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AN APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND SUGESTED LAND USE PLAN USING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES

By Dr. V. MADHU Dr. G. MACHENDER Prof. A.V. SHASHIKALA

ϭ

/ddK

/RUG66UL77KLUXPDOD9 9HQNDWHVKZDUDVVZDP\

Ϯ

KEdEd W'EK͘ KEdEd͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙ >/^dK&&/'hZ^͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘ >/^dK&d>^͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϯ ϲ ϴ

>/^dK&,Zd^͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϵ

,WdZϭ

/EdZKhd/KE͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϭϬͲϮϳ

ϭ͘ϭ

/ŶƚƌŽĚƵĐƚŝŽŶ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϭϭ

ϭ͘Ϯ

^ƚƵĚǇĂƌĞĂ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϭϳ

ϭ͘ϯ

KďũĞĐƚŝǀĞƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

Ϯϭ

ϭ͘ϰ

ZĞǀŝĞǁŽĨůŝƚĞƌĂƚƵƌĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϮϮ

ϭ͘ϱ

KƌŐĂŶŝǌĂƚŝŽŶŽĨďŽŽŬ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

Ϯϱ

,WdZϮ

d^Dd,KK>K'z͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϮϴͲϱϵ

Ϯ͘ϭ

ĂƚĂďĂƐĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

Ϯϵ

Ϯ͘Ϯ

DĞƚŚŽĚŽůŽŐǇĨŽƌƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐͬƚŚĞŵĂƚŝĐŵĂƉƉŝŶŐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϯϭ

Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ϭ͘ dŚĞŵĞůĂǇĞƌĐůĂƐƐŝĨŝĐĂƚŝŽŶŵĞƚŚŽĚ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϯϭ

Ϯ͘Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ ƌĂŝŶĂŐĞĂŶĚĚĞůŝŶĞĂƚŝŽŶŽĨƌŝǀĞƌďĂƐŝŶŵĂƉƉŝŶŐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϯϮ

Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ϯ͘ ,ǇĚƌŽŐĞŽŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐǇĂŶĚŐƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌƉƌŽƐƉĞĐƚƐŵĂƉƉŝŶŐ͙͙͙

ϯϰ

Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ϰ͘ ^ŽŝůŵĂƉƉŝŶŐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϯϵ

Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ϱ͘ >ĂŶĚƵƐĞĂŶĚůĂŶĚĐŽǀĞƌŵĂƉƉŝŶŐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϱϬ

Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ϲ͘ ^ůŽƉĞŵĂƉƉŝŶŐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϱϰ

Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ϳ͘ ĐƚŝŽŶƉůĂŶŵĂƉƉŝŶŐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϱϲ

,WdZϯ

W,z^/>^dd/E'͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϲϬͲϴϳ

ϯ͘ϭ

ZĞůŝĞĨ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϲϭ

ϯ͘Ϯ

'ĞŽůŽŐǇ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϲϮ

ϯ͘ϯ

'ĞŽŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐǇ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϲϴ

ϯ͘ϰ

ůŝŵĂƚĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϳϮ

ϯ͘ϱ

ZŝǀĞƌƐĂŶĚĐĂŶĂůƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϳϲ

ϯ͘ϲ

^ŽŝůƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϳϴ

ϯ͘ϳ

^ůŽƉĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϴϰ

ϯ

,WdZϰ

tdZZ^KhZ^͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϴϴͲϭϮϭ

ϰ͘ϭ

^ƵƌĨĂĐĞǁĂƚĞƌ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϴϵ

'ƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϵϯ

ϰ͘Ϯ͘ϭ͘ ,ǇĚƌŽŐĞŽůŽŐǇ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϵϱ

ϰ͘Ϯ

ϰ͘Ϯ͘Ϯ͘ ,ǇĚƌŽŐĞŽŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐǇ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘ ϰ͘ϯ

/ƌƌŝŐĂƚŝŽŶƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϰ͘ϯ͘ϭ͘ ĂŶĂů^ŽƵƌĐĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϵϴ

ϭϬϰ ϭϬϵ

ϰ͘ϯ͘Ϯ͘ dĂŶŬ^ŽƵƌĐĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϭϭ

ϰ͘ϯ͘ϯ͘ tĞůů^ŽƵƌĐĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϭϯ

ϰ͘ϯ͘ϰ͘ >ŝĨƚ/ƌƌŝŐĂƚŝŽŶ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘ ϰ͘ϰ

/ƌƌŝŐĂƚŝŽŶŝŶƚĞŶƐŝƚǇ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϭϲ ϭϭϳ

,WdZϱ

'Z/h>dhZ>Z^KhZ^͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϮϮͲϭϴϯ

ŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůůĂŶĚƵƐĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϮϯ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϭ͘ DŝƐĐĞůůĂŶĞŽƵƐƚƌĞĞĐƌŽƉƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϮϳ

ϱ͘ϭ͘Ϯ͘ ƵůƚŝǀĂďůĞǁĂƐƚĞůĂŶĚƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϯϬ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϯ͘ ƵƌƌĞŶƚĨĂůůŽǁůĂŶĚƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϯϯ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϰ͘ KƚŚĞƌĨĂůůŽǁůĂŶĚƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϯϲ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϱ͘ EĞƚƐŽǁŶĂƌĞĂ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϯϵ

ϱ͘ϭ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϲ͘ &ŽƌĞƐƚůĂŶĚƵƐĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϰϮ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϳ͘ ĂƌƌĞŶĂŶĚƵŶĐƵůƚŝǀĂďůĞůĂŶĚ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϰϱ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϴ͘ >ĂŶĚƉƵƚƚŽŶŽŶĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůƵƐĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϰϵ

ϱ͘ϭ͘ϵ͘ WĞƌŵĂŶĞŶƚƉĂƐƚƵƌĞƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϱϮ

ϱ͘Ϯ͘

ƌŽƉƉŝŶŐƉĂƚƚĞƌŶ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϱϱ

ϱ͘ϯ͘

ƌŽƉŝŶƚĞŶƐŝƚǇ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϲϯ

ϱ͘ϰ

ƌŽƉĚŝǀĞƌƐŝĨŝĐĂƚŝŽŶ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϲϴ

ϱ͘ϱ

ƌŽƉĐŽŵďŝŶĂƚŝŽŶ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘͘

ϭϳϱ

ϱ͘ϲ

ƌŽƉĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƚŝŽŶ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϴϬ

,WdZϲE>z^/^K&>Eh^E>EKsZ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙ >ĂŶĚƵƐĞͬůĂŶĚĐŽǀĞƌŽĨƚŚĞƐƚƵĚǇĂƌĞĂ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϴϲ

ϲ͘Ϯ͘

>ĂŶĚƵƐĞŝŶƌĞůĂƚŝŽŶƚŽƐŽŝůƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϵϬ

ϰ

ϭϴϰͲϭϵϱ

ϲ͘ϭ͘

ϲ͘ϯ͘

>ĂŶĚƵƐĞŝŶƌĞůĂƚŝŽŶƚŽŚǇĚƌŽŐĞŽůŽŐǇ͕ŐĞŽŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐǇĂŶĚ ŚǇĚƌŽŐĞŽŵŽƌƉŚŽůŽŐǇ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙

ϭϵϮ

ϲ͘ϰ͘

>ĂŶĚƵƐĞŝŶƌĞůĂƚŝŽŶƚŽŐĞŽůŽŐŝĐĂůůŝŶĞĂŵĞŶƚƐ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϵϯ

ϲ͘ϱ͘

>ĂŶĚƵƐĞŝŶƌĞůĂƚŝŽŶƚŽĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞĂŶĚƐƵƌĨĂĐĞǁĂƚĞƌďŽĚŝĞƐ͙͙͙͙͙͘͘͘

ϭϵϯ

ϲ͘ϲ͘

>ĂŶĚƵƐĞŝŶƌĞůĂƚŝŽŶƚŽƐůŽƉĞ͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϵϰ

,WdZϳ

d/KEW>E&KZKWd/DhD>Eh^͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϭϵϲͲϮϬϮ

,WdZϴ

^hDDZzEKE>h^/KE^͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘

ϮϬϯͲϮϭϭ

/>/K'ZW,z͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͙͘ ϮϭϮͲϮϭϳ

ϱ

>/^dK&&/'hZ^ &ŝŐ͘EŽ͘

^Z/Wd/KE

ŚĂƉƚĞƌͲϭ &ŝŐƵƌĞ͘ϭ͘Ϯ͘Ă͘

>ŽĐĂƚŝŽŶŽĨĂŶĚƵƐĞŽĨĂŶĚƉƵƚŶŽŶͲĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůƵƐĞƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϭϵϵϳͲϵϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϰϵ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϭ͘ϴ͘ď͘

>ĂŶĚƉƵƚŶŽŶͲĂŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĂůƵƐĞƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϮϬϬϳͲϬϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϰϵ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϭ͘ϵ͘Ă͘

WĞƌŵĂŶĞŶƚƉĂƐƚƵƌĞƐĂŶĚŽƚŚĞƌŐƌĂǌŝŶŐůĂŶĚƐƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϭϵϵϳͲϵϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϱϯ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϭ͘ϵ͘ď͘

WĞƌŵĂŶĞŶƚƉĂƐƚƵƌĞƐĂŶĚŽƚŚĞƌŐƌĂǌŝŶŐůĂŶĚƐƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϮϬϬϳͲϬϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϱϯ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϯ͘Ă͘

ƌŽƉŝŶƚĞŶƐŝƚǇƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϭϵϵϳͲϵϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϲϯ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϯ͘ď͘

ƌŽƉŝŶƚĞŶƐŝƚǇƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϮϬϬϳͲϬϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϲϰ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϰ͘Ă͘

ƌŽƉĚŝǀĞƌƐŝĨŝĐĂƚŝŽŶƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϭϵϵϳͲϵϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϳϭ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϰ͘ď͘

ƌŽƉĚŝǀĞƌƐŝĨŝĐĂƚŝŽŶƉĞƌŝŽĚͲϮϬϬϳͲϬϵ͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘͘ϭϳϮ

&ŝŐƵƌĞϱ͘ϱ͘Ă͘

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Chapter - 6 Figure 6.

Land use and land cover map..........................................................186

Chapter - 7 Figure 7.

Recommended optimum land use map.........................................197

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INTRODUCTION 1.1. INTRODUCTION Agricultural land use study has acquired special significance in the realm of the present day problem oriented studies of the growth and resource utilization. As such, studies in this sphere have been made with a view to presenting analytically the different aspects of land use patterns so that the basis of the scientific land resource allocation to various agricultural crops and planning for maximum productivity may be attained. Rational utilisation of land resources implies allocation of each piece of land to the use to which it is most suited. Such allocation requires a thorough study of the suitability of land for the different uses. There is a tremendous pressure on the finite land resources, due to the ever increasing demands of the population, the impact of which is seen on the environment. A good amount of agricultural land is being lost due to various types of degradation as also conversion to other uses. All developmental activities are essential for the economic progress of any region. But these should aim at conserving resources and their rational use with a minimal adverse impact on the existing system. All these call for developmental planning. For the purpose of developmental planning, the mandal as a unit has been identified to bring out the development to the grass roots. This exercise has been carried out in one of the districts of Telangana region

in Telangana, i.e.,

Karimnagar. The problem of changing agricultural land, its utilization and development in the country had gained importance in recent years. The changing agricultural land use and crop pattern reflects the complex, physical and socio-economic factors. These factors

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keep on changing except the physical ones which remain static. Under the influence of these socio-economic factors, the cropping pattern gets modified, and sometimes it is replaced within a long span of time. The content of the present dissertation as is evident from the nomenclature pertains to the micro level study at the mandal level and determining the changing agricultural land use, crop and irrigation development in Karimnagar district. It is considered useful to present a brief account of farming conditions and imperative need for exploitation of indigenous resources. India is predominantly an agricultural country with more than 80% of its population depending upon agriculture for subsistence. Therefore, it is natural that the prosperity of the country, as well as the standard of living of the masses is largely governed by remunerative and successful irrigation and agricultural developments. This can only be ensured when soil is maintained in a state of sustained productivity, regulate crops and obviate fluctuating yields by supplying water when most needed. Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. Sustainable agriculture satisfy human food and fibre needs, enhance environmental quality and the natural resource based upon which the agricultural economy depends, Make the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources, Sustain the economic viability of farm operations, enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole. Sustainability can be understood as an ecosystem approach to agriculture. Practices that can cause long-term damage to soil include excessive tillage (leading to erosion) and irrigation without adequate drainage (leading to salinization). Long-term experiments have provided some of the best data on how various practices affect soil properties essential to sustainability.

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Basically among the major resources available in our Country, one of the most important resources is the Land comprising soil, water, plants, animals and other associated features. The community's demand for food, energy and many other needs has to depend on the preservation and improvement of the productivity of this natural resource. Among all the factors that determine the quality of our environment, the most important is the way we make use of our land. Since land is by far the most important asset of our nation, it is essential to ensure that the country's natural resources are used optimally. From the earliest times man has used land to satisfy his multiple needs. But, increasing pressure on the utilization of land resources has threatened the ecosystem resulting in the environmental deterioration. It, therefore, needs rational utilization ensuring optimum yields with minimum disturbances to ecosystem. This certainly calls for a detailed land use study. Such studies would be helpful in planning for development of land resources for which intimate knowledge of land, its physical characteristics, present biological productivity, capacity and limitations are required. The land use study in its spatial context; is essential to understand the regional zonation of the areas of optimum land use, degraded areas, etc. Land use is the result of a combination of both natural genesis and human influences which have been brought to bear on it in the past and of those which are still active in the present (Vink, 1975). Thus utilization of land for different purposes indicates an intimate relationship between prevailing ecological conditions and man. The efficient use of land depends on the capacity of man to utilize the land and manage it in proper perspective with the help of

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technology he can use the land efficiently and try to maximize the benefits to be obtained from the existing parcel of land. Geographically land has been regarded as "a specific area of the earth's surface, its characteristics embrace all reasonably stable, or predictably cyclic attributes of the biosphere, to the extent that these attributes exert a significant influence on present uses of land by man" (Brinkman and Smith, 1973). This includes all land resources, both natural and man-made, of a clearly permanent and cyclic nature. Land utilization is, therefore, dynamic concept since it undergoes certain changes with the adoption of innovations. Land use is a primary indicator of the extent and degree to which man has made DQLPSUHVVLRQRQWKHHDUWK¶VODQGVFDSH,WLVLQ DVHQVHDQDFFRXQWRIWKHLPSDFWWKDW man has made on the ecology on the one hand, and the growth and relevance of the ancient civilization on the other. Wherever agricultural resource management has been positive and in consonance with the contemporary and future needs of mankind, civilization has flourished. Land use in the pastoral age was developed and modified over centuries when man tried to create a particular environment suited to his requirements. As long as a discernible compatibility between environment and programmed human effort existed, the ecological system as well as the civilization on which the farmers rested and to which it contributed have flourished. When man tried to over exploit the one or the other a competitive situation arose resulting in a vicious circle of ecological imbalance and degradation of agriculture's most eminent natural resource which is land. Land resource in India is limited. Measured in terms of acreage of land available for productive use per capita, the availability of this resource is in fact declining. The

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per capita availability of cultivable land has declined from 0.48 hectares in 1951 to 0.15 hectares in 2011. The total Geographical area of the Country is 329 million hectares out of which 24 million hectares of land is inaccessible and the records for the same are not available. Productive land comes down to 266 million hectares after deducting 21 million hectares of snowbound or rocky lands and 18 million hectares under Urban and related land uses. Agricultural land of India is 182 million hectares and 67 million hectares constitute forest land. 85 million hectares of agricultural land and 37 million hectares of forest land are reported to be suffering from varying kinds of degradation. Of the remaining 56 million hectares, 3 million hectares are classified as tree crops or orchards and the remaining are classified into pastures (13 million hectares), cultivable waste lands (17 million hectares) and fallow lands (23 million hectares). All these lands are so overgrazed or overused that their productivity is very low. In the last few decades, land in India has been subject to ceaseless onslaughts leading to major degradation. The relentless pressure of increasing human and cattle population, the diversion of lands in fragile ecosystem for dams and reservoirs, the destruction of forest wealth, the expansion of irrigation without adequate concern for the treatment of the catchment or for the dangers" of water logging and salinity in the command areas, improper agricultural practices on marginal land etc., have all caused varying kinds of degradation where over 175 million hectares constituting more than half of the geographical area and nearly 2/3rd of the productive area requires special treatment to restore such land to productive and profitable use. The major causes of degradation are water and wind erosion affecting 150 million hectares followed by other causes such as shifting cultivation (4 million hectares), water logging (6 million

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hectares) salinity and alkalinity (8 million hectares) river action and other factors (7 million hectares). So the basic issue is whether we are managing our natural resources optimally or not. Optimal land use presupposes that the most efficient use of the resource will be determined on the basis of surveys relating to land capability and technology of production and the policy frame work will be so organised that land is in fact used for the purpose for which it is most suitable on sustainable basis. Such a land use planning model will take into account the factors relating to the limitation of the resources, its production capabilities and various products of land which our Country would need in terms of food crops, fibre, commercial plantations, green fodder, fuel, forest cover, industrial raw material etc. It was with this objective that the States were requested to setup State Land use Boards for the purpose of determining and monitoring the appropriate land use in an integrated fashion. The National Land Use Board was set up in 1983 with the same objective. The fact that these boards have not been set up in some States and that even where they have been set up, they are hardly functioning which reflects lack of concern for the efficient allocation of Land Resources for different purposes and also demonstrates the prevalent negligence of the continuing degradation of the resource and the loss of its productivity that continues to result for the lack of planned and timely action. Therefore there is an imperative need to study the natural resources using modern techniques like remote sensing and bring out appropriate action plan packages for each parcel of available cultivable land in order to increase the productivity of the land to meet the obvious increasing needs of increasing population. The availability of water is highly uneven in space and time. Precipitation is confined to only about three or four months in the year and varies from 10 cm in the

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western parts of Rajasthan to over 1000 cm at Chirapunji in Meghalaya, Water resource is one and indivisible: rainfall, river waters, surface ponds and lakes and Groundwater are all part of hydrological system. Water is also a part of a large ecological system. Floods and droughts are common phenomena in our Country. 1/3rd of our Country is drought prone. On an average in a year around 9 million hectares are affected by floods, the area susceptible to floods is around 40 million hectares. The approach to the management of flood and drought has to be co-ordinated and guided at the National level. Groundwater levels have fallen dramatically in most intensively cropped area of the country thus showing that withdrawals have exceeded recharge levels. There is urgent need to control pumping in such areas and to pay greater attention to problems of recharge. Therefore, there is a need to study water resources using modern techniques such as Satellite imageries, Aerial Photographs etc., to assess the actual availability of different sources of water viz., surface water and Groundwater and their judicious use in order to increase the national productivity. In the light of above scenario, the present study has been taken up to study the land use and its relation to various resources soils, drainage and surface water bodies in Karimnagar District of Telangana. The prime aim is to prepare an action plan suggesting suitable land use system for each parcel of land in the district.

1.2 STUDY AREA The Karimnagar district lies between 170 ´DQG0 ´Northern latitudes and ¶´ DQG ¶´ (astern longitudes (Fig: 1.2.a. location map). It covers an area of 11,823 sq.km and administratively the district is divided into 57 mandals (Fig: 1.2.b).

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Karimnagar district is bounded by Warangal and Medak districts in the South, Nizamabad district in the West, Chhattisgarh state in the north-east and Adilabad district in the North directions. Karimnagar, the administrative headquarters of the Karimnagar District, is situated 160 km north east of Hyderabad in Telangana. Karimnagar has a population of 38,11,738 as per 2011 census. The district has a population density of 322 inhabitants per square kilometer. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 9.16%. Karimnagar has a sex ratio of 1009 females for every 1000 males and a literacy rate of 64.87%. The city was named after Syed Karimuddin, who is thought to be its founder. Karimnagar was formerly known as 'Sabbinadu' and inscriptions of the Kakatiya king Prola-II and Prataparudra found at Karimnagar and Srisailam suggest evidence of its rich history. Karimnagar is a prominent agricultural center in the state. Vast agricultural areas of Karimnagar district are watered by the Godavari River. Places of tourist interest around the town include Elgandal (10 km) and Vemulawada (35 km). Karimnagar is well connected to Warangal, Nizamabad, Medak and other parts of the state by road. Nearest airport is at Hyderabad (160 km). The name Karimnagar is derived from Syed Karimuddin, a Quiladar. It is known for Vedic learning from ancient times. Karimnagar is located at a distance of 165 Km from Hyderabad, the capital city of Telangana. The river Godavari adds to the beauty of this place. Many large scale companies like NTPC, Kesoram Cements, Ramagundamsingareni collieries etc. are located in and around Karimnagar. Holy places like Vemulawada, Dharmapuri, Kaleshwaram, Kondagattu etc., are present in Karimnagar district. The locals specialize in Silver Filigree, a delicate form of metal work.

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Figure. 1.2.a. Location of Karimnagar district

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Figure 1.2.b. Karimnagar district administrative divisions

The history of the Karimnagar district starts from the Old Stone Age i.e. from 1,48,000 BC. It is evident from the tools, culture and other materials found at different places in Karimnagar. The excavations at Peddabonkur, Dholikatta and Kotilingalu are evidences for history. From these evidences it is concluded that Karimnagar is ruled by Shathavahanas. After Shathavahanas, Mourya Kings, Asafzalu Kings ruled over Karimnagar. The buildings, constructions made by these kings are today remarkable evidences of the history.

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1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of the study is to prepare an action plan for optimal land utilization of the Karimnagar district, based on the existing Land use/Land Cover and other physical parameters available in the district. To achieve this various land use problems were discussed. In order to study this, advanced technical tools such as Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System and latest IRS-P6 LISS-III satellite data products on 2,50,000 scale, on computed on screen image interpretation techniques were used. Second objective of the study is to analyze the cropping pattern of the study area. The third objective is to study the Groundwater availability and irrigation of the district. The forth aim is to suggest an optimum land use and providing guidelines for development of agricultural production of the district. The objectives can be summarized as fallows To study the land use pattern in Karimnagar district. To study the cropping pattern in the district and correlate the same with the physical base. To study the Groundwater and irrigation development in the district. To prepare an action plan for sustainable development based on the natural resources up-to-date positions of the district. To suggest optimum land use plan for the balanced agricultural development of the district.

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1.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE: The study of land use is significant in agricultural dominated regions in the world. Many studies were conducted in similar fashion by different agricultural geographers in the recent years. One of the earliest studies was conducted by B. Mukerjee and J.M. Singh (1967), they pointed out that there was a tremendous change in the cultivated lands of Varanasi districts during past fifty years (1911-1930) there has been a sharp fall in dry crops. Owing to the spread of irrigation facilities while paddy and double cropping have gained increasing popularity. By analyzing existing and change in cropping pattern in the arid zone of western, Rajasthan Abi Chandini (1972) reveals that the crop land use pattern is largely conditioned by arid environment, under these and environment, there is little scope to bring any large change in cropping pattern, but yield increase per unit

area and

amelioration in the economic condition of cultivation can be brought about, for this he has suggested mechanized cultivation such as by introducing (1) improved high yielding varieties, (2) suitable crop rotation to maintain

fertility, (3) improved

fertilizers, (4) increase in the land and (5) consolidation of holding for adoption of mechanized cultivation. Kamalakar Reddy. A (1984) had studied the crop patterns of Telangana region on a regional basis with a view to suggest a meaningful, relevant and practicable cropping pattern for this region. For this purpose, he took into account the physical setting, agricultural land utilization, irrigation development, cropping pattern relating to the region of Telangana. His study also indicated that the farmers neglected commercial crops and clung to only cereal crops.

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6KDVKLNDOD$9 LQKHUZRUNHQWLWOHG³$JULFXOWXUDOODQGXVHDQGUHVRXUFH GHYHORSPHQWLQ5D\DODVHHPD´VWXGLHGDERXWWKHQDWXUDOUHVRXUFHVRI5D\DODVHHPDDQG gave planning strategy for optimum resource utilisation. For this purpose she has thoroughly analyzed the physical relief, geology, climate, drainage, natural vegetation and soil; and irrigation. Lahivi (1950) studied agricultural problems in four selected villages near Jusidi, Neogher. His investigations have brought to notice the fast deterioration of agriculture due to soil depletion. Jasbir Sing (1975) has made a very comprehensive display of many aspects of Indian agriculture. He has analyzed the changing agricultural land use with special references to the changes that have taken place since 1951. He has analyzed the factors of farming underlying the changes of land use of the newly colonized areas, the stability in the old irrigated ones and the crisis in the rain fed regions on the, basis of verifiable data. Pal and Shukla (1981) have analyzed changing pattern of agricultural land use at micro level i.e. in Chittaurgur district lying in the hilly tract of Rajasthan. They have discussed regional imbalances in agriculture, future prospects and potentialities and the problem that confront the development. Rabindranath Bhattacharya (1981) has studied changes in land use characteristics of entire Bihar State. He has indicated that the decrease in net sown area is due to the lack of improvement in minor or medium size irrigational facilities and also described prohibitive agricultural infrastructure, has contributed to the general decline of the intensive system of agriculture.

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According to, T.C.Sharma and O. Coutin (1983) who had studied the growth of irrigation and its impact on crop land use and crop yield in Karnataka State, states that Karnataka's progress in irrigation though impressive is inadequate to effectively to meet the challenge of the high-yield technology. Delay in completion of the several major irrigation projects and neglect of minor irrigation are mostly responsible for this. Geological Survey of India (1979) under took an integrated project on Ananthapur district; carried out field studies and prepared maps depicting the natural environmental potential in terms of geomorphology, geology, mineral resources, hydrogeology, pedology, agriculture etc. and prepared a synoptic map indicating land capability of different units and suggested integrated development of areas based on the natural environmental potential. Kundalia and Chennaiah (1978) conducted spatial analysis of land use over Idukki district in Kerala state using remote sensing techniques. Visually interpreted landuse categories supported by intensive ground truth were classified by them. Raghavaswamy and Vaidyanandhan (1980) mapped landforms in an area of 1667 sq. km. in Visakhapatnam district of Telangana with the aid of aerial photographs, simultaneously noting the current land use and collecting data in the field on surficial deposition, drainage and erosion. They attempted to classify the area into land systems and gave details of their characteristic features. Seelan et al (1983) studied the control exercised by landform over land utilisation pattern using remote sensing technique in parts of Southern Uttar Pradesh with varied geomorphic settings and landuse patterns. They have given a description of landforms, landuse and the methodology adopted for deriving this information from the Landsat data. The relationship between landform and landuse was also highlighted.

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Gautam and Chennaiah (1985) studied the changes in land use and land cover in Tripura State using Landsat images of two different dates. They described in detail the methodology for landuse mapping and limitation of Land sat data. . The Land sat computer Compatible Tapes (CCT) were analysed on the sophisticated interactive Multispectral Data Analysis System with the help of training sets of each category collected during field visits. Ninety percent accuracy of the categories was achieved. Chatterjee (1987) carried out multi disciplinary integrated investigations in the drought prone backward district of Puruliya in West Bengal by applying remote sensing techniques, for an appraisal of natural resources and environmental potential and mapping and monitoring landuse changes. Javeed Ahmad Rathor and Tanseem Keng (2013) studied Land use / Land cover with special reference to Agriculture in district Pulwama, J&K using Remote sensing Techniques. They used IRS P6 LISS III Satellite data of 2007 period. In their study, their findings were agriculture practices included settled agriculture fields with paddy, maize, mustard, potato and vegetables are major crops grown in the district. Praveen Kumar Rai, Swetha and Abhishek Mishra (2010) studied the Change Detection Analysis for Ranchi district using Multi-seasonal IRS-1C LISS III Satellite data. The observations gained through the image interpretation reveals the area is predominantly comes under poor to medium cultivation and paddy is predominantly crop of this district.

1.5. ORGANIZATION OF BOOK: In order to realize the objectives mentioned above, a comprehensive plan and design of the study is outlined below with the following chapters:

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1. Introduction: It covers the introduction of conceptual background of landuse and objectives, hypothesis, methodology and review of literature of the research topic. 2. Database and methodology: It covers the method of data collection, interpretation, analysis of satellite data, thematic mapping methodology and agricultural statistical techniques. 3. Physical setting: ,QWKLVFKDSWHUWKHWRSLFVVXFKDVVWXG\DUHD¶VUHOLHIJHRORJ\ geomorphology, hydrogeomorphology, climate, rivers, slope and soils are discussed. 4. Water resources: It deals with the water resources of the district. In this chapter, the topics such as surface water, Groundwater, irrigation sources and irrigation intensity are discussed in detail. 5. Agricultural resources: This chapter deals with agricultural resources of the district. In this chapter, topics such as agricultural land use, cropping pattern, crop intensity, crop diversification, crop combination and crop concentration are discussed in detail. 6. Analysis of Land use and Land cover: In this chapter, the land use and land cover classification and land use of the study area is discussed. The landuse and land cover categories such as built-up land, agricultural land, forest land, waste lands and water bodies are identified and mapped for the study area. 7. Action plan for optimum Land use: This chapter deals with optimum land use plan for sustainable agriculture development of the Karimnagar district. The present study has been taken up to study the landuse and its relation to various resources soils, drainage, surface water bodies and Groundwater in the district.

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The prime aim is to prepare an action plan suggesting suitable landuse system for sustainability of agriculture development. The information on soils, current land use/land cover and Groundwater potential are integrated taking landform as a reference. 8. Summary and conclusion: This chapter deals with summary and conclusions. All the information documented in the previous chapters has been summarized and the conclusions are drawn based on all the studies and presented in this chapter.

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DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY 1. DATA BASE: Methodology applied in the present research is based on collection of primary data, secondary data and basic data. The Primary data has been collected by visiting field trips. The secondary data includes Survey of India topographical maps on 1: DQG VFDOHV *HRORJLFDO 6XUYH\ RI ,QGLD¶V PDSV 5HSRUWV RI &HQWUDO Groundwater Board, District Hand Books. Besides it, the secondary data has also been collected through the published work in the form of books, articles, research journals and Government documents. In addition to this, basic data is also obtained through satellite data. Basic data includes satellite imagery in the form of digital and False Colour Composite (FCC), four visible bands and one near infrared band have also been utilized for thematic mapping and IRS-P6-LISS-III satellite imagery of October, 2009 and January 2010 were used for preparing a comprehensive land use and land cover map and existing soil map were utilized for making Land System/Land form and drainage maps. The Karimnagar district is covered by three LISS-III satellite images having row and path numbers as 055-024, 055-025 and 055-026 respectively. In the present study interpretation and analysis of satellite data has been done using remote sensing techniques. Ground data includes information related to surface features which are responsible for specific spectral reflectance behaviour. The art and technique of collection of ground data is commonly described as ground truth or ground investigation.

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Figure 2.1.Satellite image of Karimnagar district

The analysis of the data will be presented in GIS format. The maps have been prepared using cartographic techniques. Suitable statistical & agricultural techniques of analysis have been applied wherever necessary. The data has been processed and presented in the form tables, figures, maps etc. For an analysis of spatio-temporal variations of Karimnagar district, the mandal is taken as an area unit. Such variations were analysed on the basis of statistical data of annual average period from 1997-98, 1998-99 and 1999-2000. The statistical data for annual average years of 2007-08, 2008-09 and 2009-10 was taken to avoid fluctuations and to have more realistic picture.

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2.2. METHODOLOGY FOR RESOURCES / THEMATIC MAPPING A detailed database on natural resources, terrain conditions, socio-economic status and demography is a pre-requisite to prepare action plan keeping in view the underlying concept of sustainability as stated in the preceding, it is particularly important that the data are presented in the form of maps to facilitates spatial analysis in this context a uniform scale is very important considering the geographical extent of study area. Survey of India (SOI) topographical sheets and false colour composites (FCC), digital data of LISS-III of IRS-P6 data dated October 2009 and January 2010 were used for the study. Preliminary information about the hydro-geomorphology, geology of the study area was collected, through literature review which served the basis for carrying out pre-field interpretation. The satellite data was visually interpreted using the elements like shape, size, pattern, tone/color, texture, association, etc. and terrain elements like topography, drainage, vegetation and land use pattern etc. The approach for the research begins with acquiring the satellite imagery and Toposheet of the required study area. The following steps are adopted for the study of area of Karimnagar district using GIS techniques. 2.2.1. THEME LAYER CLASSIFICATION AND METHODOLOGY: This research work on integrated approach for development of Karimnagar district is aiming to create geospatial thematic layers. Primarily four thematic layers are prepared like Landuse/Landcover, Hydro-Geomorphology, Soils and Slope for the Karimnagar district. While creating the resource layers, there are many steps which are common to these individual layers. Ortho rectified LISS-III imageries are used for creation of geo-spatial layers

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A. Themes created using Satellite imagery 1. Land Use / Land Cover 2. Soil 3. Hydro Geomorphology 4. Groundwater Prospect B. Themes created using data from other sources 1. Slope C. Common layer for integration with other themes 1. Settlement 2. River / Stream 3. Reservoir / Tanks 4. Drainage 5. Transportation To prepare pre-field lithological, structural and geomorphological maps, sites for field checks and ground truth collection were identified such that each of the interpreted unit is represented by ground observations. The field observations have been incorporated in to pre-field interpreted maps and final maps have been prepared. Subsequently the lithological, structural and geomorphological maps have been combined to prepare Hydro-geomorphological map, Land use/ Land cover map, Land Capability, Slope map, Soil Erosion map, Soil Fertility map, and Soil map on 1: 2,50,000 Scale. 2.2.2. DRAINAGE & DELINEATION OF RIVER BASIN The area upon the waterfalls and the network through which it travels to an outlet are referred to as a drainage system. The flow of water through a drainage system

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is only a subset of what is commonly referred to as the hydrologic cycle, which also includes precipitation, evapotranspiration, and groundwater. This topic focuses on the movement of water across a surface.

A drainage basin is an area that drains water and other substances to a common outlet. Other common terms for a drainage basin are watershed, basin, catchment, or contributing area. This area is normally defined as the total area flowing to a given outlet or pour point. A pour point is the point at which water flows out of an area. This is usually the lowest point along the boundary of the drainage basin. The boundary between two basins is referred to as a drainage divide or watershed boundary. The terms watershed, pour point, and watershed boundary will be used in this material. The network through which water travels to the outlet can be visualized as a tree with the base of the tree being the outlet. The branches of the tree are stream channels. The intersection of two stream channels is referred to as a node or junction. The sections of a stream channel connecting two successive junctions or a junction and the outlet are referred to as stream links.

Delineating basin: A basin is the upslope area contributing flow to a given location. Such an area is also referred to as a basin, catchment, sub watershed, or contributing area. The river basin is simply part of a hierarchy, implying that a given basin is part of a larger river basin. The Manner River and Godavari river basin can be delineated from a DEM by computing the flow direction and using it in the Watershed function. The Watershed function uses a raster of flow direction to determine contributing area.

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A flow accumulation threshold or the pour points to delineate watersheds are used. When the threshold is used to define a watershed, the pour points for the watershed will be the junctions of a stream network derived from flow accumulation. Therefore, a flow accumulation raster must be specified as well as the minimum number of cells that constitute a stream (the threshold value). When a feature dataset is used to define a watershed, the features identify the pour points.

2.2.3. HYDRO-GEOMORPHOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER PROSPECTS General : Groundwater prospecting zones have been identified through hydrogeomorphology studies in the study area using the remote sensing techniques. IRS-P6LISS-III data in the form of geo-coded FCCs on 1:2,50,000 scale have been utilized for this purpose. SOI topo maps in the scale of 1:2,50,000 have been used for support information such as topography, elevation and drainage. Under the following steps are have been followed in these studies ¾ Preliminary interpretation of satellite data and preparation of a tentative hydrogeomorphological map. ¾ Field checks for ensuring the validity of the delineations made in the hydrogeomorphological map. ¾ Final hydro-geomorphological map for the entire study area has been prepared duly incorporating the ground truth data. ¾ Groundwater potential zones have been demarcated integrating the structural information with geomorphology, geology and well inventory data.

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Landform is considered as a distinct natural spatial entity of the earth¶s surface. It is formed as a result of complex endogenic and exogenic geological processes. The analysis of landforms/geomorphic units on the basis of the following five fundamental landform concepts unravels the process it has undergone. ¾ Morphology: the appearance, shape, etc. of the landscape ¾ Morphometry: the measurements, dimensions, and slope values of landforms. ¾ Morphogenesis: the origin of each landform. ¾ Morphochronology: the age of each landform. ¾ Morphodynamics: the land-forming processes presently active on the landscape or those that may become active in the future.

It also reveals the control the landform exercises in the occurrence and distribution of various natural resources. As far as the Groundwater is concerned, the study of

landform

in

terms

of

its

genesis

i.e.

due

to

deformation

±

gneissocity/schistocity, foliation/lineation, folding, fracturing /faulting, etc. denudation, deposition by fluvial or aeolian action, karsting etc. leads to the estimation of the secondary porosity and permeability created in the parent rock formation. The study of landform in terms of its morphometry facilitates understanding of the recharge condition. Therefore, for the present study, the landform is treated as an indicator of secondary porosity and permeability created due to deformation/geological structure as well as other geomorphic processes. Hence in the second step, all the landforms/ geomorphic units occurring within a rock type/geological material are to be inventoried and mapped based on the interpretation of satellite data. Depending on the complexity

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of terrain, one lithologic unit may be classified into two or more geomorphic units/landforms and sometimes it may be vice versa. Hydrogeological point of view, the geological structures are treated to belong to two categoriesi) Faults, Thrusts, Fractures/Lineaments, Dykes, Veins, etc., acting as conduits and barriers for the movement of Groundwater which occupy an area. ii) The structural elements such as bedding, schistocity /foliation, folds, etc., which are imbedded in the rock/geological formation. Both these categories are to be taken in to account while delineating the landforms. No separate layer comprising of different geological structures need to be prepared. The landforms formed with structural control are included in the landform classification system. Ex Structural Hill, Dyke Ridge, Fracture valley, etc. Satellite images with synoptic view forms as excellent database for inventorying and mapping the landforms with high accuracy. The diagnostic image signatures and landform feature extraction techniques which are to be used are described in Chapter 3. The occurrence and distribution of each landform is represented as a polygon feature and labeled with prescribed alphabetic code e.g. RH, PPS, VF, etc. A layer comprising all the landforms/geomorphic

units

has

to

be

prepared.

While

demarcating

the

landforms/geomorphic units slope should be taken into account to comprehend the relief variations and other topographic features. The geomorphic units/ landforms interpreted from the satellite imagery are verified on the ground during the field visit. The geomorphic units/landforms which have to be classified into shallow, moderate and deep categories based on their depth of weathering, thickness of deposited material, etc. have to be verified on the ground by observing the nala / stream cuttings, well sections,

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etc. However, the contacts between shallow, moderate and deep categories are gradational. Classification: The hydro-geomorphological map is to be prepared by demarcating the geomorphic units and forms. All available geomorphic units and forms are to be listed after interpreting the study area. All the listed geomorphic units and landform details have to be grouped/ classified as per the origin like fluvial, aeolian, structural etc. The geological details like lithology/rock types and structural details are also to be delineated using available geological/geomorphological maps of the area. Then such geological details are incorporated on hydro-geomorphological map since this information is necessary in identifying the groundwater potential associated with each geomorphic unit. For instance pediment/pediplain without fractures/joints and lineaments normally has moderate to poor groundwater prospect whereas the same geomorphic unit with a network of fractures/ joints indicates good groundwater prospects. Similarly a pediplain area of crystalline/ metamorphic rock is generally marked by poor to moderate groundwater prospect wherein the same unit in sandstone or limestone/sedimentary rock can have a good to moderate prospect.

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Figure 2.2.3 Hydrogeomorphological mapping method

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Methodology: The geomorphic units are to be delineated based on the image characteristics like tone, texture, shape, color, associations, background etc. In addition, rabi season image has to be referred for more details and correlation. It is better to use the base map prepared on transparent tracing film which should be placed over the geo coded FCC image and with the help of light table, the geomorphic units and forms, the structural information like folds, faults, fractures, lineaments and structural trend lines and the lithology are to be incorporated. The available geological maps, published literature and other information are to be used in enriching the geological and geomorphological details. The legend should be classified and incorporated on the map based on the origin and chronology. All the details like geomorphic unit, structure, lithology and prospect of groundwater have to be described. 2.2.4. SOIL MAPPING Introduction: Soil is a major component of land system which provides among the various natural resources, soil is the most vital resource, which has to be judiciously managed. Comprehensive information on soil resources at 1:10,000 or larger scale is essential for mandal level planning for the development of agriculture and other allied activities.

Data Used Specially for Soil Mapping Satellite Data: The satellite data with a minimum crop cover/vegetation cover and acquired during summer season is ideal for the identification of soil patterns. However, under certain terrain conditions the data of monsoon season in conjunction with summer

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season data helps better derivation of information on soils. The satellite imagery being made available under is proposed to be used for soil mapping. The details regarding satellite data preparation. Ancillary data: The ancillary information required for preparation of soil map consists of topographic maps, Published soil maps at small scales, geological maps, reports, climatic data (rain fall, temperature, etc). Topographic maps of the study area are required for preparation of base maps, ground truth collection, in the selection of sample strips Classification: The soil resource map is to be prepared on 1:2,50,000 scale. Soil mapping units will contain numerals as symbols to represent soil series association of soil series. Information on soil phases is essential for land management activities. In integrated study, phases like erosion, stoniness, slope etc. can be inferred from Toposheet and other thematic maps. The soil legend with numerals, names of soil series and classification should be given on the map itself. Its description should include soil parameters in the following sequence: depth, color, texture of surface soil, texture of sub-surface soil, calcareousness, soil reaction (pH), drainage, erosion, physiographic and slope.

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Figure 2.2.4a: Soil mapping method

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Important Soil Parameters to be considered for Mapping : In the present study, the soils need to be categorized based on the following parameters that influence the result of pedogenesis is considered. The various parameters such as soil type, soil depth; soil texture, soil reaction, soil drainage, soil erosion and slope are there. Soil Types : The different soil types are listed in the table below and each of these soil types provide the broad inference about the parent material, soil texture and their relative suitability to different crops and irrigation needs. The various soil types to be mapped under this study are drawn from the Sehgal J., 1996. Various soil types are show below Red soil, Black soil, Laterite and lateritic soils, Alluvial, Desert soils (River/deltaic/coastal), Forest & Hill soils, Peaty and marshy soils, miscellaneous areas. In the study area mainly red soil is occurred. Red Soils : The red soils are generally shallow to very deep, well drained and enriched Bhorizon, have developed in situ on old and stable landforms and on variety of rocks under hot, semi-arid to warm, humid, subtropical climatic conditions. These soils are highly weathered due to high temperatures and sufficient moisture leading to decalcification and soils rich in sesquioxides (Oxides of iron and aluminum) in the surface horizons. The soils are mostly derived from crystalline granite and metamorphic rocks such as gneisses and schists, mainly of Archaean period. Occasionally, the red VRLOV DUH GHYHORSHG RQ PLFDFHRXV VFKLVW¶V VDQGVWRQH OLPHVWRQH DQG VKDOH¶V 9DULRXV shades of Red & Yellow Soils are also included under this head. These soils also have the similar properties of the red soils and these are differentiated from the above soils

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based on the soil colour which mostly depends on the oxidation state of iron. They are identified on the satellite image by varying green to yellow tone and they occur in different physiographic conditions. These soils support variety of agricultural, horticultural and plantation crops. Soil Texture : Soil texture is an important soil characteristic that drives crop production and field management practices. The textural class of a soil is determined by the percentage of sand, silt, and clay. Soil texture determines the rate at which water drains through a saturated soil; water moves more freely through sandy soils than it does through clayey soils. In addition, well drained soils typically have good soil aeration meaning that the soil contains air that is similar to atmospheric air, which is conductive to healthy root growth, and thus a healthy crop. Soils also differ in their susceptibility to erosion (erodibility) based on texture; a soil with a high percentage of silt and clay particles has a greater erodibility than a sandy soil under the same conditions. Differences in soil texture also impacts organic matter levels; organic matter breaks down faster in sandy soils than in fine textured soils, given similar environmental conditions, tillage and fertility management, because of a higher amount of oxygen available for decomposition in the light-textured sandy soils. The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil increases with percent clay and organic matter. Soil tilt (how easily or difficult a field is tilled) is influenced by texture, soil moisture, aeration, and organic matter as well. The criteria proposed to separate classes on the basis of clay content are given below along with the broad textural classes. The texture classes along with codes to be used are given in Table 2.2.4a.

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Figure 2.2.4b:USDA soil textural diagram

Field criteria for estimating soil texture must be chosen to fit the soils of the area. Sand particles feel gritty and can be seen individually with the naked eye. Silt particles cannot be seen individually without magnification; they have a smooth feel to the fingers when dry or wet. In some places, clay soils are sticky; in others they are not. Soils dominated by montmorillonite clays, for example, feel different from soils that contain similar amounts of micaceous or kaolintic clay. The criteria proposed to separate classes on the basis of clay, sand and silt content are given below along with the broad textural classes. The texture classes are sand, loamy sands, sandy loams, loam, silt, silt loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silt clay loam, sandy clay, silt clay, clay. The texture triangle can be used to identify the exact textural class and the same is shown in the figure 2.2.4b.

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Coarse fragments: The texture can be influenced by stoniness, its amount and size (gravel, stone and boulders) and depth of occurrence.

TABLE NO. 2.2.4a: COARSE FRAGMENTS CLASSIFICATION Percentage of large particles

Kind & size of particle Gravels

Cobbles/stones

Boulders

1 15 -35

25cm

Slightly gravelly

Slightly stony

Slightly boulder

35 -80

Gravelly

Stony

Boulders

Soil drainage: Drainage refers to a soil's ability to get rid of excess water, or water in the macro pores, through downward movement by gravity. It is affected by topography, texture, and tilt. The drainage condition of the area is of vital importance in determining the crop yields. Its precise determination under field condition is imperative for making soil survey interpretations. Soil drainage refers both to internal and external drainage. Internal drainage is mainly related to texture and porosity whereas external drainage relates to ponding in flat topographic positions. Both leave their reflections in soils, although the former, viz. internal drainage is most natural and commonly observed in soils. The drainage conditions of an area are reflected in soil colour, mottling with low chromas and the depth of their occurrence in the soil profile. Natural drainage class refers to the frequency and duration of wet periods under conditions similar to those under which the soil developed. Alteration of the water regime by man, either through drainage or irrigation, is not a consideration unless the

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alterations have significantly changed the morphology of the soil. The drainage class is indicated by a numerical. Well drained: Water is removed from the soil readily but not rapidly. Water is available to plants throughout most of the growing season in humid regions. The soils are mainly free of the deep to redoximorphic features that are related to wetness. Moderately well drained: Water is removed from the soil somewhat slowly during some periods of the year. They commonly have a moderately low or lower saturated hydraulic conductivity in the layer within the upper 1 m, periodically receive high rainfall, or both. Imperfect: Water is removed slowly so that the soil is wet at a shallow depth for significant periods during the growing season. Wetness markedly restricts the growth of mesophytic crops, unless artificial drainage is provided. The soils commonly have one or more of the following characteristics: low or very low saturated hydraulic conductivity, a high water table, additional water from seepage, or nearly continuous rainfall. Soil depth: The depth of the soil is of vital importance for plant growth. Cultivation, soil utilization, results in important and often dramatic changes in profile conditions. Soil depth defines the root space and the volume of soil from where the plants fulfill their water and nutrient demands. Depth is measured from the soil surface. The depth to a horizon or layer boundary commonly differs within short distances, even within a

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pedon. The variation in the depths of the boundaries is recorded in the description of the horizon or layer. The following soil depth classes prescribed in Field manual NBSS & LUP (National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning), 1995 are envisaged under this project: TABLE NO. 2.2.4b: SOIL DEPTH CLASSES S.no

Soil depth classification (in cm)

Description

1

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Figure 3.3. Geomorphology

Denudational Hills: Denudational hills are the massive hills with resistant rock bodies that are formed due to differential erosion and weathering processes, these hills are composed fractured or jointed having no soil cover, moderate to steep slope. On the satellite image, these landforms were identified by Light or dark brownish with mix green colour due to thick forest cover. Denudational hills occupying Eastern and Western, Southern and Northern portions of the Karimnagar district. Structural hills: Structural hills are representing with definite trend line and the geologic structures such as- bedding, joint, lineaments etc. these hills occupied by large area. They are located in the eastern parts of the study area having greenish and reddish tone with Rough texture on the satellite image.

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Residual hills: Residual hills are the end products of the weathering process of pediplanation, which reduces the original mountain masses into a series of scattered knolls standing on the pediplains. Residual hills occur as small hills comprise of more resistant formations formed due to differential erosion, are found in the Western, Northern and south portions of the study area. In the imageries, these features occur as dark Greenish brown patches with forest cover. Pediment: In the study area, pediments are gently sloping areas or erosional surface of bed rock. Pediments may or may not be covered by a thin layer of soil and are mostly developed at the foot of the hills occurring along the eastern, southern, western, northern and central part of the study area. These landforms are showing light greenish colour and fine texture on the satellite imaginary. Pediplain: Pediplains are formed due to intensive weathering under semi-arid climatic conditions, representing final stage of the cyclic erosion. These are identified in the imageries due to grey tone on false colour composite. Pediplain have developed in the most of portions of study area. Alluvial plain: An alluvial plain is a relatively flat landform and created by the deposition of highlands eroded due to weathering and water flow in study area. The sediment from the hills is transported to the lower plain over a long period of time. It identified on the imageries dark reddish moderate to fine texture due to agriculture activities. Alluvial deposits of the area constitute gravel, sand, silt or clay sized unconsolidated material.

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3.4. CLIMATE Climate is defined as the general or average weather conditions of a certain region, including temperature, rainfall, and wind. On earth, climate is most affected by latitude, the tilt of the earth's axis, the movements of the earth's wind belts, the difference in temperatures of land and sea and topography. Temperature: Karimnagar district, like many other Telangana districts, experiences hot and dry climate throughout the year. During the south west monsoon season, it experiences change. The district experiences cold season extending from December to February and which is followed by summer, when both day and night temperatures increasing sharply. May, being the hottest month the mean daily maximum temperature is 40 °C ± 42 °C and the mean daily minimum is about 28 °C. Sometimes, the day temperatures cross 45 °C. Day and night temperatures decrease speedily during the months of November and December. December is the coldest month with the mean maximum and minimum temperatures of 29.9 °C and 16.3°C respectively. Sometimes, during the winter, the night temperatures will fall to very low levels, i.e.10 0C. The highest maximum temperature recorded at Ramagundam was 47.2 °C on the 19th may 1948 and the 8th of June 1953. The lowest minimum temperature was 8.5o C on the 26th of December 1959.

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Table no: 3.4.a. Maximum and minimum temperature Karimnagar districtMonth wise Maximum and Minimum Temperature -(in Celsius degrees)

1997-99 period 2007-09 period Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum January 29.3 14.4 31.6 12.9 February 33.0 16.2 31.6 20.2 March 33.2 20.6 35.2 21.0 April 37.2 24.2 38.0 24.6 May 38.4 27.0 40.8 28.5 June 35.3 26.6 36.0 30.3 July 32.0 25.1 31.4 26.0 August 30.4 23.7 31.4 25.0 September 32.6 22.3 28.8 24.2 October 31.6 24.1 31.2 22.5 November 28.7 20.7 38.4 16.2 December 29.7 16.4 29.9 16.1 Total 391.4 261.3 404.3 267.5 Average 32.62 21.78 33.69 22.29 Source: Agricultural Research Centre, Karimnagar.

s. no

Month

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Rainfall: The normal rainfall during the south ± west monsoon from June to September is 966m.m. The normal rainfall during North ± East monsoon is 113 mm. July is the rainiest month of the year in the district. The variation in the annual rainfall in the district from year to year is not so large. The district receives comparatively less rainfall during winter and hot weather seasons. The normal rainfall during winter period is 17.5 during the period 2007-09.

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Figure 3.4.Climatic condition

Humidity, winds and cloudiness: The relative humidity is generally high during the south-west monsoon season. The relative humidity decreases after withdrawal of the south-west monsoon. The summer season is the driest part of the year with the humidity in the afternoon being below 25 percent.

Winds are generally light to moderate with some increase in force during the south-west monsoon season. In the post monsoon season winds are generally northerly or north ± easterly. In December southerlies and south ± easterlies begin to below and these predominate in the next five months. Winds blow from directions between south ±

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west and north ± west in the first half of the south- west monsoon season becoming mainly wetly to north-westerly in the second half or the season.

Skies are heavily clouded to overcast during the south ± west monsoon season. There is rapid decrease in cloudiness in the post-monsoon. In the rest of the year the skies are generally clear or lightly clouded. Table no: 3.4. b. Annual rainfall station-wise Annual rainfall station-wise Sl.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

MANDAL Karimnagar Manakondur Thimmapur Bejjanki Gangadhara Ramadugu Choppadandi Husnabad Chigurumamidi Koheda Huzurabad Jammikunta Veenavanka Kamalapur Elkathurthy Kesavapatnam Saidapur Bhimdevarpally Jagtial Raikal Dharmapuri Sarangapur Mallial Kodimial Pegadapally Gollapally Metpally Korutla Maidipally Ibrahimpatnam Mallapur Kathlapur Siricilla

Normal rainfall 995.0 920.0 964.0 832.0 915.0 885.0 911.0 834.0 675.0 771.0 929.0 914.0 865.0 846.0 895.0 934.0 758.0 832.0 1160.0 1029.0 1062.0 990.0 961.0 897.0 972.0 1099.0 1041.0 1015.0 1043.0 1010 976.0 1084.0 909.0

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1997-99 period 1057.1 1063.3 1074.3 858.9 707.2 693.0 1266.6 619.0 1117.2 797.7 1135.6 1067.4 953.6 1062.1 960.8 766.5 814.4 889.2 1541.2 1216.7 986.3 1110.4 1097.7 954.0 1204.7 1168.4 1400.2 1107.2 1248.7 1153.8 796.6 1402.2 1093.5

2007-09 period 1383.9 1237.0 1516.8 1354.0 799.5 796.5 1065.2 998.0 1256.0 1032.3 1409.4 1070.1 1064.3 1085.8 1009.4 1306.7 1232.9 923.3 1179.6 844.0 1232.3 1126.4 1067.2 839.5 1070.5 1020.8 1031.2 879.4 850.1 895.8 878.6 968.4 1375.6

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

Ellanthakunta 850.0 397.6 Gambiraopet 855.0 849.0 Mustabad 719.0 815.1 Yellareddipet 883.0 867.2 Vemulawada 1009.0 953.7 Boinpally 901.0 849.0 Konaraopet 908.0 741.6 Chendurthy 1028.0 1091.9 Srirampur 1025.0 1333.6 Odela 971.0 991.0 Ramagundam 975.0 635.6 Sultanabad 1169.0 1318.8 Peddapally 1060.0 1026.0 Velgatoor 1063.0 1100.8 Dharmaram 1038.0 974.6 Julapally 915.0 1411.6 Manthani 915.0 1087.3 Kamanpur 1149.0 1548.0 Mutharam (mnt) 1043.0 1205.0 Malharrao 1069.0 718.4 Mahadevpur 1149.0 1111.2 Kataram 1337.0 1474.5 Maha mutharam 1060.0 835.0 Eligedu 915.0 835.0 Source : Chief Planning Office, Karimnagar

953.1 940.0 828.2 947.8 1083.4 963.4 928.6 898.9 1303.6 1230.1 1222.6 1082.5 1068.2 1139.4 932.0 1135.3 1220.6 1193.6 968.8 1062.2 1124.3 1276.8 889.1 889.1

Special whether phenomena: Storms and depressions originating in the Bay of Bengal during the postmonsoon affect the weather over the district causing widespread heavy rain and strong winds. Thunderstorms occur throughout the year generally, their highest incidence being during the period from May to September. Dust raising winds are common in the summer afternoons. 3.5. RIVERS AND CANALS The Godavari and the Manner are the two major rivers in the district. The Godavari, which is the largest river of Peninsular India, rises in the Western Ghats at Triambak near Nasik in Maharashtra State and enters Telangana near Basara in

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Adilabad district. This mighty river enters Karimnagar district near Kandukurthi in Metpally mandal and skirts the northern and eastern boundaries of the district and separates Chandha in Maharashtra State and Bastar area in Madhya Pradesh from Karimnagar district. It is not, however, useful for irrigational purposes in Karimnagar district. The Manner, a tributary of the Godavari, originates near the village of Kalkur and traverses the district from west to east as far as Karlagunta (Manthani taluk). It then flows north and falls into the Godavari near Mahadevpur in Manthani taluk. Its length in the district is about 232 kilometres and the river is an important irrigation source. Peddavagu and Chinnavagu are the other minor rivers that flow in this district and join the Godavari. SRSP Kakatiya right canal is providing irrigation source in the district.

Figure 3.5Rivers and canals

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3.6. SOILS Soil is a major component of land system which procures a medium for plant growth. The potentials and limitations of a soil for sustained use under agriculture, horticulture, silvipasture and forestry as well as its response to irrigation and other management practices are controlled by its inherent qualities and characteristics. The quality of a soil is a function of its morphologic, morphometric, physical, and chemical characteristics. These characteristics are expressed in a taxonomic class as depicted on soil map with location reference .The soil map thus, helps to know the characteristics of the soils of the area and to understand their problems, potentialities and management needs for their optimal use within the scale of limitations. Soils of the district are predominantly sandy loam and red chelkas interspersed with Block cotton Soils. The soils of the district in general are shallow with low fertility status except part of Manthani, Jagithial, Metpally and Peddapally area and soils among the banks of Godavari River and its attributes Manair. The soils exhibit a significant responsiveness to better management practices and balanced use of manures and fertilizers.

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Table no: 3.6. Soil taxonomy AREA SOIL TAXONOMY

(sq.km)

% of area

Aquic Haplustepts

987

8

Chromic Haplusterts

2134

18

Entic Haplusterts

298

3

Lithic Haplustepts

854

7

Rhodic Paleustalfs

237

2

Rock outcrops

1087

9

Typic Haplustalfs

4386

37

Typic Paleustalfs

845

7

Typic Rhodustalfs

412

4

Typic Ustorthents

394

3

Ustic Haplocalcids

63

1

Vertic Haplustepts

126

1

Total

11823

100

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Figure 3.6.Soil map

SOIL DESCRIPTION The soil map (fig. 3.6) shows the spatial distribution of these soils in the study area. Aquic Haplustepts: These soils were distributed 987 sq.km which is 8% of the total district area, these soils are occurred moderately deep to deep in depth, well drainage, clayey soil with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with moderate sloping and slightly eroded. These type of soils were distributed in Karimnagar districts, mandal wise details i.e. Bejjanki, Bheemadevarapally, Boinpally, Chendurthy, Chigurumamidi,

Elkathurthy,

Gangadhara,

Husnabad,

Huzurabad,

Kamalapur,

Karimnagar, Kodimial, Koheda, Konaraopet, Malharrao, Mallial, Manakondur, Manthani, Mutharam Manthani, Ramadugu, Saidapur, Thimmapur, Vemulawada.

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Chromic Haplusterts: Chromic Haplusterts soils were spatially distributed 2134 sq.km which is 18% in the Karimnagar district area, characteristically the soil occurred moderately deep to deep in depth, well drainage, and clayey soil with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with very gentle sloping and moderately eroded, this type of soils occurred in the study area, mandal wise details i.e. Bejjanki, Bheemadevarapally, Chendurthy, Choppadandi, Dharmapuri, Dharmaram, Elkathurthy, Ellanthakunta, Gambiraopet, Gangadhara, Gollapally,

Huzurabad, Jagtial, Jammikunta, Julapally,

Kamalapur, Kamanpur, Karimnagar, Kataram, Kathlapur, Kodimial, Konaraopet, Malharrao, Mallial, Manakondur, Manthani, Maidipally, Mustabad, Mutharam Manthani, Odela, Peddapally, Pegadapally, Ramadugu, Ramagundam, Ramagundam Municipality, Saidapur, Sarangapur, Siricilla (M), Sirsilla, Srirampur, Sultanabad, Veenavanka, Velgatur, Vemulawada, Yellareddipet, Velgatur. Lithic Ustorthents: Lithic Ustorthents soils were spatially distributed 1153 sq.km, which is 10% in the Karimnagar district area, characteristically the soils are occurred shallow to moderately depth, excessive drainage loamy soils with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with very gentle sloping to moderate sloping and moderately eroded. This type of soils occurred in the study area, mandal wise details. Chendurthy,

Dharmapuri,

Gambiraopet,

Kamalapur,

Kamanpur,

Konaraopet,

Mahadevpur, Malharrao, Manthani, Mutharam Mahadevpur, Mutharam Manthani, Peddapally, Raikal, Ramagundam, Ramagundam Municipality, Sarangapur, Srirampur, Velgatur and Yellareddipet.

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Rhodic Paleustalfs: Rhodic Paleustalfs soils were occurred deeply depth, moderate to well drainage, clayey skeletal soil with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with gentle sloping and moderately eroded. These soils were distributed 237 sq.km, which is 4%

in the district total area of Karimnagar, mandal wise details i.e.

Choppadandi, Gangadhara, Kataram, Kodimial, Mahadevpur, Mallial, Manthani, Pegadapally and Ramadugu. Rocky outcrops: The rock out crops are distributed 1087 sq.km which is 9% of the total district geographical area, the rock out crops occurred in the district i.e. Bejjanki, Boinpally, Chendurthy, Choppadandi, Dharmapuri, Dharmaram, Ellanthakunta, Gambiraopet, Gangadhara, Jagtial, Julapally, Karimnagar, Koheda, Konaraopet, Manakondur, Mustabad, Odela,, Peddapalle, Raikal, Sarangapur, Siricilla (M), Sirsilla, Srirampur, Sultanabad, Veenavanka, Velgatoor, Vemulawada and Yellareddipet. Typic Haplustepts: These soils were distributed 4361 sq.km which is 37% in the study area; this type soils are occurred widely in the district, characteristically occurred deeply depth, moderate to well drainage, clayey skeletal, with low availability of water storage on undulating land associated with gentle sloping and moderately eroded, widely distributed in the study area i.e. Bejjanki, Bheemadevarapally, Boinpally, Chendurthy, Chigurumamidi, Choppadandi, Dharmapuri, Dharmaram, Elkathurthy, Ellanthakunta, Gambiraopet, Gangadhara, Gollapally, Husnabad, Huzurabad, Ibrahimpatnam, Jagtial, Jammikunta, Julapally, Kamanpur, Karimnagar, Kataram, Kathlapur,, Kesavapatnam, Kodimial, Koheda, Konaraopet, Korutla, Mahadevpur, Malharrao, Mallapur, Mallial,

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Manakondur, Manthani, Medipally, Metpally, Mutharam Mahadevpur, Mutharam Manthani, Odela, Peddapalle, Pegadapally, Raikal, Ramadugu, Ramagundam, Saidapur, Sarangapur, Sirsilla, Srirampur, Sultanabad, Thimmapur, Veenavanka, Velgatur, Vemulawada, Yellareddipet and Raikal. Typic Paleustalfs: These soils were distributed 845 sq.km which is 7% in the study area; this type soils are occurred widely in the district, characteristically occurred deeply depth, well drainage clayey skeletal soils with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with gentle sloping and moderately eroded. They are widely distributed in the study area i.e. Elkathurthi, Ibrahimpatnam, Kamalapur, Kataram, Kathlapur, Koratla,

Mahadevpur,

Malharrao,

Mallapur,

Medipally,

Metpalle,

Mutharam

Mahadevpur and Raikal. Typic Rhodustalfs: These soils were distributed 412 sq.km which is 4% in the study area; this type soils are occurred widely in the district, characteristically occurred deeply depth, well drainage clayey skeletal soils with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with gentle sloping and moderately eroded. These soils are widely distributed in the study area i.e. Husnabad, Kamanpur, Kataram, Koheda, Malharrao, Manthani, Mutharam Mahadevpur, Mutharam Manthani, Odela, Peddapalle and Srirampur. Typic Ustorthents: These soils were distributed 394 sq.km which is 3% in the study area; this type soils are occurred widely in the district, characteristically occurred deeply depth, well drainage clayey soils with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with moderate sloping and moderately eroded. These soils are widely

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distributed in the study area i.e. Dharmapuri, Gollapalle, Jagtial, Koratla, Mallapur, Medipally, Metpalle, Pegadapalle, Raikal, Velgatur and Raikal. Ustic Haplocalcids: These soils were distributed 63 sq.km which is 31% in the study area; this type soils are occurred widely in the district, characteristically occurred Shallow depth, well drainage clayey soils with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with moderate sloping and moderately eroded. These soils are widely distributed in the study area i.e. Gambiraopet, Konaraopet and Yellareddipet. Vertic Haplustepts These soils were distributed 126 sq.km, which is 1% in the study area; this type of soils are occurred widely in the district, characteristically occurred Shallow depth, well drainage clayey soils with low availability of water storage on undulating lands associated with moderate sloping and moderately eroded. These soils are widely distributed in the study area i.e. Kamanpur, Kataram, Mahadevpur and Ramagundam.

3.7. SLOPE Introduction Slope, aspect and altitude are the most important terrain characteristics. Study area terrain relief plays a vital role in the development and management of natural resources and its characteristics i.e. origin of geomorphological land forms, runoff, soil erosion and land use change and land & water; land utilization point of view among slope categories are playing major role in the land irrigability, land capability assessment and identification of groundwater potential zones.

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Figure 3.7. Slope

Slope Classification: Fallowing the guidelines of All India Soil and Land Use Survey (AIS&LUS) on slope categories, the slope map showing following slope categories has been prepared on 1:2,50,000 scale.

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Table no: 3.7.a. Slope Category S. No SLOPE CATEGORY

SLOPE (%)

1

Nearly level

0-1

2

Very Gently slope

1-3

3

Gently slope

3-5

4

Moderately slope

5-10

5

Strongly slope

10-15

6

Moderately steep-to-steep slope 15-35

7

Very steep slope

>35

Table no: 3.7.b. Slope Classes in Karimnagar District SLOPE

AREA

PERCENTAGE

SLOPE CATEGORY

SLOPE CATEGORY (Sq.km)

OF THE AREA

%

2

1-3

Very gently slope

4412

59

3

3-5

Gently slope

3830

7

4

5-10

Moderately slope

2406

11

6

15-35

Steep slope

1112

5

The study area has been categorized into four slope classes, which are 2, 3, 4 and 6. Slope 2 is the most predominantly occurring in the study area followed by slope classes 3, 4 and 6. Slope classes 2, 3 which correspond to nearly level and very gently sloping are generally associated with Pediplains, Valleys and Pediments. Also these are mainly

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associated with agricultural lands and wastelands like land with/ without scrub, and with agricultural plant etc. which areas are observed in the study. Moderate steep slope areas are noticed in 12 mandals i.e. Sarangapur, Dharmapuri, Dharmaram, Veenavanka, Sultanabad, Bejjanki, Koheda, Siricilla, Mustabad, Gambhiraopet, Vemulawada and Yellareddipet. Moderately sloping areas are mostly spread in southern part, north-western part, northern-part and eastern part. This type category is noticed in Sarangapur, Raikal, Mallapur,

Ibrahimpatnam,

Korutla,

Pegadapally,

Choppadandi,

Saidapur,

Chigurumamidi, Bheemadevarapally, Kataram and Muttaram mandals. Gently sloping areas are noticed in Mahadevpur, Jagtial, Ramadugu, Mallial, Ellanthakunta, etc. Very gently sloping areas are found in mainly in central part of the district covering the mandals Gangadhara, Boinpally, Chendurthy, Manakondur, etc.

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WATER RESOURCES Water, as a resource, is one and indivisible: rainfall, river water, surface ponds and lakes and Groundwater are all part of one system. Water is part of a larger ecological system. Water occurs in nature, practically everywhere in one form or the other. Water seems to be so much associated with us that there seems to be no life without water, animals, plants and human beings, etc. all require water for their survival. Water therefore is necessity, comport and a luxury too, in the light of its importance there will not be any exaggeration if water is called as the most helpful servant and consequently the most important resources of society. (DFKRIWKHVHFDWHJRULHVLVDSDUWRIWKHHDUWK¶VZDWHUFLUFXODWRU\V\VWHPFDOOHG the hydrological cycle, and is ultimately derived from precipitation (rainfall and snow). The two categories are interdependent, and frequently the loss of one is the gain of other. Access to irrigation water is one of the most important factors in modern agricultural production. 4.1 SURFACE WATER Surface water, that is, the water on the surface of the land, represents the hydro drainage from the land. We see it in flowing rivers and creeks and in lakes and ponds. Surface flow is derived partly from the rainfall that is shed into the water courses from sloping lands. A part of the rainfall that is absorbed by the soil also becomes surface water by its discharge when oozes into rills and runnels. Surface water is by far the most important means for providing substantial irrigation which stabilises and improves agro-economic life in an area that has otherwise plenty of land potential. Because of the uncertainty in the flow of surface water, it is probable that any attempt to improve agricultural techniques and land use

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planning without combating the problem with the help of shallow and deep water tables is bound to be abortive. Surface water supply is controlled by several factors such as a large quantity of water in the form of rivers, streams, lakes, glaciers, gentle surface gradient and soft land. These make possible the construction of network of canals.

Figure 4.1.Drainage and ƐƵƌĨĂĐĞwater bodies

The district forms part of the Godavari river basin. The river Godavari, the largest river in the peninsular India enters the district at Kandukurthi village runs for a distance of 283 km forming the northern and eastern boundary of the district and leaves the district at Muknur village. The entire district is mainly drained by Maneru River, a tributary of river Godavari. The entire district is divided into 85 minor basins (Fig.4.1). Major source of surface water irrigation in the district is from right bank canal of Sri Ram Sagar major irrigation project serving an ayacut of 2.32 lakh hectares

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covering 33 mandals either in part or fully. Manair project and Shanigaram project are the other two projects serving an ayacut of 9713 hectares. Apart from these projects there are 5353 irrigation tanks, 2,25,816 wells and 7 other minor projects. Out of the total surface water potential available for irrigation 22.8% is under major irrigation project i.e. Sri Ram Sagar project (SRSP project). The Sri Ram Sagar Project (SRSP) is providing the irrigation water resources for 54,642 hectors in the district. There are four medium irrigation projects that they are Manair project, Shanigaram project, Boggulavagu project and Gangamala & Yakeenpura project. These four projects are providing irrigation facilities for 17,574 hectors area i.e. 7.3 per cent. Out of the total cropped area of 5,33,604 hectors, an area of 3,56,418 hectors is having irrigation facilities. 25.17% of the irrigated area is covered by surface water sources, 64.75% of the area is irrigated through Groundwater sources and the remaining by other sources. The main crops raised are rice, maize, green gram, chillies, turmeric, cotton and ground nut. The area under minor irrigation sources such as tanks and kuntas is 65,122 hectors i.e. 27 per cent. The tanks are mostly spread in eastern portion of the district. The area under minor irrigation projects is 65,122 hectares of land. The district is drained by the Manner (Maner) river (the main tributary of the Godavari) and several streams like the Kudlair, the Nakkalavagu, the Bikkavagu and the Mallavagu, all of which form part of the major Godavari basin. Government has constructed a number of projects across these streams. The most important of the existing projects is the Manner Project commanding an ayacut of 5,670 hectares benefitting 19 villages of Sirsilla division. This project is situated just above the confluence of the Manner and Kudlair

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near Nirmal village. The other important projects are (a) the Ekeenpur project constructed across the Kondrikalvagu near Ekeenpur village of Korutla having an ayacut of 486 hectares, (b) the Bandala vagu project situated at Kukkalaguduru of Peddapalle mandal, benefit-ting about 405 hectares, (c) the Lakshminarasimha Sagar Project (originally known as Rallavagu project) constructed across the Rallavagu near Thunguru of Jagtial mandal having an estimated ayacut of over 810 hectares and (d) the Chagaon Project situated at Chagaon village of Peddapalle division serving nearly 405 hectares. Table no: 4.1 Surface irrigation sources of Karimnagar district. Sl no. Surface irrigation sources of Karimnagar District -2009 Area in Hectares

1

Major Irrigation Project-SRSP

2

Medium Irrigation Projects.

54,642

a) Manair Project (Normal)

5,290

b) Shanigaram Project

2,065

c) Boggulavagu Project

2,085

d) Gangamala &Yakeenpura Project

8,134

3

Minor Irrigation Projects (5,479 Nos.) Tanks &Kuntas.

65,122

4

Irrigation wells (2,35,067 Nos.)

99,369

5

Lift Irrigation (859 Nos)

2061

Total

2,38,768

SOURCE: Chief planning office, Karimnagar district.

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Besides these, three more projects, natively, the Lower Manner Project, the Mulavagu Project and the Jungle Nala Project have been proposed for execution. The Lower Manner Project is a medium-size irrigation project across the river Manner at Pothgal, a village eight kilometers away from Karimnagar. It is expected to command a gross area of 0.49 lakh hectares benefiting 53 villages belonging to Karimnagar, Peddapalle and Huzurabad divisions. The Mulavagu Project in Sirsilla division and the Jungle Nala Project in Jagtial division are likely to irrigate 1,094 hectares and 729 hectares respectively. The area under irrigation wells is very high, whenever comparing with other types of irrigation sources. 99,369 hectors area is under irrigation wells i.e. 41 per cent. There are 2, 32,689 irrigation wells. The irrigation wells are spread in southern part, south western part and central part of Karimnagar district. Only 0.86 per cent area is under lift irrigation schemes which is concentrated only in two mandals namely Mutharam (mnt) and Thadicherla. 4.2 GROUNDWATER Groundwater is often called underground water which occurs below the surface of the earth. The formation of underground water takes place when under hydrostatic pressure the permeable rocks get saturated with water. From the surface, water moves down by gravity to enter this zone, the upper surface of which is called the water table or phreatic surface. For this reason, Groundwater is sometimes called phreatic, sub-surface or subterranean water. The quality and quantity of water depends upon the geological structures. The zone of saturation may extend up to land surface in some places, notably in seep-areas and in some stream channels, lakes and marshes. At all other places above the Groundwater zone, there exists a

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³]RQH RI DHUDWLRQ¶¶ WKDW PD\ UDQJH LQ WKLFNQHVV IURP D IHZ FHQWLPHWUHV WR VHYHUDO hundreds of meters. On the whole, groundwater is very unevenly distributed beneath the surface of the land. Variations entirely depend upon local differences both in the water- yielding capabilities of aquifers and in the depths at which adequate supplies water can be reached. Moreover, the behaviour of such unique storage of underground water is not consistent. It varies from year to year and season to season causing wide spread regional balances. The rate of rise in the Groundwater mainly controlled by many reasons such as: shallow depth of the water table before advent of rains; relatively heavy rainfall; high intensity of irrigation and a dense irrigation network leading to excessive seepage and proximity to rivers and streams. Central Groundwater Board has covered the entire district through systematic hydro geological surveys by 1990. Subsequently first generation re-appraisal surveys were completed by 2000-01. Groundwater exploration in the district commenced in the year 1975-76 and continued up to 1982-83 in the sedimentary terrain. In all 9 exploratory wells, 4 observation wells and 5 slim holes were drilled during this phase. Under hydrology project 19 piezometers were constructed by CGWB and 22 by State Groundwater Department to monitor the Groundwater scenario. Studies on Conjunctive of surface and Groundwaters were undertaken in the canal command area of Sri Ram Sagar project canal command during 2000-02. During 2003-04 exploration was taken up in hard rock area of the district and so far 6 wells have been constructed. As part of the Groundwater regime monitoring 32 dug wells and 19 piezo meters are being monitored on regular basins.

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4.2.1. HYDROGEOLOGY Groundwater occurs in all the geological formations in the district. The major rock types occurring in the district are granites, gneisses, sandstone, limestone, shale, quartzites etc. The occurrence and movement of the Groundwater is a consequence of a finite combination of topographical, climatological, hydrological, geological, structural and pedagogical factors, which together form integrated dynamic system. All these factors are interrelated and inter dependent, each providing an insight into the total functioning of this dynamic system. Understanding of all these factors and their relation is very essential. The yields of the wells depend on the recharge conditions and spacing of the wells. The yields will reduce drastically in drought situations particularly in phereatic aquifer and where cluster of wells exists in deeper fractures, thereby leading to failure of wells. The nature of occurrence and behaviour of Groundwater in different water bearing formations are discussed. The figure 4.2.a. reveals the groundwater resources in all geological formations in the district.

Figure 4.2.1. Hydrogeology map

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Archaean and Dharwar Group of Rocks: These rocks types occupy about two thirds area of the district. The crystalline rocks like granite and gneisses lack primary porosity. They develop secondary porosity through fracturing and weathering over ages and thus become water bearing. The movement of Groundwater is controlled by the degree of inter-connection of these secondary pores/voids. Consequently the prospects of Groundwater are rather limited. The depth to bed rock varies from few meters to 30 m bgl. Groundwater occurs under unconfined conditions in weathered zone and under semi confined conditions in the fractures and fissures. The shallow aquifers tapping the weathered zone have very limited yields in the non-command areas and limited to moderate yields in the command areas. The wells in the non-command areas dry up during summer months and the wells in command area 1 to 2m water column is maintained. The yield ranges from 40 to 150 m3/day, storage coefficient varies from 0.001 to 0.019 and specific capacity ranges from 0.106 to 0.159 m3/min/mdd. The deeper fractured aquifer is developed through bore wells. The fractured aquifers are potential up to 100 m depth in general, beyond 100 m the occurrence of fractures decreases drastically; potential fractures are encountered only along the lineaments and at other favourable location. The discharge of the successful bore wells range from 0.5 lps to 3 lps. The transmissivity values range from 3.65 to 48 m2/day. They are hard, compact and possess limited primary Groundwater in Pakhals and Sullavais: The Pakhals and Sullavais are the oldest sedimentary rocks known as Purana formations occur in the northern part of the district. They comprise mainly quartzites porosity. However, subsequent fracturing and fissuring followed by weathering

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enabled them to form aquifers locally. The yields in the limestone are about 45 m3/day and in sand stone it from 50 to 75 m3/day. In general they form poor aquifers. Groundwater in Gondwanas: They are the youngest sedimentary rocks and occupy 18 percent of the district area in the north-western part. The Gondwanas are represented by Talchir boulder bed, shale and sand stone, Barker sand stones, sand stones and clays of Barren measures, Ferruginous sand stones and clays of Kamthi series, gritty sand stones and clays of Maleri series, Kota formation comprising of shales with intercalated shales, fine to medium grained sand stone and lime stone and Chikiala formations represented by ferruginous sand stone and conglomerates associated with clay and shale bands. Shallow Phereatic Aquifers: The Talchir boulder bed is favourable for sinking open wells and the yields range from 15 to 25 m3/day. The yields of the dug wells in Barakars and Barren measures vary from 40 to 90 m3/day. The shallow bore wells tapping Kamthi sand stones have yields of 10 m3/day and the transmissivity is about 70 m2/day. The shallow bore wells tapping the Kota sand stones have discharge of 5 to 7 m3/Hr for draw down of 10 m and the transmissivity varies from 25 to 30 m2/day. Deeper Confined Gondwana Aquifers: Central Groundwater Board has proved the existence of deeper aquifers in the Gondwana formations by constructing test wells. Deeper aquifers are not encountered in Barakar sand stones. Barren measures have deeper aquifer with discharge ranging from 7.9 to 50 m3/day. Potential zones in these formations at places may be due to encountering of fracture planes. Kamthi sand stones have potential aquifers at deeper depths upto 300 m. the discharge vary from 1638 m3/day to 4197 m3/day. The

ϵϳ

transmissivity values are ranging from 49.9 to 668 m2/day. Deeper aquifers in the Kota formation are of poor or limited yields varying up to 26 m3/day. Deeper aquifers in the Maleri formation occur up to a depth of 206 m with discharges varying from 1143 to 1259 m3 /day and the transmissivity values range from 28 to 50 m3 /day. Groundwater in Alluvium: Alluvium comprising sand, silt and clay occurs along the banks of the river Godavari down to a maximum depth of 20 m bgl near Mahadevpur. The filter point wells of depth 10 to 20 m bgl constructed in these aquifers sustain continuous pumping. The sandy aquifer extending down to a depth of 10 to 13 m bgl on either side of Maneru river at few places have yields ranging from 90 to 180 m3/day. 4.2.2. Hydrogeomorphology Hydrogeomorphology is the science relating to the geographical, geological and hydrological aspects of water bodies and changes to these in response to flow variations and to natural and human caused events. Information on landform is important inputs for land management, soil mapping and identification of potential zones for groundwater occurrence. The aspects of morpho-graphy, mopho-genesis, morpho-chronology and morphometry are crucial inputs for preparation of geomorphological maps (NRSA, 1993). Apart from the land forms characteristics, the lithological information and geologic structures also play an important role in identifying of groundwater potential zones. The hydrogeomorphology map (Figure: 4.2.2) is an integration of all these data aspects. Various geomorphic units delineated have

a

direct

bearing

on

the

utilization

of

the

terrain

(GSI,

1999).

Hydrogeomorphological units combined in which the lithology, landform, structure DQG UHFKDUJH FRQGLWLRQV DUH XQLTXH DUH FDOOHG µ+\GURJHRPRUSKLF XQLWV¶ 7KHy considered

as

three

dimensional

homogeneous

ϵϴ

entities

with

respect

to

hydrogeological properties and the recharge condition, in other words considered as the aquifers. The groundwater prospects are expected to be uniform in a hydrogeomorphic unit. In order to study the Groundwater prospects of hydrogeomorphic unit, inventory of the controlling factors i.e. rock type, landform, structure, and recharge conditions. The delineation of various geomorphic units and the knowledge about their Groundwater prospects play an important role in the optimum utilization of land resources.

Beside the information on landforms and geological information like

lithology and structures also help in identifying the groundwater potential zones. The Hydrogeomorphological map have been prepared on 1:2,50,000 scale by demarcating various geomorphic units/landforms using satellite based remote sensing techniques.

Figure 4.2.2͘Hydrogeomorphology

ϵϵ

Legend of Hydrogeomorphology map (4.2.2)

ϭϬϬ

Legend of Hydrogeomorphology map (4.2.2)

ϭϬϭ

Visual interpretation techniques have been adopted in the delineation of various geomorphic features. Besides, the linear features like dykes and structures /Lineament/fractures were also delineated. A detailed programme of field work has been planned to verify the doubtful areas and arrive at the information regarding the Groundwater prospects of various landforms/geomorphic units. Number of the wells was inventoried to find the thickness of weathering depth of water table, nature of the aquifer and yields of the wells in the area. However a few individual reports of representative wells are prepared and submitted. Based on the ground truth information, corrections and modifications of the misinterpreted

units

have

been

made.

The

figure

4.2.2

reveals

the

Hydrogeomorphological features of the district. Description of landforms Based on the geology, geomorphology and groundwater prospects a total of 90 landforms/hydrogeomorphic units were delineated in the study area. Pediplain: Pediplain is flat and smooth surface of material with an 8 to 10 meters thick weathered surface soil, and various lithological formations i.e. Gondwana Super Group, Penganga Group, Mulug Group, Mallampalli Group, Peninsular Gneissic Complex and Charnockites Group of rocks. These units are generally occupying the relatively low elevated regions and occasionally associated in the fractures or lineaments. The groundwater prospects are expected poor to good; good groundwater prospects are expected along the fracture zones, major streams and moderately weathered area. This type of landforms is distributed in the central part of the district and over all view pediplain is the occurred in the huge area of Karimnagar district

ϭϬϮ

Pediment: It is a flat gently sloping and smooth surface of erosional bed rock with veneer of detritus between hill and plain. Groundwater prospects in these formations are poor. These land forms are distributed, East, West, North, South parts of the district, moderate Groundwater prospects are expected in the fracture zones and along the streams. Pediment is distributed on various lithological formations. I.e. Gondwana super Group, Sullavais Group, Penganga Group, Mulug Group, Mallampalli Group, Peninsular gneissic complex and Charnockites Group detailed as shown in figure 4.2.2. Residual Hill: It is an isolated low relief hill, formed due to the differential erosion and weathering occupied a considerable area, these landforms are generally massive in nature and distributed on various lithological formations. I.e. Gondwana super Group, Sullavais Group, Penganga Group, Mulug Group, Mallampalli Group, Peninsular gneissic complex and Charnockites Group detailed as shown in figure 4.2.2. Hence groundwater prospects are negligible; these landforms are seen in Karimnagar district Denudational Hill: It is a relatively high relief hill, formed due to the differential erosion and weathering, occupying a large areal extent, the Groundwater prospects in these landforms are negligible, good Groundwater prospects occurred in the fracture zones or lineaments or fault zone. These land forms are distributed East, West, North and South parts of the district, on various lithological formations. I.e. Gondwana super Group, Sullavais Group, Penganga Group, Mulug Group, Mallampalli Group, Peninsular gneissic complex and Charnockites Group detailed as shown in fig.4.2.2.

ϭϬϯ

Structural Hill: It is a linear to acute hill showing definite trend line associated with folds and faults, occupying a large areal extent, in these land forms Groundwater prospects are negligible, good Groundwater prospects are expected along the fracture zones, these land forms are act as a runoff zone, this type of land forms are distributed in the Karimnagar district. Plateau Hill: This is essentially an extensive flat topped portion of the basaltic plateau with a negligible Groundwater prospects, good Groundwater prospects are expected associated with shallow valleys/gullies with gently sloping land developed due to stream erosion, these are associated with fractures/lineaments poor Groundwater prospects are expected Structures: Structures are playing a major role in the hard rock region because of hard rock regions are not having any porosity, hard rocks are acting as aquifuge for water movement in this type of areas structures/fractures are having a secondary porosity for groundwater storage. All the structures are delineating based on the satellite image interpretation on 1:2, 50,000 scale, in the study area, structures are distributed northwest and east-south direction in Karimnagar district, groundwater prospects of view all the structures are good groundwater prospects zones comparing to the local area prospects. 4.3 IRRIGATION SOURCES Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of Landscapes and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.

ϭϬϰ

It is a process which aims at the maintenance of soil moisture within the range required for optimum plant growth. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dryland farming. Water is indispensable to agricultural production. In certain areas, where rainfall is very scanty as well as uncertain artificial irrigation is absolutely essential, for without it cultivation is almost impossible. In certain areas, rainfall may be abundant but it may be concentrated in a short period of the year, the rest of the being dry. As a result, cultivation may not be possible for the whole year. Continuous supply of water is essential condition for rapid over all the development. There are areas where scarcity of agriculture water put at risk the agricultural economy. The irrigation programmes such as irrigation projects should be undertaken for the transformation of natural hazards of drought as it is one of the panaceas for agriculture and overall economic development. The multi-purpose irrigation projects, seed breeding schemes and modern farming practices are essential for the development of agriculture. The supply water for plant growth depends on the retentive power of the soil and sub soil. It was formerly believed that there was a continuous upward transfer of water from the sub-soil water table to surface layers, but this is not the case except when the water table is within a few feet of the soil surface and in such cases, irrigation may lead to water logging and other troubles. The water requirements of crops and even of varieties of the same crop vary, being greatest at the time of active development of the plant and falling off as the ripening stage is reached. Yet, it is too difficult to precisely estimate the volume of water supplementing irrigation. This depends on the type of crops raised, the nature of soil, atmospheric conditions, temperature and humidity. It is difficult to access with precision of the

ϭϬϱ

volume of surface water from flowing streams and underGroundwater. Water from these sources is used through wells, tanks, canals and tube wells. India, irrigation refers to the supply of water from rivers, tanks, wells, canals and other artificial projects for the purpose of cultivation and agricultural activities. In country such as India, 64% of cultivated land is dependent on monsoons. The economic significance of irrigation in India is namely, to reduce over dependence on monsoons, advanced agricultural productivity, bringing more land under cultivation, reducing instability in output levels, creation of job opportunities, electricity and transport facilities, control of floods and prevention of droughts. India has an irrigation potential of 139.89 million hectares, out of which a minimal 108.2 million hectares (77.35%) of the total land that can be irrigated has been utilized. Currently, about 30% of the net cultivated area has benefited from the irrigation projects that have been implemented. A sum of

16,590 crore had been spent of irrigation

development up to the 7th Five Year plans of India. The 10th and 11th Five Year Plan have proposed to invest a sum of 1,03,315 crore and 2,10,326 crore on irrigation and flood control in India.

Irrigation sources in Karimnagar district:

The chief sources of irrigation in the Karimnagar district are open wells, tube wells, canals, and tanks. The open wells are mostly spread all over the district. The area under tube wells prominently extend in the western part and eastern part of the district. Due to advent of increasing technology to dig bore wells is facilitating to increase irrigational sources. Canal irrigation is spread in the northern part of the district. Sri Ram Sagar Project (SRSP) is the major irrigation project and very important irrigational source. Besides it, three medium irrigation projects are Upper

ϭϬϲ

Manair project, Shanigaram project and Boggulavagu project. Tank irrigation system is more prominent in the eastern part and central part. Tank irrigation is more prominent in eastern part of the district. Lift irrigation is found only in only one mandal i.e. Boinpally. Irrigation is one of the important devices in modern agriculture, where the HYVs seeds when implemented, will demand much amount of water resources. In recent years, the irrigation is affected due to unfavourable rainfall conditions. The area under irrigation is changing continuously over a period of time. During the period 1997-99, the district gross irrigated area was 3,18,046 hectares of land whereas it is 5,47,411 hectares of land. This shows that net increase of gross irrigated area is 2,29,365 hectares. It is showing very positive indication in this aspect. This increase definitely boosts up crop production. Area under canal irrigation was 77,217 hectares whereas it is 1,39,519 hectares during the period 2007-09 which is showing net increase of 62,302 hectares. Canal irrigated area is highly present in northern part, central part, of the district. Particularly the area under canal irrigation in the south western part it is too much low. Wherever canal irrigation is not present, irrigation under wells is prominent.

Chart no. 4.3. Karimnagar district- area irrigated source wise ϭϬϳ

Figure 4.3 a. Irrigation Sources period-1997-99

Figure 4.3 b.Irrigation Sources period- 2007-09 ϭϬϴ

Particularly now-a-days tube well irrigation is acquiring special importance. Tube well irrigated increased from 17,042 hectares of land in 1997-99 period to 54,241 hectares of land which is net increase of 30,440 hectares. This increase is three times and it showing fast growth situation whenever comparing with other type of irrigation source. Tube well irrigation is noticed prominently in western part of the district. Metpally, Kathlapur, Yellareddipet, Siricilla and Mustabad mandals have highest irrigated are under tube well irrigation. The irrigated area under open wells was 1,84,774 hectares during 1997-99 and it is 2,85,369 during 2007-09 period. 1,00,595 hectares of irrigated area is added which is showing positive growth. The irrigated area under tanks is 36,737 hectares during 1997-99 and 67,177 heaters during 2007-09. Net increase is 30,440 hectares. 4.3.1 Canal irrigation source: In India Canal irrigation is an important source of irrigation accounting for above 30 per cent of the net irrigated area. Canal irrigation is possible in areas which are extensive plains and are drained by well distributed perennial rivers, such as the northern plains, coastal plains, deltas (where even the distributaries can act as canals), and the broad valleys of the peninsula. Inundation canals are those which are taken out without constructing dams or 'bunds' and get water only when the main stream is flooded-thus, they have limited validity. Now, the efforts are on to convert them to perennial systems. The postindependence period saw the construction of canals as a part of the multi-purpose projects, e.g., Bhakra-Nangal (Punjab), Damodar Valley (West Bengal) and Nagarjunasagar (Telangana) projects. The initial costs of constructing canals are high, but once constructed, the operational cost is minimum, which makes them a cheap source of irrigation in the

ϭϬϵ

long run. Canal irrigation is important in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, coastal Orissa and coastal Telangana. The canals are almost absent in hilly states like Kerala and the North-East. Canal irrigation source in Karimnagar district: The district Karimnagar source of irrigation is under canals covered around 77,217 hectars during 1997-99 and 1,39,519 hectares of land during the period 200709. The observations are clearly denoting that the area under canal irrigation system has been increased 62,302 hectares. During 1997-99 period, the highest canal irrigated area is noticed in Jagithial (4673 hectares), Mallapur (3630 hectares), Odela (3138 hectares),

Sultanabad

(2728

hectares),

Raikal(2560

hectares),

Peddapally

(2499hectares), Julapally (2456 hectares) and Manakondur(2263 hectares). Canal irrigation source is almost absent in the mandals Chigurumamidi,

Gollapally,

Vemulawada, Chendurthy, Husnabad, Mutharam(maha), Srirampur, Gangadhara, Kamalapur, Veenavanka, Mahadevpur, Ellanthakunta, Bejjanki, Saidapur, Boinpally, Siricilla, Kodimial, Bhimdevarpally. During 2007-09 period, the highest canal irrigated area is noticed in Peddapally (8858 hectares), Dharmaram (7501 hectares), Manakondur (6630 hectares), Mallapur (6420 hectares), Jagithial (6075 hectares), Sultanabad (5261 hectares), Gollapally (4612 hectares), Mutharam(maha) (4520 hectares), Velgatur (4414 hectares), Jammikunta (4139 hectares), and Ibrahimpatnam (4020 hectares). There is almost absent canal irrigation system in Bhimdevarpally, Kodimial, Siricilla, Boinpally,

Thadicherla,

Ellanthakunta,

Saidapur,

Gangadhara,

Chendurthy,

Chigurumamidi, Kataram, Mahadevpur, and Vemulawada. Whenever we notice the map showing canal irrigation, tremendous change is noticed. In every mandal, the area under canal irrigation increased. Highest increase

ϭϭϬ

is noticed in Peddapally, Dharmaram, and Mallapur. The northern part and central part of the district has good irrigational source under canals. 4.3.2 Tank irrigation source: Tank irrigation in the Deccan and South India is highly developed compared to tank irrigation in other regions because the land is rocky and the soil is not porous. Rainwater cannot sink into the ground, making it difficult to dig wells. The digging of canals is also difficult and expensive on the rocky surface of the peninsular plateau. As the rivers of South India are seasonal, the construction of perennial canals is not feasible. The hard rocks of the region do not allow the water of tanks to seep through. Hence tank irrigation has been successful there. But there are drawbacks in tank irrigation: tanks cover large areas of cultivable land; evaporation of water is relatively rapid due to large expanse of shallow water in the tanks; tanks do not ensure a perennial supply of water. Tank irrigation source in Karimnagar district: Tanks form the major part of the irrigation works in the district, commanding 67,177 hectares. Some of them were constructed by the Kakatiya rulers. The important tanks among these are (1) the Shanigaram tank near Shanigaram village of Koheda mandal (2) Peddacheruvu in Garrepille of Peddapalle taluk, (3) Gora cheruvu in Kanchcarla (4) Singasamudram tank in Yellareddipet mandal (5) Akkapalle cheruvu in Dharmapuri mandal and (6) the large tank in Kamalapur mandal. There were, however, no organized efforts in earlier times to maintain these sources till a separate Irrigation Department came into existence in A.D.1896 under H.E.H. the Nizam's Government. The department, as a first step restored many of the irrigation tanks. An intensive, drive for the development of irrigation was started in 1950 with the introduction of Grow More- Food Campaign and the tempo was sustained during

ϭϭϭ

the Five Year Plans when the Government restored a good number of tanks that were in a state of disrepair for several years. New ones were also constructed. During the First and Second Five Year Plan periods and the early part of the Third Five Year Plan, 828 tanks with an ayacut of 16,901 hectares were restored by the Public Works Department. Under Irrigation source of tanks system the district covered 36,737 hectares of land during 1997-99 period. And during the period of 2007-09, it is covered 67,177 hectares. The net increase of area under tanks system is 30,447 hectares. During period 1997-99, the highest tank irrigated area is noticed in mandals Sultanabad (2033 hectares), Dharmapuri (1810 hectares), Peddapally (1752 hectares), Kataram (1656 hectares), Thadicherla (1654 hectares), and Manthani (1631 hectares). Gangadhara, Chigurumamidi, Koheda, Saidapur, Kodimial, Vemulawada, Ellanthakunta, Bejjanki, Thimmapur, and Chendurthy mandals has no irrigated area under tanks. The lowest area irrigated under this category during this period in the mandals Konaraopet (45 hectares), Bhimdevarpally (67 hectares), Karimnagar (101 hectares), Siricilla (128 hectares), Mallial (166 hectares), Kathlapur (176 hectares), Boinpally (234 hectares), Metpally (240 hectares), Husnabad (243 hectares), Ramadugu (253 hectares), and Choppadandi (255 hectares). During period 2007-09, the highest tank irrigated area is noticed in mandals Ramagundam (3893 hectares), Kesavapatnam (3250 hectares), Mahadevpur (3113 hectares), Kataram (2980 hectares), Dharmaram (2894 hectares), Manakondur (2699 hectares), Veenavanka (2465 hectares), Eligedu (2419 hectares), Sultanabad (2353 hectares), Maidipally (2205 hectares), Peddapally (2144 hectares), Kamalapur (2035 hectares). The lowest area irrigated under this category during this period in the mandals Ramadugu (42 hectares), Gambiraopet (73 hectares), Konaraopet (90

ϭϭϮ

hectares), Kathlapur (108 hectares),Bhimdevarpally (132 hectares), Mallial (166 hectares), Gangadhara (196 hectares), Saidapur (204 hectares), Metpally (254 hectares), Yellareddipet (386 hectares), Odela (413 hectares), Mutharam(mnt) (433 hectares), Husnabad (463 hectares), Elkathurthy (587 hectares), Koheda (663 hectares), Sarangapur (671 hectares), Julapally (708 hectares), Raikal (758 hectares). There is no area under this category in the mandals Kodimial, Vemulawada, Ellanthakunta, Bejjanki, Thimmapur, Chendurthy, Siricilla, Boinpally, and Mustabad. 4.3.3 Well irrigation source: Wells are considered to be the chief source of irrigation when compared to other two sources. Wells can be classified into two types i.e. open wells and deep wells. Wells constitute 62 % to the total irrigated land in the district. Area irrigated by wells is widely spread in the southern part of the district. Well irrigation is an important source of irrigation. The water in wells is obtained from the subsoil and has to be lifted by suitable devices, e.g., manual or animal labour or by pumping sets run by power. In India wells (including tube wells) account for more than 30 million acres (more than 55 per cent of total irrigated area). Well irrigation is most common in alluvial plain areas where the water table is fairly high. Owing to the soft nature of the soil, wells are easy to dig and the yield of crops from the land after irrigation is rewarding. The states with 50 per cent or more of the irrigated area under wells and tube-wells are Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu also have a sizeable area under well irrigation. The major changes in respect of well irrigation during the last few decades include change from dug-wells to tube wells and large scale replacement of animal power with commercial power (electricity or diesel) for lifting water. Tamil Nadu ϭϭϯ

has the largest number of electrified pumpsets. Now, water pumps running on solar energy are also being encouraged. Well irrigation source in Karimnagar district: The number of wells (including tube wells and open wells) present is 2,35,067. The area under open wells was 1,84,774 hectares during 1997-99 and it was 2,85,369 hectares during 2007-09 which is showing the net increase of 1,00,595 hectares. a) Open well irrigation source: The district Karimnagar source of irrigation is under open wells covered around 1,84,774 hectars during 1997-99 and 2,85,369 hectares of land during the period 2007-09. The observations are clearly denoting that the area under open wells has been increased up to 1,00,595 hectares. During 1997-99 period, the highest wells irrigated area is noticed in Jammikunta (9786 hectares), Kamalapur (6691 hectares), Karimnagar (6462 hectares), Manakondur (5881 hectares), Jagithial (5536 hectares), and Siricilla (5468 hectares) mandals. Lowest area irrigated under open wells is in Mahadevpur (119 hectares), Mutharam (maha) (124 hectares), Julapally (333 hectares), Thadicherla (615 hectares), Gambhiraopet (803 hectares), Kataram (848 hectares), and Manthani (912 hectares). During 2007-09 period, the highest open wells irrigated area is noticed in Karimnagar (11,044 hectares), Dharmaram (9867 hectares), Jagtial (9651 hectares), Maidipally (9182 hectares), Thimmapur (9181 hectares), Raikal (8932 hectares), Huzurabad (8854 hectares), Jammikunta (8534 hectares) and Choppadandi (7740 hectares). The mandals which are noticed having lowest irrigated area under open wells category are Mahadevpur (56 hectares), Kataram (63 hectares), Kathlapur (1007 hectares), and Boinpally (1201 hectares) mandals. Almost all every mandal is noticed with increased

ϭϭϰ

irrigated area under this category. Highest increase of area under this category is found in Dharmaram mandal with net increase of 4144 hectares.

b) Tube well irrigation source: The source of irrigation is under tube wells in Karimnagar district covered around 1,70,432 hectares during 1997-99 and 54,241 hectares of land during the period 2007-09. The observations are clearly indicating that the area under tube wells has been increased up to 30,440 hectares. During period 1997-99, the highest tube well irrigated area is noticed in mandals Siricilla (2320 hectares), Mahadevpur (983 hectares), Thadicherla (688 hectares), and Kataram (342 hectares). There was no area irrigated under this category in 41 mandals. The mandals are Kathlapur, Metpally, Yellareddipet, Konaraopet, Gambhiraopet, Ibrahimpatnam, Vemulawada, Kamanpur, Maidipally, Mallapur, Koheda, Chigurumamidi, Korutla, Husnabad, Kamalapur, Raikal,

Ramagundam,

Gollapally,

Bhimdevarpally,

Dharmapuri,

Ramadugu,

Kodimial, Mallial, Sarangapur, Karimnagar, Manakondur, Gangadhara, Choppadandi, Jammikunta, Veenavanka, Kesavapatnam, Saidapur, Jagtial, Pegadapally, Peddapally, Srirampur, Odela, Sultanabad, Velgatur, Dharmaram, and Julapally. The lowest area irrigated under this category during this period in the mandals Huzurabad (7 hectares), Mustabad (9 hectares), Ellanthakunta (9 hectares), Bejjanki (35 hectares), Elkathurthy (53 hectares), Boinpally (65 hectares), Thimmapur (110 hectares), Mutharam(maha) (151 hectares), and Chendurthy (167 hectares). During period 2007-09, the highest tube well irrigated area is noticed in mandals Kathlapur (7994 hectares), Siricilla (4840 hectares), Metpally (4499 hectares), and Mustabad (2713 hectares). The lowest area irrigated under this category during this period in the mandals Huzurabad (7 hectares), Mustabad (9 hectares), Ellanthakunta (9 hectares), Bejjanki (35 hectares), ϭϭϱ

Elkathurthy (53 hectares),

Boinpally (65 hectares), Thimmapur (110 hectares), Mutharam(maha) (151 hectares), Chendurthy (167 hectares). 4.4 Lift Irrigation source: During the period 1997-99, the area under lift irrigation is 1444 hectares whereas it is 895 hectares in 2007-09. It showed net decrease of 549 hectares. Area under lift irrigation scheme is found in Srirampur, Julapally, and Eligedu mandals. Julapally has highest area under this source which is 120 hectares of land followed by Srirampur 111 hectares and Eligedu 91 hectares. Julapally and Eligedu are situated in the middle of the district. Srirampur is located in northern part of the district. Table No: 4.3: Karimnagar District- Area Irrigated Source-Wise

Karimnagar District- Area Irrigated Source-Wise (Area In Hect.) Sl. No.

Source of irrigation

PERIOD 1997-99

PERIOD 2007-09

Increase

decrease

1

Canals

77217

139519

62302

-

2

Tanks

36737

67177

30440

-

3

Tube wells

17042

54241

37199

-

4

Other wells

184774

285369

100595

-

5

Lift Irrigation

1444

895

-

549

6

Other Sources

831

210

-

621

7

Net area irrigated

226757

340981

114224

-

9

Area irrigated more than ones

91289

206430

115141

-

8

Gross area irrigated

318046

547411

229365

-

SOURCE: Chief planning office, Karimnagar district.

ϭϭϲ

4.4 IRRIGATION INTENSITY Intensity of irrigation is one of the most important indicators of agricultural development. In fact, it is controlled by various factors such as source of irrigation, quantity and quality of water supply, density of network of water channels, cropping season, types of crop grown, etc. The benefits of intensity irrigation are reflected in the cropping patterns, land use efficiency, area yield efficiency and methods cultivation. The intensity is usually meagre in areas where facilities to extend irrigation are restricted or where irrigation is needed as standby to overcome the moisture paucity in otherwise heavy rainfall areas. In an agricultural region, other things being equal, the intensity of irrigation will increase with decrease of rainfall and vice versa. The intensity will always remain low and negligible in rain fed areas where there is restricted surface water, limited salt-ridden sub-ridden sub-soil water and hilly or undulating topography. Intensity of irrigation is a crucial indicator reflecting effective gross availability of water per unit area of cultivable land. If a unit area could be provided with irrigation for more than one crop season, then the irrigation intensity naturally increases. Also, raising more than one irrigated crop in any area leads to a better use of inputs and also better utilization of residual soil moisture available from the previous crop resulting in higher crop yield and output levels. During the last decade, irrigation intensity of India has increased from 1.32 to 1.37, and 4.6 % increase in irrigation intensity contributes 33% in the gross irrigated area of India. Irrigation intensity may be defined as the ratio between the percentages of total irrigated area to the net irrigated area.

ϭϭϳ

Irrigation intensity in Karimnagar district - period 1997-99: The mandal wise picture regarding the intensity of irrigation (as revealed from the fig. no. 4.4.a.) for the period 1997-99 indicates that very low intensity irrigation i.e. below 120 % is noticed in the 16 mandals of the district which are spread in eastern part of the district, south eastern part, few in northern part, southern part and south western part. Metpally and Jagithial are located in northern part and Mustabad and Bejjanki in southern part of district.

Figure 4.4.a.Irrigation intensity period-1997-99

ϭϭϴ

Figure 4.4b.Irrigation intensity period- 2007-09

In south eastern part of district, Peddapally, Kamanpur, Manthani, Thadicherla, Kataram, Mahadevpur, Mutharam mandals are located. In south eastern part of the district Kamalapur, Jammikunta, Veenavanka and Odela are located. These mandals are irrigated under tanks. Poor status of irrigation intensity is due to underdevelopment of other type irrigation sources such as canals and wells. The low intensity of irrigation i.e. between 121% - 140% is found in 18 mandals which are mostly spread in the northern part, central part and a few in Southside. Raikal, Korutla, Kathlapur, Maidipally, Kodimial, Vemulawada, Ramagundam, Pegadapally, Dharmapuri, Ramagundam, Julapally and Srirampur are identified under this low intensity of irrigation category. This area depended only upon open wells that are why this area has poor irrigational facilities. The moderate intensity of irrigation i.e. between 141% - 160% is noticed in 18 mandals of the district. These mandals are mostly spread in western part of the ϭϭϵ

district namely

Chendurthy, Konaraopet, Yellareddipet, Siricilla, Ellanthakunta,

Koheda, Chigurumamidi, Gangadhara, Boinpally, Karimnagar, Manakondur, Sultanabad, Koheda, Chigurumamidi, Mallapur, Ibrahimpatnam, Sarangapoor and Gollapally. Area of high irrigation intensity i.e. between 161% - 180% is present in Gambhiraopet and Mallial. Gambhiraopet has high intensity irrigational facilities are due to water resources available from Upper Manair dam reservoir. In Mallial mandal it is due to presence of canal irrigation system. The very high irrigation intensity i.e. above 181 % is found only in two mandals namely Kesavapatnam and Huzurabad. It is due to Groundwater flow. These two mandals are located in south eastern portion of the district. Irrigation intensity in Karimnagar district - period 2007-09: The mandal wise picture regarding the intensity of irrigation (as revealed from the figure no. 4.4.b) for the period 2007-09 indicates very low intensity of irrigation i.e. below 120% is noticed in only one mandal i.e. Pegadapally. The low intensity of irrigation i.e. between 121% -140 % is found in 7 mandals which are Ibrahimpatnam, Metpally, Gangadhara, Thimmapur, Siricilla, Ellanthakunta and Elkathurthy. They are spread mainly western portion of the district in isolated pattern. This area is covered under tube -wells and open- wells. The moderate intensity of irrigation i.e. between 141% - 160 % is noticed in 20 mandals of the district. These mandals are Mallapur, Korutla, Maidipally, Dharmapuri, Velgatur and Sarangapur in northern part of the district, Yellareddipet , Gambiraopet, Mustabad in south western part of the district , Bejjanki , Husnabad, Julapally, Eligedu, Sultanabad, Odela, Veenavanka, Manakondur and Kesavapatnam

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in central and southern part, Mutharam and Kataram in eastern part of the district. This area has irrigation facilities under wells and canals. The high intensity of irrigation i.e. between 161% - 180 % is noticed in 21 mandals of the district which are Raikal, Jagithial, Mallial, and Gollapally in northern part, Kathlapur, Chendurthy, Konaraopet, Vemulawada and Boinpally in western part, Karimnagar in central part, Ramagundam, Kamanpur, Peddapally, Srirampur, Manthani, Mahadevpur, Mutharam in eastern part and Koheda, Chigurumamidi, Saidapur and Huzurabad in south-eastern part of the district. This high intensity is due to it has irrigation facilities under river Godavari and canal irrigation system. Very high irrigation intensity i.e. above 181% mandals are Kodimial, Ramadugu, Choppadandi and Dharmaram in central part of the district, Jammikunta, Kamanpur and Bheemadevarapally in south eastern part and Thadicherla in eastern part of the district. These mandals have very high intensity due to these mandals have irrigation facilities under more open wells.

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AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 5.1. AGRICULTURAL LAND UTILIZATION The analysis of land utilisation pattern finds solutions to the problems in conversion of land from one major use to another general use or converting barren or fallow lands into farm land. Thus this analysis helps to deal with the problems arising in the process of deciding between the different types of land, and putting the land into right use. The aim of the land use analysis is to see the trends in land use changes, effect of land quality environment and socio-economic structure of Karimnagar district. This helps in predicting the suitability of land for various uses. Land use is a primary indicator of extent and degree to which man had made an impression on earth's surface. There has been a rapid increase in population and to meet there demand most of the land has been brought under cultivation. According to Vidyanath (p 78; 1985) "in vast country like India, where over 70% of the people depend upon agriculture; proper planning for land use and agriculture development is a vital necessity. In the absence of proper planning the pressure on land has resulted in not only low per capita income, but also reckless cultivation, over grazing, soil erosion etc. Pathak and Krishna Reddy (1986) rightly points out that the process of maximising production, man has changed the form and quality of land. The ultimate effect is under-utilisation, over-utilisation and mis-utilisation of land. The land utilisation of Karimnagar districts depends upon two factors: Firstly, physical factors like surface configuration, drainage, climate and soil; secondly, economic factors like irrigation communication, market accessibility, technical knowhow and availability of manners and fertilizers and other improved inputs etc.

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Figure 5.1. Land use of Karimnagar district

In this chapter the changing trend of land use over a period of 10 years taking three years average figures 1997-98, 1998-99, 1999-2000 and 2007-08, 2008-09 and 2009-10 have been assessed and particular emphasis has been given on the changing trends in land use and its probable cause. LAND CLASSIFICATION: Land classification means dividing the land into different categories or classes according to a single factor or a particular interpretation (Chauhan, 1966). The importance of land classification into types based on the quality and intensity of its use hardly needs any elaboration in landuse studies (Mohammed, 1978). It relates climatic factors, soil characteristics, slope and degree of erosion, water supply and drainage and similar physical environmental conditions to the land use productivity

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(Arunachalam, 1959). In India land classification has not so far been attempted on a scientific basis. Different states have adopted arbitrary principals to classify land for the purpose of fixing revenues. The present study deals with the land classification on the basis of the present land use classification of Government of Andhra Pradesh. The total land area accessible for major uses is' classified into nine land use categories. An aggregation based on homogeneity, the land classification is broadly put under nonarable and arable land uses. Arable lands includes: (1) Miscellaneous tree crops and groves, (2) Cultivable waste lands, (3) Current fallows, (4) Other fallow lands and (5) Net sown area. Non-arable lands includes: (1) Forest, (2) Land put to non-agricultural uses, (3) Barren and uncultivable land, (4) Permanent pastures and grazing lands. It will be useful to explain these various classifications to convey their exact meaning. ARABLE LANDS: 1. Miscellaneous tree crops: These include all cultivable land which are not included in the area sown, but is put to some agricultural use, land under groves forest of timber and fell trees, shrubs, bushes etc. and which are not included under orchards are classed under this category. 2. Cultivable waste lands: These include land available for cultivation, whether or not taken up for cultivation or obtained after a few years for one reason or the other. Such lands may be assessed or un-assessed and may be in isolated blocks or within cultivated holdings. Land once cultivated but not cultivated for five years in succession is also been included under this category.

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3. Current fallows: These include the cropped areas which are kept fallow during the current year. 4. Other fallow lands:

These include all lands which are taken up

for cultivation, but are temporarily out of cultivation for a period of not more than five years. 5. Net area sown: This consists of all the areas being cropped every year.

NON-ARABLE LANDS: 1. Forest: This category includes all actually forest areas or land classed or administered as forest whether state owned or private. 2. Land put to non-agricultural uses: This stands for all lands occupied by roads, buildings, industrial undertakings, grave yards, water bodies etc. and all other land put to any other non-agricultural uses. 3. Barren and uncultivable land: This covers barren and uncultivable lands like mountains and deserts etc. These lands are not suitable for cultivation. 4. Permanent pastures and grazing lands: This covers all grazing lands whether or not they are permanent pastures and meadows.

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ŚĂƌƚŶŽ͘ϱ͘Ϯ͘Ă͘ƌĞĂŽĨŵĂŝŶĐƌŽƉƐͲ 21.00 %) concentration of barren and uncultivable land was recorded in only one mandal that is Ellanthakunta. It is located in southern part of the district. The barren and uncultivable land in Karimnagar district slightly decreased from 7.07 percent in the period of 1997-99 to 7.0 percent in 2007-09. This land was to the size of 84,184 hectares in 1997-99 and 83287 hectares in 2007-09 showing a net decrease of 48973 (table4.2).

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In 1997-99 and 2007-09, the mandals Ellanthakunta, Husnabad, Konaraopet, Bheemadevarapally and Korutla witnessed high barren and uncultivable lands. In many mandals, these lands were converted into agricultural and other useful lands. The river-side mandals had more barren and uncultivable lands during 1997-99. Thadicherla, Mutharam (Mnt), Gangadhara and Jagithial has lowest barren and uncultivable lands. 5.1.8. LAND PUT TO NON ± AGRICULTURAL USE: The lands under this category were lands occupied by settlement, roads and railways, beds of streams, ponds and canals. These are rendered sterile form the point of view of agriculture. During the period 1997-99 and 2007-09, the land put to non-agricultural use accountant respectively for 6.9 percent and 6.7 percent to the total geographical area of the district. The highest percentage of concentration was observed in Odela with 35.1 % in 1997-99 and Ramagundam with 35.1% in 2007-09. The lowest percentage of this category of land use was found in Mutharam (maha) with 1.4% in both the periods of 1997-99 and 2007-09 the total geographical area of the district.

There is drastic change in land put to non-agricultural uses noticed in mandals like Karimnagar showed high increase from 6% to 26.4%, due to land use change to other commercial purposes and remaining mandals like Shankarapatnam, Mustabad, Kataram has showed decreased figures from 10.6% to 3.4%, 17.4% to 5.9%, 4.7% to 0.2% respectively.

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Figure 5.1.8.a. Land put non-agricultural use period-1997-99

Figure 5.1.8.b. Land put non-agricultural use period- 2007-09 ϭϱϬ

Very high (>20) concentration of non-agricultural land was registered in only one mandal i.e. Odela in 1997-99 and Ramagundam in 2007-09. Most of these lands occupied under ponds, canals beds of streams were slowly converted into agricultural lands. Theoretically this category of land should show an increase due to the increasing demand for land for settlement, road network and industrial establishments. The land put to non±agricultural use in the district noticed a little with change from 80,157 hectares in 1997-99 and 81,214 hectares in 2007-09. In 1997-99, the volume of change in land put to non- agricultural use increased in only one mandal i.e. Ramagundam. This is due to increasing settlements and other related activities. Increased settlements are due to the presence of National Thermal Power Corporation. Differently, a moderate decrease was found in other parts of the district in 4 mandals. This is attributed to the reclamation of land development of irrigation. During the period 1997-99, the area under land put to non- agricultural use under the category of very low i.e. < 5% is noticed in Eligedu, Mutharam(maha), Thadicherla,

Mahadevpur,

Ibrahimpatnam,

Mutharam

(MNT),

Gangadhara,

Dharmaram, Ramadugu, Peddapally, Manthani, Srirampur, Velgatur, Mallial, Yellareddipet, Kodimial, Kataram, Husnabad, Thimmapur and Bejjanki. The same mandals noticed in 1997-99, were also noticed in 2007-09, except Pegadapally.

During the period 1997-99, the area under land put to non- agricultural use under the category of low i.e. 5.1% - 10 % is noticed in 32 mandals. These mandals are Julapally, Manakondur, Pegadapally, Dharmapuri, Jagithial, Siricilla, Sultanabad, Konaraopet, Medipally, Karimnagar, Ramagundam, Kamalapur, Kamanpur, Korutla, Huzurabad, Choppadandi, Koheda, Sarangapur, Odela, Elkathurthi, Mallapur, Gollapally, Chigurumamidi, Boinpally, Bheemadevarapally, Raikal, Chendurthy, ϭϱϭ

Saidapur, Veenavanka, Jammikunta, Vemulawada and Kathlapur. Under this low category during 2007-09, 32 mandals are identified. These mandals are Manakondur, Pegadapally, Dharmapuri, Jagithial, Siricilla, Sultanabad, Konaraopet, Medipally, Karimnagar,

Ramagundam,

Kamalapur,

Kamanpur,

Korutla,

Huzurabad,

Choppadandi, Koheda, Sarangapur, Odela, Elkathurthi, Mallapur, Gollapally, Chigurumamidi, Peddapally, Bheemadevarapally, Raikal, Chendurthy, Saidapur, Veenavanka, Jammikunta, Boinpally and Kathlapur. During the period 1997-99, the area under land put to non- agricultural use under the category of moderate i.e. 10.1% - 15% was noticed in 4 mandals which are Shankarapatnam, Metpally, Ellanthakunta and Gambiraopet. Under this category during the period 2007-09, Shankarapatnam, Metpally, Gambiraopet, Ellanthakunta and Vemulawada were noticed. Gambiraopet and Mustabad were noticed under the category of high percentage of land put non-agricultural use i.e. 15.1% - 20% during the period 199799 and 2007-09 respectively. These mandals were located in the south-western part of the district. Odela and Ramagundam were noticed under the category of very high percentage of land put non-agricultural use i.e. > 20% during the period 1997-99 and 2007-09 respectively. Generally the areas of very low category and very high category are noticed in the eastern part of the district and south western part of the district respectively. 5.1.9. PERMANENT PASTURES AND OTHER GRAZING LANDS; In the district, land under permanent pastures and other grazing lands for the periods 1997-99 and 2007-09 account for 5.08 per cent and 3.3 per cent to the total geographical area. The highest percentage of this category of land use was found in Chendurthy mandal with 21.6% in 1997-99 and 21.7 % in 2007-09. The lowest

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percentage (below 4.7%) was noted in 30 mandals. Some of them are Ibrahimpatnam, Mustabad, Jagtial, Mutharam (maha), Odela, Mahadevpur etc. Development of dairy industry was the main cause of land use change under permanent pastures and grazing lands. In every mandal in the study area most of the farmers maintain separate fields for fodder. This category of land use registered no change except in mandals like Velgatur (decreased), Metpally (decreased), Veenavanka (increased) and Vemulawada (increased) during these two periods in comparison ( i.e. 1997-99 and 2007-09). In terms of hectares, the increase was from 54,830 hectares to 54,852 hectares, showing a net increase of 22 hectares. The increase is due to most of the farmers kept their remote lands for their cattle grazing. In Velgatoor and Metpally mandals showed decrease under this category land use due to land utilized for cultivation purpose.

The area under permanent pastures and other grazing lands under the category of very low percentage i.e. below 4.3% was found in Ibrahimpatnam, Eligedu, Mustabad, Jagithial, Mutharam(maha), Odela, Mahadevpur, Yellareddipet, Korutla, Mallapur, Thadicherla, Saidapur, Peddapally, Manthani, Ellanthakunta, Kataram, Siricilla,

Mutharam(MNT),

Sarangapur,

Raikal,

Kathlapur,

Gambiraopet,

Ramagundam, Huzurabad, Kamanpur, Dharmapuri, Medipally, Velgatur, Bejjanki, Sultanabad and Elkathurthi during the both periods. Change was found in Metpally and Velgatur under this category.

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Figure 5.1.9.a. Permanent pastures and other grazing lands period-1997-99

Figure 5.1.9.b. Permanent pastures and other grazing lands period- 2007-09 ϭϱϰ

The area under permanent pastures and other grazing lands under the category of low percentage i.e. 4.4% - 8.6% was found in Ibrahimpatnam, Eligedu, Mustabad, Jagithial, Muttaram(maha), Odela, Mahadevpur, Yellareddipet, Korutla, Mallapur, Thadicherla, Saidapur, Peddapally, Manthani, Ellanthakunta, Kataram, Siricilla, Mutharam(MNT), Sarangapur, Raikal, Kathlapur, Gambiraopet, Ramagundam, Huzurabad Kamanpur, Dharmapuri, Medipally, Velgatur, Bejjanki, Sultanabad and Elkathurthi during the periods. Change is found only in one mandal i.e. Veenavanka. During the both periods, the area under permanent pastures and other grazing lands under the category of moderate percentage i.e. 8.7% - 13% was notice in central part of the district which covers mandals such as mandals Ramadugu, Choppadandi, Vemulawada, Mallial, Konaraopet, Dharmaram, Husnabad, Koheda, Metpally and Chigurumamidi etc. During the both periods, the area under permanent pastures and other grazing lands under the category of high percentage i.e. 13.1% - 17.3% was notice in only one mandal Chendurthy. Very high percent category is noticed in Bheemadevarapally during both periods. The mandals Chendurthy and Bheemadevarapally are situated in hilly topography where forest cover is dominant and soils fertility is very low. That is why the land under permanent pastures and other grazing lands are high in these mandals. 5.2. CROPPING PATTERN Cropping pattern simply means the proportion of area under different crop at a point of time. The cropping pattern of an area is generally controlled by physical, social economic and technological factors. The important factors which contribute to cropping pattern are the point of time, the proportion of area and the change in crops to be raised. Therefore, cropping pattern implies a change in the proportion of area

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under different crops at a given point of time. The physical characteristics of land, changes in weather, rainfall and irrigation facilities play an important part as such many areas have witnessed significant structural changes. Extensive irrigation facilities play a key role in cropping pattern. Adequate irrigational facilities, in any area provide for the growth of different crops and also make possible double even triple cropping. It may even change the whole method of cultivation and superior crops can be grown and new method of rotation of crops can be introduced. When there is no rotation of crops, the rotation can be introduced and where rotation is in existence it can be improved. Telangana is predominantly an agricultural state. It produces not only a large variety of crops including cereals, cash crops but also spices. The cereal crops cultivated are rice, wheat, bajra and pulses. The cash crops include the industrial raw material such as tobacco, sugar-cane, groundnut and various oil seeds. Telangana enjoys a position of pre-eminence in respect of crop production, particularly grains and is popularly known as rice bowl of India. Out of the total cropped area of 6.88 lakh hectares in the district, the food grains like, paddy, maize, and jowar account for 4.37 lakh hectares, which workout to more than 63.5 %. Among millets, maize is an important crop grown in this district. The district accounts for nearly 40 % of the total maize area of the state. Among other crops, pulses and cotton are the important crops. The most important crops grown among several other crops during kharif are Paddy, Cotton, Maize, Green gram, Sugarcane and Turmeric. Horse gram is usually sown under late kharif conditions on marginal soils. Normally under major, medium and minor irrigation sources, kharif

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rice is followed rabi rice. Well irrigation is a predominant feature in the district and under this source. The cotton and maize are the chief crops with an area covering 1 lakh hectares and 95 thousand hectares respectively during period 1997-99. But rice is chief crop during 2007-09 with an area of 147 thousand hectares of land. With provided good irrigational source, the area under rice cultivation has been increased. Sowing of paddy nurseries usually commence from last week of May under wells, and continue up to July depending up on the onset of South- West monsoon. The transplanting of paddy commences from second fortnight of June and continues up to last week of September depending up on the receipt of water in irrigation sources. In dry -lands during kharif season, green gram, groundnut, maize, cotton and chillies are cultivated. Likewise, kharif maize is followed by rabi groundnut in Karimnagar and Peddapally divisions while in Jagtial and Metpally tracts, cultivation of turmeric and chillies is taken-up as relay crop during rabi period. An area of about 2400 hectares in under sugarcane which is chiefly confirmed to Metpally, Korutla, Mallapur, Ibrahimpatnam and Gambiraopet Mandals. Cotton is sown in an area of about 89,000 hectares during period 2007-09. Rice: About 50 per cent of area of paddy was cultivated in Sri Ram Sagar project command area and the remaining under 3.5 lakh agricultural pumpsets connections in the district. The rice production in Karimnagar district during the period 1997-99, area under rice cultivation was 66,000 hectares whereas it is 1,47,000 hectares in 2007-09. 81,000 hectares are increased from 1997-99 to 2007-09. In the period 1997-99, 1,48,000 tonnes of rice produced and in 2007-09, it was 5,02,000 tonnes of rice was

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produced which is showing net increase of 3,54,000 tonnes of rice. Yield kilograms per hectare of land were 2261 kg during 1997-99 and it was 3413 kg during 2007-09. Use of better seeds and fertilisers are the main reasons for this increased productivity. Jowar: Jowar is also negligible position in terms of area and production in both periods. . Yield kilograms per hectare of land were 528 kg during 1997-99 and it was 1200 kg during 2007-09. Use of better seeds and fertilisers are main reasons for this increased productivity. Whenever we compare the jowar productivity with rice productivity, it is much low. Maize: During the period 1997-99, area under maize cultivation was 95,000 hectares whereas it is 1,34,000 hectares in 2007-09. The area under maize increased from 39000 hectares 1997-99 to 2007-09. In 1997-99 period, 2,16,000 tonnes of maize produced and in 2007-09 it was 5,27,000 tonnes of maize was produced which is showing net increase of 3,54,000 tonnes of rice. . Yield kilograms per hectare of land was 2275 kg during 1997-99 and it was 3413 kg during 3916 kg. Use of better seeds, assured supply of water and fertilisers are the main reasons for this increased productivity. The productivity is high whenever comparing with rice productivity.

Bengal gram: During the period 1997-99, area under Bengal gram cultivation was 5000 hectares whereas it is 3000 hectares in 2007-09.

2000 hectares of land

decreased from 1997-99 to 2007-09. The area under this crop decreased. In 1997-99 period, 4000 tonnes of Bengal gram produced and in 2007-09 it was 4000 tonnes of Bengal gram was produced which is showing no change. Yield kilograms per hectare of land was 879 kg during 1997-99 and it was 1420 kg during 2007-09 period. Use of better seeds and fertilisers are the main reasons for this increased productivity.

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&ŝŐƵƌĞϭŚĂƌƚŶŽ͘ϱ͘Ϯ͘Ă͘ƌĞĂŽĨŵĂŝŶĐƌŽƉƐͲĂŶĚǁŝƚŚ^ĐƌƵď͕ dǇƉŝĐWĂůĞƵƐƚĂůĨƐ ǁŝƚŚ ĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐ Ăů,ŝůů͕ ĂƌƌĞŶƌŽĐŬǇ dǇƉŝĐZŚŽĚƵƐƚĂůĨƐ ƚƌĞĞƐ ĂŶĚ ^ƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĂů dǇƉŝĐhƐƚŽƌƚŚĞŶƚƐ ,ŝůů ŐƌĂƐƐĞƐ hƐƚŝĐ,ĂƉůŽĐĂůĐŝĚƐ sĞƌƚŝĐ,ĂƉůƵƐƚĞƉƚƐ

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tdZ Z^KhZ^

sĞƌǇ'ŽŽĚ

'ŽŽĚƚŽWŽŽƌ

DŽĚĞƌĂƚĞ ƚŽ WŽŽƌ

WŽŽƌ ƚŽ EĞŐůŝŐŝďůĞ

Figure 7. Recommended optimum land use

Based on the thematic information and field data, Basic integrated land and ZDWHUUHVRXUFHVXQLWVDUHDUULYHG%DVHGRQ%,/:58¶V0DGHDQH[WHQVLYHDQGTXLFN visit to the watershed. Spot observations including types of land forms, soil, slope, Groundwater potentials and quality, land use etc., were made. The existing cropping pattern and irrigation practice was noted. Based on the observations DQG%,/:58¶V keeping in view the sustainable production and quality of ecosystem, alternate cropping patterns refeUUHG DV ³5HFRPPHQGHG 2SWLPDO /DQG 8VH DQG )DUPLQJ 6\VWHP52/8)6 ´JURXSHGLQWRfour classes were suggested for the entire district on 2,50,000 scale shown in table no. 7.1. Further while making alternate recommendations for land use practice, futuristic consideration such as exploitation of groundwater, if presently not exploited, and possibility of adapting more efficient system of irrigation and water management and other site improvements through soil and water conservation are also kept in ϭϵϵ

view. Thus, with these considerations finally an alternate land use practice is recommended for the site suitable for its recorded parameters. The area statistics for various action plan items should be computed for the entire study area. Intensive agriculture In Karimnagar district, 2260 Sq.km area is suitable for intensive agriculture. For these lands, suitable crops are suggested based on the water resources and land use. The double cropped areas are there where the Groundwater and surface water resources are good. In these areas, the cropping pattern suggested is to cultivate crops such as paddy, vegetables, horse gram, black gram, green gram, groundnut, sunflower, chilies, jowar etc. The areas of Metpally, Korutla, Maidipally, Jagithial, Pegadapally and Choppadandi receive water resources by SRSP canal. It is suggested that in these areas that agriculture can be intensified by means of adopting mixed cropping, planting trees along the field bunds, crop rotation etc., on the scientific lines. Agro horticulture: Agro horticulture is a type of farming system in which the farmer can raise normal agricultural crops utilising the space available in between two adjacent rows of horticultural plants in the same farm. 6668 Sq.km area is suitable for agro horticulture, because of the water resources occurred in moderate to poor, suggested crops area horticulture crops are orchards with hardy plants like mango, sweet orange, Sapota and inter cropping with floriculture etc. Agro horticulture system plays an important role in rain fed areas, especially in semi-arid regions where production of annual crops is not only inefficient but also highly unstable.

Fruit trees if suitably integrated in rain fed farming system could

add significantly to overall agricultural production including food, fuel and fodder,

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conservation of soil and water and stability in production and income. Thus dryland horticulture as a component assumes high importance. Hence in drought areas when annual crops usually fail or their production is highly depressed, fruit tree species yield considerable food, fodder and fuel and greatly prevent the sufferings from general shortages. Varying fruit-based cropping patterns such as mono culture of a fruit species and inter cropping of fruits with vegetables, fruits with staple food crops including cereals, legumes and roots and tubers are followed. In early stages of orchard plantations inter cropping of vegetables and other annual crops are more common. Agro Forestry: In Karimnagar district, 1283 Sq.km area is suitable for agro forestry and these areas are mainly distributed in the reserved forest areas, with poor water resources, so that suggested development of afforestation, plantations. The forest department may take up forest and economic plant nurseries in these areas particularly teak etc. Agro forestry activity includes growing of crops as well as rising of some hardy species of trees. It is often conceived and formulated as an intervention into the existing land use. The approach is predominantly that of improvement rather than transformation of land use. Based on the diagnosis of the present land use system and the constraints under which the farmers are operating, trees and crops are combined. It can open up new opportunities for raising income levels of small farmers without in any way putting agriculture in jeopardy. It puts much emphasis on the sustainability aspects an important factor under rain fed agriculture which is characteristically unstable. Trees and shrubs apart from directly providing useful and basic products (wood, Fodder, Fruits etc.,) protect the soil against erosion, provide organic matter to maintain soil fertility, bring up

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nutrients from deeper soil layers, prevent building up of pests, weeds and diseases and create a more favorable micro climatic conditions. Multipurpose, Nitrogen fixing tree species are often thought to critical components of sustainable agro forestry systems. Fodder, fuel wood development or grazing land with economic trees: In Karimnagar district, 1585 Sq.km area is suitable for fodder, fuel wood development or grazing land with economic trees. Water resources occurred in these areas is negligible and land use is scrub land, waste lands and barren rock areas. Fodder and fuel wood plantation includes tree species which give fodder and fuel wood requirements. Hardy species can be included which can give fodder or fuel wood. Conceptually this is a forest plantation but normally undertaken outside the notified forest areas under the social forestry and similar other programmes. These are suggested in the marginal lands with poor groundwater potential areas because these lands are not suitable for cultivation. So, the marginal lands are converted into grazing lands by over seeding grasses and fuel wood species are recommended to meet the demand of local people requirement. Fodder grass like Cenchurs, Rhode grass. Silvipasture species like Sababul, Sesbania, Peepal, Pithcalobium saman are suggested with soil and water conservation measures. Fuel wood species like Sababul, Sesbania, and Acacia arabica are suggested.

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Karimnagar district is situated in the table land of Deccan and hence hills of any considerable range are quite rare in this district. Few isolated peaks and rocky clusters are seen commonly which are characteristic of the Deccan. The district areas consist of red sandy soil and black cotton soils predominantly. The land utilisation in this district depends upon two groups of factors namely physical factors like surface configuration, drainage, climate soil and economic factors like irrigation, communication, market accessibility, availability of manures and fertilisers and improved inputs. The land use categories of these districts are forest, barren and uncultivable land/ pasture lands are classified as non-arable lands. The miscellaneous tree crops and groves, cultivable waste lands, current fallows, other fallows and net area sown are classified as arable lands. Net sown area increased from 32.3% to 37.3% showing an optimistic indication. This increase is due to increased water resources. Boinpally mandal have highest net sown area with 61.5% (period-1997-99) and 77.1% (period-2007-09). The area under current fallows decreased from 21.5% (period-1997-99) and 17% (period2007-09). It is also an optimistic indication. The current fallows are converted into cultivable lands. There is an urgent necessity to examine the optimum utilisation of these cultivable waste lands, fallow and barren lands, which are sizeable in the districts. They have to be scientifically surveyed to bring them under productive use. To herald economic development in future and increase the quantum of produce adequate and planned progress should be under taken, if not there will be deterioration in the availability of secured agricultural produce and economic development.

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Major source of surface water irrigation in the district is from right bank canal of Sri Ram Sagar major irrigation project, serving an ayacut of 2.32 lakh ha covering 33 mandals either in part or fully. Out of the total surface water potential available for irrigation 22.8% is under major irrigation project i.e. Sri Ram Sagar project (SRSP project). The Sri Ram Sagar Project (SRSP) is providing the irrigation water resources for 54,642 hectors in the district. Manair project and Shanigaram project are the other two projects serving an ayacut of 9713 hectares. Apart from these projects there are 5353 irrigation tanks, 2,25,816 wells and 7 other minor projects. There are four medium irrigation projects that they are Manair project, Shanigaram project, Boggulavagu project and Gangamala & Yakeenpura project. These four projects are providing irrigation facilities for 17,574 hectors area i.e. 7.3 per cent. Irrigation is one of the important devices in modern agriculture, where the HYVs seeds when implemented, will demand much amount of water resources. In recent years, the irrigation is affected due to unfavourable rainfall conditions. The area under irrigation is changing continuously over a period of time. More impetus should be given to major and minor irrigation projects for increasing irrigation, which in turn would, facilitates increase in intensity of irrigation, increase in agricultural production. During the period 1997-99, the district gross irrigated area was 3,18,046 hectares of land whereas it is 5,47,411 hectares of land during 2007-09. This shows that net increase of gross irrigated area is 2,29,365 hectares. It is showing very positive indication in this aspect. This increase definitely boosts up crop production. Area under canal irrigation was 77,217 hectares during 1997-99 whereas it is 1,39,519 hectares during 2007-09 which is showing net increase of 62,302 hectares. Irrigation under wells is prominent, wherever canal irrigation is not present. Particularly now-a-

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days tube well irrigation is acquiring special importance. Tube well irrigated increased from 17,042 hectares of land in 1997-99 period to 54,241 hectares of land during 2007-09 which is showing a net increase of 30,440 hectares. This increase is three times and it showing fast growth situation whenever comparing with other type of irrigation source. The irrigated area under open wells was 1,84,774 hectares during 1997-99 and it is 2,85,369 during 2007-09 period. 1,00,595 hectares of irrigated area is added which is showing positive growth. The irrigated area under tanks is 36,737 hectares during 1997-99 and 67,177 heaters during 2007-09. Net increase is 30,440 hectares. Irrigation source under lift irrigation scheme is insignificant status in the district. Cropping intensity during the period 1997-99, the area under the category of very high was 14,555 hectares (1%) during the period 1997-99, whereas it was 1,65,674 hectares (13.0%) during the period 2007-09. Under this category the net increase of area is 1,68,292 hectares (12%). This increase is due to increased irrigational facilities from the period 1997-99 to 2007-09.

To improve the

productivity, there is a need of inputs like irrigation, fertilizers, pesticides, HYV VHHG¶VHWF,QIXWXUHPRUHHPSKDVLVZLOOKDYHWREHJLYHQRQLQWHQVLYHFXOWLYDWLRQIRU increasing agricultural production in Karimnagar district. Crop diversification means growing a variety of crops in an area. Very low diversification and low diversification is noticed in Mahadevpur, Mutharam, Kataram, Thadicherla, Manthani and Kamanpur mandals in both periods showing least development in the district. These mandals are spread in eastern part of the district where forest cover is dominance; and agriculture technology, infrastructure is low. Gambiraopet and Mustabad are also noticed with very low diversification which is GXH WR WKH IDUPHUV¶ LQWHUHVW WR FXOWLYDWH FHUHDO FURSV VXFK DV ULFH LQVWHDG RI KLJK

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remunerative crops such as cotton and ground nut. Crop diversification is very high in Raikal, Bejjanki and Ellanthakunta mandals during period 1997-99. These mandals are spread in western part of the district. This area is mainly under tube well irrigation. High diversification is due to priority is given to cultivate cash crops such as cotton, ground nut, chillies instead of less remunerative crops. Mono crop culture with rice is noticed in Kamanpur and Mutharam (mnt) during period 1997-99 and Ramagundam, Peddapally, Manthani, Mutharam and Huzurabad during 2007-09. The reason for rice cultivation is plentiful water resource, thus farmers are interested to cultivate this crop as the rice needs high source of water. Two-crop combination with rice and cotton has been replaced by rice and maize in 17 mandals such as Sarangapur, Dharmapuri, Maidipally, Gambiraopet, Mustabad, Dharmaram, Julapally, Eligedu, Sultanabad, Veenavanka, Kamalapur, Yellareddipet, Srirampur, Mutharam, Kataram and Mahamuttaram. In monoculture cropping practice mandals, nutrient cycle of soil gets disturbed and the soil become impoverished. Hence in these mandals it is advised the multiple cropping to keep soil fertility status. Very low crop concentration observed in Thadicherla, Mahadevpur, Mutharam, during both periods. These mandals are in the area where thick forest cover present and low soil fertility and use of agricultural technology are low. Very high crop diversification is noticed in Boinpally, Huzurabad, and Mallapur during period 1997-99 and Metpally, Jagithial, Julapally, Sultanabad and Huzurabad where highest water resources are available. Mono cropping may lead to loss of soil fertility. Hence to keep the soil fertility, some of the measurements in this respect should be taken. Green manuring which supply organic matter to the soil to keep the supply of humus is the cheapest

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and best source of building soil fertility. In spite of its cheapness and the ease with which it can be secured, its use in the region is not common. However, the cultivators, though unconscious of its benefit, grow leguminous crops in rotation with the extracting crops and thereby maintain the fertility of the soil. The leguminous crops, instead of depleting the soil, help in increasing its nitrogen content, while deep and fine roots increase the organic content of the soil and thus improve its physical properties. For the full benefits of green manuring it is quite necessary that the farmers should know its utility and be well conversant with the methods of its proper application. Sun-hemp, one of the most important green manuring crops, is grown in only a few fields of some villages. Dhaincha, another important green manuring crop, is not cultivated. Dhaincha has the capacity to grow in any adverse condition of drought, water-logging, salinity etc. If the plants are grown in those fields which are left fallow, the productivity and fertility of the soil may considerably be increased. Besides these crops, other leguminous pulses of kharif & rabi seasons may also be used as green manuring. The extent of green manuring is however, limited owing to rainfall variations but an extension in the facilities of irrigation will be helpful in the proper use of green manuring crops. Soil fertility can also be regained by practicing rotation of crops, which is in some measures practiced in the villages. The rotation of crops aids in controlling weeds and certain crop pests and diseases and renders manure and chemical fertilizers more effective. The value of proper rotation of crops should be demonstrated to the farmers.

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GIS and Remote Sensing technology is an important key to tackle the management of environmental associated difficulties and spatial distribution of natural resources. Hydrogeomorphology, land use/land cover, soil, slope evidences are most important in the planning of action plan preparation for natural resources management, correlations and environmental studies. The methodology helped in the management, conservation and development of natural resources i.e. soil erosion, groundwater resources development and conservation and land development and suggesting of cropping pattern. Action plan is generated based on the integrated natural resources of existing of soil types, land use practices, water bodies and Groundwater resource potentials, land capability, geology, geomorphology and topography settings of the Karimnagar district. All the landforms and lithological formations associated with fractures / lineaments. A total of 90 landforms / hydrogeomorphic units were identified in the study area, based on the geology and geomorphologic landforms. The distributed geomorphic landforms classified based on the origin of landforms, the study area landforms

are

denudational,

structural

origin,

denudational

landforms

are

denudational hills, and residual hills, pediment and pediplain, and structural landforms are structural hills and plateaus. The groundwater in Karimnagar district occurs under confined, semi confined and confined conditions. The major development of groundwater in the study area is to be planned by tapping the potential zones of pediplain. It is advised to construct the rain water harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, check dams and farm pounds for improving the Groundwater recharging condition in the study area.

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Desilting of the existing tanks is suggested to increases the storage capacity and improve the percolation rates and causing good recharge to the Groundwater. Based on the soil map, the dominent type of soils are red soils followed by black soils in the study area. Altogether 10 mapping units are identified in the study area. Based on the soil taxonomy the soils are classified and these soils are occurred shallow, moderate too deep in depth, with a clayey or loamy or clayey skeletal in nature and with low availability of water storage and shallow, moderate, too excessive drainage. Those soils are Aquic Haplustepts, Chromic Haplusterts, Lithic Ustorthents, Rhodic Paleustalfs, Typic Haplustepts, Typic Paleustalfs, Typic Rhodustalfs, Typic Ustorthents, Ustic Haplocalcids, and Vertic Haplustepts. Based on the slope mapping, the slope of the study area covers are slope categories of 2, 3, 4 and 6. Very gentle slope is predominantly covered 4412 sq.km (59%), gently slope 3830 sq.km. (7%), moderately slope 2406 sq.km (11%) and steep slope is 1112 sq.km (5%) of the total geographical study area Based on the land use / land cover mapping of the study area, the land is classified majorly 4 classes, i.e. (1) Agricultural Land 7422 sq.km with percent of 63% in the total geographical area (2) Forest Land 1358 sq.km with a present of 11%, (3) Waste Land 2792 sq.km with a percent of 24%, (4) Water Bodies 250 sq.km with a percent of 2% in the total geographical area of the district or study area of Karimnagar district. Based on the action plan the study area is suitable for Intensive Agriculture, Agro Horticulture, Agro forestry, Fodder & Fuel wood development or grazing land with economic trees and grasses. There is little scope for further expansion of the net sown area in district and land scarcity will become an acute feature. Therefore, a

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judicious use of land and water resources will have to be the central theme for sustainability of agricultural growth

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"Water

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7& 6KDUPD DQG 2 &RXWLQ ³*URZWK RI ,UULJDWLRQ DQG LWV LPSDFW RQ FURS /DQG XVH DQG FURS \LHOG LQ .DUQDWDND 6WDWH´ *HRJUDSKLFDO Observer, Vol.14, pp.16-19. Vink, A.P.A. (1975): "Land use in advancing agriculture. Springer Verlag. Berlin Heidelberg, New York. Vidyanath V (1970): "Land Use and occupational patterns in Kolleru tract" Ph.D. Thesis, Osmania University.

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