arch2000 :23-38 , M .1 o l6N . .Res. , Vo st i .H Nat
na sandFuelwoodConsumptioni e i r o t s i eH LandUs n HighlyPopulatedandDegradedAreai NkhataBayDistrict , Malawi )andMahitoKamada3) .Kalindekafe l), MichiroFujihara2 MeyaP fMalawi yo t i s r e v i n rCollege , U o l l e c n a h yDepartment, C g o l o i B l l .Box280 , Zomba, Malawi O . P :mkalindekaf巴 @chirunga.sdnp.org.mw l i a m E a b i h yMuseumandInstitute , C r o t s i lH a r u t a N 1 2 n a p a a260-8682 , ] b i h 955-2Aoba-cho , Chuo-ku , C fTokushima yo t i s r e v i n lEngine巴 ring ， TheU i v i fC Departmento 31 n a p a a2-1 , Tokushima770-8506 , ] m i j n a s o ] i m a n i M samajor sa e i r o t s i eh s du n a el h et b i r c s e od ywast d u t ss i h ft eo v i t c e j b t Themaino c a r t s b A nNkhataBaydistrict, Malawi , ei g a l l i nChindozwav echangei p a c s d n a nl ri o t c a d巴 termining f : d e z i n g o c e sw巴 re r n r e t t a ep s du n a hth巴 local p巴 ople. Fourl t i sw w e i v r e t n doni e s a Africa , b l a i t n e d i s e warea, grassland , andr o l l a efìeld) , f r u t l u c i r g na r u handb s u l ys l e m a n a( e r da e t a v ti uI c b u r h ndominatedbycassava , s e d r a :g d e z i n g o c e or s l swerea e p y nt o i t a t e g e xmainv i .S a e r a . Miombowoodland e g a l l i ev h nt di n u o ef r ta s e r o lf l a tandt s e r o ef l d d i vegetation , grassland , m o sduet fhumanpressure , whichi yo t i r e v e . Thes e g a l l i ev h rt a e en v r e s e tr s e r o ef h nt sfoundi i f eamounto h dt e d u l c n . Thesei s r o t a c i d n fi dbyanumbero e g d u gpopulation , wasj n i s a e r c n i pyield , o r ec h ffìr巴 wood ， t eo z i ecovered , s c n a t s i andd gf rewood n i t c e l l o nc ewomenspendi m i t f yo t i l i b a l i a v ea h aandt e r ea h nt ri e v o tc s e r o ff to n e t x ee h wperiod , t o l l a ef h ft no o i t a r u ed h t e r u t l u c i r g na r u handb s a l rs o af e r ea h nt ei s a e r c n li a r e n e sag . Therei s e c r u o s e lr a r u t a rn e h t o e h tt l u s e .Asar n o i t a l u p o hth巴 increasing p t i ew c n a d r o c c na di o i r e wp o l l a ef h nt ei s a e r c e andad e h nt di e n i l c e ohaved s l sa e c r u o s e tr s e r o gandf n i s a e r c e ed ob dseemt n a el h ft yo t i v i t c u d o r p gsever巴 human pr巴 ssure n i t s e g g u nyears , s e tt s a p eecology , disturbance, degradation , fuelwood , p a c s d n a duse , l n a : humanpressure, l s d r o Keyw . n o i t a l u p o hp g i h f fMalawi , 1994). Mosto Governmento fu 巴 1 ( e been r o f e r e h e Malawi's landscape has t h t o high population growth degraded due t n lresourcesi a r u t a eonthen r u s s e r gp n i t r e x e variousecosystems. sa oMalawia lt a t i ev r Forestryresourcesa fthe r90%o o fenergy(accountingf sourceo e g r a oal s energy consumption) t ' y r t n u o c f yo r t s i n i M f the population ( percentage o omainｭ s l . Theya ) 7 9 9 EnergyandMining , 1 l and a i r t s e r r e n both t yi t i s r e v i d o i nb i a t ｭ h c t a ec z i l i b a t c environments , and s i t a u q a f o n o i t a t l i s e z i m i n i m n r u t n i ments , which r o gdemandf n i s a e r c n . Thei s r e v i sandr e k a l r crop production and growing o land f e l b a n i a t s u l makes s e u r wood f o demand f t resources an almost s e r o ff management o g n i s a e r c n ei h nt o i t i d d na . I k s a impossiblet d e t l u s e shasr t s e r o nf si e r i f d l i fw so e c n e d i c n i
s endowed with vast amounts Malawi i ｭ e yr r t s e r o luding f c n l resources i a r u t a fn o e land h ft sources covering almost 40% o e k a area , water resources (dominated by l l a t o f the t Malawi) covering almost 20% o ｭ e larea, mineralresources , energyr a i r o t i r r e t r o sf l i o es l i t r e fthemostf sourcesandsomeo . These a c i r f n southern A l use i a r u t l u c i r g a f properly utilized , can support resources, i . y r t n u o f the c e development o l b a n i a t s u s ｭ l a h yc l t n e r r u ec r eresourcesa s e h However, t fs 巴 veral no o i t c a r e t n lenged by a complex i . Malawi's National Environmental s r o t c a f l factors , a r e v e ss t s i Action Plan (NEAP) l e h ft ehigh dependencyo r fwhicha someo economy on agriculture , which encroaches d land , poverty , high population e t s e r o on f f no o i t e l p e f3.2%perannumandd growtho r o nf o i t c a r t x owoode yresourcesduet r t s e r o f 23
M.P .K a l i n d e k a f e .M.F u j i h a r aa n dM.Kamada
i ns e r i o u senvironmentalc o n s e q u e n c e s . Withani n t e r c e n s a lp o p u l a t i o ni n c r e a s eo f 17%between 1987and 1998( N a t i o n a lS t a ｭ t i s t i a l Office , 1998), i ti se x p e c t e dt h a tt h e l a n du s ep a t t e r n and history , v e g e t a t i o n coverandg e n e r a ll a n d s c a p ei nt h ecountry and i np a r t i c u l a r Chindozwa which i st h e study a r e aw i l la l s ochangefromt h eedge o f Lake Malawit ot h et o po ft h eh i l l and b e y o n d . Locatedi nt h esouthernmostb a s i ni nt h e A f r i c a n G r e a tR i f t Lake systems , Lake Malawic o n t a i n st h emostd i v e r s ecommuniｭ t yo ff r e s h w a t e rf i s h e si nt h eworld(Abbot , 1 9 9 6 ) .I thasapproximatelyap e r i m e t e ro f 12 ,667 km ( D e s a n k e re tal. , 1 9 9 5 )o fwhich abouth a l fi si nMalawiandt h er e s ti nTanzaｭ n i aandMozamb i qu e . LakeMalawii simportantt ot h ecountry b e c a u s ei ti st h el a r g e s t body o fs u r f a c e water, buti ta l s op r o v i d e supt o60%o ffish , t h a ta c c o u n t sf o rupt o70%o fannualanimal p r o t e i nintak 巴 by t h ep o p u l a t i o n . Otheru s e s i n c l u d etourism , l a k et r a n s p o r tand i sa l s o t h emainr e s e r v o i ro fwaterusedi nh y d r o ｭ powerg e n e r a t i o nalongt h eS h i r er i v er . Hyｭ dropoweri st h emains o u r c eo fe l e c t r i c i t yi n t h ec o u n t r y . Because o ft h e importance o ft h e lake, t h e r ei sneedf o rp r o p e rmanagemento fi t s catchmenta r e a . A catchmentapproacht o managemento ft h el a k emayn o tbep o s s i b l e c o n s i d e r i n gt h ev a s ta r e ai n v o l v e d . Ofimmeｭ d i a t ea t t e n t i o ni n terms o f management , however, i st h es h o r ea r e a( a q u a t i c t e r r e s t r i a l e c o t o n eo rl a n d w a t e re c o t o n e ) . Ane c o t o n e i sd e f i n e da s a zone o ft r a n s i t i o n between a d j a c e n te c o l o g i c a lsystems , havingas e to f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c su n i q u e l yd e f i n e d by s p a c e andt i m es c a l e sandbyt h es t r e n g t ho ft h e i n t e r a c t i o n sbetweena d j a c e n te c o l o g i c a ls y s ｭ tems (Holland , 1 9 8 8 ; Petts, 1 9 9 0 ) . Landｭ watere c o t o n e sp l a yanumbero ff u n c t i o n s i n c l u d i n gr e d u c i n gf t o o d effects , n a t u r a l f i l t e r so fd i f f u s ep o l l u t i o n from t h ef t o o d ｭ plain , s o u r c eo ro r g a n i ccarbonf o ra q u a t i c ecosystems , c o n n e c t i o n l i n e s f o rs p e c i a l f t u x e s( P i n a ye tal. , 1990), i n d i c a t o r so fh y d r o ｭ c l i m a t i cchange(Petts, 1990), harbouringo f r i c hassemblyo fspecies , andcanbeu s e dt o t e s tnewe c o l o g i c a li d e a s(Risser, 1 9 9 0 ) . Conｭ s i d e r i n gt h eimportanceo fthe 巴 cotone i nn o t -
o n l yo fs a t i s f y i n gl i f ec y c l eneedso fmany organisms , buta l s oa st h eimmediatec a t c h ｭ menta r e af o rl a k eMalawi , t h i sstudywas i n i t i a t e d . Apartfromt h eworkdonebyAbbot(1996) , andtwoo t h e rv e g e t a t i o ns t u d i e sundertaken w i t h i nt h eLakeMalawiN a t i o n a lParkd o c ｭ umentings e r i o u swoodlandd e g r a d a t i o na t ｭ t r i b u t e dt ofuelwoodh a r v e s t i n gbyt h el o c a l communitiesaroundt h epark(Abbot, 1996), no o t h e rd e t a i l e ds t u d i e s have been c o n ｭ d u c t e dt o determine t h e consequences o f humanp r e s s u r eonv e g e t a t i o nandl a n d s c a p e a l o n gt h es h o r ea r e ao fl a k eMalawi. Landscapee c o l o g yf o c u s e s on t h es t r u c ｭ ture , f u n c t i o nandchangesi nl a n d s c a p e sand one c o l o g i c a lconsequenceso fl a n d s c a p eh e t ｭ e r o g e n e i t y(FormanandGodron , 1 9 8 6 ) . The c o n c e p to fl a n d s c a p ei n v o l v e st h ei n t e r ｭ r e l a t i o n s h i p between n a t u r e and humans (NavehandLi eberman , 1 9 9 3 ) .H e t e r o g e n e i t y i nl a n d s c a p e can be caused by n a t u r a lo r a n t h r o p o g e n i cd i s t u r b a n c e s . Anthropogenic d i s t u r b a n c e si n c l u d ea g r i c u l t u r a landf o r e s t ｭ r ya c t i v i t i e swhichi nt u r ndependons o c i o ｭ economical environments (Kamada e t al. , 1 9 9 1 ) . I n a human dominat e d region , a n ｭ t h r o p o g e n i cf a c t o r sa r e more prominent f o r c ea l t e r i n gl a n d s c a p es t r u c t u r ethann a t u ｭ r a ld i s t u r b a n c e s (Kamada and Nakagoshi , 1 9 9 6 ) . Thestudyaimeda td e s c r i b i n gt h el a n du s e h i s t o r i e sa s a major determining f a c t o ri n l a n d s c a p echangeo ft h el a k eMalawie c o t o n e i nr e l a t i o nt ohumanp r e s s u r ei nChindozwa a r e ai nNkhataBayd i s t r i c t . Thel o n gp e r ｭ s p e c t i v ei st op r e d i c tt h ef u t u r el a n du s e p a t t e r n and consequently v e g e t a t i o ncover andp o s s i b i l i t yo fp u t t i n gupac o n s e r v a t i o n s t r a t e g yf o rt h ea r e at oe n s u r es u s t a i n a b l e development . StudyS i t e Thestudya r e at h a tmeasures3kmby5 km , i sl o c a t e di nChindozwav i l l a g ei nT r a d i ｭ t i o n a lA u t h o r i t yMkumbiran o r t ho fNkhata Bayd i s t r i c tc e n t e ralongLakeMalawi( F i g . 1 ) . Thea r e ai sh i g h l ydegradedduet oover r e l i a n c eonf i r e w o o df o rc o o k i n g . According t ot h ec o a r s es c a l e( 1:2 50000)LandCover Map(Satellitbild , 1 9 9 3 )andt h el a n du s emap fromt h eM i n i s t r yo fA g r i c u l t u r e( M i n i s t r yo f 24 ー
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. r e b m u tn o l . Numbermeansp e t i ys d u t es h ft no o i t a c o . L .1 g i F n August d out i e i r r a Main survey was c n ti e s weres t o l ftwelvep lo a t o . At 9 9 9 1 n )i .1 g i F s( a e r da e t s e r o sandf w o l l a gardens , f ｭ a t e g e gv n i y f i t n e d ri o sf e p y duset n a el h lt l a ｭ b a t s 0wase tnumber 1 o l . P e r u t c u r t ns o i t t s e r o a (Kalwe F e r da e t c e t o r nap di e h s i l smainlymiombowoodland. Reserve) , whichi thasbeen a h savernacularwordt Miomboi e s o h et b i r c s e od st t s i g o l o c adopted by e n si e e r woodlandecosystemsdominatedbyt e genera Brachystegia, Julbernαrdia and h t ｭ b u eguminosaeands yL l i m a ef h ft ao i n r e b o s I e(WildandFernandes, a e c a i n i p l a s e a yC l i m a f scomposiｭ e i c e p .Trees ) 6 9 9 ;Campbell , 1 7 6 9 1 t ftrunksa danddiametero e d r o c e nwasr o i t s e e r lt l ra o tweremeasuredf h g i e .3meterh 1 . ot l neachp ti n e s e r p twasthen s e r e t n fi ao e r ea h ft Theownero j a e r acha e r o F . d e w e i v r e t n i d n a d e i f i t n e d i odetermine fparameterst plot , anumbero . The d e t c e l l o y were c r o t s i d use h n a el h t n o i t a t e g e ev h dlocation , t e d u l c n parametersi w o l l a type , humanimpact , formerlanduse , f d year, e t a v i t l u t all ，自 rst c f any a di o i r e p nahouseholddepending ei l p o e fp numbero s r a e ny e dt l e i rarea , cropy a l u c i t r a ep h ont ｭ n e species , i e r ago and present, common t r e fgardensp ffire , andnumbero eo c n e d i c . y l i m a f j d l o h e s u o h s da e t c e l l o sc e i c e p ts n e r e f f i fd Volume o d was determined from measureo o w e r i f
ｭ c a r a h sc ai e r estudya h Agriculture , 1989), t ) l i o es t i r e t a l ltypeX3r5jX4r5( i o dbys e z i r e t n e e r g r e v e i m e l with s l i and Kamphimbi h woodland dominated byBrachystegiαs戸ci d n a . Thel s e i c e p ms u e o l h p o r h t y r sandE i m r o f ssupposed eedgei k a el h ot lt l i eh h belowt r cassava , maize , bananas , o df e z i l i t obe u t sand e o t a t o rmillet , sweetp e g n i groundnuts , f fsuch mangos. Atpresent, however, mosto e no r sa p o r n and some c o i t a t e g e lv a r u t a n . e r u s s e r ohighhumanp eduet r e h rt e g n o l Method e r o f e d out b e i r r a h was c c r a e es r u t a r e t i L esampling h eont d i c e od dt l e i ef h ot goingt . Land cover s e l p m a fs a and number o e r a y r t s e r o eF h dbyt e h s i l b u 50000)p 1:2 maps( yand r t s e r o fF yo r t s i n i eM h ft Departmento ｭ e lR a r u t a dN e l l a l Resources (now c a r u t a N e h )andt s r i a f f sandEnvironmentalA e c r u o s f yo r t s i n i eM h dusemapsproducedbyt n a l l a i t i n ei h yt f i t n e d oi ewereusedt r u t l u c i r g A l a n o i t a eN h . Populationdatafromt n o i t a u t i s ｭ a l u p o tp e og ewasobtainedt c i f f lo a c i t s i t a t s r1966 , 1987and o af e r estudya h ft ndatao o i t . 8 9 9 1 dout e i r r a dsurveywasc l e i yf r a n i m i l e r Ap y l e v i t a t n e ot y 1999 t l u nJ e days i e r h rt o f . Permission s e p y nt o i t a t e g e ev h yt f i t n e d i e g a l l i ev h ft fo e i h ec h osoughtfromt s l wasa . a e r sa i nh oworki t 5 2
M. P. Kalindekafe, M. F u j i h a r aa n dM .Kamada mentso ft h el e n g t handd i a m e t e r so fa l lc o l ｭ l e c t e dwoodp i e c e si naheadload.Daystaken t ou t i l i z e one headload and frequency p e r week o fc o l l e c t i n g wood were a l s od e t e r ｭ minedf o reachh o u s e h o l d .S p e c i e snameso f t r e e suseda sfirewood , t h e i rt o t a lvolumei n a l l twenty-two households were o b t a i n e d andp e r c e n t a g eaccumulationo fwoodc o n ｭ sumptionworkedout . I n t e r v i e w s were a l s oh e l d with th 巴 local t r a d i t i o n a ld o c t o randl o c a lp e o p l et of i n do u t what p l a n ts p e c i e sa r e used f o rm e d i c i n a l purposes. Foreacharea , s e v e r i t yo fhumanimpact wasdeterminedbyt h eevidenceo ffire , t r e e cutting , g e n e r a lv e g e t a t i o ncov 巴 r ， c r o py i e l d andp r e s e n c eo ff o o t p a t h s . R e s u l t s 1 . P opulationgrowth Thep o p u l a t i o ni nNkhataBayd i s t r i c thas i n c r e a s e dfrom83 ,911 i n1966t o138,38 1 i n 1987 and 17 1,1 34 i n 1998 (Department o f CensusandStatistics , 1 9 6 6 ;N a t i o n a lS t a t i s t i ｭ calOffic巴， 1995 , 1 9 9 8 ;F i g .2 ) . Thep o p u l a t i o n i nT r a d i t i o n a l Authority ( TA) Mkumbira wher巴 Chindozwa i sl o c a t e d has i n c r e a s e d from 6,784 i n 1966 t o 12 ,949 i n 1987 and 17 ,0 14 i n1 9 9 8 . Theaveragep o p u l a t i o nd e n ｭ s i t yi nt h ed i s t r i c ti sc u r r e n t l ye s t i m a t e da t 2 1i n1966 , 34i n1987and42i n1998p e r s o n s p e r square k i l o m e t e r. The d e n s i t yi n TA Mkumbirahasi n c r e a s e dfrom73i n1966t o 139i n1987and183p e r s o n sp e rs q u a r ek i l o 医室率函 Nkhata
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Y e a r F i g .2 .P o p u l a t i o ng r o w t h( c o l u m n )a n dd e n ｭ s i t y( li n e )i nN k h a t a Bay d i s t r i c ta n d T. A. Mkumbira - 26
meter i n 1998. P o p u l a t i o nd e n s i t yi se x ｭ t r e a m l yhighi nTA Mkumbira , becauset h i s a r e ai st h ec e n t e ro fNkhataBayd i s t r i ct . 2 . Landownershipsystemandvegetation cover Threel a n dt e n u r esystemse x i s ti nMalawi , namely , private , p u b l i c( c o n t r o l l e d by t h e government)andcustomary.Thel a n di nt h e a r e ai scustomaryandt h e r e f o r ei ti st h er e ｭ s p o n s i b i l i t yo ft h ev i l l a g eheadmant od i v i d e i tt ot h ep e o p l e .C u r r e n t l ya l lt h el a n di n c l u d ｭ i n gt h eh i l lwhichi st h emains o u r c eo fwood p r o d u c t s has been d i v i d e d amongst th 巴 f a m i l i e so ft h r e e. villages , Mung'ona , Kamｭ wade , Kambale v i l l a g e s( F i g .1 ). I n 1986 Kamphimbih i l lwasd i v i d e dbyT r a d i t i o n a l AuthorityMkumbira( o v e r a l lc h i e fo v e r s e e ｭ i n gs e v e r a lv i l l a g e s ) and shared amongst t h r e ev i l l a g e headmen ( v i l l a g e headman Mung'onaont h ee a s t e r nside , v i l l a g eh e a d ｭ manKamwadeont h enortherns i d eo ft h e h i l l and v i l l a g e headman Kambale on t h e westerns i d e ) . Mung'onav i l l a g ewheret h i s studywasf o c u s e dhast h eb i g g e s ta r e ao ft h e h i ll . Table 1summarizest h eg e n e r a li n f o r m a ｭ t i o naboutt h el a n du s e.C h i l d r e ni n h e r i tl a n d from p a r e n t s. S h i f t i n gc u l t i v a t i o ni ss t i l l p r a c t i c e di nt h i sa r e a . Thev e g e t a t i o ni sc u t andburntt oopenupanewg a r d e n .A f t e r c u l t i v a t i n gf o rabout5y e a r st h el a n di sl e f t t of a l l o wandanewa r e ai sc u tandburntf o r c u l t i v a t i o n . Fallowp e r i o di su s u a l l y5y e a r s . Onaverageeachhouseholdownst h r e eg a r ｭ densandt h e r ea r eonaveraget e np e o p l ep e r household.Cassavai st h emainfoodcropo f t h ea r e a.I nt h i sarea , p a t c h e so fgoodf o r e s t were o n l y found i nt h e graveyards where p e o p l ea r en o ta l l o w e dt oc u tt r e e s .Al Iv i l l a g ｭ e r sr e s p e c tt h eg r a v e y a r d s . Onlydeadwood i sc o l l e c t e dbuti susedbyt h egraved i g g e r s o n l ywhent h e r ei saf u n e r a. l I n t e r v i e w s with t h el o c a le l d e r l yp e o p l e i n d i c a t e dt h a tupt ot h ee a r l y1980st h ev e g ｭ e t a t i o ncoverwasveryt h i c k.Witht h ed i v iｭ s i o no ft h eh i l li n1986 , c o n t r o lwasd i f f i c u l t and p e o p l es t a r t e dc u t t i n g down t h et r e e s c a r e l e s s l y . Wheni twasr e a l i z e dt h a tmany t r e e shadbeencut , i twasagreedamongstt h e t h r e ev i l l a g e headmen through t h eT r a d i ｭ t i o n a l Authority i nc o n s u l t a t i o n with t h e 一
. NA , noanswer; 矢 owned bythesameowner;**, sharedwiththeowner;***, s t o l . Generalinformationaboutlandusearoundthesurveyedp Table1 1our. ff lo l u fcassavaorabasketf labago l i of fcassavamoundst measuredbythenumbero
t5 o l P t2 o l P t1 o l P t7 o l P t8 o l P 1 t1 o t9 l o P l P t3 o l t6 P o l P 2 t1 o l P i r i h .P Y e w o d n o .K e M w o d n o .K S a d n a B a d n a .B A i l a h a t d n n u a .M .M V .B P a d a p n i e l r a i M y .N A i r i h P . M ; A N d e t i r e h n ;i A N 6 8 9 1 d e t i r e h n ;i A N y ;b 5 6 9 1 d e t 4 i 6 r 9 e 1 h n ;i A N d e t 2 i 6 r 9 e 1 h n ;i A d N e t i r e h n ;i A N d c t i r e h n i e l c n mu o r I s t n e r a p s t n e r a mp o r l s t n e r a mp o r l n e d r a ag v a s s a nC e d r a ag v a s s a nC e d r a ag v a s s a nC e m C d o r r a I ag w( v o a l l s a s a n F e d r a ag v a s s a t C s a tO s e r o n F e d r a ag v a s s a nC e d r a ag v a s s a nC e d r a ag v a s s a C w o l l a F ) ? 6 9 9 o1 5t 6 9 1 s a nw o i t a v i t l u c ) 8 9 9 1 4 9 9 1 ( ) 3 8 9 n1 i NA 7 8 4 9 9 1 9 1 7 9 9 1 7 9 9 1 6 9 9 1 3 8 9 1 4 9 9 1 3 9 9 1 3 9 9 9 9 1 9 1 4 t o l P e n o h .M K 8 5 9 1
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F o r e s t r y Department t h a t some bluegum (Eucalyρ tus s p p . )shouldbep l a n t e dont h et o p o ft h eh i l. l Theagreementwast h a tp e o p l e c o u l dc u tt r e e sandpayt h e i rr e s p e c t i v ev i l ｭ l a g eheadmen.Themoneywouldbeusedf o r developmenta c t i v i t i e si nt h ev i l l a g e s . I twasa l s op o i n t e doutt h a tt h ecomingo f m u l t i p a r t yi n 1994 worsened t h es i t u a t i o n becausep e o p l ethoughttheya r ef r e et odo anythingevenj u s tc u t t i n gt r e e sanyhow. I t was a l s o found t h a tt h e expansion o ft h e h o s p i t a lc o n t r i b u t e dt ot h ei n c r e a s e dd e f o r e s ｭ t a t i o n . Manywomenwhowereguardianso f p a t i e n t sa c c e s st h ef o r e s to rbuyt h ewood from t h ef o r e s t f o r cooking and t h i s has i n c r e a s e dd e f o r e s t a t i o n . I twasa l s ol e a r n tt h a tanotherf a c t o rt h a t l e dt omassivec u t t i n gdowno ft r e e sa tKamｭ phimbih i l lwast h eoutbreako fc a s s a v ad i s ｭ ease “ kodikodi" ( C a s s a v amealybug)i n1984 i nt h elowerp a r t so fChindozwaa r e a . This f o r c e dmanyp e o p l et oabandont h e i rgardens andopenupnewonesont h eh i l. l The f o r e s t and f a l l o w sa r e burnt once everyyeari nChindozwaa r e a .P e o p l ehave always burnt t h e bush evers i n c e and t h e r e a s o ni st h a t they want t oc l e a rt h eo l d v e g e t a t i o nandg i v eroomt onews h o o t st o comeupwhent h er a i n ss t a t . Gardenso r c c a ｭ s i o n a l l yg e tf i r ea c c i d e n t a l l ybutt h i si svery r a r ebecausep e o p l emakes u r et h a tt h eg a r ｭ densa r eweededt opreventf i r efroms p r e a d ｭ i n g . Thisi soneo freasono fd e g r a d a t i o no f t h ef o r e . st
J u l b e m a r d i aglobifiora, B r a c h y s t e ｭ g i ab u s s e iandS t r y n c h n o sm a d a g a s c a r i e n s i s . Whilea sV i t e xdomianaandB r a c h y s t e g i am i ｭ c r o p h y l awereonlyfoundi nt h egarden , F i c u s s y c o n o n i sandOchnam a c r o c a l y xi nt h eg r a s s ｭ l a n d ; Memechylon fiavoviscens , C a s s i aa b ｭ b r e v i a t a and C r o s s o p t e r y xf e b r i f u g ai nt h e middlef o r e s t ;F a u r esaligna, S e c u r i d a c al o n ｭ g i p e d u n c u l a t aandHetromophat r i f o l i a t ei nt h e t a l lf o r e s t ; Cη tosopalum maraviense, Ochna leρ toclada， P l e u r o s t y l i a capensis, M a n g i f e r a i n d i c aandF i c u ss u ri nt h eshrubv e g e t a t i o n . dyrocαゆ on，
Kalwef o r e s tr e s e r v econtainedt h eh i g h e s t number o fs p e c i e st h a t were found only t h e r e . These were A r t a b o t r y s monteiroae, Bridα l micrantha, C a t u n a r e g aspinosa, Eηthro
x y l o nemarginα tum， E u c l e ashimperi, G a r a n i a buchananii, H o s l u n d i a 0ρρosita， I x o r as c h e f ｭ feri, K e e t agueinzii, P s y c h o t r i akirki, Rhusl o n ｭ gipes, Uaρaca s a n s i b a r i c aandXimeniac a f f r a . 2 ) Fuelwood W oodi st h emainsourceo fenergyi nt h e a r e a . I ti s used f o r domestic purposes on openf i r e si nat h r e es t o n eh e a r t h sa sw e l la s usedi nf i s hsmoking. Almosta l lf i r e w o o di s c o l l e c t e dbywomenandg i r l sfromt h ef a l l o w a r e a so rt h ef o r e s tont h eh i ll . Veryo c c a s i o n ｭ a l l yon 巴白 nds amanc a r r y i n gal o gonh i s shoulder .G i r l sa syounga st e ny e a r s( F i g . 3a) , a s s i s ti nwoodc o l l e c t i o n . Womenhave t h e r e f o r el e s stimef o ro t h e ra c t i v i t i e s .G i r l s t o ohavel e s stimea tschoo . lI n t e r v i e w swith l o c a lp e o p l ei n d i c a t e dt h a t very few g i r l s evergot osecondaryschoo . l Theyu s u a l l y marrya tane a r l ys t a g e(around19y e a r s ) . I n terms o ft h ed i s t a n c et r a v e l e d by women , t h i shasg e n e r a l l yi n c r e a s e dbecause t h ei n i t i a l source, which was t h e nearby forest , hasnowbeenconv 巴 rted i n t og a r d e n s . Somewoodi sc o l l e c t e dfromf a l l o wa r e abut t h es i z e sa r everys m a l la scomparedt ot h o s e o b t a i n e dfromt h et a l lf o r e s t( F i g .3 b ) .P e o p l e p r e f e rt op i l ewooda tt h e i rhomesthanc o l ｭ l e c t i n gi t when needed ( F i g .4 ) . Thep i l e d woodi sa l s ousedduringc e r t a i nseasonsl i k e r a i n yseasonwheni ti snoteasyt owalki n t h ef o r e . Normallyt st h i si sf r e s hwoodand theyl e a v ei tt odryi nt h es u n . Table 3 shows t h e 瀘ount o fc o l l e c t e d fuelwoodandi t sconsumptionp a t t e r ni nC h i -
3 . Naturalr e s o u r c e sandt h e i rusage 1 ) S p e c i e scompositioni nd i f f e r e n tl a n du s e types Fourmainl a n du s e sa r efoundi nt h ev i l ｭ l a g ea r e a :garden , grassland , f a l l o wandr e s i ｭ d e n t i a la r e a . Five main v e g e t a t i o nt y p e s werer巴 cognized i nt h e s el a n du s e s :cassava garden , grassland , shrub , middlef o r e s tand t a l lf o r e st .Miombowoodlandi sfoundi nt h e f o r e s tr e s e r v eneart h ev i l l a g e . Table2showst h es p e c i e scompositioni n t h ep l o t s ;t o t a lb a s a la r e a(cm2) i sgivenf o r eachs p e c i e s .F i f t y n i n ewoodyp l a n ts p e c i e s a r e found i nt h ep l o t s . Some s p e c i e sa r e commonandfoundi nmosto ft h ev e g e t a t i o n t y p e sw h i l ea so t h e r s were found only i n c e r t a i nv e g e t a t i o nt y p e s . Commons p e c i e s 2 8
nNkhataBaydistrict , Malawi sandfuelwoodconsumptioni e i r o t s i Landuseh nvariousvegetationtypes. . Treespeciescompositionandbasalarea(cm2)i Table2 0 t1 o l t5 P o l t2 P o l t1 P o l t7 P o l t8 P o l 1 P t1 o l t9 P o l t3 P o l t6 P o l 2 P t1 o l t4 P o l P n o i t a c o L e p y nt o i t a t e g e V m2) e( z i ts a r d a u Q sname e i c e p S u/a d i t i an i g r e b l a D Dipωηmchus condyrocaゅon
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La n du s eh is t o r ie sa n df ue l woodc o n s u m p t i o ni nN k h a t aB a ydistrict , Mal a w i
F i g .6 . F i r e w o o du se df o rc o o k i n gb ygua r d ｭ i a ns o f pa ti e n ts a t Nkhata Bay d is tr ic t h o s p i t a l
cookingi nChi n dozwal i kemanyp a r t so ft he countrybecausemanyr u ralpeopl ear epoor andcanonlya f f o r dt ous efirewood t h a ti s che ap l y obtained from t h ef o r e s t s . Oth 巴 r sourceso fener gyar eexpe n s i v 巴 for t h er u ral m a j o r i tyt oa f f o r d.Peopl epre f ert ous ei n d igｭ enoust r e espe ci e st oexot ics p e c ie sl i keE u c a ｭ l y p t uss p p . Because wood from i n d igenous t re especi e si sbel ievedbyt h el ocalpeopl 巴 to produceb r i g h tandl o n g l a s t i n g1 fames. The t hre ep re f er r e dsp e c i e sa sshowni nTable4 a r eal s oamongstt h ecommonspe ci e sfound i nt h ea r e a.The s es p e c i e sa r eal s ot hedomiｭ nan tmiombowoodl ands p e c i e s . Evenl o o k ｭ i ng a tt h e nextp re f er red sp 巴 c i es agai nt h e miombo sp 巴 c i es a r巴 preferred . Abbot and Lowore ( 1999 )i n d i c a t et ha ti n Chimaliro f o re sti nMzimbadistrict , peoplep r e f e rt ouse
j u l b emardiapaniculata, Combretum αρ icula tum , A c a c i a amythethophylla , Combretum e r i c o p s i sa n g o l e n s i sf o rfuelwood m o l l eandP l nZimbabwe , j ulbemadiaglobifiora, C o l o P h o s p ermum moραne and Brachystegiα boehmii
F i g . 7 . Cl a yp o t sf o rs o a ki ngc a s s a v a
F i g.8 . Ana v e r a g eb as k e t f ulo fc a s s a v af l o u r e n oughf o r5d a y sf o rahous ehol do f5pe op le Discussion 1 . Fuelwoodconsumption Wood i st h e main s ou rc eo f ener gy f o r -
were s ai dt o be t he mos tf r e quen t l y used tal., 1992).A l l speci e sf o rfuelwood(Grundye o ft hem ar e common speci e si n miombo f o r e s t I ti swi del yr e c o g n i zedt h a ti nmostAfrican s o ci e ti e s women ar et h e mai n cole ct o rso f e (FRIM , 1995; f i rewood f o r dom 巴 stic us AbbotandLowore , 1999)andi nChindozwa ar e at h i si snoexcep t i o n . Abbotan d 恥1ac巴 ( 19 9 9 )foundt h a twomeno fChembevi l lage s al s o al a keｭ i n Mangochi district , which i shorev ilagecole ctwoodever y4d a y s . Sim ila rl y , womenandg ir lscole c twoodever y5 daysi nChindozwaa r e a . T r a d i ti o naly women havecole c t eddead woodt h a ti se a si ert op i c kandal s ol igh t e rt o c ar ry .l nChindozwaa rea , becauseo fi n t e n ｭ h edeadwoodfromn a t u r a l l y s i vecollection , t f al l i ng branches o rdead t r e e si s no l o nger ava il ab l 巴 Conseq u e ntl y p eopler e s or tt ocut t i ng l ive t r e e s or branches f o r firewood. hi s Wher edrywood i scollected , normally t wouldbefromt r e e st h a thadbeencutprevi ｭ ousl yf o rotherp u r p o s e s . l n a ddition , both youngando l dt re e sa r ecutf o rfirewoodi n i kei n Chindozwaa r e a . E l s巴 w h ere ， however, l Chimaliro f o r e s ti n Mzimba di strict , Abbot 1999 )s howedt h a tpeoplew 巴 re andLowore( morese l ect i v 巴 in choosings i ze sandtypeo f 33 ー
M.P .Kalindekafe , M.F u j i h a r aa n dM.Kamada
Withap o p u l a t i o nd e n s i t yo f1 8 3 p e r s o n sp e rs q u a r ek i l o m e t e ri nChindozwa, c o m p e t i t i o nf o rf i r e w o o di sh i g h . P e o p l e havev e r yl i t t l echancet oc h o o s e . Wheret h e ti sp o s s i b l et ob e p o p u l a t i o nd e n s i t yi slow , i mores e l e c t i v ei nf i r e w o o dc o l l e c t i o nb e c a u s e t h e r ei sa d e q u a t ewood. Continuede x t r a c t i o no ft h e s et r e e si nC h i ｭ ndozwa i nan o n s e l e c t i v e manner means t h a te v e n t u a l l ya l lmiombos p e c i e sw i l lb e wipedo u ti fnop r o p e rmanagementp l a ni s p u ti np l a c e . T h i sw i l lt h e nt r a n s f o r mt h e wholel a n d s c a p efromoneo fmiombowoodｭ l a n dt oashrubo rg r a s s l a n d .C o n s e q u e n t l y t h ewholel a n d s c a p ew i l lbea f f e c t e d . Some h e s p e c i e sw i l lb el o s ti nt h ep r o c e s s .lndeed , t 1989Landu s emapo ft h eM i n i s t r yo fA g r i ｭ c u l t u r ec i a s s i f i e st h i sa r e aa sdominatedby B r a c h y s t e g i as p i c i f o r m i sandErythro.ρhloeum s p e c i e s .Thel o c a lp e o p l ed i dn o tmentiont h e l a t t e rt ob ei nt h ea r e aandt h ef o r m e ro n l y foundi nt h ev i l l a g ep a r to ft h es t u d ya r e a andt h ef o r e s tr e s e r v e .T h i smeanst h a ti ti s a l m o s te l i m i n a t e di nt h ef a l l o wandf o r e s t e d lI twas l a n dont h eh i l landbottomo ft h eh i l. a l s op o i n t e do u tt h a ti n i t i a l l yt h el a n dwas c o v e r e dw i t ht h i c kf o r e s tc o v e r . P e o p l e wouldc o l l e c tf i r e w o o d swhichb e l o n gt op r e ｭ f e r r e ds p e c i e sf o rf u e li nt h ec i i m a xf o r e s. tI t wouldb ee x p e c t e dt h a ts p e c i e st h a ta r enow n o tp r e f e r r e df o rf i r e w o o dw i l lremainand dominanteveni nt h ep r o t e c t e da r e a . Climax v e g e t a t i o nwouldchanget od i s t u r b e df o r e s t . However, w i t hc o n t i n u e dd e f o r e s t a t i o nand h o s e nor e f o r e s t a t i o no ft h ec u ttrees, event i l l s p e c i e st h a ta r en o tc u r r e n t l ypreferred, w b eu s e da sf i r e w o o di nt h en e a rf u t u r ei f n o t h i n gi sdonet omanaget h e m . Ana v e r a g eh o u s e h o l dconsumes1 1 . 9x1 03 cm3( T a b l e3 )o fwoodp e rd a y . Abbot( 19 9 6 ) r e p o r t e dt h a tt h eh o u s e h o l ds i z ei si n d e p e n d ｭ e n to ft h eamounto fwoodconsumed. Howｭ ever, t h eamounto ff i r e w o o dconsumedmay bee x p e c t e dt oi n c r e a s ew i t ht h ei n c r e a s ei n h eamounto f h o u s e h o l ds i z e .l nChindozwa, t woodu s e df o rcookings l i g h t l yi n c r e a s e di n a c c o r d a n c ew i t ht h ei n c r e a s eo fh o u s e h o l d s i z e( F i g .5 a ) . Thenumbero fp e r s o ni ntwo h o u s e h o l d swash i g h ;22and27p e r s o n swere u s i n gt h esamef u e l w o o d . Theseweret h e h i l d r e nandt h e i r c a s e si nt h a tt h eparents, c f a m i l i e sd e c i d e dt oe a tt o g e t h e r .Theamount
自 rewood.
-
o f wood p e rp e r s o np e r day i si ni n v e r s e p r o p o r t i o nt od e c r e a s e di na c c o r d a n c ew i t h t h ei n c r e a s eo ft h eh o u s e h o l ds i z e( F i g .5 b ) . Fors m a l l e rh o u s e h o l d st h a tconsumemore t h e ra c t i v i t i e s t h a nt h ee x p e c t e daverage , o a p a r t from d o m e s t i c cookingdemand f i r e ｭ woodu s e . Theo t h e rc o n t r i b u t i n gf a c t o rt o u n u s u a l l yh i g hwoodconsumptionbysome h o u s e h o l dc o u l db ei n e f f i c i e n tu s eo fwood. Someh o u s e h o l d sdon o te x t i n g u i s ht h ef i r e a f t e rc o o k i n gandt h ewoodhencec o n t i n u e s t o burn even i ft h e r ei sn o t h i n gt oc o o k . More c o n s c i o u si n d i v i d u a l se x t i n g u i s ht h e f i r eandr e u s et h ewoodf o rf u t u r eu s e . From t h ei n t e r v i e w sw i t ht h el o c a lp e o p l et h e s e i s hsmoking, s e l l i n g i n c i u d eb r i c kburning , f woodf o rc a s handdemandfromt h eh o s p i t a . l Boths m a l landb i gt r e e swerec u tandboth l i v eanddeadt r e e swerec o l l e c t e d . F o r e s tandf a l l o wburningd o e sn o tp a u s ea ti s s e r i o u sproblemt ot h ef o r e s tr e s o u r c e s .I t h es l a s handburnt h a ti sd e s t r u c t i v e .F i r e i n t o l e r a n ts p e c i e ssucha sBrachystegi，α sPicι f o r m i sd i s a p p e a rando n l yf i r et o l e r a n ts p e ｭ c i e s such a s Dか lorhynchus condylocaゆon remain(Abbot, 1 9 9 6 ;Frost , 1 9 9 6 ) . Ac o m b i n a t i o no fa l lt h e s ef a c t o r smeans t h a tt h ehumanp r e s s u r eont h ef o r e s t r yr e ｭ s o u r c e si nChindozwaa r e ai sveryh i g h .T h i s s t u d yi n d i c a t e st h ei m p o r t a n c eo ff o r e s tp r o d ｭ u c t st ot h ea r e aandimmediates u r r o u n d i n g ) . F uturemanagements h o u l d ( e . g .h o s p i t al t h e r e f o r eaima tr e c o n c i l i n gl o c a ln e e d sand c o n s e r v at i o n . 2 . I m p l i c a t i o nf o rlandscapechange With t h ec o n t i n u e dr e d u c t i o ni nf a l l o w p e r i o danda l s oi n c r e a s i n gpopulation , t h e r e w i l lbenomoree x t r agardent op a s sont o o仔springs. S h i f t i n gc u l t i v a t i o nw i l l no l o n g e rbep o s s i b l eb e c a u s ea l lg a r d e n sw i l lb e h i l d r e no rg r a n d c h i l ｭ c u l t i v a t e dbyparents , c d r e n .T h i st r e n di fn o tmanagedw i l lr e s u l ti n at o t a lchangeo ft h el a n d s c a p efromah e t e r ｭ ogeneousonet oonedominatedbyg a r d e n s . I tc a n be p r e d i c t e dt h a tw i t ht h ec u r r e n t p a t t e r no fd e f o r e s t a t i o nandp o p u l a t i o ni n ｭ c r e a s et h ev e g e t a t i o nc o v e ro f Chindozwa a r e aw i l lb el o s ti nt h ecomingy e a r si fno c o n s e r v a t i o nmeasuresa r e ae m p l o y e d . The l a n d s c a p ei se x p e c t e dt ochangefromt h a t a l l o w w i t hf o u rc i a s s e s(garden , residential , f 34 ー
L a n du s eh i s t o r i e sa n df u e l w o o dc o n s u m p t i o ni nN k h a t aB a ydistrict, M a l a w i andf o r e s t )t ot h a twhichi sdominatedby r e s i d e n t i a landgardeno n l y . Mostt r e es p e ｭ c i e sw i l lt h e r e f o r eb el o s te x c e p tf o rafew mangot r e e sando t h e rd o m e s t i c a t e df r u i t s d o t t e daroundt h el a n d s c a p e . Thec o n t i n u e dr e d u c t i o ni nf a l l o wp e r i o d a f f e c t sc r o py i e l d . Cassavai sc u r r e n t l yt h e mainf o o dc r o p . Theaveragenumbero fc a s ｭ e q u i r e dt of i l la savamounds, whichwerer n c r e a s e d 3t o5i n1 0 b a s k e tf u l lo fflour , i t This y e a r sagot o1 0t o20i nt h ep r e s e n. meansl a r g e ra r e as h o u l dbeu s e dt og e tc r o p y i e l dthanb e f o r e .I na d d i t i o nwomanwould havet ospenda l m o s ta l lt h e i rt i m ec u l t i v a t ｭ ing, harvesting , p r o c e s s i n gc a s s a v aandc o o k mg. Noi n o r g a n i cf e r t i l i z e ri sa p p l i e dt ocassa・ v a . Witht h ed e c r e a s ei nr o t a t i o nyears , and tmayno c o n t i n u e dd e c l i n ei nc r o p yield , i l o n g e rbe f e a s i b l et o grow c a s s a v ai nt h e a r e a .P e o p l emayhavet or e s o r tt ogrowing o t h e rc r o p st h a tw i l lr e q u i r ei n p u t sl i k ef e r ｭ . t i l i z e randp e s t i c i d e st ohaveagoodh a r v e st A p p l i c a t i o no fi n o r g a n i cf e r t i l i z e ri nt u r n wouldi n c r e a s ec h e m i c a lp o l l u t i o ni nt h el a k e anda f f e c tf i s hproduction , whichi st h emain s o u r c eo fp r o t e i nf o rp e o p l ei nt h ea r e a . This wouldmeanacompletechangei nt h ee a t i n g l i f es t y l eo ft h ep e o p l ewhohavef o rg e n e r a ｭ t i o n sr e l i e d on c a s s a v a . Many p e o p l ei n ｭ d i c a t e dt h a ttheya r epoorandi fsuchc r o p s a r ei n t r o d u c e dandt h ef i s hp r o d u c t i o ng o e s down , i tc o u l dmeans e r i o u sn u t r i t i o n a lp r o b ｭ lemsi nt h ea r e a . I nt e r m so ft h ed e c l i n ei nc r o py i e l do r g a n i c f e r t i l i z e rs h o u l dbee n c o u r a g e d .Thesecanb e madefromt h ec a s s a v apeeling, andl e a v e s . T e c h n o l o g i e s and o t h e ro r g a n i cm a t e r i al sucha sv e r m i c u l t u r ec o u l da l s obeawayo f i n c r e a s i n gt h ep r o d u c t i v i t yo ft h el a n d .V e r ｭ m i c u l t u r ei sat e c h n o l o g yt h a tu s e se a r t h ｭ worms, o r g a n i cm a t e r i a lande c o b a c t e r i a lt o produceo r g a n i cmanureo rf e r t i l i z e r(Bhawaｭ e r s .comm ふ This canb edoneby Ikar, 1998p anyonei nt h ea r e a .P e o p l ewouldj u s tneedt o havet h ei n i t i a lv e r m i c u l t u r e . C u r r e n t l yp e o p l es t i l lg e to t h e rp r o d u c t s o rd o m e s t i c l i k emedicine, fruits , andwoodf fa l lt r e e sa r e implementsfromt h ef o r e s t .I c u tt h e s ew i l lhavet obeboughto rc o l l e c t e d fromKalwef o r e s tr e s e r v eanda l la i l m e n t s w i l lhavet ober e f e r r e dt ot h eh o s p i t a leven
s i m p l eo n e s . Encroachmentf o rt h e s ep r o d ｭ u c t sanda l s of i r e w o o donKalwef o r e s tr e ｭ s e r v ew i l lt h e r e f o r ebei n e v i t a b l e . The i m p l i c a t i o no fd e f o r e s t a t i o ni nt h e a r e ai st h a tt h e r ei sal o to fruno f fi n t ot h e iE r o ｭ s t r e a m sande v e n t u a l l yLakeMalaw. s i o no fs o i li n t ot h ewaterb o d i e sc a u s e ss i l t a ｭ t i o nandmaya f f e c tt h ee c o l o g yo ft h el a k e e s p e c i a l l yi nf i s hb r e e d i n ga r e a s .F i s hpro・ d u c t i o nwhichi sa l r e a d yd e c l i n i n gmayf u r ｭ h u s a妊ect t h e main t h e rb e a妊ected and t s o u r c eo fincomef o rp e o p l ei nt h ea r e a . For i s hc a t c hwasp l e n t i f u ll o n gt i m e fishermen , f ago but now t h ec a t c h has a l s od e c l i n e d d r a s t i c a l l y . Twenty y e a r s agot h ev i l l a g e headmanwouldc a t c hf i s hands h a r ef o rf r e e t oa l lv i l l a g e r s .T h i si snol o n g e rt h ec a s e . 3 . E f f o r t sf o rc o n s e r v a t i o no ft h el a n d ｭ s c a p e The government, non-governmental o r ｭ r i v a t es e c t o randsomei n d i v i d ｭ ganizations , p u a l s have i n i t i a t e dc o n s i d e r a b l ee f f o r ti n o r d e rt ominimized e g r a d a t i o no ft h ef o r e s t r y r e s o u r c e s .F o r e s t r yr e s e a r c hh a sbeenc o n ｭ d u c t e dmainlybyt h eF o r e s t r yResearchI n ｭ s t i t u t eo fMalawii nt h ev a r i o u sa r e a s . Other s t u d i e si n c l u d et h el a n dc o v e rsurvey( S a t e l ｭ litbild , 1 9 9 3 ) and al a n du s emapi n 1989 9 8 9 ) . ( M i n i s t r yo fAgriculture , 1 The l a n d s c a p es t r u c t u r ei sg r e a t l yi n ｭ f l u e n c e dbya n t h r o p o g e n i cf a c t o r si nC h i n d ｭ ozwaa r e a . Thesea r ea g r i c u l t u r eexpansion and f i r e w o o de x t r a c t i o nc a u s e d by an i n ｭ c r e a s ei nhumanp o p u l a t i o n . Thestudyhas shownt h a thumanp r e s s u r ei ss e v e r en e a r t h ev i l l a g eandl e s si nt h eh i ll .S i n c el a n di s h e r ei sneedt omanagebothhuman fixed , t and n a t u r a lr e s o u r c e si nt h i sa r e as ot h a t c r o py i e l dd o e s not c o n t i n u et o decline, energyi sa v a i l a b l ef o rd o m e s t i ccookingand a l s ot h eecosystemb a l a n c ei sm a i n t a i n e d . P o p u l a t i o n growth can be c o n t r o l l e d through p u b l i ce d u c a t i o ni nc o l l a b o r a t i o n witht h eM i n i s t r yo fH e a l t ho ro t h e rr e l a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s . A p p r o p r i a t e and a百ordable a l t e r n a t i v es o u r c e so fenergyl i k eelectricity, biogass, s o l a rs h o u l d be e x p l o r e d and e n ｭ c o u r a g e d . Buts i n c emostp e o p l ea r epoor, f rewoodw i l l remain t h e main s o u r c eo f ti st h e r e f o r eimportantt h a tac o n ｭ e n e r g y .I t i n u o u ss u p p l yo fwoodenergyi sm a i n t a i n e d 35
M .P .Kalindekafe, M .F u j i h a r aa n dM .Kamada l a n dt o . I n such cases , l a n di s under t h e c o n t r o lo ft h ev i l l a g eheadmanandhecan u s esuchl a n df o rcompensation. I nc o n c l u s i o nt h i sstudyhasshownhow important t h ef o r e s t products a r et ot h e p e o p l eo ft h ea r e a . Thestudya l s oi n d i c a t e s howl a n duseh i s t o r i e scani n f l u e n c et h el a n d ｭ s c a p e . Managementshouldt h e r e f o r eaima t r e c o n c i l i n gl o c a lneedsandc o n s e r v a t i o n .
i n Chindozwa a r e a . This can bea c h i e v e d throughanumbero fways. Mostp e o p l edonotf a v o rgrowingo fe x o t i c f a s tgrowingt r e e sl i k eEucaly tuss p p .i ft h e main purpose i sf i r e w o o d . P e o p l ea r ep r e ｭ paredt oi n v e s tt h e i rtimei ngrowings p e c i e s f o ro t h e rpurposesandnotf i r e w o o d .M u l t i ｭ purposeindigenoust r e e sshouldt h e r e f o r ebe p l a n t e di nt h ea r e a .P l a n t i n go fi n d i g e n o u s a g r o f o r e s t r yt r e e si nl i n ewithc a s s a v ac r o p needs t o be e x p l o r e d . The departmento f Forestry , t h eU n i v e r s i t yo fMalawiandt h e I n t e r n a t i o n a lCentref o rResearchi nA g r o f o r ｭ e s t r y(ICRAF)i nc o l l a b o r a t i o nwitht h ecomｭ munityshouldbei n v o l v e di nt h i se x e r c i s e . These t r e e s would add n u t r i e n t st ot h e s o i landa l s op r o v i d ef i r e w o o dandjorf r u i t s t ot h e community. P e o p l e should b ee n ｭ couraged t o grow o t h e rf a s t growing t r e e s p e c i e saroundt h e i rhomesteadsf o rb u i l d i n g materials ，自 rewood a ndo t h e rpurposesl i k e f r u it . Researchshould beencouragedi n t o t h o s ei n d i g e n o u smultipurposet r e e st h a ta r e f a s tgrowing. Otherenergysavingt e c h n o l o g i e so fc o o k ｭ i n gshouldbee x p l o r e dandmadeknownt o t h ep e o p l e . Thiswouldg r e a t l yr e d u c ep r e s ｭ s u r eont h ef o r e s tbuta l s ot h et i m ewomen spend c o l l e c t i n gwood. Hencethey would have more time f o r engaging i no t h e ra c ｭ t i v i t i e sl i k e income g e n e r a t i n g and g i r l s l wouldspendmoretimea tschoo. Because o f high p o p u l a t i o ni nt h e area, s p a r el a n dmaynotbea v a i l a b l ef o rwoodlots o n e s . Althoughi twouldbed i f f i ｭ o rbu百er z c u l tt or e s e r v ep a r to ft h ef o r e s tf o rconserva・ t i o npurposes , s i n c et h ewholea r e ahasbeen ti sveryi m ｭ a l r e a d yd i v i d e dt ot h epeople , i p o r t a n tt h a tt h ee c o l o g i c a l l yimportantp a r t s o ft h ecatchmentl i k ebankso ft h estream , t o po ft h eh i l l sbec o n s e r v e d . Onewayo f a c h i e v i n gt h i s would be throughc o n s u l t a ｭ t i o n switht h ec h i e fandl o c a lcommunitiest o f i n d out which p i e c e so fl a n d need t o be p r e s e r v e d . Oncet h i si sachieved , a l lp e o p l e whose gardens o rf a l l o wl a n d sa r ew i t h i n t h e s ea r e a sshouldbecompensatedi nk i n d byr e a l l o c a t i o no fl a n d .I twasd i s c o v e r e d duringt h esurveyt h a tsomeownerso ft h e land , l i k ep l o t 12 hadpermanentlyl e f tt h e le f ti n1997). P e o p l eg e to l dandd i eand a r e a( may nothaveanydescendantst op a s son
Acknowledgments Wewouldl i k et othankMs.S .Nakayama o fKyotoU n i v e r s i t yf o rt h eu s e f u ls o c i o l o g i ｭ c a li n f o r m a t i o naboutt h ea r e a .Wea r eg r a t e ｭ a l u b e n io fN a t i o n a lHerbarium f u lt oMr.A.S andB o t a n i c a lGardeno fMalawif o rt h ea s ｭ . s i s t a n c ei np l a n ti d e n t i f i c a t i o n and Mr. R Kamangao fC h a n c e l l o rCollege , U n i v e r s i t y o fMalawif o rt h ea s s i s t a n trenderedduring c o l l e c t i o no ft h ed a t a .Wea l s othankt oMs.] . .Mhonef o rt h eu s e f u l Munthaliand Mr.K l o c a li n f o r m a t i o nanda s s i s t a n c ei nt h ef i e l d . Departmento fBiologyo ft h eU n i v e r s i t yo f a t u r a lH i s t o r yMuseumandI n s t i ｭ Malawi , N tute , Chiba and t h e Laboratory o fE n v i ｭ ronmentalConservationo ft h eU n i v e r s i t yo f Tokushimaf o rp r o v i d i n go f f i c eandl a b o r a t o ｭ r ys p a c ef o rt h i swork. Thisworkwass u p ｭ p o r t e d by Lake Malawi Ecology P r o j e c t by t h e]apanese I n t e r n a t i o n a l Cooperation Agency( J I C A )andt h eU n i v e r s i t yo fMalawi , C h a n c e l l o rC o l l e g e . References Abbot, J .1 .O . 1996. R u r a ls u b s i s t e n c ea n dp r o ｭ t e c t e da r e a s :Communityu s eo fmiombow o o d ｭ l a n d so fL a k eM a l a w iN a t i o n a lP a r k .301p p .P h . D .T h e s i s .U n i v e r s i t yC o l l e g eL o n d o n .U n i v e r s i t y o fLondon, UK. Abbot, J .1 .O .a n dR .M a c e .1999. Managingp r o ｭ t e c t e dw o o d l a n d s :f u e l w o o dc o l l e c t i o na n dl a w e n f o r c e m e n ti nL a k eM a l a w iN a t i o n a lP a r k . C o n s e r v a t i o nB i o l o g y1 3 :418-421 . Abbot, P .G .a n dJ .D .L o w o r e .1999.C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n dmanagementp o t e n t i a lo fsomei n d i g e n o u s f i r e w o o ds p e c i e si nMalawi .F o r e s tE c o l o g yand 1 9 :111-121 . Management1 Bhawalkar, U . 1998. P e r s o n a lc o m m u n i c a t i o n . B h a w a l k a r Earthworm R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e (BERI), Pune, I n d i a . Campbell , B .( e d . )1996.TheMiomboi nT r a n s i t i o n : WoodlandsandW e l f a r ei nA f r i c a .C e n t r ef o r 36
Landu s eh i s t o r i e sandf u e l w o o dc o n s u m p t i o ni nNkhataBaydistrict, Malawi I n t e r n a t i o n a lF o r e s t r yResearch(CIFOR) , Bogor, I n d o n e s i a . Department o f Census and S t a t i s t i c s . 1 9 6 6 . MalawiP o p u l a t i o nCensus1 9 6 6 .F i n a lReport . 142p p . Departmento fCensus and Statistics , Zomba, Malaw. i Desanker, P .V., P .G .H .Frost, X .Pons, J .Masoand J -I .Auge.( e d s . )1 9 9 5 . LandUseandLandCover e r i e sN o .1 .Miombo. G e n e r a l ｭ (LUCC)CD-ROMS o l i t i c aT e r r i ｭ i t a tdeCatalunya, DepartamentdeP p a i n . t o r i a l1ObresPubliques, S Forman , R .T .T .andM.Godron.1 9 8 6 . Landscape o r k . E c o l o g y .619p p . JohnWiley, NewY FRIM ( F o r e s t r y Research I n s t i t u t eo fM a l a w i ) . 1 9 9 5 . Managemento fMiombobyL o c a lComｭ . m u n i t i e s . FRP P r o j e c t R4599. F i n a l Report FRIM.Zomba, Malaw. i Frost, P .1 9 9 6 . Thee c o l o g yo fMiombow o o d l a n d s . I nCampbe Il, B .(ed.), TheMiomboi nT r a n s i t i o n : p . 1 ト57. Woodlands and W e l f a r ei n Africa, p C e n t r e f o rI n t e r n a t i o n a l F o r e s t r y R e s e a r c h n d o n e s i a . (CIFOR) , Bogor, I i1 9 9 4 .N a t i o n a lE n v i r o n ｭ Governmento fMalaw. mental A c t i o nP l a n . Department o fE n v i r o n ｭ i mentalAffairs, LiI ongwe, Malaw.
Grundy, 1 .M. , B .M. CampbeII , S . Balebereho, R . .Tafangenyasha, R .FergussonandD . Cunliffe, C P a r r y .1 9 9 2 . A v a i l a b i l i t y and u s eo ft r e e si n o r e s t Mutandar e s e t t l e m e n tarea, Zimbabwe. F EcologyandManagement5 6 :2 4 3 2 6 6 . 9 8 8 . SCOPE/MABt e c h n i c a lc o n ｭ HoIl and , M.M.1 s u l t a t i o n sonl a n d s c a p eb o u n d a r i e s :r e p o r to fa SCOPE/MAB workshop on e c o t o n e s . B i o l o g y International , S p e c i a lI s s u e1 7 : 4 7 1 0 6 .
Zomba , Malaw. i N a t i o n a lS t a t i s t i c a lO f f i c e .1 9 9 8 . 1998MalawiP o p ｭ u l a t i o n and Housing C e n s u s . Report o fP r e ｭ l i m i n a r yR e s u l t s . 37p p . GovernmentPrinter, Zomba , Malaw. i Naveh , Z . and A .L ieberman. 1 9 9 3 . Landscape E c o l o g y . Theoryanda p p l i c a t i o n . Seconde d i ｭ o r k . t i o n .356p p . Springer-Verlag, NewY Petts , G .E .1 9 9 0 . Ther o l eo fe c o t o n e si na q u a t i c l a n d s c a p emanagement .I nNaiman, R .J .andH . f Decamps(eds.), TheEcologyandManagemento . The A q u a t i c t e r r e s t r i a lEcotones, pp.227-261 a r i s . ParthenonP u b l i s h i n gGroup , P Pinay , G., H .Decamps, E .ChauvetandE .F u s t e c . 1 9 9 0 .F u n c t i o n so fe c o t o n e si nf t u v i a ls y s t e m s . I n Naiman , R .J . and H . Decamps (eds.), The EcologyandManagemento fA q u a t i c t e r r e s t r i a l p .1 4 1 1 6 9 . TheParthenonP u b l i s h ｭ Ecotones, p i n gGroup , P a r i s . .G .1 9 9 0 . Thee c o l o g i c a limportanceo f Risser, P n Naiman , R . ] . and H . l a n d w a t e re c o t o n e s . I Decamps(eds.), TheEcologyandManagement . The o fA q u a t i c t e r r e s t r i a l Ecotones, pp.7-21 a r i s . ParthenonP u b l i s h i n gGroup , P li t bi Id .1 9 9 3 . LandCoverMap.Department S a t eI o fF o r e s t r y and N a t u r a lR e s o u r c e s . Malawi Government, Lilongwe, Malaw. i
WiI d , H .andA .F e r n a n d e s .1 9 6 7 .V e g e t a t i o nMap o ft h eF l o r aZambeziacaArea( S u p p l e m e n t ) . MO Co Il ins , S a l i s b u r y(Harare) , Zimbabwe. ( A c c e p t e d1 8January2 0 0 0 )
カタベイ地方(マラウイ共和国)の人口 密集地域における土地利用変化と
Kamada , M.andN .Nakagosh. i1 9 9 6 . Landscape s t r u c t u r eand t h ed i s t u r b a n c eregimea tt h r e e a p a n . r u r a lr e g i o n si n Hiroshima Prefecture, J LandscapeEcology1 1 :1 5 2 5 . Kamada, M., N .Nakagoshi and K .N e h i r a . 1991 . P i n ef o r e s te c o l o g yandl a n d s c a p emanagement : A comparativestudy i nJapanandK o r e a .I n NakagoshiN .andF .B .GoI le y .(巴 ds.)， C o n i f e r o u s f o r e s te c o l o g yfromani n t e r n a t i o n a lp e r s p e c t i v e . p p . 4 3 6 2 . SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, N e t h e r l a n d s . M i n i s t r yo fA g r i c u l t u r e( M o A ) .1 9 8 9 . LandUsei n A g r i c u l t u r e . Malawi Government, Lilongwe, Malawi . M i n i s t r yo fEnergy andM i n i n g .1 9 9 7 . N a t i o n a l S u s t a i n a b l eandRenewableEnergyProgramme. i 77p p .MalawiGovernment, Lilongwe , Malaw. N a t i o n a lS t a t i s t i c a l0節目. 1 9 9 5 . MalawiP o p u l a ｭ t i o nandHousingCensus1 9 8 7 .D is f r i c tReport NkhataB a y .52p p .N a t i o n a lS t a t i s t i c a lOffice, -
燃料木消費様式 1 .藤原道郎21 MeyaP .K a l i n d e k a f e1
・鎌田磨人31
l l B i o l o g yDepartment, C h a n c e I I o rCoIlege, U n i v e r s i t yo fMalawi P . O .Box280 , Zomba, Malawi I :
[email protected] E-mai 21 千葉県立中央博物館 干 260-8682 千葉市中央区青葉町 955-2 31 徳島大学工学部建設工学科
干 770-8506 徳島市南常三島 2-1 カタベイ地方(アフリカ，マラウイ共和国)のチン ドズワ村における土地利用の変化を，住民への聞き取
りをもとに記載し，景観変化の方向性について考察し た.カタベイ池方は，マラウィ国の中でも人口が密集
し，かっ人口増加率も高い農・漁村であり，森林から の木材資源の収奪量や森林から畑地への転換率が特に 37 ー
aandM.Kamada r a h i j u .M.F e f a k e d n i l a .K M.P 土地利用型や植生型の分布や土地利用システムの変化
大きいと思われる地域である.当村における土地利用 型は，耕作地(主に焼畑).休耕地，草地，居住地の 4
を次のようにまとめた.すなわち，人口増加に伴い焼
型にまとめられた.それらを構成する植生型としては
畑面積が増力11 し，あわせて休閑期聞が減少した.結果
キャッサパ対!I，イネ科草本が優占する草地，退行した
として，森林面積が減少するとともに，過去 10 年間
ミオンボ林としての低木林，中木林，高木林が認めら
で耕作地の生産性は低下した.なお，村人が燃料とし
れた.よく保存されたミオンボ林は村内にはなく，村
て採取していたのは，主にミオンボ林を特徴付ける
近くの森林保護区で確認された.燃料木採取に費やす
.manga .B i e s s u ab e g e t s y h c a r B
時間，採取場所，その他の自然資源の利用，キャッサ
globifiora の 3 種であり，
パの収量の年変化，焼畑耕作後の休閑期間の変化，森
群落の構成種であった.
林面積の変化等に関する聞き取り結果や，集められた
中で現状のまま木材資源の利用が続けば，当地のミオ
および ]ulbernardia
これらは休閑地に成立する したがって，人口が増加する
燃料木の種やサイズ，人口増加に関する統計資料等を
ンボ林の劣化や，森林而積のますますの減少は避けら
指標とした土地への人為圧強度との関係から，これら
れないと思われる.
38
