1988), and minerals such as calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, and copper (O’Shea et al., 2012; Gupta, 2006; Shalini & Gupta, 2010, Reis et al., 2012). AP is also a good source of phytochemicals primarily phenolic acids such as chlorogenic, protocatechuic, and caffeic acid and flavonoids, e.g. flavanols and flavonols (Reis et al.,

*Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

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Z. Kohajdová et al./Chemical Papers 68 (8) 1059–1065 (2014)

2012; Di˜ neiro García et al., 2009; O’Shea et al., 2012). Phytochemicals present in apples have been associates with many health-enhancing benefits, e.g., cancer cell proliferation, lipid oxidation decrease and cholesterol lowering (O’Shea et al., 2012). Several studies on the enrichment of cereal products such as bread, cookies, granola bars, and muffins with apple processing by-products are available in literature (Chen et al., 1988; Gupta, 2006; Sudha et al., 2007; Kohajdová et al., 2009, 2011; Moazzezi et al., 2012). The present study introduces the incorporation of different levels (0 mass %, 5 mass %, 10 mass %, and 15 mass %) of dried AP from two apple cultivars (Gala and Golden Delicious) into biscuits as a source of dietary fibre. Chemical parameters and functional properties of the applied AP powders and their effect on the farinographic parameters of wheat dough, physical and on the sensory parameters of the prepared biscuits were also investigated.

Experimental Raw materials: apples (cultivars Gala, Golden Delicious), fine wheat flour type T650 and other ingredients for biscuit preparation were purchased from a local market in Slovakia. Apple pomace powders (cultivars Gala (APPG) and Golden Delicious (APPGD)) were prepared by washing of apples in tap water, removing of non-edible parts and pressing of juice. The residue (pomace) was dried at 40 ◦C for 8 h. A grinder mill (Model 0010, Eta, Hlinsko, Czech Republic) and sieves were used to obtain powder particle of the size of 160–270 m. Chemical analysis: moisture, fat, and ash content were determined by the method presented by Chen et al. (1988) and Sowbhagya et al. (2007). Nitrogen content was estimated by the Kjeldhal method and was converted to protein using the factor of 5.70 (fine wheat flour) and 6.25 (APPG and APPGD) (Ayadi et al., 2009). Total dietary fibre (TDF) content was measured by the enzymatic/gravimetric method (SunWaterhouse et al., 2010). Pectin content was determined by the gravimetric method using calcium pectate (Kohajdová et al., 2012). Functional properties: hydration properties, i.e. water holding capacity (WHC), water retention capacity (WRC), swelling capacity (SWC), and fat absorption capacity (FAC) were determined according to the method described by Raghavendra et al. (2006). Bulk density was calculated as mass of the sample per unit volume of the sample (Ayadi et al., 2009). The least gelation concentration (LGC) was determined by the method introduced by Kamaljit et al. (2011) as the concentration at which the sample did not fall down or slip from the inverted test tube. Preparation of flour blends: fine wheat flour (wet gluten content: 32.86 ± 0.35 mass % in dry mater) was

substituted with APPG and APPGD at the levels: 0 mass % (control sample), 5 mass %, 10 mass %, and 15 mass %. Dough farinographic characteristics: effects of APPG and APPGD addition on dough rheology were determined using a farinograph (Duisburg, Germany). Parameters measured were: water absorption capacity (WA), dough development time (DDT), and dough stability (DS) (Wang et al., 2002). Biscuits preparation: biscuits from fine wheat flour and blend flours were prepared according to formula of Tyagi et al. (2007). The control biscuit formula based on flour mass was: fine wheat flour (100 g), sugar (53 g), shortening (26.5 g), sodium chloride (1.1 g), sodium bicarbonate (1.1 g), and water (12 mL). The dough was manually sheeted to the thickness of 2 mm, cut into the circular shape using a 40 mm diameter manual cutter and baked in an electrical oven (Model 524, Mora, Czech Republic) at 180 ◦C for 8 min and cooled to ambient temperature. Physical characteristics of biscuits: volume of the biscuits was measured using the rapeseed displacement method (Sudha et al., 2007). Diameter (width) (W ) and thickness (T ) of cookies were measured and the spread ratio (W/T ) was calculated (Turksoy et al., 2011). Sensory evaluation of the biscuits was performed using a nine-point hedonic scale method (the maximum value – nine points, correspond to the excellent acceptability, while the lowest value – one point, indicates very poor acceptability) by eleven trained assessors according to the method described by Noor Aziah et al. (2012). Statistical analysis: all analyses were carried out in triplicate and average values were calculated. The results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Duncan’s test, at the level of p = 0.05, was applied to the data to establish the significance of the differences between the samples. Statgraphic Plus, Version 3.1 (Statistical Graphic Corporation, Princeton, NY, USA) was used as the statistical analysis software.

Results and discussion Chemical composition Main components of the investigated AP powders are listed in Table 1. In previous studies (GrigelmoMiguel & Martin-Belloso, 1999; Ognean et al., 2010; Reis et al., 2012; Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012; Ktenioudaki et al., 2013) it was concluded that AP is rich in dietary fibre (35–60 mass %). AP powders applied in this study were also characterised by high TDF content (51.15 mass % and 52.09 mass %). Moreover, it was found that AP powders exhibited moisture below 9 mass %, low content of proteins, fats and ash and high content of pectin substances (23.00–25.04 mass %).


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Table 1. Chemical composition of fine wheat flour, APPG, and APPGD Composition/mass % Sample

Fine wheat flour APPG APPGD

Moisture

Ash

Proteins

Fat

Pectins

TDF

9.21 ± 0.18 8.23 ± 0.16 7.42 ± 0.13

0.57 ± 0.06 1.19 ± 0.04 0.86 ± 0.03

9.73 ± 0.01 7.30 ± 0.02 5.81 ± 0.12

1.28 ± 0.01 2.06 ± 0.02 2.13 ± 0.03

nd 23.00 ± 0.09 25.04 ± 0.17

2.21 ± 0.02 51.25 ± 0.04 52.09 ± 0.08

nd – not detectable. Table 2. Functional properties of wheat flour, APPG, and APPGD Samples Parameters Water holding capacity/(g g−1 ) Water retention capacity/(g g−1 ) Swelling capacity/(cm3 g−1 ) Bulk density/(g cm−3 ) Fat adsorption capacity/(g g−1 ) Least gelation concentration/%

Fine wheat flour

APPG

APPGD

1.08 ± 0.02 1.34 ± 0.05 2.08 ± 0.08 0.77 ± 0.01 0.85 ± 0.05 10.00

11.73 ± 0.03 11.68 ± 0.12 8.03 ± 0.14 0.64 ± 0.01 3.15 ± 0.05 10.00

18.34 ± 0.05 11.31 ± 0.12 7.19 ± 0.21 0.58 ± 0.01 3.36 ± 0.04 6.00

Functional and farinographic properties Functional properties of DF preparations are related to the chemical structure of the cell wall polysaccharides and should be considered from both technological and physiological point of view (GonzálezCenteno et al., 2010). Functional properties of APPG and APPGD are presented in Table 2. Hydration properties (WHC, WRC, and SWC) are expected to determine the phenomena such as starch gelatinisation and gluten development, hence to affect the rheological and pasting properties of dough (Ktenioudaki et al., 2013). WHC represents the quantity of water bound to the sample without the application of any external force (except for gravity and atmospheric pressure) (Raghavendra et al., 2004). Values of WHC obtained in this study were higher (11.73 g g−1 for APPG and 18.34 g g−1 for APPGD) than those reported by Chen et al. (1988), Grigelmo-Miguel et al. (1999), Figuerola et al. (2005), Sudha et al. (2007), and Ktenioudaki et al. (2013) for apple processing by-products (6.34– 12.10 g g−1 ). The higher percentage of DF, especially of polysaccharides, is the origin of high WHC (Bouaziz et al., 2010). Higher WHC of APPG and APPGD indicates their potential to be used as functional ingredients helping to avoid syneresis and to modify the viscosity and texture of formulated products (Wachirasiri et al., 2009). WRC, defined by the amount of water retained in the system after it has been subjected to stress (e.g. centrifugation), can be associated with the amount of water retained by the fibre (Kohajdová et al., 2013). AP preparations exhibited high WRC values (11.31– 11.68 g g−1 ). Chantaro et al. (2008) concluded that

high WRC of DF is related to the soluble DF fraction. The high content of pectic compounds (see Table 1) present in APPG and APPGD might account for their high WRC. WRC values presented in this study are similar to those described by Kohajdová et al. (2012) for carrot pomace powder (11.97 g g−1 ); however, higher WRC values (12.40–19.63 g g−1 ) were recorded by Chantaro et al. (2008) for carrot peels. AP powders were also characterised by high SWC values (7.19–8.03 cm3 g−1 ). Similar SWC values were previously reported by Guillon and Champ (2000), Figuerola et al. (2005), Raghavendra et al. (2006), and Ktenioudaki et al. (2013) for apple DF preparations (6.20–9.90 cm3 g−1 ). The higher swelling capacity is the most desirable parameter of the physiological functionality of DF (Kohajdová et al., 2012). FAC of APPG and APPGD represented by the retention of fat in the food (Raghavendra et al., 2006) reached values of 3.15–3.36 g g−1 ; these values are, however, higher than those described by Figuerola et al. (2005) and Raghavendra et al. (2006) for apple DF concentrates (0.6–1.45 g g−1 ) and apple DF preparations (1.30 g g−1 ). Regarding gelation properties, LGC was used as the index of the gelation capacity, which is an essential property in the preparation and acceptability of many foods; low LGC is related to better gelation properties (Benítez et al., 2012). APPGD showed lower LGC than APPG and wheat flour. Variations in gelation properties can be ascribed to the ratios of different constituents such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids (Adebowale & Maliki, 2011). Farinographic properties of dough are very important indices of the product development in terms of product quality and process efficiency (Sivam et al.,


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Table 3. Farinographic properties of flour blends with APPG and APPGD Blend level

WA

DDT

DS

mass %

min

0

58.60 ± 0.26a

3.47 ± 0.15a

9.40 ± 0.36a

APPG

5 10 15

61.50 ± 0.46b 64.20 ± 0.36c 68.70 ± 0.53d

4.20 ± 0.17b 4.90 ± 0.10c 5.53 ± 0.06d

9.47 ± 0.21a 10.70 ± 0.17b 10.90 ± 0.36c

AGPGD

5 10 15

63.97 ± 0.21b 67.30 ± 0.44c 71.80 ± 0.70d

4.17 ± 0.15b 4.80 ± 0.20c 5.30 ± 0.17d

10.10 ± 0.30b 10.53 ± 0.25c 10.80 ± 0.20d

Fine wheat flour

Means superscript with different letters (a–d) are significantly different at the p = 0.05 level. Table 4. Physical parameters of APPG and APPGD containing biscuits Preparation level/%

V/cm3

T/mm

W/mm

W/T ratio

Control

0

11.83 ± 0.15a

9.70 ± 0.01a

45.30 ± 0.02a

4.67 ± 0.04a

APPG

5 10 15

8.6 ± 0.01b 7.5 ± 0.01c 7.07 ± 0.12d

9.50 ± 0.02a 9.30 ± 0.01b 8.80 ± 0.15c

43.80 ± 0.01a 42.05 ± 0.03b 37.00 ± 0.10c

4.61 ± 0.09a 4.52 ± 0.03b 4.20 ± 0.05c

APPGD

5 10 15

8.5 ± 0.01b 8.0 ± 0.01b 7.6 ± 0.17d

9.60 ± 0.04a 9.20 ± 0.03b 8.90 ± 0.03c

44.16 ± 0.01a 40.30 ± 0.01b 36.94 ± 0.06c

4.60 ± 0.73a 4.38 ± 0.17b 4.15 ± 0.29c

V – volume; T – thickness; W – width; means superscript with different letters (a–d) are significantly different at the p = 0.05 level.

2010). Fibre and fibre components interact with the dough matrix, and gluten development in many ways, causing changes in the rheological properties (Ktenioudaki et al., 2013). Results of farinographic characteristics of various flour-AP powder blends are given in Table 3. The increase of AP powders in blends from 0 mass % to 15 mass % increased the WA from 58.60 mass % to 68.70 mass % (APPG) and to 71.80 mass % (APPGD), respectively. This suggests a strong affinity between DF and water during dough mixing (Kim et al., 2013) caused by the hydrogen bonds resulting from the interaction of the hydroxyl groups within the structure of the DF component with water (Sudha et al., 2007; Kohajdová et al., 2009, 2011; Turksoy et al., 2011). These observations are in agreement with those obtained by Chen et al. (1988), Masoodi and Chauhan (1998), Masoodi et al. (2001), Sudha et al. (2007), and Ktenioudaki et al. (2013) for AP incorporated wheat dough. DDT values increased from 3.47 min to 5.30 min and to 5.53 min with an increasing concentration of APPGD or APPG in the blend, respectively. The DF potential to absorb high amounts of water can prolong DDT (Moazzezi et al., 2012). The increase of DDT can be attributed to the fibre-gluten interaction which prevents protein hydration (Kohajdová et al., 2012). Similar effect on DDT was reported by several authors

when the apple pomace (Masoodi et al., 2001; Sudha et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2013) or commercial apple fibre (Ognean et al., 2010; Kohajdová et al., 2011) were added to wheat dough. It was also observed that dough containing AP powders exhibits higher DS (9.47–10.90 min) than the control dough (9.40 min), which can be explained by higher interaction of DF, water and flour proteins (Kohajdová et al., 2012). Earlier, similar results were reported using apple processing by-products as the source of DF (Masoodi et al., 2001; Kohajdová et al., 2011; Ktenioudaki et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2013). Physical parameters and sensory evaluation of biscuits Physical parameters of APPG and APPGD containing biscuits are presented in Table 4. It was observed that as the AP concentration increased from 0 mass % to 15 mass %, the volume of biscuits decreased significantly (from 11.83 cm3 to 7.07 cm3 ), which can be attributed to the dilution of gluten and also to the interaction of gluten, DF components, and water (Chen et al., 1988; Masoodi & Chauhan, 1998; Sivam et al., 2010; Kohajdová et al., 2011). Chen et al. (1988) showed that these adverse effects can be partially alleviated by the hydration of apple fibre before its addition to the wheat flour.


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Table 5. Sensory parameters of APPG and APPGD containing biscuits Sensory parameter Preparation level/% Odour

Taste

Colour

Hardness

OAC

Control

0

8.83 ± 0.29a

8.73 ± 0.25a

8.78 ± 0.21a

8.52 ± 0.03a

8.99 ± 0.02a

APPG

5 10 15

8.27 ± 0.12a 7.60 ± 0.23b 6.50 ± 0.10c

8.70 ± 0.17a 7.93 ± 0.06b 6.95 ± 0.15c

7.55 ± 0.19b 7.02 ± 0.13c 5.93 ± 0.09d

7.55 ± 0.13b 5.95 ± 0.14c 4.02 ± 0.25d

8.75 ± 0.03a 7.85 ± 0.01b 7.49 ± 0.02c

APPGD

5 10 15

8.03 ± 0.11b 6.87 ± 0.18c 5.87 ± 0.20d

8.27 ± 0.23b 7.03 ± 0.15c 6.17 ± 0.06d

7.62 ± 0.17b 7.06 ± 0.16c 6.12 ± 0.09d

7.21 ± 0.19b 4.69 ± 0.09c 3.84 ± 0.15d

8.52 ± 0.01a 6.67 ± 0.01b 6.49 ± 0.02c

OAC – overall acceptability; means superscript with different letters (a–d) are significantly different at the p = 0.05 level.

From the presented study also results that an addition of a higher amount of AP (10 mass % and 15 mass %) markedly reduces the thickness, width, and spread ratio of biscuits. Similar reduction in biscuit thickness and width were also recorded by Kohajdová et al. (2011) and Kim et al. (2013) caused by the incorporation of commercial apple fibre powder and pre-harvested dropped apple powder; also, a decreasing trend of the spread ratio was described after an addition of AP (Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012) or apple powder (Kim et al., 2013). Ajila et al. (2008) concluded that the decrease in these physical parameters can be caused by the dilution of gluten. Sensory properties of cereal products can be greatly affected by the addition of fibre (Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012). The effects of APPG and APPGD incorporation on the sensory parameters of biscuits are shown in Table 5. From the results it can be concluded that an addition of 5 mass % of APPG does not affect the odour and taste of biscuits significantly. It was also found that increasing the level of AP in products resulted in significantly lower sensory scores for taste and odour compared to the control sample. Several authors (Sudha et al., 2007; Kohajdová et al., 2009; Dhingra et al., 2012; O’Shea et al., 2012) confirmed that an addition of AP to biscuits provides them with some favourable attributes such as fruit aroma and taste, thus allowing reducing the level of sugar added and also avoiding the use of many other flavouring ingredients. Biscuits containing AP powders showed significantly lower sensory scores for colour than the control sample. Similar results were presented in the earlier studies of Gupta (2006), Kohajdová et al. (2011) and O’Shea et al. (2012) for AP incorporated bread, cookies and cakes. Shalini and Gupta (2010) suggested that the brown colour of AP restricted its use in fine bakery products to a maximum of 5 mass %. Hardness of AP containing biscuits increased significantly with the increasing level of AP in the product. These observations are in agreement with those obtained by Masoodi and Chauhan (1998) and Ktenioudaki and Gallagher (2012). An increase in the

hardness of the biscuits can be caused by the dilution of gluten and the lower amount of water available for gluten hydration (Sharma et al., 2013). No significant differences were observed in the overall acceptance of control biscuits and biscuits with 5 mass % of AP powders. Furthermore, it was found that higher amounts (10 mass % and 15 mass %) of AP powders significantly reduce the overall acceptance of biscuits.

Conclusions AP is considered to be the main by-products of apple processing industry. Inclusion of AP as an ingredient in food products could improve the nutritional properties of these products and perhaps also the health of the consumers (O’Shea et al., 2012). The suitability of AP powders obtained from two apple cultivars (Gala, Golden Delicious) for biscuit production was tested in this study. AP powders were characterised by high TDF content (more than 50 mass %) and low moisture (less than 9 mass %) as well as by high values of hydration properties (WHC, WRC, and SWC) and a relatively high value of FAC. Inclusion of AP powders (5 mass %, 10 mass %, and 15 mass %) to biscuits considerably modified rheological parameters of wheat dough (increasing WA, DDT, and DS). The results also indicate that an addition of AP powders, mainly of higher amounts (10 mass % and 15 mass %), significantly reduces the volume, thickness, width, and spread ratio of the such prepared biscuits and negatively affects their overall acceptance. One of the reasons is the dilution of the gluten forming proteins caused by the fibre incorporation. Other explanations include the restriction of the available water for gluten development, physical disruption of the gluten matrix and piercing of the gas cells (Ktenioudaki & Gallagher, 2012). In general, it can be concluded that AP powders are an alternative dietary fibre and they can be incorporated into biscuits in the concentration of up to 5 mass % without markedly changing the quality of the biscuits.


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Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the Slovak Grant Agency for Science VEGA (Grant No. 1/0453/13) and the Young Researchers Support Program No. 1321 (from the Rector’s Office STU Bratislava, Division for Science and Research).

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