Among the limited number of paper mills known to have been in operation in the
southern United ...... Publishing (1997a) lists no contemporary community by.
PAPER MILLS IN THE CONFEDERATE SOUTH: INDUSTRIAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF A FORGOTTEN INDUSTRY Donald B. Ball
ABSTRACT This study: ( 1) summarizes the establishment and spread of paper mills in America; (2) reviews the status of papermaking as an industry in the South at the onset of and during the Civil War; (3) discusses paper supplies in the war time South; (4) describes the processes used to manufacture paper in the early- and mid-191h century; (5) presents a brief history of and descriptive comments regarding the 1849 William S. Whiteman paper mill near Whites Creek (Nashville, Davidson County), Tennessee; and (6) posits archaeological expectations for the remains of early paper mills. Among the limited number of paper mills known to have been in operation in the southern United States immediately prior to and during the Civil War, the Whiteman mill may be the only standing industrial facility of its type remaining in the former Confederacy.
Rags are as beauties which concealed lie, But when in paper, how it charms the eye! Pray save your rags, new beauties to discover, For of paper, truly, every one's a lover; By the pen and press such knowledge is displayed As wouldn't exist if paper was not made. Wisdom ofthings, mysterious, divine, Illustriously doth on paper shine. Anonymous Boston News-Letter, 1769 As both a specialized and necessary type of manufacturing facility, the paper mills of the Confederate States have received little attention from paper historians and virtually none from historical and industrial archaeologists. This is far from surprising. But a brief review of the literature concerning the Civil War reveals that aside from a vast and oft times bewildering multitude of books and articles on battles, generals, notable personalities, and events great and small associated with the "Lost Cause," infinitely less attention has been devoted to the study of the manufacturing facilities which actually produced the goods so desperately needed by the South. Indeed, one rapidly discovers that the few historical studies devoted to production facilities which have appeared are typically concerned with varied aspects of the Confederate military complex as exemplified by volumes devoted to topics such as cannon foundries (Daniel and Gunter 1977) and the manufacture of small arms (e.g., Albaugh et al. 1993; Norman 1996). The efforts of historical archaeologists, though certainly informative, to date have generally tended to focus on comparatively more Donald B. Ball 312 Iowa A venue Louisville, KY 40208-
1427 e-mail:
"glamorous" and high profile sites such as forts and battlefields (e.g., Bentz and Kim, eds. 1993; Geier and Potter, eds. 2000; Geier and Winter, eds. 1994; Mainfort 1980; Quertermous 1999; Swindell 1976; White et al. 1999) and ironclad vessels (e.g., Bearss 1980:130-165; Jones and Peterson 1971). In marked contrast, this effort is oriented toward a preliminary examination of Confederate era facilities more typically viewed as "civilian sector" manufactories. Accordingly, this study will: (1) present a brief overview of the origins and spread of paper mills from the early Colonial era forward; (2) examine of the number of paper mills actually operating in the South on the eve of and during the Civil War; (3) review the chronic shortage of paper supplies available in the South during the war; (4) describe the processes and changing technology used to manufacture paper in the early and mid-19th century; (5) apply this information to the history and interpretation of what may be the last standing pre-Civil War paper mill in the former Confederacy; and (6) offer archaeological expectations for the tangible remains likely to be encountered at paper mill sites of the mid-19th century. As will be discussed in greater detail herein, in addition to
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology long hours and hard work the production of paper in this era not infrequently entailed dangerous and unhealthy working conditions. At least in part, this is the story of an unheralded and largely forgotten regional industry.
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1787 (Bishop 1866:1, 207), a second operated by Gottlieb Shober, a Moravian, in 1789 along Peter's Creek near Winston-Salem in Forsyth County (Julian 1985), and another operated by Joseph Gales in Raleigh about 1800 (Johnson 1937:765-766).
GROWTH OF THE PAPER MAKING
INDUSTRY IN AMERICA The combination of flexible fibres [sic] by which paper is produced, depends on the minute subdivision of the fibres, and their subsequent cohesion. Francis Lieber, ed. (185l:IX, 513) The first paper mill in what is now the United States was established near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1690. In the years prior to the American Revolution - largely under the influence of Benjamin Franklin - additional mills were constructed in Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Virginia, and other colonies (cf. Anonymous 1856a; 1863a; 1890; Bishop 1866:1, 195-208; Bridenbaugh 1950:47, 61-62, 121; Harrison 1891:261; Hunter 1930; 1947; 1952; Lockwood Trade Journal Company 1940; Lossing 1852:II, 582ff; Poussin 1851:461; Weeks 1916; Woolsey et al. 1876:153). Even at this early period, the importance of collecting rags (discussed in greater detail below) for the manufacture of paper was recognized and actively encouraged. As noted in an advertisement appearing in the Boston News-Letter in March 1769 (reproduced in Buckingham 1852:1, 35): The Bell cart will go through Boston before the end of next month, to collect rags for the Paper-Mill at Milton, when all people that will encourage the Paper Manufactory, may dispose of them. They are taken in at Mr. Caleb Davis's Shop, at the Fortification, ... and at the Paper-Mill at Milton. Following the Revolutionary War, the number of mills rapidly expanded, principally from Pennsylvania northward into New England. According to Ripley and Dana, eds. (1875:XIII, 52), in 1810 there were 185 paper mills in the United States " ... of which 7 were in New Hampshire, 38 in Massachusetts, 4 in Rhode Island, 17 in Connecticut, 9 in Vermont, 28 in New York, 60 in Pennsylvania, 4 in Delaware, 3 in Maryland, 4 in Virginia, 1 in South Carolina, 6 in Kentucky, and 4 in Tennessee." Despite the comparative flurry of industrial activity in the North, the establishment of paper mills in the southern states progressed at a far less rapid pace. One of the earliest mills in the South was built by the Moravians at Salem, North Carolina about 1766 (Bishop I 866:1, 207; Secretary of the Interior 1865: cxxiv). Other early paper mills in North Carolina included one which opened in
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By 1820, of 108 paper mills operating in the United States, there were but four mills within the South: three in Tennessee and one in North Carolina (Secretary of the Interior 1865:cxxvi). In 1840, of the 426 mills operating nationwide only 20 were located in southern states (ibid.: cxxvii). By 1850, there were 443 paper mills operating in the United States (ibid.:cxxi). The best synopsis of the state of the American paper industry at the onset of the Civil War appears in Bishop (1866:II, 469) who notes: The annual production of Paper in the United States exceeds that of either Great Britain or France, and the total consumption is greater than that of either. The number of paper-mills returned [from the 1860 federal manufactures census], from twenty-four states, was five hundred and fifty-five [555], representing an aggregate capital of $14,052,683, and employing nearly ten thousand persons. They manufactured 131,508,000 pounds of printing paper; 22,268,000 pounds of writing paper; 33,379 tons of wrapping, in addition to colored, and bank note papers, straw board wall paper, etc.; making a total weight of 253,778,240 pounds, valued at $21,216,802, which was an increase of 108.2 per cent. upon the product of the same branch in 1850. Of the total value, the New England States returned $10,502,069, which was more than the whole Union produced in 1850. The State of Massachusetts reported a value of $6,170,127, and the five Middle States $7,908,437, the State of New York having produced about half as much as Massachusetts. Available statistical data (Table 1) extracted from the 1860 federal manufactures census regarding the distribution, number, and product values for paper mills operating in the United States is particularly informative concerning this industry throughout the nation. Clearly, the preponderance of paper mills operating in the United States at the beginning of the Civil War were located in the northern states, a trend which would continue well into the 20th century. In the years following the Civil War, the domestic paper industry continued to flourish. In 1870, 669 paper mills were in operation (Ripley and Dana, eds. 1875:XIII, 53). By about 1884, of 4,260 paper mills operating world
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TABLE 1. STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF PAPER MILLS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1860.
Cost of Raw Male Female Cost State/ Number of Value Territory Material Hands Hands CaJ:!ital of Labor PaJ:!er Mills of Product Connecticut $1,860,000 $1,527,672 502 $342,996 698 $2,453,258 55 286,439 27 Delaware 29,292 280,000 66 2 385,000 52 26 20,904 72,400 4 146,300 171,000 Georgia Illinois 47,103 43,075 29 12 13,080 2 59,938 Indiana 147,500 56,785 64 26 25,548 10 140,200 Kentucky 125,000 68,500 25 35 19,209 122,000 1 223 Maine 14 519,100 535,539 183 100,834 949,645 272,800 300,759 Maryland 25 155 69 51,228 513,690 3,313,162 1,494 1,845 Massachusetts 3,389,860 800,692 6,170,127 99 62,837 16,248 Michigan 46,500 53 35 127,000 5 24 425,000 378,596 207 126 95,580 701,209 New Hampshire 254 New Jersey 390,000 997,109 461 179,940 1,582,703 36 1,111 2,639,000 1,394,210 446 433,028 126 3,059,776 New York 121,850 54,600 54 53,916 165,703 35 North Carolina 6 875,500 737,246 5I2 212 197,448 Ohio 29 I,382,241 Pennsylvania I,917,920 1,313,841 690 392 84 256,656 2,367,268 Iowa 1 12,000 6,600 8 5 3,924 17,400 111,000 53,000 38 19 16,044 96,500 South Carolina 3 10,200 11 14,500 13 4,500 Tennessee 2 28,000 Vermont 139,500 152,396 87 55 12 35,688 227,800 154,500 I30,165 II 38 4I,678 Virginia 9 270,000 Wisconsin 133,000 99,135 56 5 37 23,988 193,114 California 60,000 8,000 14 4,800 40,000 -1 $14,052,683 $11,692,266 6,519 US Total - 1860 555 4,392 $2,767,212 $21,216,802 Subsequent Confederate states in bold. Source: Kettell (1867:298) based upon data extracted from 1860 federal manufactures census; see also Secretary of the Interior (1865:cxxxi). wide, 1,085 were located in the United States (Clark W. Bryan & Company n.d; see also Bowker 1887a: 129). CONFEDERATE PAPER MILLS The importance of establishing paper mills throughout the South is at once obvious. Thousands upon thousands of dollars, invested in printing materials, are now lying idle and unproductive for want of paper. No other branch ofbusiness in the South has suffered more than the printing business ... Charleston [SC] Mercury January 10, 1862 As summarized by the Secretary of the Interior (1865: cxxii), at the onset of the Civil War: The southern states numbered, in I860, 24 paper mills, whose aggregate investments were reported at $572,859. They employed 397 persons (131 of them female) the cost of whose labor was $137,042 per
annum, and of material the cost was $320,365. They manufactured 6,120,200 pounds of printing paper and 352 tons of wrapping paper, valued in all at $724,503, showing an increase since I 850 in the ratio of 176.5 per cent. In Virginia nine mills made 1,940,000 pounds of printing paper, worth $270,000. Six mills in North Carolina made 1,495,200 pounds, valued at $165,703, and four in Georgia produced nearly the same quantity and value. Three mills in South Carolina made 1,085,000 pounds of printing paper, worth $96,500, and two in Tennessee made 200,000 pounds, worth $28,000, which was a decrease. From Alabama, which returned a value of $18,000 in 1850, no return was made. The increase in Georgia and the Carolinas was very large. The reference to a decrease from 1850 production levels among the Tennessee mills is possibly derived from the combined output of the Knoxville mill (see text below) and an earlier mill operated by William S. Whiteman 2 on the
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology bank of the Cumberland River within the city limits of Nashville. These facilities are discussed in greater detail below.
Critical readers will observe that some figures (cf. Table 1) cited by Bishop (1866:II, 469), Kettell (1867), and Secretary of the Interior (1865), though drawing upon the same baseline data, are neither internally consistent nor in complete agreement. Tabular and written data from the Secretary of the Interior (1865) is particularly troublesome in this regard. The quotations and tables presented herein have been carefully checked and are correct as they appear in the referenced sources. Despite their internal discrepancies, these figures should best be interpreted as reasonably - though not precisely - accurate in their assessment of the state of 1860 paper mill operations. General accounts of southern papermaking activities vary in reporting the number of mills actually located within the states that would soon form the Confederacy. Weeks (1916:269), for example, notes that "When the war broke out in 1861 there were fifteen mills in the states that seceded." Alternatively, Mallet (1909:7) states "There were twenty paper mills, for the most part small, of which eight were in North Carolina and five in South Carolina". Although Mallet did not document this statement, he was likely citing information which appeared in a short article entitled "The Paper Question" variously published in the Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5) and Natchez [MS} Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). Data derived from the 1860 federal manufactures census in concert with a review of various other sources relating to the South both before and on the eve of the Civil War suggests there were at least 25 and possibly as many
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as 32 operating paper mills distributed throughout the eastern portion of the Confederacy in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky (a border state), Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. No operating paper mills were reported as located in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, or Texas. Mallet's (1909:7) contention that the ''typical" paper mill in the South was "small" is brought into clearer focus by comparing available statistical data on southern mills generally and Tennessee mills specifically with those within the United States at large (Tables 2 and 3). Indeed, mills in the South were as a rule consistently smaller as denoted by capitalization, expenditures on raw materials, numbers of employees, and value of product actually manufactured each year. It is worthy of note, however, that while on average mill workers in the South were better paid than their northern counterparts, the ratio of marketable output per worker in the South was lower than those across the nation. This suggests that the ''typical" mill in the South relied upon a considerably smaller pool of comparatively skilled labor than available to similar industrial facilities in the north and a lesser investment in "state of the art" equipment. A review of a wide variety of sources reveals that a maximum of 41 paper mills may be documented as existing within the Confederate States during the war (Table 4) though not all of these were consistently accessible to or under the control of the Confederacy. One was situated in a border state (Kentucky) while others were located in the area which was to become West Virginia. Some mills were physically standing but not in operation although in a few instances southern entrepreneurs were
TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF CAPITALIZATION, NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, AND OUTPUT OF "AVERAGE" SOUTHERN STATES, TENNESSEE, AND UNITED STATES PAPER MILL IN 1860.
State/ Territon:: Georgia North Carolina South Carolina Tennessee Virginia Total South Average South Average TN
Number of Mills 4 6 3 2
Total USA Average USA
555
4
2 24 2
$171,000 121,850 111,000 14,500 154,500 $572,850 23,868.75 7,250.00
Cost of Raw Material $72,400 54,600 53,000 10,200 130,165 $320,365 13,348.54 5,100.00
Male Hands 52 54 28
$14,052,683 25,320.15
$11,692,266 21,067.15
Ca~ital
156 6.5 5.5
Female Hands 26 35 19 13 38 131 5.46 6.5
Cost of Labor $20,904 53,916 16,044 4,500 41,678 $137,042 5,710.08 2,250.00
Value of Product 146,300 165,703 96,500 28,000 270,000 $706,503 29,437.63 14,000.00
6,519 11.75
4,392 7.9
$2,767,212 4,985.97
$21,216,802 38,228.47
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TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF AVERAGE ANNUAL WAGES AND PRODUCTIVITY PER EMPLOYEE IN UNITED STATES, SOUTHERN STATES, AND TENNESSEE PAPER MILLS IN 1860.
Region United States Southern states Tennessee
Number of Eml!lo;rees 10,911 287 24
Total Wages $2,767,212 137,042 4,500.00
Average Annual Wage $253.62 477.50 187.50
Total Annual Outl!ut (in $) $21,216,802 706,503.00 14,000.00
Output per Eml!lo;ree $1,944.53 2,461.68 1,166.67
Wage/Output Ratio 7.67:1 5.15:1 6.22:1
TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF KNOWN SOUTHERN PAPER MILLS ON EVE OF AND DURING WAR
Period of Construction and Operational Status N= Pre-war (operative)* 33 Pre-war (inoperative)** 3 War (operative)*** 3 War (inoperative)**** 1 1 £ N= (3) (5) (1) (12) (5) (4) (1) (10) 41 *At least three Virginia paper mills were apparently located in the area which would become West Virginia. A mill located near Frankfort, Kentucky, was accessible only during the early portion of the war. One mill in Wilmington, North Carolina, apparently produced only pulp. Some mills listed as operative at this time may in fact have been established after the beginning of the war. ** These mills were located in Knoxville, Tennessee, and Mobile and Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Although they were apparently standing during the war, they were not in operable condition. *** Three mills are known to have been constructed and placed into production during the war: Manchester, Virginia; DeKa1b County, Georgia; and Spring Hill, Alabama. ****New mills in Nashville, Tennessee, and New Braunfels, Texas, were likely not in operation during the war.
successful in establishing mills despite the numerous logistical limitations imposed upon them. The following comments summarize available - though often all too fragmentary - information concerning these facilities and detail known references regarding their history, operation, and fate at the conclusion of the war.
Fredericksburg in Secretary of War (1891-1895:Plate 322). Presuming the unconfirmed structure depicted in Figure 1 is the Fredericksburg paper mill, it is of note that this structural complex (less the waterwheel) was still standing in the early 201h century as shown in the May 1912 Sanborn map of Fredericksburg (Sanborn, Inc. 1912 -see map Section 12 therein).
I . Fredericksburg, (Spotsylvania County) Virginia. US Army reports dated December 17 and 18, 1862, specifically remark that the mill had water diverted to it by a canal off the Rappanannock River. This facility survived the war and was apparently refurbished shortly thereafter as it was offered for sale " ... the whole or a part ... all new machinery" in a series of advertisements in August and September of 1868 by Mr. L. A. Beardsley. The mill was reported as still in operation in 1869 but is not listed in city directories for 1888-1889 and 1892. May have been converted into a flour mill after it ceased to produce paper.
twelve feet in diameter" and featured a stone and brick
Sources: Anonymous (1868a; 1868b; 1868c; 1868d; 1888; 1892); Secretary of War (1888:269, 276); and Virginia Board oflmmigration (1876:101). See also map of wartime
chimney 30 feet high near the steam engine. During " ... its peak production, the mill was believed to have employed as many as twenty-five workers, both men and women." In the late 1850s, the mill was actively managed by Henry
2. Obenshain Paper Mill, (southeast of) Fincastle, Botetourt County, (western) Virginia. Located ca. 5 miles southeast of Fincastle along Loonie's Mill Creek (Mill Creek), this paper mill was established by William Obenshain, Jr., in 1853. Utilizing both water and steam power, the mill equipment (costing about $4,000) was made by the Nelson Gavit machine works of Philadelphia. The mill processed both rag and straw pulp reportedly " ... cooked in a large vat, said to have been approximately
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FIGURE 1. UNCONFIRMED CIVIL WAR ERA PHOTOGRAPH OF PAPER MILL AT FREDERICKSBURG, VIRGINIA, AT INTERSECTION OF SOPHIA (WATER) STREET AND FREDERICKSBURG AND POTOMAC RAILROAD (reproduced from Gardner 1959:Piate 30). Kearney. After the war began, the mill was run by Walton and Daniel Obenshain (brother and nephew, respectively of William). Although the actual output of the mill is not reported, known products included newsprint, wrapping paper, and possibly writing paper. Obenshain sold the mill on March 5, 1863, to Mr. James A. Cowardin, co-owner of the Richmond Dispatch, who promptly removed the equipment and transported it to another mill near Richmond. Sources: The history of the mill is reported in Honts (1999:6-11). No known watermark is associated with paper produced at this mill. As of 1999, foundational remnants of portions of the Obenshain paper mill complex were reported as still intact. Comments on paper making machinery manufactured by Nelson Gavit appear in Freedley (1858:319-320; 1867:398). The machinery (including the steam engine) from the Obenshain mill was likely used to equip the newly constructed Manchester Paper Mill situated in Manchester, Virginia, directly across the James River from Richmond (see below). 3. Franklin Paper Mill (Belvidere Paper Manufacturing Company), Richmond, (Henrico County) Virginia. The 1860 Richmond City Business Directory listed only one paper mill in Richmond, the "Belvidere Paper
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Manufacturing Co., cor 81h and Arch." Reported to have produced 500,000 pounds of paper annually and likely the largest paper mill in the state. The management of the mill received biting "bad press" during the war for profiteering from the South's chronic paper shortage and charging exorbitant prices. Mill built ca. 1835; destroyed (along with numerous other structures) April 3, 1865, by Confederate forces during withdrawal from Richmond (Figures 2 and 3). Property consisting ofhalfan acre (0.2 hectare) of ground, water rights, and the remains of the mill's stone and brick buildings were offered for sale or lease in June 1866 by the firms of Harrison, Goddin & Apperson (apparently ofRichmond) and Harrison, Garth & Company ofNew York. Sources: Anonymous (1866a; 1866b); Dimitry (n.d.:16); Edwards (1855:267; 361); Fisher (1853:724); Mordecai (1860:216); Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946: 429); and Weeks (1916:269). Wartime profiteering is reported in Montgomery [AL] Weekly Advertiser (March 18, 1863, pg. 4, col. 2) and Savannah [GA] Republican (March 27, 1863, pg. I, col. 4). Published illustrations of the burned mill appear in Bruce (1866:420) and Gardner (1959:Plate 91). Brief but informative firsthand descriptions of the burning of Richmond appear in the Richmond Whig (April4, 1865) and Watehall (1909). The
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FIGURE 2. RUINS OF FRANKLIN PAPER MILL, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, IN APRIL 1865. NOTE REMAINS OF FOURDRINIER MACHINERY IN CENTER FOREGROUND (Gardner Stereo #867; Library of Congress negative #LC-B815-0867).
FIGURE 3. WATERWHEEL AT FRANKLIN PAPER MILL, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA, APRIL 1865 (Gardner Stereo #888; Library of Congress negative #LC-B815-888).
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Franklin Paper Mill is specifically included in a listing of properties destroyed in Richmond in an article entitled "Suffers by the Late Fire" appearing in the Richmond Whig (April 15, 1865). An excellent locational map of this mill and other downtown Richmond facilities appears in Secretary ofWar (1891-1895:Plate 89-2). 4. Manchester Paper Mill, Manchester, (Henrico County) Virginia. Reprinting an announcement attributed to the Richmond Dispatch, the Memphis Daily Appeal (August 18, 1863) reported: Manchester Paper Mill. -- The new establishment, so much needed by the entire South, will begin operations next month. The proprietors, with a zeal most commendable, have spared neither labor nor means to erect their new building, and now that it is nearly completed, and the machinery ready for work, they are securing stock and preparing to supply the public demands. This mill was apparently placed in service in late 1863. William Obenshein, Jr., of Fincastle, Viginia, reportedly served as manager of this mill. This is the only paper mill known to have begun operation in Virginia during the war. Although no further references to the operation of this mill were encountered, Manchester was not effected by the devastating fire which destroyed much of nearby Richmond. Sources: Memphis Daily Appeal (August 18, 1863, pg. 2, col. 6). This announcement likely refers to a mill in Manchester, Virginia, situated on the right (south) bank of the James River directly across from Richmond. This facility is not shown in Secretary of War (1891-1895 :Plate 89-2). The involvement of William Obenshein, Jr., (and other members of the Obenshein family) with this mill is reported by Honts (1999:10). The presence of two paper mills in Richmond in 1863 is confirmed by an announcement in the Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5) which was subsequently reprinted in the Natchez Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). The Richmond Whig (April 10, 1865) reported that "Manchester was not at all disturbed by pillages on Monday morning last; neither did the fire reach the transJames [River] district." 5-7. Virginia (locations not specified). Nine unnamed paper mills reported as operating in Virginia in 1860. Excluding Fredericksburg, Fincastle, and Richmond and the 1863 Manchester mill (see above), this accounts for six additional mills. At least three of these were apparently located in the area that became West Virginia (e.g., Berkeley, Brooke, and Jefferson Counties; see below). Most of those in Virginia per se were likely burned near
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end of war. Sources: Kettell (1867:298) and Secretary of the Interior (1865 :cxxxi). One of these mills may have been located in Rapidan, Virginia. 8. Berkeley County, West Virginia. May have survived the war because oflocation (specific town not reported). Source: Edwards (1855:177). 9. Wellsburg, (Brooke County) West Virginia. Situated near Ohio River in northern tip of West Virginia. Likely survived the war because of location. Sources: Edwards (1855:407). Maury and Fontaine (1876:369) report one operating paper mill in Brooke County, West Virginia. 10. Eyster & Company, Halltown, (Jefferson County) West Virginia. May have been in operation prior to the Civil War. Definitely known to have been in operation from 1870-1873. Sources: Arter (1922:21). Maury and Fontaine (1876:383) report two operating paper mills in Jefferson County, West Virginia. 11. Oaks & Wiswall, Lincolnton, (Lincoln County) North Carolina. A short comment in the December 7, 1861, Tennessee Baptist observes: "The mills of Messrs. Oaks & Wiswall, Lincolnton, N. C., are turning out the various kinds of writing paper- commercial note, letter, cap, and flat cap, - ruled and unruled, blue and white." Notices in various southern papers document the operation of this paper mill in 1863. The fate ofthis mill near the end of the war is not known. Sources: Bellville [TX] Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. 1, col. 4); Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2); Tennessee Baptist (December 7, 1861, pg. 3, col. 3). Eight unnamed paper mills reported by Mallet (1909:7) as operating in North Carolina. Bannister, Cowan & Company (1869:74, 76); Kettell (1867: 298); and Secretary of the Interior (1865: cxxxi) record but six paper mills operating in North Carolina in 1860. 12. Fayetteville, (Cumberland County) North Carolina. Notices in various southern papers document the operation of a paper mill in Fayetteville in 1863. No specific references were found regarding its history after the war. Sources: Bellville [TX] Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. 1,
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology col. 4); Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). 13. Concord, North Carolina (location uncertain; six North Carolina communities bear this name; cf. DeLorme Publishing 1997a:2). Notices in two southern papers document the operation of a paper mill in Concord in 1863. Sources: Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). 14. Neuse River (near Raleigh), North Carolina. Situated at or near an area known as Neuse River Falls and first producing paper in 1855, the mill was the subject of a court case during the period 1855-1858 which involved the Bank of North Carolina, the Manteo Manufacturing Company, and future North Carolina governor Daniel G. Fowle over a dispute concerning a loan from the State Literary Fund. During the war, Mrs. W. B. Reid, a descendant of Betsy Ross, made a Confederate flag which was flown atop the mill. Equipped with a timber crib dam, the mill was reported as manufacturing 520,000 pounds of paper per year at the beginning of the war. Notices in various southern papers document the operation of this mill in 1863. This facility was used as a camp site by various Union military units on the night of April 30, 1865, but not reported burned or damaged in any manner. The mill survived the war and was operated by W. B. Allegre in 1866. Sources: Branson & Farrar (1866:8, 103) and Secretary of War (1895:123; 125; 700). See also Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5), Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2), and article concerning Mrs. W. B. Reid appearing in the VirginianPilot newspaper for February 26, 1967. Legal papers are curated in Manuscript Collections, Special Collections, Joyner Library, East Carolina University; consult their web site entitled "Guide to the John Herritage Bryan Papers, 1766-1869" accessible at: . Some local history concerning this mill is contained in a web site entitled "Triangle History: Milbumie Dam a Place Awash with Memories." Among the items noted therein is the claim that the mill produced paper used to print Confederate currency. 15. Mantua (near Raleigh), North Carolina. Facility reported as located on Crabtree Creek. This mill was likely operated by the Manteo Manufacturing Company which was involved in a legal case concerning the Neuse River paper mill (see above). Notices in various southern papers
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document the operation of a paper mill in Mantua in 1863. The fate of this mill near the end of the war is not known. Sources: Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). See also John Herritage Bryan papers (see above). 16. Buffalo Paper Mill, (Cleveland County) North Carolina. The presence of a paper mill at this location is largely known only by the place name "Buffalo Paper Mill" (a name in use at least as early as 1856). This small settlement is described as being situated 54 miles from Charlotte, North Carolina. This place name does not appear in Post Office Department (1851) indicating this settlement was likely established after that date. The mill was reportedly operated for a period after the Civil War by brothers John F. and James Tiddy, both Confederate veterans. The post office at this small community was reported as doing a total of but $6.00 in business in 1869 suggesting that the mill may not have been in operation at that time. Sources: Hampton (1877:6); North Carolina State Grange (1877:4); Post Office Department (1851; 1870:29, 333); and Thomas and Baldwin, ed. (1856:312). See also website entitled "Tiddy Family History'' accessible at: http:// freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/-michaelg/TIDDY/notO 2. htm>. For the year 1860, this may be one of the six mills enumerated by Bannister, Cowan & Company (1869:74, 76), Kettell (1867: 298), and Secretary of the Interior (1865: cxxxi) or eight noted by Mallet (1909:7). DeLorme Publishing (1997a) lists no contemporary community by this name in North Carolina. 17. D. Froneberger & Co., Shelby, (Cleveland County) North Carolina. D. Froneberger & Co. operated "paper mills and iron foundry, near Shelby [North Carolina]." Notices in various southern papers document the operation of this mill in 1863. This facility apparently survived destruction during the war. Sources: Wartime operation is recorded in: Bellville [TX] Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. I, col. 4); Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); and Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). Postwar operation is briefly mentioned in Branson & Farrar (1866:22, 104). This may be one of the mills enumerated by Kettell (1867:298), Secretary of the Interior (1865:cxxxi), and Mallet (1909:7). Possibly the same mill reported by Johnson (1937:776) as operating in Cleveland County, North Carolina, in 1860. 18. Forest Paper Mills (Forest Manufacturing Company),
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Forestville (near Raleigh), (Wake County) North Carolina. An advertisement placed by mill manager W. B. Reid in the July 2, 1861, issue of the Augusta [GA} Daily Chronicle & Sentinel offered "Superior Book and Newspaper, &c., & c." for sale clearly indicating that a variety of paper products was being produced at that time. Notices in various 1863 southern papers document the continued operation of the mill to that date. The fate of this mill near the end of the war is not known. Sources: This may be one of the mills enumerated by Kettell (1867:298), Secretary of the Interior (1865:cxxxi), and Mallet (1909:7). Johnson (1937:776) specifically reports two paper mills operating in 1860 in Wake County, North Carolina. North Carolina Land Company (1869:55) reports only one paper mill operating in the county after the war. See also: Augusta [GA} Daily Chronicle & Sentinel (July 2, 1861, pg. 1., col. 2); Memphis [TN} Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); and Natchez [MS} Daily Courier (April24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). 19. Wake Forest, (Wake County) North Carolina. No specific information available on the fate of this facility during the war. May not have survived the war. Sources: Albright (1916:60). Likely one of the two mills reported by Johnson (1937:776) as operating in Wake County in 1860. 20. Salem, (Forsyth County) North Carolina. Notices in various 1863 southern papers document the operation of this mill to that date. The fate of this mill near the end of the war is not known. Sources: Albright (1916:60). Likely located in or near present day Winston-Salem and probably one of the two mills reported by Johnson (1937:776) as operating in Forsyth County, North Carolina, in 1860. See also: Bellville [TX] Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. 1, col. 4); Memphis [TN} Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); and Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). 21. Forsyth County, North Carolina. Specific location not stated. No specific information available on the fate of this facility during the war. Source: One of the two mills reported by Johnson (1937:776) as operating in Forsyth County, North Carolina, in 1860. 22. Wilmington, (New Hanover County) North Carolina. This mill constructed specifically to prepare ''the cane or reed of the southern swamps" for use as paper pulp. The
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referenced plants may refer to various species of bulrushes (Typhaceae) discussed by Porcher (1863:544-545) or cane (Arundinaria macrosperma) described by Ripley and Dana, eds. (1875:XIII, 48) as suitable for paper production. This facility appears to have survived the war. Sources: Secretary of the Interior (1865:cxxviii). Speculatively, this may be the same facility later reported operating by Heide (1875:12) as " ... a steam mill for the manufacture of paper material from reeds or canes which grow in great profusion along the lower banks of the Cape Fear River." The markets for the pulp produced by this mill are not reported. See also Wilmington Chamber of Commerce (1872:23). 23. Bath Paper Mill, Bath, (Aiken County) South Carolina. Though also called the "Augusta Mill" due to its proximity to this larger and better known Georgia town, this mill was actually situated across the Savannah River in the Horse Creek Valley near Bath, South Carolina. Mill owned by George Washington Winter who had numerous business interests extending from South Carolina into Alabama. The main production of this "very extensive paper mill" prior to the war was reported to be newsprint (Anonymous 1860a). In July of 1862, the mill advertised for "Rags, Rags! Five Cents per pound will be paid for clean Linen and Cotton Rags delivered at any Railroad Depot in Georgia or South Carolina." Reported to be the largest paper mill in the South, it burned due to non-war related causes on April 2, 1863. It was apparently rebuilt shortly after the war and is specifically recorded as being in operation in 1866 and 1868. This is likely the same facility called the Kaimia Mills reported in 1866 as "One of the most extensive manufacturing establishments ever projected in the South ... under construction on the South Carolina Railroad, nine miles from Augusta" (Anonymous 1866c). In addition to a cotton factory, this facility included ... one paper mill for the manufacture of writing paper, and one for the manufacture of news and book paper ... Their paper machinery will comprise, in the letter-mill, a forty-two inch machine; and in the news mill, an eighty-four inch Fourdrinier machine. The capital of the company is half a million of dollars ... Sources: Anonymous (1860a; 1860b; 1866c; 1866d); Gregg (1860:230); South Carolina Constitutional Convention (I 868:797); Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946:429); Weeks (1916: 269); and Mr. Erick Montgomery of Historic Augusta, Inc. (personal communication, April 1, 2002). George Washington Winter, the owner of this facility, was likely related (son?)
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology to John G. Winter who established the Rock Island Paper Mill in Columbus, Georgia (see below). The wartime operation of this mill is reported in the Athens [GA} Southern Watchman (October 9, 1861, pg. I, col. 2), Bellville [TX} Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. 1, col. 4), Columbus [GA] Enquirer (April 7, 1863, pg. 3, col. 7), and Savannah [GA} Republican (July 2, 1862, pg. 2, col. 5). The destruction of the mill in early April 1863 was reported in the Athens [GA} Southern Banner (April 10, 1863, pg. 3, col. 3), Charleston [SC] Mercury (April 8, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1), Dallas [TX] Herald (April 29, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1; May 13, 1863, pg. 2, col. 4), and Memphis Daily Appeal (April 9, 1863, pg. I, col. 2; April 13, 1863, pg. 1, col. 8), The Bath mill was likely one of the South Carolina paper mills referred to by Camp, ed. (1869:453) as having " ... been supplied with new and improved machinery and put in successful operation" after the war. 24. John W. Grady & Company, Greenville, (Greenville County) South Carolina. As announced in the March 15, 1862, issue of the Savannah [GA] Republican: "The proprietors of the paper Mills of Greenville district, (the one formerly owned by B. Dunham, deceased), will in a few days, commence the manufacture of writing paper." On June 1, 1863, the Charleston [SC] Mercury reported that the mill had burned on May 25, 1863, with a " .. .loss to the proprietors ... estimated at about $30,000." Other newspaper accounts reported that only the writing paper portion of the mill had burned and newsprint was still being produced. The mill appears to have survived the war. Sources: Specific wartime accounts of this mill appeared in the following newspapers: Charleston [SC] Mercury (May 30, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1; June 1, 1863, pg. 1, col. 6); Mobile [AL] Register and Advertiser (June 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2); and Savannah [GA} Republican (March 15, 1862, pg. 1, col. I; June 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). Brief mention of the operation of the Greenville mill appeared in the Memphis [IN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5) and Natchez [MS} Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). The Bellville [TX] Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. 1, col. 4) remarked "In South Carolina there are two [paper mills] at Greenville controlled, we believe, by the same company." This possibly refers to the mill having separate production facilities for the manufacture of both newsprint and writing paper. Brief postwar mention a mill operating in Greenville appeared in Ripley and Dana, eds. (1874: VIII, 239). 25-27. South Carolina (locations not specified). Five unnamed paper mills reported by Mallet (1909) as operating in South Carolina. Excluding the Bath and Greenville paper mills, this observation accounts for three additional mills. Speculatively, most were likely destroyed
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during the war. Sources: Mallet (1909:7). Kettell (1867:298) and Secretary of the Interior (1865 :cxxxi) record but three paper mills in South Carolina in 1860. Five operating paper mills are reported in the state in 1863 by the Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5) and Natchez [MS} Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). 28. Stedman Paper Mill, near Frankfort, (Franklin County) Kentucky. Although situated in a border state, a mill owned by Ebenezer Hiram Stedman on Elkhorn Creek is reported to have produced paper (for which he never received payment) early in the war for the Confederate government. The mill complex (including a grist and saw mill) was constructed in the 1830s; the paper making equipment was sold to DuPont in 1875. Late in life, Stedman moved to Texas and died there in 1885. This facility is now in ruins. Sources: Dugan and Bull, eds. (1959); Hockensmith (1995; 1998). Advertisements relating to the Stedman mill appear in various Kentucky newspapers such as The Commonwealth (January 6, 1836), The Frankfort Commonwealth (March 11, 1845), and the Tri-Weekly Kentucky Yeoman (April 15, 1866). The sale of the mill's paper making equipment to DuPont is reported in the Tri-Weekly Kentucky Yeoman (May 1, 1875). 29. Whiteman Paper Mill, Nashville, (Davidson County) Tennessee. William S. Whiteman 2 Paper Mill near settlement of Whites Creek eight miles northwest of Nashville. This still standing two-story brick structure was built ca. 1849. The mill ceased to operate in early 1862 and was converted into a bam several years thereafter. Sources: (this paper). Kettell (1867:298) and Secretary of the Interior (1865:cxxxi) record but two paper mills in Tennessee in 1860, likely excluding the mill located in Knoxville (see below). 30. Nashville Paper Mills (?), Nashville, (Davidson County) Tennessee. According to an article appearing in the November 12, 1861, issue of The New York Herald describing then recent travels through the South, the correspondent notes that among other manufacturing concerns being constructed in Nashville "They are also erecting here ... an additional paper mill." No further details are given and it is not known if William S. 2 Whiteman was associated with this undertaking. It is unlikely that this statement refers to the Whiteman 2 Manchester mill (see below and textual discussion). It is doubtful that this mill went into service before the federal occupation ofNashville.
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Sources: Anonymous (186la). Speculatively, this may be the Nashville Paper Mills built by Samuel Scott and others which is reported as situated along Brown's Creek. Efforts by W. S. Whiteman 2 to revive this concern after the war failed because, among other problems, " ... the machinery in the mills and the methods employed were much out of date" (Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:429). 31. Manchester, (Coffee County) Tennessee. Also owned by William S. Whiteman 2 of Nashville. Reportedly built 1852 and burned 1871. Property deeded to William P. Hickerson, Sr., in 1874 and newly organized Stone Fort Paper Company built on same site in 1879 (see also textual footnote). Sources: Clements (1987 :318); Goodspeed Publishing Company (1886:841); Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946:428-429); and William P. Hickerson, Sr., Papers (Tennessee State Library and Archives, Nashville); see also Ball (200la:50-53). 32. Tennessee Paper Mill, Knoxville, (Knox County) Tennessee. USA report dated January 1, 1864, notes mill located " .. .4 miles below Knoxville, between the Loudon and Clinton road ... " on Middle Brook Creek. Mill established at least by 1820s (likely a number of years earlier) and operated by W. S. Whiteman 1, father of Whiteman2 in Nashville and Manchester (see above). The mill was operated in the late 1820s as a partnership with Henry Lonas, Whiteman's son-in-law, and was called the Tennessee Paper Mill. Following the death of Whiteman 1 in 1840, this mill was sold to and operated by Gideon Hazen. Though there is no evidence to confirm when it ceased operation, it was definitely closed prior to 1860. Structure demolished in 1958 due to highway construction (see textual discussion below). The general location of this facility is yet noted by the place name "Papermill Road" in the southwestern portion of contemporary Knoxville. Sources: Halley (1904); Hunter (1947:536); Secretary of War (1890: 359-360); and Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946:11, 427). Early references to this mill appear in the Knoxville Register (February 20, 1828; February 18, 1829; November 11, 1829). The Civil War era presence of the Knoxville mill was reported in the Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5) and Natchez Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2) but only the Bellville {TX] Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. 1, col. 4) observed that "In Tennessee we only know of one [paper mill] that is accessible, and that is near Knoxville, and not in operation." 33. Pioneer Paper Mill, Athens, (Clarke County) Georgia. Described as:
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Pioneer Paper Mill, owned by Albon Chase and J. S. Linton. Located on Barber's Creek three and a half miles southwest of Athens. Building of wood, upon a stone basement, two stories high. At this mill is manufactured writing, printing, and wrappmg paper. This mill is known to have been steam powdered and equipped with a boiler manufactured by the Harrison Boiler Works ofPhiladelphia. The mill is reported as having burned in late April 1861 with a " .. .loss estimated at $16,000." By May 1862, the mill was once again serviceable and producing newsprint although the editor of the Athens {GA] Southern Watchman observed in the May 21, 1862, issue that "It is not such as that establishment formerly furnished". Advertisements placed by Albon Chase in papers in February 1863 for "good Oak and Hickory ashes" suggest that in addition to rag content paper, the mill was also producing straw based wrapping paper. In March 1863, the mill was forced to adopt a policy that it would sell paper only to those who furnished the required rags. Sources: Harrison (1871:56) and White (1854:393). For additional information on the Harrison Boiler Works and their products, see Anonymous (1865a; 1865b), Colburn (1864), and Morton (1883). Mill operations are reported in the following newspapers: Athens {GA] Southern Banner (February 4, 1863, pg. 3, col. 6); Athens {GA] Southern Watchman (May 1, 1861, pg. 2, col. 1; May 14, 1862, pg. 2, col. 4; May 21, 1862, pg. 2, col. 6; March 25, 1863, pg. 2, col. 3); Augusta {GA} Daily Chronicle & Sentinel (May 19, 1862, pg. 3, col. 1); Columbus [GA] Enquirer (May 20, 1862, pg. 2, col. 2); Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); Mobile Register and Advertiser (April 17, 1864, pg. 1, col. 3); Natchez Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2); and Savannah {GA] Republican (May 17, 1862, pg. 1, col. 1). The fate of this mill near the end of the war is not known but it was likely destroyed by federal troops. 34. Rock Island Paper Mill, Columbus, (Muscogee County) Georgia. This paper mill was establish ca. 1849 by entrepreneur John G. Winter as but one of his numerous business interests (Anonymous 1851 :585). White (1854:571) remarks that this enterprise was capitalized at $50,000 and "situated on the Chattahoochee River, 2~ miles above Columbus." He further notes that "The machinery is prepared for making all kinds of writing, printing, and wrapping paper; capable of manufacturing 2,500 pounds of paper per day; consuming 3,000 pounds of rags daily." The mill continued to produce "printing, letter, and wrapping paper" until it was destroyed. Mill known to have been powered by four steam engines but plagued with
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology boiler problems caused by muddy water (c£ Figure 4). US Navy report dated November 11, 1864, remarks "There is [in Columbus, Georgia] a paper mill worked by a man named Winters [sic], who employs about 25 white men." US Army report dated April 18, 1865, included the Rock Island Paper Mill in an extensive list of properties burned in Columbus on April 16, 1865.
FIGURE 4. WANT AD FROM ROCK ISLAND PAPER MILL, COLUMBUS, GEORGIA, FOR WATERFILTRATIONSYSTEM (reproduced from The Scientific American, June 30, 1855). Sources: A particularly informative biography of the life and many business pursuits of John G. Winter appears in Anonymous (1851 ). The paper mill is variously discussed in Anonymous (1855a; 1855b); Evans (ed., 1899:VI, 383); Olmsted (1862:1, 274); Secretary of the Navy (1903:774); Secretary of War (1897b:344; 352; 365; 384; 414; 486); and White (1854:571). The wartime operation of this mill is noted in the Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5) and Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). An informative account (see below) of the daily operation of the mill under trying wartime conditions appears in the Memphis Daily Appeal for June 13, 1863 (pg. 1, col. 7). Smucker (1865:984) notes that "Before leaving Columbus, [USA] General Winslow destroyed ... three paper mills" (also reported in United States Congress 1865:458). United States Army Corps of Engineers (1869:41) reports burning "8 paper mills" in Columbus. Though divergent, these figures likely refer to the number of structures at this facility. 35. Marietta Paper Mill Company, Marietta (Smyrna), (Cobb County) Georgia. Established 1849 and Fourdrinier equipped, this mill was operated by James Byrd, uncle of William S. Whiteman 2 (see above). William Phillips- an attorney and later CSA Colonel - became a partner in this enterprise in 1856 and served as manager of the mill prior to its destruction in 1864. Another known partner in the mill was Andrew Scofield Edmonston. Sometimes functioning with an 18 hour workday, the mill was forced to briefly suspend operations in early September 1863 due to a shortage of labor caused by military conscription of the employees. This problem was partially resolved later in the month although the mill continued to work at less than full capacity into 1864.
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US Army reports dated July 15 and 16, 1864, note that the mill was burned by a cavalry unit on July 5, 1864. Prior to the burning of the mill, Philips is reported to have communicated to the Union army that: " ... the mill belonged to a man who had fought them from the beginning of the war, and who would continue to fight them to the bitter end; that he had been taught from childhood to hate them as enemies to him and his, and that he would die hating them; that he did not ask any favor from them; and they might burn to their hearts' content." The mill was rebuilt after the war but burned a second time in 1870. Rebuilt a third time in 1871, it failed to survive past the mid-1870s. Situated adjacent to Sope (Soap) Creek, the stone ruins of the Marietta Paper Mill are accessible to the public in Chattahoochee National Recreation Area. Located south-west of the intersection of Lower Roswell Road and Johnson Ferry Road in eastcentral Cobb County, the extant remains consist of the mill's main building and dam, upper mill building, power house, pulp grinding mill, stone columns of the sluice, and a stone road. Sources: Cobb County Government (2002); Hunter (1947:535); King (n.d.:6); Secretary of War (1891a:683; 1891b:68); Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946:429); and Weeks (1916:269). See also Janes (1876: 72). The wartime operation of this mill is variously discussed or mentioned in the Atlanta [GA] Southern Confederacy (February 1, 1863, pg. 2, cols. 3-4), Bellville [TX] Countryman (May 23, 1863, pg. 1, col. 4), and Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5). Wartime labor shortages at the mill are reported in the Athens {GA] Southern Watchman (September 23, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2), Atlanta [GA] Daily Intelligencer (September 13, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1), Charleston [SC] Mercury (September 17, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1), Mobile [AL] Register and Advertiser (September 25, 1863, pg. 1, col. 6; April 17, 1864, pg. 1, col. 3), and Savannah [GA] Republican (September 14, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). The burning of the mill by federal forces is reported in the Athens [GA] Southern Watchman (July 6, 1864, pg. 2, col. 3) and Mobile Register and Advertiser (July 10, 1864, pg. I, col. 7). 36. Roswell, (Cobb County) Georgia. US Army reports specifically record the burning of a paper mill on Willeyo Creek in Roswell, Georgia, on or about July 5, 1864 (the nearby Marietta mill was burned on the same day), by an unidentified cavalry unit. It is of note that these reports specifically refer to "paper mills" suggesting multiple structures or production lines associated with this facility. In this same raid, flouring mills and machines shops were also reported destroyed. It is possible that the US Army
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology reports misidentified the Marietta mill. Sources: Jones (ed., 1885:443) and Secretary of War (189lb:60; 73; 75). This may be one of the four Georgia paper mills reported by Kettle (1867:298) and Secretary of the Interior (1865:cxxxi) as operating in the state in 1860 although neither the Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5) nor the Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (April 24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2) include Roswell in their list of paper mills operating within the state during the war. 37. Fulton Paper Mills, (western) DeKalb County, Georgia. As reported by the Memphis [TN} Daily Appeal (June 10, 1864): We were extremely delighted yesterday evening on a visit to the Fulton Paper Mills, to witness the energy with which this valuable enterprise is being conducted. It is situated on the classic waters of Sugar creek [sic] in DeKalb county [sic], about six miles distant from the Gate City [i.e., Atlanta], and surrounded by picturesque hills and dales. On the 24th of June, 1863, the work was inaugurated by the commencement of a dam across the creek to supply water for the huge rag wheel. The dam is massive and substantial, affording an abundant supply of water. Arrangements are being perfected for the conducting of pure spring water to the building, for the purpose of aiding in the manufacture of a whiter and better article of paper. The buildings and machinery are new and perfect, and although not complete in all its details, under the guidance and skill of its energetic foreman, Mr. T. F. Scully, a veteran in the business, the mills are turning out an excellent article of paper. It is not as white as desired because they have not secured as yet bleaching powder, but the body is good. Several months ago, ere they commenced making felts at Columbus, Mr. Scully, assisted by a lady, spun the filling and wove the dryer felts now used in the mill. The felt is equal to the best English manufactured, and attests the capacity of our people to manufacture all necessary articles. Capt. G. J. Foreacre, well known to our citizens for his ability and enterprise, is superintendent. The success of this enterprise is equivalent to a brilliant victory. This is the only paper mill known to have begun operation in Georgia during the war. The equipment installed at this facility may have been obtained from the Manchester, Tennessee, paper mill operated by William S. Whiteman2 (see above and textual discussion). No further record of this mill was found and it is probable that its production life was extremely short. In all likelihood, this facility was burned about the time of the fall of Atlanta to federal forces.
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Sources: Memphis [TN} Daily Appeal (June 10, 1864, pg. 2, col. 7). See also Columbus [GA] Enquirer (June 9, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1). 38. Mobile, (Mobile County) Alabama. A brief news article published in September 1849 reported that "a paper mill is in progress" in Mobile. This facility is known to have been in operation the following year but had failed soon thereafter. Local efforts in 1856 and 1857 to revitalize this mill or establish a new one were apparently unsuccessful. There is no evidence that this mill was functioning at the beginning of the war. Sources: Anonymous (1849:410; 1850a; 1856b; 1857a; 1857b) and De Bow (1853:III, 123). Kettell (1867:298) and Secretary of the Interior (1865:cxxxi) inventory no operating paper mills in Alabama in 1860 further suggesting that this facility was closed prior to the war. 39. Hope Paper Mill (Spring Hill Paper Mill), Spring Hill, (Mobile County) Alabama. The Columbus [GA} Enquirer announced on May 20, 1862, that a new paper mill had " .. . gone into operation within the last few days" at Mobile. This mill apparently produced writing paper and was operated by S. H. Goetze! & Co. with business or sales office located at 83 Dauphin Street in Mobile, Alabama. Spring Hill is located in the northwestern portion of modern day Mobile. The mill was specifically reported in operation in April and May of 1863. The July 7, 1864, issue of the Mobile Register and Advertiser ran the following notice: Girls Wanted. Two young girls to work at 'Hope Paper Mill' on Springhill Road. Will live at the Mills - Apply at the office corner of Water street and Planters. This is the only paper mill known to have been in operation in Alabama during the war and likely survived the war because of its location. Sources: Announcements or brief comments concerning this mill appear in: Columbus [GA] Enquirer (May 20, 1862, pg. 2, col. 2); Mobile Register and Advertiser (September 10, 1862, pg. l, col. 7; July 7, 1864, pg. 2., col. 6); Memphis Daily Appeal (May 6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 5); and Natchez Daily Courier (April24, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2). 40. Tuscaloosa Paper Mill, Tuscaloosa, (Tuscaloosa County) Alabama. Known to have been in operation in 1849, this property was sold at public auction in late March 1859 by attorney H. S. Whitfield of Tuscaloosa and the equipment was likely removed shortly thereafter. The reason(s) this facility ceased operations is not reported. The structure was described in a CSA military report dated December 10, 1861, as having:
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology ... no flooring in the first story and in a large room in the rear no sills there upon which flooring can be laid; .. the grounds are low and damp, the walls moldy; ... there are no windows and ... there are large apertures in the brick-work. ... there is no water conveniently near; ... there are no chimneys and no appointments for heating the building ... Sources: Anonymous (l859a; l859b); Hunter (1947: 553554); Ripley and Dana, eds. (1862:XV, 677); and Secretary ofWar (l898a:751). Lanman (1856:II, 174) notes that the mill was "in the hands of Yankees ... [and] doing well." Kettell (1867:298) and Secretary of the Interior (1865: cxxxi) inventory no operating paper mills in Alabama in 1860 further suggesting that this facility was closed prior to the war. 41. Texas Paper Manufacturing Company, New Braunfels, (Comal County) Texas. The Texas Paper Manufacturing Company was chartered in the fall of 1862 by the Extra Session of the Texas Ninth Legislature to build a paper mill at New Braunfels. Advertisements for rags appeared in Texas papers as early as April and June of 1863 and by September of that year, under the management of Messrs. Sam Mather (President) and Theodore Koester (Secretary), it was reported that: An excellent mill site, situated on the Comal Spring, with an abundant supply of clear water, and a good water-power, on which there is now a grist and flour mill in successful operation, has been purchased by the Company, and hands are already employed quarrying rock for the purpose of enlarging it, and adapting it to the manufacture of paper. The latest and most improved machinery has been ordered from Europe ... An ongoing series of delays in securing the needed permits to export the cotton to be used to finance the equipment continued into early 1865. As late as April 1865 no machinery had been obtained although construction continued under the direction of Mr. D. Richardson, editor of the State Gazette. The goal of producing paper for the Confederacy was never achieved. Though the postwar fate of this facility is not reported, it is unlikely that this mill was ever completed. Sources: Austin State Gazette (June 10, 1863, pg. 1, col. 7; September 30, 1863, pg. 1, col. 3; November 18, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2); Dallas [TX] Herald (April 8, 1863, pg. 2., col. 4; March 2, 1865, pg. 1, col. 5).
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unable to supply the needs of the people, and neither machinery nor artisans were to be had to found new ones. David Dodge (1886:229) As was the case with many other industrial facilities, the South was poorly prepared to adequately provide itself with the paper it needed to meet its consumption. Weeks (1916:269) estimated that on the eve of hostilities the South consumed over 150,000 pounds of paper per day while daily production was but 75,000 pounds 1 • The imbalance of domestic production versus imported paper would deteriorate even more as the conflict continued and the Union imposed navel blockade became ever more effective. As the war progressed and paper rapidly became an ever more precious commodity in the South, a Mrs. H. M. Wood "ofNashville, Tenn., or Hopkinsville, Ky." was arrested in Illinois on January 28, 1862, by US Marshal D. L. Philips and charged with procuring (with the aid of others) in New York the equipment needed for establishing a paper mill and conveying same to the South (Secretary of War 1897a:344). Further exemplifying the scarcity of paper in the South during the war are comments by public officials and citizens alike. By mid-1862, the firm of Archer & Daly in Richmond, Virginia - printers of postage stamps for the Confederate government - found it increasingly necessary to resort to the use of stocks of thick, course domestically produced paper (Dietz Press 1944:133, 135). In a prefatory statement appearing in an 1862 compilation of Confederate statutes (Matthews, ed. 1862:ii), it is noted that: For sometime after the passage ofthe act [to publish the laws of the Confederate States] of the 5th day of August last [1861], it was impossible to comply with its requirements because of the fact that the requisite paper - "paper equal in quality to the editions of the laws of the United States ... " - could not be procured; and it was not till very recently that the Superintendent of Public Printing succeeded in obtaining it. For this reason the laws and resolutions of Congress, for temporary convenience, [will be printed] on paper of inferior quality, and without regard to the provisions of the act. State officials were likewise forced to contend with paper shortages of their own. In a presentation before the 1
SOUTHERN PAPER SUPPLIES
The few unvaried manufacturing establishments that existed [in the South] were of course utterly
Weeks likely drew this information on southern paper production and use from a brief news article entitled "Contemplated Paper Mill" originally published in the True Delta and reprinted in the Austin [TX] State Gazette (July 22, 1861, pg. 4, col. 5).
15
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Georgia State Senate on November 16, 1862, Gov. Joseph E. Brown (Brown 1862:7) reported: The Appropriation Bill passed at your last session made it my duty, in case there should not, at any time, be money in the Treasury to meet any appropriation, to raise it by the sale of State bonds, or by issuing Treasury notes, as I might think best. .. Finding it difficult to get good paper and to get the work properly executed, I sent Hon. James Jackson as the agent of the State to New Orleans, to make the necessary arrangements for the importation of the paper and the necessary contract with a competent engraver for the execution of the work. In both particulars he was successful. In a similar vein, the General Assembly of Georgia (State of Georgia 1862:18, 27) stipulated that a series of proposed change bills (currency denominated in values of $1.00. $.50, $.25, $.10, and $.05) to be issued by the Western & Atlantic Rail Road were to be printed on bank note paper "if it can be procured." The irregular supply of paper available to governmental authorities was even more precarious when on September 28, 1863, legislative clerk William E. Martin informed the South Carolina Senate (1863:24): I beg leave respectfully to report to your honorable body that it is impracticable to obtain journal paper for the Senate. The kind heretofore used is larger than foolscap, and unless I was otherwise instructed, I would not wish to have irregularity in the size ofthe journals. To obtain your instructions, and place on record an explanation, if the journal should not be written, is the object of this communication. I would respectfully state that since the present system of printing the journals was adopted, I have never, in a single instance, known the manuscript journal referred to.
The trans-Mississippi area felt the same shortages. On December 15, 1863, the Texas legislature authorized a law granting 320 acres of land for every $1 ,000 invested in a variety of industrial facilities including factories to manufacture paper (Morphis 1874:476). Despite the magnitude of the problems confronting them, some minor successes are attributable to the diligent efforts of southern paper makers. In memoirs describing her days as one of "Memminger' s canaries" (a pool of ladies hired by the Secretary of the Confederate Treasury to physically sign currency prior to issuance as required by law), Dimitry (n.d.:l6) observed: No great amount of brain power was expended in signing one's name several thousand times in the
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course of a day; but, at first, the common quality of paper caused many pouts and some tears - a sharp pen point often jagging or blotting the note. Eventually, our Richmond mills removed the difficulty by their success in turning out a fair quantity of linen paper so smooth of surface as to admit of rapid writing with freedom from blots and, consequently, less exasperation of nerves. Regardless, the shortage of domestically produced paper in the Confederacy would continue unabated necessitating the purchase of paper supplies abroad by government agencies. In a letter dated October 21, 1863, CSA Secretary of the Navy S. R Mallory directed Commander James D. Bullock to: .. . send in two lots by different steamers to the care of Major N . S. Walker, Confederate States agent, Burmuda, to be forwarded by him to this department ... Fifty reams ofbest English letter paper ... Twenty reams of best English foolscap paper ... Ten reams ofbest note paper ... Forty thousand envelopes, official size .. . Ten thousand envelopes, letter size ... [and] ... two dozen memorandum books of different sizes (SecretaryoftheNavy 1921:514). Following the subsequent loss of a much needed quantity of stationery supplies, in a letter dated December 17, 1864, Secretary Mallory authorized Commander Bullock to obtain, among other materials, a number of items to be shipped " ... in lots by several steamers": Twenty reams letter paper .. . Ten reams foolscap paper .. . Ten reams note paper ... Twenty-five thousand official envelopes .. . Ten thousand letter envelopes Twenty record books .. . [and] Fifty press copy books .. . (Secretary of the Navy 1921 :782). Such efforts had little lasting effect and the relentless Union blockade of southern shipping continued to disrupt the importation of numerous supplies by the South. As noted in a report dated December 24, 1864, from Lt. Commander Richard W. Meade, Jr., aboard the USS Chocura off Galveston, Texas, submitted to Captain George F. Emmons: I have the honor to report the following as a summary of the work performed by this vessel. .. December 5.- Captured the British schooner Julia, ofNassau ... ; cargo [included] paper .. . December 6.- Captured the British schooner Lady Hurley, ofMontreal...; cargo [included] paper ...
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology (Secretary of the Navy 1906:754-755; see also ibid.: 768). Even early in the war, one traveler in western Tennessee observed "The prices in Memphis, on the 20th of October [1861) were ... Steel pens sell at $5 per box, and soap, drugs, and paper command fabulous prices" (Anonymous 1861a). In a letter dated September 19, 1861, to the editor of the Tennessee Baptist newspaper (November 23, 1861, issue), John Vaught ofBuena Vista, (Shelby County) Texas, remarked: You will please pardon my writing on the leaf of a blank book. I have no paper, and I know of none within 40 or 50 miles of me. Various letters to the Rev. Thomas Murray, editor of the Methodist Protestant, further elaborate on this problem from the perspective of civilians. As noted in one letter, "Paper at present is uncommonly scarce, as you will see from the scraps on which this communication is written" (Balch 1866:15). In another, it is noted: This letter is sufficiently brief to suit the most scrupulous editor. There is at present a scarcity of paper in Old Prince William [County] ... We hope to procure a supply. A paper-mill might be useful at present in this part of the Old Dominion (ibid.:l7). A third correspondent observed: It is not pleasant to deprive books of their blank leaves, but what scribbler will fail to do this should he be pushed for paper? It was done by Addison and Pope. Why not, then, by the occupant of a dwelling hid in the woods, and far away from towns, where paper is sold? (ibid.:17-18). A number of comparable remarks from other civilians confirm the lack of readily available supplies of paper. In describing the circumstances of maintaining a daily journal through the war years, Eliza Andrews (1908:5) observed "The original manuscript was written in an old day-book fished out of some forgotten comer during the war, when writing paper was as scarce as banknotes, and almost as dear, if measured in Confederate money." Years after the war, Laura Lee (1909:37) described letters received from Confederate soldiers as being " ... written on scraps of writing paper and sometimes [on the] cheapest wrapping paper." The Columbus [GA] Enquirer (May 13, 1862, pg. 3, col. 6) reported: Paper.-The scarcity of writing paper drives to all sorts of shifts. We learn that a letter has been received here from Hillsborough, written on a leaf cut from an account book of a mercantile house in this town just one hundred years ago-1762. As the war progressed, prices for writing paper leapt
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ever higher. The Mobile {AL] Register and Advertiser (April12, 1863, pg. 2, col. 3) observed: The Shreveport News quotes [illegible] paper at that place is selling for five dollars per quire2 • The Winchester Bulletin advises the people in that region to write letters on the backs of one dollar bills, for the sake of economy. The Savannah [GA] Republican (May 22, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2) reported: Cargo Sale.-Messrs. LaRoche & Bell, Wednesday last, sold the cargo of the steamer President and others from Nassau. The following prices were realized: ... Letter Paper, $45 to $50 per ream ... In a general description of the availability of writing paper in the South, Dodge (1886:236) remarks: Confederate stationary was a thing no less unique and characteristic than the other products of the time. The writing-paper, of a dingy salmon color, rough and fuzzy, was ruled with heavy, glaring blue lines, doubtless on the principle that the plainness of the landmarks should be in proportion to the difficulty of the way. But with this paper, such as it was, at $10 a quire, and envelopes in proportion, it was resorted to only after every available bit of paper, every page of old accountbooks, whether already written on one side or not, and even the fly-leaves of printed volumes had been ferreted out and exhausted. Envelopes were made of scraps of wall-paper and from the pictorial pages of old books, - the white side out, stuck together in some cases with the gum that exudes from peachtrees.
The situation became even more dire late in the war. In a diary entry for November 16, 1864, Dolly Burge of Covington, (Newton County) Georgia, recorded that she paid $20 in Confederate money for a quire of paper (Burge 1918:16). In marked contrast, Bowker (1887a:130) reported that " ... during the [Civil] war paper was enormously high [in the North]; writing papers cost from 40 to 60 cents a pound; book papers, 25 to 40 cents; news, 20 to 25 cents." Prior to the war, the price of paper was reported to be but ten cents a pound (Turner 1857:223). As a loyal southerner attempting to release a series of books chronicling the war, author Edward A. Pollard (1864:iii) stated "Owing to the scarcity of paper and printing facilities in the Confederacy, the author ... has 2
As observed by Hunter (1947:179fi), a quire of paper consisted of 24 sheets. In tum, a ream typically consisted of20 quires or 480 sheets. In other contexts, a ream might variably contain 472, 500, or 516 sheets.
17
Ohio VaUey Historical Archaeology arranged for the printing of his Third Volume in England ... " Another perspective, offered from the vantage point of a printer, appears in comments made by James W. Albright (1916:60) who observed that during the last two years of the war the publishing house of Sterling, Campbell & Albright in Greensboro, North Carolina, encountered great difficulty " ... in getting suitable paper, as all white rags were needed for use in hospitals." He further remarks (ibid.) that "Most of the paper was manufactured ... from raw cotton ... as the cotton was damaged by water and fire in its owners efforts to keep it from falling into the hands of the Federal troops, as they burned all the cotton they could not ship out ofDixie"3 Newspapers were particularly hard hit by the chronic shortages of paper and - when available - the ever increasing prices charged for it. Indeed, a review of editorial comments and announcements relating to paper mills and paper supplies appearing in a variety of southern newspapers concern to varying degrees the recurring themes of: (1) newspapers suspended for want of paper; (2) newspapers reduced to publishing but half a sheet per issue to conserve their meager supplies of newsprint; (3) the increasingly commonplace need to resort to the use of inferior grades of paper; (4) the all too frequent and oft times dramatic increases in the cost of newsprint throughout the war; (5) admonishments to conserve and collect rags for the manufacture of paper; (6) remarks on the problems confronted by the mills in operation; and last - but by no means least - (7) the pressing need for the establishment of more paper mills in the South. Each of these themes is deserving of additional discussion. As wartime conditions worsened, the number of newspapers forced to suspend operations either temporarily or permanently rapidly mounted4 • As reported by the 3
The plight of southern authors and printers in light of the ever critical wartime shortage of paper in the region is addressed in much greater detail in Fahs (200I). 4 The number of newspaper suspensions and closures across the South became almost epidemic. Dodge (1886:238) observed " ... the number of [news]papers in North Carolina was reduced ... from fifty-seven in I861 to twenty-six in I865." Numerous additional suspensions are mentioned in the following newspapers: Austin [TX] State Gazette (September 7, 186I , pg. 2, col. 2; April 6, I864, pg. I, col. 2; September 7, I864, pg. 2, col. I); Bellville [TX] Countryman (August 28, I86I, pg. 3, col. 1; September 11, 1861, pg. 2, col. I; February 22, 1862, pg. 1, col. 1; March 7, 1865, pg. 2, col. 1); Columbus [GA} Enquirer (April 15, 1862, pg. 1, col. 8); Dallas [TX} Herald (July 31, 1861, pg. 1, col. 8; April29, 1863, pg. 2, col. I; September 30, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2; September 10, 18
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Savannah [GA} Republican (January 27, 1862, pg. 1, col. 1; see also Charleston [SC] Mercury, January 28, 1862, pg. 1, col. 2) in a notice entitled ''Newspaper Mortality": Seventeen of the twenty six newspapers, that were published in Florida twelve months since, has [sic] been forced to suspend, by reason of hard times. The remainder, with the exception of one, a SemiWeekly paper, have been reduced in size.
By the following month, the Charleston [SC} Mercury (February 12, 1862, pg. 1, col. 6; see also Columbus [GA] Enquirer, February 18, 1862, pg. 1, col. 6) observed in a notice entitled ''Newspapers in Texas" that: The San Antonio Herald says: "We cannot count more than ten papers now published in this State, out of some sixty a year ago. War and blockade are death to newspapers." With few exceptions, virtually every newspaper in the South was forced at some point in its wartime operation to alter the format of their paper or reduce its size to half a normal sheet (and in some instances even less). Even relatively early in the war, the editor of the Bellville [TX] Countryman (August 21, 1861, pg. 2, col. 1) reported to his readers that: Our War Size.-Until the prospect of getting more paper shall become better, the Countryman will be published at its present size. We are enabled by this plan to put in more matter than on a half-sheet, and have less margin. In a similar vein, the staff of the Charleston [SC] Mercury (October 7, I86I, pg. I, col. 2) announced to its reading public: Our Reduced Sheet. To-day we being to print The Mercury upon a sheet considerably smaller than that which we have hitherto used. In this measure of economy we have been preceded by too many of the public journals of the Confederate and United States, to make any detailed statement of the reasons which have led us to this step, either necessary or desirable. It will be enough to inform our readers that, in the present stagnation of trade, the advertising business, which is the sustaining element of newspaper incomes, has, in great measure, been cut off. In view of this fact, we have not felt warranted in continuing the issue of so large a paper, at an expense at once needless and burdensome. 1864, pg. 1, col. 1; September 17, 1864, pg. 1, col. 1); and Galveston [TX] Weekly News (October 15, 1862, pg. 2, col. I; January 20, 1864, pg. 1, col. 7; November 23, 1864, pg. 1, col. 5).
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology By the spring of 1862, the Charleston {SC] Mercury (May 19, 1862, pg. 2, col. 1) was reporting to its readers that: Newspapers and the War.--These are terrible times for the newspapers. The scarcity of paper, and the enormous prices charged for it when obtained, are everywhere forcing the first class daily newspaper of the South to curtail their dimensions. Three out of the four dailies in Richmond, viz: the Whig, Enquirer and Examiner, are now printed upon a half sheet. All the newspapers of Mobile, Memphis, Vicksburg and New Orleans, also issue a half sheet only. Hard times demanded making difficult decisions and some newspapers were so desperate that any available supply of printing paper was used. With sorrow, the editor of the Atlanta Southern Corifederacy (October 2, 1861, pg. 1, col. 1) was forced to announce: Half Sheet To-day. And brown at that. The paper maker has disappointed us. We have made every possible effort to get paper, and have failed. It is not at the mills, or elsewhere within our reach. We have no assurance of paper - even for half a sheet - for tomorrow. Shortly thereafter, the editor of the Charleston {SC] Mercury (January 18, 1862, pg. 2, col. 1) remarked: The newspapers on all sides begin to show the marks of the scarcity of paper. The New Orleans Picayune has discontinued its evening edition; the Delta continues to publish twice a day as formerly, 5
In common with newspapers suspending publication from lack of paper, virtually every publisher in the South was likewise confronted with carefully rationing their available inventory of newsprint and reducing the size of their publication. Examples of such announcements appear in the following newspapers: Athens {GA] Southern Banner (May 6, 1863, pg. 1, col. 1); Athens [GA] Southern Watchman (October 16, 186I, pg. 2, col. 5; April 23, I862, pg. 2, col. I); Austin [TX] State Gazette (September 7, 186I, pg. 2, col. 2; May 4, 1864, pg. 2, col. 3; May 1I, I864, pg. 2, col. 1); Bellville [TX] Countryman (June 12, I86I, pg. 2, col. 1; June I9, 1861, pg. 2, col. I; July I7, 186I, pg. 2, col. 2; January 8, 1862, pg. 1, col. 1; August 16, 1862, pg. 1, col. 1); Charleston [SC} Mercury (October 29, 1861, pg. 2, col. 2; January 18, 1862, pg. 2, col. 1; June 20, 1862, pg. 2, col. 1); Dallas [TX] Herald (August 26, 1863, pg. 2, col. 2; April 6, 1865, pg. 2, col. 2); Galveston [TX] Weekly News (January 14, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1; February 11, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1); Memphis Daily Appeal (December 23, 1862, pg. I, col. 6 and pg. 2, col. 2); and Savannah [GA] Republican (June 15, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1).
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but uses only half a sheet; the Savannah News comes to us printed on brown paper; and among the journals generally half sheets and all the colors of the rainbow, are rapidly growing epidemic. Newspapers in the Trans-Mississippi portion of the Confederacy fared no better. In its issue for July 2, I864, the Dallas [TX] Herald (pg. I, col. 1) announced: We re-commence the issue of the Herald this week, after a suspension of several months. The paper on which we print at present is thin, dark, and rather small, but it is the best we can do for some weeks and perhaps months. We expect, however, to have white paper before a great while, and shall spare no efforts to keep on hand a constant supply thereafter6 . For some newspapers, the worse was yet to come. In a brief article entitled "Driven to the Wall," the editor of the Natchez {MS] Daily Courier (December 13, I862, pg. I, col. I) remarked: We never saw this old adage more fully illustrated, than by a copy of the "Confederate States," published at New Iberia, La., for which we are indebted to Lieut. E. W. Lindsley. It is printed on the white side of wall paper--the other side being beautifully covered with fancy paintings. The proprietor was verily "driven to the wall" for the want of printing paper. The editor of The Daily Citizen in Vicksburg, Mississippi, was likewise forced to resort to the use of wall paper in his edition for July 2, I863 7 . Southern consumers were forced to contend on an almost daily basis with the combined effects of material shortages exacerbated by the federal blockade of their ports, devastating wartime inflation, and the ever diminishing value of Confederate currency. Newspaper publishers were far from immune to these same factors. With the progression of the war, the cost of newsprint rose 6
The increasingly commonplace practice of resorting to poor quality paper is further discussed in announcements appearing in the following southern newspapers: Austin [TX] State Gazette (May 4, 1864, pg. 2, col. 2); Bellville [TX] Countryman (March 10, 1864, pg. I, col. I); Dallas [TX] Herald (November 13, 1861, pg. I, col. 3; March 25, 1863, pg. 2, col. I; April 29, 1863, pg. 2, col. I); and Galveston [TX] Weekly News (January 28, I863, pg. 2, col. I; March 23, 1864, pg. 2, col. 7). 7 An original copy of this Vicksburg "wall paper" edition is maintained in the Henry Clarke Gilbert papers in the
William L. Clements Library at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. See also Perry (2000:199).
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology meteorically from single digit dollars per ream to a recorded high of $600 in Confederate currency near the end of the war. A sampling of chronologically arranged editorial comments remarking on the rising price of paper is presented in Table 5. To further complicate an already poor situation, it is an unfortunate reality oflife that some individuals were all too ready to take unfair advantage of the plight of others. In an article entitled "Profits of Extortion," the Savannah [GA] Republican in its issue for March 27, I863 (pg. I, col. 4; see also Montgomery [AL} Weekly Advertiser, March I8, 1863, pg. 4, col. 2) reported: That our readers may have some idea of the enormous profits now being made by a certain class, we take the following extract from the Richmond Enquirer of the 3d instant [i .e., March 3, I863]. For instance - take the ... Belvidere Paper Manufacturing Company. President Whitfield, of the Paper Mill, deposed on oath, that the net profits for the year I860, 186I, and I862 combined, amounted to $235,750, on an "actual capital of $41,000," and he added that fully three-fourths of the dividend mentioned above, was made in 1862, or $172,000 profits in one year on $41,000 of actual capital. A stock-holder of the Belvidere Manufacturing Company informs us that since the war began he has received dividends on
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$1,000 of shares, amounting to $6,460- an amount which he considered, if not extortionary, at least improper .. . Not all southern paper makers were so inclined to take undue advantage of their fellow citizens. In a "Letter from Georgia" appearing in the Mobile Register and Advertiser for April 17, 1864 (pg. I, col. 3), the author observed that: There is a small paper mill [Pioneer Paper Mill] near here owned by an old typo and publisher, Mr. [Albon] Chase. His mill turns out excellent paper at a moderate price for the times, and were his facilities equal to his wishes the crying demand of publishers for "paper, paper," would soon cease. I only regret that his mill is not as large as his heart. An illustration of his strict probity was given me by a publisher of the Press Association who said that he had a large order at his mills last season for paper, that directly after it was given, and before any of it was delivered, the prices of paper all over the Confederacy advanced fully 25 per cent., that fearing he might be disappointed in his supply, he saw or wrote to Mr. Chase that he was willing and thought it right to pay the advance for the paper which had not been manufactured, but that gentleman declined to receive more than the price demanded when the order was taken, and sent forward the whole amount at that rate.
TABLE 5. PRICE OF NEWSPRINT IN THE WARTIME SOUTH.
Newspaper Augusta [GA} Daily Chronicle & Sentinel Savannah [GA] Republican Columbus [GA} Enquirer
Date July 2, 1861 Feb.26, I862 April 22, 1862
.e&
Athens [GA] Southern Watchman
April30, 1862
2
1 4 2
Col. 3 2 2
Athens [GA} Southern Banner
August 13, 1862
Columbus [GA} Enquirer
January 6, 1863
2
2
Dallas [TX] Herald
March 25, 1863
2
1
Galveston [TX] Weekly News
March 25, 1863
20
5-6
ReQorted Qrice of newsQrint
" ... the price of paper has largely increased" " ... the price of paper has largely increased" "Last Wednesday paper for our little daily stood at $6.00- Monday, $8.25." "We have again got a lot of paper, but oh! What a price! -- $7.50 per ream! Good paper only cost us $3.25 twelve months ago." "The blank paper on which we print the Recorder has advanced one hundred and fifty per cent., and is still on the increase ... " "The paper used on our Daily and Triweekly editions weighs 25 pounds to the ream. The price therefore per ream (at 25 cents per pound) will be $8.75 at the mill, and transportation will make it cost at the office $8.90 or thereabouts." "We have purchased a supply of white paper, which will cost us over $50 per ream by the time it reaches us ... " "[We now have] to pay for white paper just about fifteen times the price when our terms
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Volume 17
Charleston [SC] Mercury
April 9, 1863
1
5
Athens {GA} Southern Watchman
April 15, 1863
2
3
Savannah [GA] Republican
Apri115, 1863
Galveston [TX] Weekly News
May6, 1863
2
5
Athens [GA] Southern Watchman
May6, 1863
2
5
Galveston [TX] Weekly News
August 6, 1863
Athens {GA] Southern Watchman
September 9, 1863
Galveston [TX] Weekly News
September 9, 1863
Athens [GA] Southern Watchman
January20, 1864
Memphis Daily Appeal
March 12, 1864
Galveston [TX] Weekly News
April 6, 1864
Austin [TX] State Gazette
April 20, 1864
Austin [TX] State Gazette
May4, 1864
2
2
2
2
1
3
2
2
2002
of subscription were established ... " "The Richmond papers have all been compelled to advance their prices." "Since our last issue, the paper on which the Watchman is printed advanced three dollars per ream!" " ... we have succeeded in contracting permanently for ample supplies of paper. .. Our arrangements, however, involve necessarily a large additional expenditure of money, and we shall be compelled to increase our prices to meet it." "Printing Paper. - The Southern Recorder says: "Our last bill for printing paper, such as we now use for the Recorder, was at the rate of$14 per ream." "The paper on which the Watchman is printed this week cost us $15.00 per ream; Paper of the same size and far superior in quality, cost us, before the war, $3.50 per ream!" "The editor of the an Antonio Herald says he has purchased paper lately at $1 00 per ream, which is $3 per quire or 20 cents per sheet." "We are driven to [raise the price of the newspaper] ... by the unprecedented rise in the price of paper last week. On Monday it was 60 cents per pound - on Tuesday it advanced to one dollar!" " ... we are now paying $100 per ream for paper that only cost $50 when our present rates were adopted." "With the new year printing paper has gone up twenty-five cents per lb. higher than it was the latter part oflast year. It then sold for $1.00 per pound- it now costs $1.25!" "The advance in the price of white paper. .. makes it obligatory upon us to advance the price of subscription from four to five dollars per month." "Paper is getting so scarce that ... we will not be able to give them [our readers] a paper much longer at any price." "The San Antonio news says 'the same amount of paper that formerly cost us $3.50 in specie, now cost us $360 in Confederate money.' That is the exactly what we have to , pay .. . "The specie price of paper is now about five times what it was before the war. .. We even heard of$600 [in Confederate currency] per ream having been paid for a small lot of printing paper 24x36 only last week."
21
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Even early in the war, the importance and necessity of saving rags for the manufacture of paper was recognized by diligent newspaper editors. As observed in the Augusta [GA] Daily Chronicle & Sentinel (August 8, 1861, pg. 3, col. I; see also Atlanta Southern Confederacy, October 6, 1861, pg. 3, col. 2): Rags.--Save all your rags--cotton, flax, hemp, &c.-and send them to market, where you can realize three cents a pound. The South wears out more such goods than two such Norths, and yet the North saves double the quantity of rags for making paper. Let this be changed hereafter. Save the rags to make paper, and thereby save money. The Natchez [MS] Daily Courier (December 17, 1861, pg. I, col. 1) echoed a comparable sentiment: Help One Another. Every one connected with the printing business is laboring under the disagreeable trouble of procuring a sufficiency of paper. Clean rags are scarce for the supply of paper-mills. Now our planters can help us out, if they will but save and bale their refuse cotton. We understand the paper-mills will pay three cts. per pound for this article, and that a market can be found at B. S. Tappan's, Vicksburg, Miss. at the same price. Let our planters consider this matter, and help us to obtain more paper and of larger size and better quality.
In its issue for October 13, 1863 (pg. 3, col. 8), the Columbus [GA] Enquirer advised its readers: 10,000 Pounds Of Rags Wanted at This Office, For Which the Highest Market Price Will be Paid!! Several months later, the Atlanta [GA] Daily Register (March 19, 1864, pg. I, col. 1) announced: Rags! Rags! The highest price paid for rags, or value given by crediting subscription to the Register. We will buy all cotton rags brought to this office. The shortage of rags did not escape the attention of creative southerners who sought to suggest alternate material suitable for the production of paper. A comment appearing in the Savannah [GA] Republican (March 5, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1) inquired: A rich reward in money and fame awaits the inventor who discovers a new source and mode of supplying paper. Cannot some ingenious citizen establish a paper mill for the use of com shucks or
22
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other material that can be found in abundance? 8 A considerably more thorough commentary on the possible use of non-rag pulp materials by southern paper makers appeared in 1863 (see Appendix A). In addition to the chronic shortage of rags from which to manufacture and the military conscription of trained mill workers, some required supplies were also in short supply. As recorded by the San Antonio [TX] Herald (November 2, 1861, pg. 2, col. 2; see also Austin [TX] State Gazette, November 9, 1861, pg. 4, col. 2): The want of bleaching powder is now the chief obstacle to the manufacture of paper in the South. That which has been used-Tennant's-came from New York, where it was had from England, at a very low price. Pro£ Darby, of Auburn, Alabama, writes to the Houston Telegraph that he has succeeded in making pure sulphuric acid from iron pyrites, which are in abundance in Alabama, and he will have no difficulty in making sal soda, chloroform, nitric acid, muriatic acid, and bleaching powders for paper making.
Southern printers rapidly recognized the desirability of establishing additional paper mills throughout the South. One early example of this advocacy appeared in response to a letter to the editor of the Dallas [TX] Herald (July 10, 1861, pg. 1, col. 3): As printing paper is scarce-very scarce-and as there are about seventy or eighty newspapers in this State, which use from twenty to fifty quires per week, and merchants and others who use wrapping paper to a considerable extent, would it not pay to establish a paper mill at Houston or Galveston?Colorado Citizen. We answer yes. We think several paper mills could be well sustained in our State, and we do hope that some one will make a start pretty soon. The Charleston [SC] Mercury (January 10, 1862, pg. 2, col. 1) expressed comparable sentiments with the following editorial: Paper Manufactories.--The importance of establishing paper mills throughout the South is at once obvious. Thousands upon thousands of dollars, invested in printing materials, are now lying idle 8
Additional exhortations on the part of newspaper editors for their readers to collect rags for the manufacture of paper variously appear in: Athens [GA] Southern Banner (March 27, 1863, pg. 4, col. 1); Charleston [SC] Mercury (January 13, 1863, pg. 1, col. 5); and Savannah [GA] Republican (April6, 1863, pg. 2, col. 1).
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology and unproductive for want of paper.--No other branch of business in the South has suffered more than the printing business, and that mainly for the want of paper, and this too when the manufacture of paper would be the most princely profitable business imaginable. The ends of rope, waste cotton, pieces of bagging, and other articles used in the manufacture of paper, could be procured in quantities sufficient for all purposes, and would be cheerfully and gladly given. Sites would be donated, and doubtless premiums could be obtained by parties wishing to start the business; and yet our capitalists, with a stolid indifference which is wonderful, make no move in the matter, and to the cry for paper, which comes from all parts of the South, they remain foolishly indifferene. Recognizing the importance of an adequate supply of paper to the welfare of the nation, in February 1863 the Confederate Congress enacted legislation to exempt the superintendents of paper mills from military service (Freeman, ed. 1941 :22, 197-198). By law, such exemptions were granted only to qualified, necessary workmen and the actual number of exemptions specifically granted for paper makers was numerically very insignificant in the context of the southern war effort 10 • Available - though doubtlessly incomplete - figures for the final months of the war indicate the following exemptions: South State not Georgia Carolina reported Total Date 11 11 June 1864 February 1865 18 1 19 14 3 17 February 1865 Sources: Secretary of War (1900b:873, 1,104-1,105; l900c:705). The significance of such an exemption is more clearly demonstrated by the introduction of similar legislation appearing before the Confederate Congress on March 12, 9
Similar pleas for the construction of additional paper mills also appeared in the Augusta [GA] Daily Chronicle & Sentinel (January 18, 1862, pg. 2, col. 1) and Austin [TX] State Gazette (July 22, 1861, pg. 4, col. 5). Though it was easy enough to attempt to prompt or cajole others to build such facilities, such entreaties consistently failed to account for the logistical problems of purchasing and maintaining the required equipment, obtaining sufficient quantities of the necessary rags, and hiring knowledgeable paper makers to actually produce the finished product. 10 The exemptions granted to paper mill workers are further discussed in Confederate correspondence and legislation appearing in Secretary of War (1898b:690; 1900a:l61, 166-167).
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1862, stipulating "That the Secretary of War be empowered to detach from military service persons necessary to ...the manufacture of arms, saltpetre, and munitions of war, so long as they shall be actually employed" (Freeman et al., eds. 1923:155) and December 7, 1863, which exempted " ... all persons employed by any State in manufacturing iron, coal, saltpetre, salt, or munitions ofwar of any kind" (Vandiver, ed. 1953:2-3) 11 . The South Carolina state legislature granted exemptions from military service to all paper mill workers within that state in September 1863 (State of South Carolina 1863:27-29). Despite the best efforts of the Confederacy to protect these and other industrial facilities (c£ Secretary of War 1898a: 328, 332; 1900b:927), by the end of the war many of the paper mills in the South had been destroyed (c£ Table 4) and suffered the same fate as the Franklin Paper Mill in Richmond, Virginia (cf. Figures 2 and 3). PAPER MAKING PROCESSES
To manufacture paper uniformly of superior quality, four things may be said to be essential - clear pure water, superior machinery, good stock, and the requisite skill. Edwin T. Freedley (1858:442) The techniques of producing paper underwent remarkable and radical changes in the first half of the 19th century. It is thus more than appropriate to review this technology in some detail to better understand both the impacts these changes had on the production capabilities of mills of that era and the resultant architectural changes reflected in the mills themselves. In a small volume written to acquaint children with the rudiments of varied industries and crafts, Johnson (1807:54-60) provides the following brief but informative description of the early processes used to manufacture paper: THE PAPER-MAKER. The manufacture of paper is so curious, and so well worth the attention of young persons, that we recommend them to take some pains to get a sight of the whole process, which may easily be done wherever there are paper-mills. Linen, such as our shirts are made of, is spun from flax that grows in the fields; and from linen rags, that is, from shirts and other articles of dress when worn thread bare, fine white paper is manufactured: of course every 11
Additional sources relating to the military exemption afforded niter workers appear in Ball and O'Dell (2001).
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FIGURE 5. INTERIOR OF CENTURY PAPER MILL. NOTE CYLINDER IN BACKGROUND FOR SHREDDING CLOTH AND VAT IN FOREGROUND FOR WASHING AND MIXING FffiERS (reproduced from Grafton 1990:Piate 643). piece of rag 12 , however small, should be preserved, and not thrown into the fire. The first thing to be done towards the formation of paper, is to put the rags into a machine, or cylinder, formed of wire, which is made to turn round with great velocity to whirl out the dust 13 : they are then sorted according to their different qualities; after which they are put into a large cylinder or trough perforated with holes, through which a stream of clear water constantly flows. In this cistern is placed a cylinder about two feet long, set thick with rows of iron spikes. At the bottom of the trough there are corresponding rows of spikes. The cylinder is made to whirl round with inconceivable rapidity, and, with the iron teeth, rends and tears the cloth to atoms [Figure 5], till with the assistance of the water it is reduced to a thin pulp. By the same process all the impurities are cleared away, and it is 12
In contemporary terminology, the American paper industry now uses the term "cotton fiber content" in lieu of "rags." 13 In actuality, the first step in production was carefully sorting the bales of rags. This work was typically done by female employees on the second floor of two story mills (Kettell 1867:1, 296). All buttons were removed at this time (c£ Austin 1867:365).
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restored to its original whiteness. This fine pulp is next put into a copper of warm water, and here it becomes the substance of paper, and ready for the mould; for which purpose it is conveyed to the vat. This vat [Figures 6 and 7] ... is made of wood, generally about five feet broad, and two or three feet in depth. It is kept in a proper temperature by means of a charcoal fire. The mould, which the paper-maker has in his hand [see Figures 6 and 7], is composed of many wires set in a frame close together, and of another moveable frame equal in size to the sheet of paper to be made (see Appendix B). These wires are disposed in the shape of the figure [i.e., "rules" and/or watermarks], which is discovered in a sheet of paper when we hold it up to the light. The workman holds the frame in both his hands, plunges it horizontally into the tub, and takes it up quickly; the water runs away between the wires, and there remains nothing on the mould but the beaten pulp, in a thin coat, which forms the sheet of paper. Another person, called the coucher; receives the mould, and places the sheet of paper on a felt or woolen cloth, during which the workman makes another sheet. They proceed in this manner, laying alternately a sheet and a felt, till they have made six quires of paper, which are called a post [i.e., 144
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FIGURE 6. PROCESS OF SCREENING CLOTH FIBER PULP TO MAKE SHEETS OF PAPER AS DEPICTED IN 1568 (reproduced from Amman and Sachs 1973:26). sheets]; such is the right hand of the vat [see Figure 7]. When the last sheet of the post is covered with the last felt, the workmen employed about the vat unite, and submit the whole heap to the action of the press, which is on the paper-maker's right hand. After this operation, another person separates the sheets of paper from the felts, laying them in a heap; and several of these heaps collected together are again put under the press. They are turned and pressed several times, and then the sheets are hung up, three or four together, on lines to dry. The paper is now to be sized, because in its present state it will not bear the ink. The size is made of shreds and parings, collected from the tanners, curriers, and parchment-makers; and immediately before the operation a certain quantity of alum is added to the size. The workman then takes a handful of the sheets, smoothed and rendered as supple as possible, and dips them into the vessel containing the size, and when he has finished ten or a dozen of these handfuls, they are submitted to the action of the press; the superfluous
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FIGURE 7. EARLY 19tb CENTURY PAPER MAKING. NOTE PAPER DRYING IN BACKGROUND AND REJECTED SHEETS OF PAPER IN FOREGROUND (reproduced from Johnson 1807:plate facing pg. 54). size is carried back to the vessel by means of a small pipe. The paper is now to be hung, sheet by sheet, on lines to dry. When the paper is sufficiently dry, it is carried to the finishing-room, where it is pressed, selected, examined, folded, made up into quires, and finally into reams. It is here submitted twice to the press; first, when it is at its full size, and secondly after it is folded. Every quire of paper consists of twentyfour or twenty-five sheets; that is, the larger number refers to paper made use of in printing; and each ream contains twenty quires. In the manufacture many sheets are damaged; these, in the sorting-room, are put together, and two of the worst quires are placed on the outsides of the ream, called outside quires. The reams are tied up in wrappers made of the settling vat, and then they are fit for sale. Some paper is made smooth and
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology glossy like satin, by means of hot plates; this is called hot-pressing. The process of papermaking takes about three weeks. Paste-board is made in a similar way to that of paper. Blotting-paper, and paper used for filtering fluids, is paper not sized, in which therefore the ink readily sinks or spreads. Brown and other coloured [sic] papers are made of coarse or coloured rags. Wove or woven paper is made in moulds, the wires of which are exceedingly fine, of equal thickness, and woven or laticed [sic] one within another. The marks therefore of these are easily pressed out, so as to be scarcely visible. A subsequent description of the process of making paper by Bowker (1887a:ll6-117) serves to elaborate on certain of these production efforts. As observed by Bowker: ... Whatever fibrous material he [the paper maker] used, he had first to get rid of all but the clear, clean fibre [sic], and then reduce that to an even pulp. To this end the rags or bark or what not were cut in bits, dusted, boiled to softness, bleached, and further disintegrated, and finally beaten to a smooth pulp by mallets, or pestle and mortar, or stampers moved by water or wind. At first, indeed, before the use of chemical agents was discovered, and the color of the material determined that of the paper, the process was even more primitive; the cut rags were piled up moist in cellars or vats, and left to rot for from six to twenty days, by which time the vegetable gluten, having fermented or putrefied, could be dissolved out. Water, heat, chemicals, and power were the simple agents in this cookery, which produced what the housewife might call a puree, or smooth soup, of fibre. This was now before the papermaker in a vat. He held in his hand an oblong sieve, so to speak, called the mould, made ... of fine wire ... on the edge of which he placed a frame, called the deckel, like the frame of a child's slate, exactly the size of the frame of the sieve or mould itself. When he dipped the mould, thus rimmed, into the vat in front of him, he brought up, of course, as much of the pulp as the height of the deckel permitted; the water at once drained off through the sieve, leaving a thick or thin layer of moist pulp, according as a high or low deckel had been used. As the water drained, the papermaker shook the mould gently to and fro, to felt or mat together the fibres. In some moulds, the wire was closely woven together, in and out like cloth, and paper from such was called wove paper; in others the sieve was a series of straight wires crossed an inch or so apart by stouter ones, and paper from such was called laid paper. A device showing the
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name of the maker or some distinctive mark was commonly worked in wire upon the other wires, and here, as the water drained off, the paper was left thinner than in other places, so that when held to the light the water-mark, as it got to be called, appeared. . .. these markings appear only on one side - that is, in hand made paper, the under side. When the pulp is well drained, the coucher, as the next man is called, takes the mould, removes the deckel, and turns off the moist sheet upon a couch, or sheet of felt stretched over a board. A pile is presently made, first a sheet of pulp, then a sheet of felt, and this post, as it is called when several quires thick, is put in a press, and the remaining moisture is squeezed out. The felts are then removed, the sheets are again pressed, hung over hair ropes in the drying-loft to dry further, then dipped in size to fill up the pores, which otherwise would absorb ink as blotting-paper does, then pressed and dried again, and perhaps hot-pressed, to give a smoother surface, by passing between heated metal rollers 14 • Beyond their innate desire to experiment, paper makers were increasingly forced to contend with the logistical reality that the demand for paper and paper products increasingly outstripped available supplies of the needed rags. As the 19th century progressed, a number of diverse materials were used for the manufacture of paper such as old books (Winsor 1893:817), scrap paper (Church 1877: 413-414), and "dead letters" from the U.S. Post Office Department (Quint 1864:167; Tracy 1862:258), straw (Anonymous 1856c; 186lb; 1869a; 187la; 1874a; Birdwell 1869), flax (Anonymous 1863b), hemp (Porcher 1863: 274), sugar cane (Anonymous 1885), certain types of grass (Anonymous 1868e; 1870a; 1872a; Bowker 1887:115), cotton bark (Turner 1857:222-224), com husks and leafs (Anonymous 1861c; 1862a; 1863c), palm fiber (Anonymous 1880a), seaweed (Secretary of the Interior 1865: cxxv-cxxvi), sunflower stalks (Porcher 1863:423), various other fibrous materials (c£ Anonymous 1878a; Bakewell 1860:227; Bowker 1887:114; Colange 1871:11, 14
The essential procedures of making paper by hand were little changed from at least the mid-161h century (cf. Amman and Sachs 1973:26) through the early 19th century. Additional descriptions, histories, and comments relating to late 18th and early 19th century paper making processes are presented in: Ames (1831:240; Anonymous (1875a: 387-388); Blake (1854:68); Colange (187l:II, 558); de Vere (1868); Dugan and Bull, eds. (1959); Gillespie, ed. (1959:11, Plates 359-368); Hunter (1930; 1947; 1952); Porcher (1863:16, 70, 93, 96, 545); Raistrick (1972:108); Ripley and Dana, eds. (l875:XIII, 48-49); and Ross, ed. (1877:IV, 572).
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 558; and Kettell 1867:293), and- notably- wood shavings (Anonymous 1870b; 1872b; 1873a:305-306; 1880b; 188la; 188lb; 1882a; 1883a; 1885a; 1889a; 1891a) 15 • The use of these materials coincided with the introduction of many new machines and techniques which facilitated the production of ever larger amounts of paper per work day (Bowker 1887a) 16 . The most notable development among the many earlyand mid-19 1h century innovations relating to the manufacture of paper was the invention and widespread adoption of the Fourdrinier machine, a device for the production of paper on a scale never envisioned by those who had labored through the centuries to make one sheet at a time. In simple operating terms, this machine " ... performs the remarkable work of receiving a fluid 15
A much more comprehensive listing of the numerous fiberous substances used for the production of paper in the early and mid-19th century- and the dates patents were granted for their use - appears in Chambers and Chambers, eds. (1872:VII, 242). See also Ripley and Dana, eds. (1875:XIII, 45-46). 16 The literature on mid- and late-19th century papermaking and processing technology is voluminous. Additional useful sources include - but are certainly not limited to - Anonymous (1844; 1848a; 1850b; 1854; 1855c; 1855d; l856d; 1856e; 1856f; 1858a; 1859c; 1861d; 1863d; 1864a; 1865c; 1866e; 1867a; 1869b; 1869c; 1869d; 1870c; 1877a; 1887:91; 1882b; 1884; 1885b; 1894a); Austin (1867); Belcher (1866); Chambers and Chambers, eds. (1857:1, 348-351; 1867:1, 349-350; l872:VII, 242246); Davis (1972); Herring (1856); Hofinann (1895); Lieber, ed. (1851:1X, 513-514); Lockwood Trade Journal Company (1940); Munsell (1876); O'Hara (1878); Prouteaux (1866); Putnam, ed. (1852:459-460); Sindall (1908); Smith (1882); and Ure (1868:327-353; 1870:201202). A particularly telling statement of the vitality and creativity of the American paper industry in the 19th century is the synopsis of literally thousands of patents issued by the United States Patent Office from 1790 to 1873 relating to the processing of pulp materials, paper manufacturing equipment, and the subsequent use and processing of finished paper (Leggett 1874:11, 1,0021,015). Among the few sources to specifically address aspects of late 19th century paper mill architecture are Anonymous (1881c; 1889b) and Atkinson (1893). Researchers may also wish to consult specialized period trade journals such as Paper Trade Journal and Paper Trade Reporter. An interesting and readily available source of information on contemporary "rag" content paper manufacture may be accessed at the following web site maintained by the Southworth Company of Agawam, Massachusetts: .
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stream of pulp from its 'stuff chest' at one end and turning out a dry, smooth, sized, and finished paper at the other, either in a continuous roll or cut into sheets of any size" (Bowker 1887a:120). First conceived by a French paper mill worker named Nicholas-Louis Robert in 1799, the rights to this early machine were sold to Messr. Fran~ois Didot who escaped to England where it was improved with the assistance of an English machinist named Bryan Donkin. An English patent for this device was secured in 1801 and the improved machine was first placed into production at Frogmore, Herts in 1803. Brothers Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier subsequently purchased the rights to this design and spent a total of £60,000 in the process of further improvements (ibid.). About 1825, the first English produced Fourdrinier machine was installed at the paper mill of D. & J. Ames in Springfield, Massachusetts. Their experience revealed that with this machine one man could do the work of 30 (Secretary of the Interior 1865:cxxvi). By the end of the decade, five more had been installed in Massachusetts and additional Fourdriniers had been placed into use in several other states (ibid.:cxxvii). The following extended description of a paper mill with such a machine installed is of particular importance in interpreting the layout and operation of paper mills constructed after the introduction of Fourdrinier paper making equipment 17 • As described by Bowker (1887a:l21123): 17
Additional technical descriptions and comments on the history and workings of the Fourdrinier machinery appear in Anonymous (1858b; 1862b; 1862c); Bakewell (1860: 221-229); Chambers and Chambers, eds. (1857:1, 350-351; 1867:1, 349-350; 1872: VII, 242-246), Clapperton (1967); Hunter (1947:341-349, 355-368); O'Hara (1878:1,0741,075); Ripley and Dana, eds. (1875: XIII, 49-50); Ure (1868:II, 332-343); and Woolsey et al. (1876:112-113). At least three firms produced the brass wire cloth used to carry the processed pulp through the Fourdrinier. Specifically, these were the Sellers Brother wire works (established by John Sellers in 1750) and Messrs. M. Walker & Sons wire works (established ca. 1837) of Philadelphia (Freedley 1867:579) and the DeWitt Wire Cloth Company (established ca. 1822) of New York City (Historical Publishing Company 1885:269). The manufacturing process for this wire cloth is described in detail in Anonymous (1862d:106). Bakewell (1860:224) observes that " ... the meshes [of the wire cloth] are so fine that there are as many as 6,000 holes in a square inch." Historical Publishing Company (1885:269) observes that: .. . a pound of metal wire can be drawn out to a length of eight miles. As many as ten thousand meshes can be gotten in the space of one square inch.
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-~ ""'"· -~ _....,:. _ "'....· ··-
..
~
FIGURE 8. AN 1880s "BEATING-ROOM" WHICH PREPARED THE LARGE VOLUMES OF PULP NEEDED FOR THE FOURDRINIER MACHINERY (reproduced from Bowker 1887a:l21). The machine-room of a modern papermill is a long room, well lighted and kept very free from dust, in which the visitor see one or more machines, about six feet high and 120 or more feet long, mostly composed of sets of rollers, between which a web of paper is continuously passing and frequently disappearing from sight. The pulp, made fluid with abundance of pure water (Figure 8), is supplied to the 'stuff chest,' within which an 'agitator' keeps it in suspense. It is thus pumped through a ball-valve into a 'regulating box,' whence there is an overflow at the top, so that from the always full box the pressure of the pulp is always the same as it flows into the machine through a discharge mould cock, by which the supply, and the consequent thickness of the paper, is regulated. The pulp passes first over the 'sand tables,' which are really shallow troughs, the bed of which is partially crossed by thin strips of wood, aslant of the current, and carpeted by longhaired felt, both of which operate to catch any remaining sand or dirt. Thence the pulp reaches the 'screen,' a horizontal plate of metal, with several hundred A [ridge]-shaped slots, sometimes only one-thousandth of an inch wide (the narrow part at the top), about a quarter of an inch apart, through which the fibres [sic] must make their way, leaving behind all knots or matted fibres. A shaking motion is given to this plate to help the progress of the pulp through the slots, or in the 'revolving strainers' and
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other modified forms a slight vacuum is produced to suck the pulp through. It should now be clean, fine, and even, ready to make the sheet, this part of the machine having simply completed the work of the beater. The next and most essential part of the Fourdrinier (Figures 9 and 10) does the work of the old moulder, as with his and deckel he dips out the desired thickness of pulp, strains off the water, and gives the ' shake' which felts or mats the fibres together. The wire mould becomes an endless band of woven wire-cloth - always called simply the wire -the full width of the machine, and some machines are 110 inches wide. It is thirty-five to forty feet long, and travels on the breast roll at the near and the couch roll at the far end, with the help of small supporting rollers along its length. The fluid pulp is spread over this 'wire' from the breast board of the strainers by an ' apron' or fan-shaped rubber or oilskin cloth, turned up at the edges, which delivers it under a gate or 'slicer' intended to assure the evenness of the spread, and finally regulate the thickness ofthe embryo sheet. Two square bands of India-rubber, called the 'deckel straps,' move with and on the 'wire' at either side, and can be adjusted nearer together when it is desired to make a narrower sheet of paper. These and the slicer are attached to the 'deckel frame,' and together correspond to the deckel of the hand-paper maker.
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ol
FIGURE 9. LAYOUT OF A "FOURDRINIER ROOM" IN AN 1880s PAPER MILL (reproduced from Bowker 1887a:122).
FIGURE 10. 1887 MODEL ENDLESS-WIRE FOURDRINIER BUILT BY PUSEY & JONES, WILMINGTON, DELAWARE, ORIGINALLY COSTING $12,800. USED AT CURTIS PAPER MILL, NEWARK, DELAWARE (source: 1975 HAER photo Dei,2-Newark,1-6). As the 'wire' moves on with its layer of pulp, the water, charged with fine fibres, size [chemical additives intended to regulate the ink absorbency of the paper], coloring matter, etc., drains through into the trough underneath, called the 'save-all,' whence it is carried back to the stuff chest, to give the pulp the extra supply of fluid it there needs. A shaking
motion communicated to the 'wire' from the frame on which the rollers bear assists this drainage and felts the fibres together. Toward the farther end of the 'wire' the place of the save-all is taken by suction boxes, connected with an air-pump, by means of which the surplus water is sucked through. Between the suction boxes, above the
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 'wire,' a 'dandy roll' covered with wire impresses any desired pattern or water-mark on the surface; if the paper is to be 'wove,' the dandy roll is of the same wire-cloth as the 'wire' itself, so that the upper side and the under side of the finished paper will look exactly alike. The water-mark, however, remains (ifthere is one), and, as it is on the dandy roll, shows in machine-made paper on the top of the sheet, furnishing an easy means of distinguishing machine from hand made paper. We now have the continuous web of damp felted fibre, in the same condition in which the hand moulder delivers the sheet to the coucher. The coucher's work is now taken up by this Fourdrinier. As the endless belt of wire disappears underneath the machine, to reappear again at the 'apron' for a fresh supply of pulp, it passes with the damp web of paper between the upper and under couch rolls - cylinders of metal jacketed with felt, corresponding to the two felt sheets of the coucher and delivers the web upon another endless belt called the 'wet felt,' since the paper is still too tender to travel without support. This felt carries the web between iron rolls, called the first press rolls, which squeeze out more water and smooth the upper surface of the paper, and a second felt carries it under and to the back of the second press rolls, so that by reversing the direction the under surface of the web comes to the top and has its turn at smoothing. A 'doctor'- a long scraper the length of the top press roll - scrapes the roll free from adhering fibres, and keeps it smooth and clean. The paper can now travel alone, but it has still to be dried and further pressed, and perhaps tubsized. This part of the Fourdrinier takes the place of the press in which the coucher puts his 'post' of sheets. The web passes above the second press rolls, resuming its original direction, to the drying cylinders - hollow rolls heated by steam - under and over and over and under which, to the number of six or eight or ten, sometimes with the guidance of felts, sometimes without them, the paper passes till it is thoroughly dry. Since the paper shrinks in this process, the successive rolls decrease slightly in diameter. In the midst of the driers there is sometimes a pair of highly polished smaller rolls called 'smoothers,' also heated by steam. From the driers the paper passes to the ' calenders,' an upright stack of rolls similar to the smoothers, which are under enormous pressure, regulated by screws on either side, and give the paper an additional hardness and polish. If the paper is for the modem newspaper presses, it is reeled off in a continuous roll; if not, it is cut into strips by a knife-wheel like
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a circular saw fitting upon another knife-wheel to make a continuous scissoring, and these strips into sheets by a straight knife revolving at the proper interval on a horizontal drum, whence a travelling felt delivers them upon the pile. Written in the mid-1850s, the following description of the workings of the Wissahickon Paper Mill of Philadelphia serves to further clarify the sequence of the various production elements within a functioning mill. As reported by Freedley (1858:441-442): The visitor goes up to the second story to a room some 60 by 80 feet, in which ten girls are engaged assorting the rags. Here are numerous bales of white rags, foreign and domestic. The imported are linen; the other, cotton. In the same room these rags are cut by a machine, driven by power, which fits them for the subsequent processes. They are next sent into a rotary boiler, of two tons capacity, into which steam is admitted, and the rags boiled. Next they are cast down on a floor in the first story, where they are put into cars, on which they are conveyed to the washing engines. Two engines are employed in washing, called Rag Engines. These engines play in tubs of an oval form, of large capacity, each containing 200 lbs. of rags. The impelling power, partly steam, partly water, causes the revolutions of a roller, set with knives or bars of cast steel inserted into it longitudinally. This roller is suspended on what is called a lighter, by which it may be raised or lowered at pleasure upon a plate, consisting of bars of steel, set up edgewise. Passing now between this roller and plate, the rags are reduced to fibre [sic]. A stream of pure water is then conveyed into the Rag Engine, and, by means of a cylinder covered with gauze wire, the dirty water is passed off. This cylinder, called a Patent Washer, is octagonal in shape, some thirty inches in length, revolving in the engine, and having buckets within it corresponding with the sides of the washer. By this process, the rags are washed perfectly clean in from three to six hours. The next is the bleaching process, performed by the insertion into this engine of a strong solution of the chlorid [sic] oflime and some acid, to cause a reaction. The pulp is them emptied into large cisterns, covered with the bleach liquor it contains, where it is allowed to remain from twelve to twentyfour hours to bleach. It is then drained, put into the Beating Engine, and reduced to a pulp, the consistency of milk, which it much resembles. This pulp is emptied into a large cistern, in a vault beneath, and kept in motion by means of an agitator revolving in it. It is then raised, by a Lifting Pump, into a small cistern, from which it is drawn off by a
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology cock, which is opened, more or less, according to the thickness of the paper intended to be made, on to a strainer, which removes the knots, sand, or hard substances that may damage the paper, and then flows upon a leathern [sic] apron, which conducts it to an endless wire-cloth, over which the web of paper is formed. This wire-cloth is kept constantly vibrating, which both facilitates the escape ofwater and the felting together of the fibres of the pulp. The wire-cloth, with the pulp upon it the edges being protected by deckle strips - passes on until it comes to a couple of wet-press cylinders, as they are called, the lower of which is of metal, but covered with a jacket of felting or flannel; the upper one is of wood, made hollow, and covered first with mahogany and then with flannel. These cylinders give the gauze with the pulp upon it a slight pressure, which is repeated upon a second pair of wet press-rolls similar to the first. The paper pulp is then led on upon an endless felt or blanket, which travels at exactly the same rate as the wire cloth, while the latter passes under the cylinders and proceeds to take up a new supply of pulp. The endless felt conveys the paper, still in a very wet state, between cast-iron cylinders, where it undergoes a severe pressure, which rids it of much ofthe remaining water, and then between a second pair of press-rollers, which remove the mark of the felt from the under surface; and finally, it is passed over the surface of cylinders heated by steam, and when it has passed over about thirty lineal feet of heated surface, it is wound upon a reel ready for cutting. All this is done in the short space of two minutes. Other types of machinery were also developed for manufacturing paper. Notable among these was: A paper-making machine ... invented by Mr. [John] Dickinson, and carried by him to great perfection. Instead of allowing the pulp to fall on a flat surface of wire gauze, a polished hollow brass cylinder, perforated with holes and covered with wire cloth, revolves in contact with the prepared pulp, and a partial vacuum being produced within the cylinder, the pulp adheres to the gauze, and its fibres [sic] cohere sufficiently, before the cylinder has completed a revolution, to be turned off on to another cylinder covered with felt, on which it is subjected to pressure by rollers, and is thence delivered to the drying cylinders (Bakewell 1860: 226). Comments by Ripley and Dana, eds. (1875:XIII, 50) elaborate on both this device and other developments in
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machine made paper: The Fourdrinier machine ... is very expensive, for which reason others have been constructed for making the cheaper kinds of paper from coarse material, such as straw and cane. Of such is the cylinder machine of Dickenson [sic], invented in England in 1809, improved from time to time, and attaining its present form in 1847 18 • A cylinder covered with wire cloth revolves in the chest which receives the pulp from the beating engine, and performs the office of the wire web in the Fourdrinier machine. Scanlan's machine unites the principles of the cylinder and Fourdrinier machines, and makes a double-web paper, the opposite sides of which may be of different colors. Harris's is a twocylinder machine, which makes a two-web paper. Mr. James Harper of New Haven, Conn., has also patented a combination of the cylinder and Fourdrinier ... 19 In the ''real world," how did the Fourdrinier machinery (and comparable devices) impact the business of making paper? In plain and simple terms, it revolutionized the entire industry. The figures referable to production output speak for themselves. Using hand methods, it is reported that in 1793 the Webster, Ensign, and Seymour Paper Mill near Troy, New York, produced five to ten reams (2,4004,800 sheets) of paper per day (Bishop 1866:1, 206). Referring to the late 1820s before the general usage of the Fourdrinier machinery, Kettell (1867:297) observed that " ... three men could by hand manufacture 4,000 sheets in a day." Bowker (1887a:118) estimated that dependent upon the size of the sheets being produced, skilled English paper mill workers could make from two-and-a-half to three reams (1,200-1,440 sheets) per person per work day. Though output figures vary (likely reflecting variations in the model of the machinery used), Ure (1868:II, 337) estimated mechanized production at 20 to 50 linear feet (by 5 feet wide) per minute. Kettell (1867:295-296) observed that "The paper machine moves at the rate of from twentyfive to forty feet per minute, so that scarcely two minutes 18
Cylinder paper making machines manufactured by the Nelson Gavit machine works of Philadelphia were priced from $1,800 to $3,400 in 1857 (Freedley 1858:319) and about $2,500 in 1867 (Freedley 1867:398). Although less costly than the more elaborate Fourdrinier machines (see text below), it should be noted that they were typically intended to produce coarser varieties of paper. 19 Cylinder machines and related paper making devices are further discussed in: Anonymous (1875a:388); Bowker (1887a:123); Hunter (1947:351-355); Ure (1868:11, 340343); and Woolsey et al. (1876: 113).
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology are occupied in converting liquid pulp into finished paper, a result which, by the old process, occupied about seven or eight days" (emphasis in original). In describing a Fourdrinier operating at a similar speed, Bakewell (1860: 225) elaborates by noting that " ... such a machine would consequently make at least 10 yards of paper [per minute], which is equal to a mile in three hours. The width of the paper is usually about 4'li feet, therefore each machine will make 10,450 square yards in twelve hours ... " Without specifY the width of the paper, Chambers and Chambers, eds. (1867:1, 350) reported that a Fordrinier could produce 30 feet per minute. DeVere (1868:403) observed that some mills were capable of producing " ... sixty thousand feet of paper, four and a half feet wide" (270,000 square feet) per day. By the late 1880s, Bowker (1887a:l23) reported that: The speed of a Fourdrinier is from 60 to 240 feet per minute, the latter for cheap news paper demanding little care. Of good paper, the production averages about 80 feet per minute. These advances equated to three workers being able to produce approximately 60,000 sheets of paper (120 reams) per work day (Kettell 1867:297). In 1875, Ames & Company of Springfield, Massachusetts, claimed that based upon its experience that a single Fourdrinier could do the work of 40 men (Anonymous 1875b). In terms of real efficiency, Kettell (1867:295) observed: "The cost of making paper by machinery, compared with that of making it by the old method (by hand), not taking into account the interest on cost and repair of machinery, is about as one to eight."20 It is hardly surprising that mechanization rapidly spread throughout the paper making industry. In 1860, only two paper mills in America (one each in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania) continued to made paper by hand (Kettell 1867:297). By 1887, but a single mill located in North Adams, Massachusetts, continued hand production (Bowker 1887a: 117). For all practical purposes, the hand dominated technology which had served humankind for hundreds of years was obsolete by about 1830.
Despite these advances21 , the widespread transition to wood-pulp paper production was yet to come22 • Though the 20
Dealers of record for such equipment included the firms of E. A. Dayton of Richmond, Virginia (Anonymous 1869d) and Megaw & Hillany of Wilmington, Delaware (Anonymous 1867b; 1867c; 1867d). 21 Aside from the many advancements made in manufacturing paper beginning in the early 191h century, there were also tremendous technological strides made in the development of ever larger and more complex printing
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process of manufacturing paper from chipped wood was known in the 1830s23 , the American paper industry effectively continued to rely upon rag based pulp until after presses. Useful introductory sources specifically devoted to the related evolution of the printing industry include Bowker (1887b), Marthens (1875), and Moran (1973). Romaine (1990:271-288) presents a very useful listing of early trade catalogs pertaining to press manufacturers and type casters. Improvements in bookbinding machinery were also made as exemplified by the equipment manufactured by the firm of Howard & Riehl of Philadelphia (c£ Freedley 1858:320). Advances were likewise being made in other areas of the printing arts in the fields of wood-cut printing (c£ De Vinne 1880a; 1880b), engraving (Brande, ed. 1853:401-404; Chambers and Chambers, eds. 1857:11, 723-730); lithography (c£ Anonymous 1872c; 1890b; 1890c; 1891b; 1893; Bakewell 1860:249-257; Chambers and Chambers, eds. 1857:11, 730-732; Hockensmith and Coy 1995), and photographic printing (c£ Anonymous 187lb). One of the few archaeological studies to specifically address the printing industry is an examination of various 1839-1846 Mormon Church (Latter Day Saints) print shops at Nauvoo, Illinois, reported by Bray (1979). 22 One of the earliest uses of wood pulp for newsprint was reported in the February 12, 1863, issue of the Mobile Register and Advertiser (pg. I, col. 7) which noted: The Boston Journal is now printed on paper made of wood. The high price of rags compelled it "to take to the timber," literally, and it is well pleased with the result. The paper is soft and firm, with a smooth and clean surface, and admirably fitted for newspaper work [see also Hunter 1947:567]. There is no evidence to support the use of wood pulp by paper mills in the southern states during the Civil War. Ironically, although the pervasive use of wood pulp derived from southern forests is presently viewed as an historically well entrenched industry, the first pulp mill in Georgia was not constructed until 1936 (Range 1954:210211 ). The contemporary extent and environmental impact of the use of wood pulp is exemplified in a recent commentary by Anonymous (2002:272): A two-year study of 13 southeastern states by the U.S. Forest Service predicts the region will lose more than 30 million acres of prime forestland to urban development over the next four decades. Since the 1990s, more than 150 chip mills have been built in the South, consuming about 1.2 million acres of trees each year, equivalent to the combined size of the South's nine national forests. 23 Bowker (1887:116) observes that the first American patent for a machine to process wood pulp for the manufacture of paper was granted in 1858.
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology the Civil War (cf. Anonymous 1870b; 1872b; 1880). Clearly reinforcing this observation are the figures documenting the sheer volume of rags imported from Europe for the period 1846-185724 • In 1846, almost 10,000,000 pounds of rags were brought into the country. By 1857, this figure had risen to over 44,500,000 pounds. In all, America imported an almost phenomenal 293,000,000 pounds of discarded rags in this 12 year period (Kettell 1867:1, 292) 25 , a figure which completely 24
Beyond any reasonable doubt, likely the most unusual source of rags was obtained from Egypt. In the years prior to the Civil War, the demand for scrap cloth was so intense that a very active market developed for the wrappings removed from mummies. The practice of selling these wrappings abroad was terminated not from a nationalistic desire to protect antiquities but rather to facilitate the manufacture of paper by one of Egypt's largest paper mills (Kettelll867:293; see also Hunter 1947:382-385, 557). 25 As noted by Kettell (1867:294), "one and a half pounds of rags give one pound of paper." Alternately, Turner (1857:224) reported "1 Y4 lbs. of rags being necessary to produce one pound of paper." Prompted largely by an ever growing domestic demand for paper which exceeded by about 20% the readily available supply of the required poundage of rags, the practice of importing discarded clothing (principally from Italy) into the United States began as early as 1810 (cf. Kettell 1867:1, 292). Specific figures relating to the importation of rags for the period 1846-1857 are: Year No. oflbs. Value Cost per lb. $385,020 1846 9,897,706 3.89¢ 3.73¢ 1847 8,154,886 304,177 1848 17,014,587 626,136 3.68¢ 2.51¢ 1849 14,941,236 524,437 3.61¢ 1850 20,696,875 747,157 3.46¢ 1851 26,094,701 902,876 3.42¢ 1852 18,288,458 622,876 4.31¢ 22,766,000 985,465 1853 3.69¢ 1854 32,615,753 1,007,826 1855 40,013,516 1,224,413 3.06¢ 1856 38,727,017 1,239,168 3.20¢ 1857 44,582,080 1,448,125 3.27¢ Totals 293,192,815* $10,016,014 * Of this quantity, 196,404,948 lbs. (66.99%) were imported from Italy. Source: Kettell (1867:1, 292). See Anonymous (1866f) for comments on rag imports up to 1866. The importation of sizable quantities of rags continued well into the late 19th century, an era in which wood pulp paper was commonly produced. Anonymous (1885a) reported that for the period July 1, 1875, to June 30, 1879, rags valued at $10,300,000 were imported. For the period July 1, 1879, to June 30, 1883, ca. $18,000,000 was
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excluded the total poundage of rags purchased by paper makers within our own borders26 • The extent to which mills in the South participated in the consumption of this material is unknown but was likely negligible. Working conditions and the physical requirements demanded by mid-19th century paper mills are likewise worthy of some discussion. As reported by Bowker (1887a: 129): Labor in a paper mill is continuous, Sunday or a part of it excepted, for the stopping of a Fourdrinier and the necessary ''washing up" means waste. The ''machine-tenders," of whom there are two to each Fourdrinier, work in ''tours" or "shifts" twelve hours each. In the "engine" or beating rooms, and in the sorting rooms, where most of the hands are women, the work-day is the ordinary one of ten or twelve hours. The need of pure water for treating the pulp located paper-mills mostly on the banks of streams, and caused them to depend on waterpower, so that of old there was apt to be no work for the hands in dry months; but the building of reservoirs or the use of steam-power has now made work steady through the year. A notable health-related issue likely affecting paper mill workers which cannot be adequately addressed on the basis of available information is the occurrence of respiratory problems attributable to the inhalation of airborne lint resulting from the initial sorting and later shredding of cloth to prepare the pulp from which the paper was made. In more recent times, this condition has been medically termed byssinosis (his-NO-sis) but is more expended on imported rags (ibid.). Bowker (1887a: 115) reported that for the period 1885-1886, America imported 107,976,167 pounds of rags valued at $2,291,989. 26 An interesting and certainly lesser known story of the domestic procurement of rags for the making of paper appears in Anonymous (n.d.a:8-9). During an unspecified time frame but likely within the period ca. 1820-1825, a Kentucky slave residing near Frankfort named Reuben Maddison, shortly after learning that his wife and children had been sold out of state, was informed by a Quaker " ... that a gentleman in the neighborhood was about to establish some paper-mills, and that as the trade of raggathering was new in the country, if he ... were to furnish a hawker's box, and undertake the collecting of rags, he would be sure to find it a very lucrative concern. After consulting with some ofhis friends ... Reuben made up his mind, and did as the Quaker advised him, and ... he made money very fast." He subsequently managed to purchase his freedom for the amount of $1,500 and began a disheartening and futile search for his wife and children.
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology commonly known as brown lung, cotton worker's lung, cotton bract disease, or Monday fever. Though typically associated with the handling of unprocessed cotton, it also results from the processing of other vegetal fibers such as flax, jute, and hemp. Though little discussed in the sources examined, the problem of dust inhalation was not unknown to early paper makers. As observed by Brande, ed. (1853:886): ... It is necessary that these rags should be dusted; and, to accomplish this, they are either placed in a cylinder formed of wire net, turning on pivots at each end, and enclosed in a box which receives the dust as it falls through the net-work, or else their sorting takes place over a table frame covered with wire net, through which the dust falls into a box beneath as the workwoman proceeds in her labors. The first of these modes, however, is a great preservation of the health of those employed in the work (emphasis added). In an account of a visit to a New England paper mill shortly after the Civil War, Austin (1867:365) remarked that: ... in a room partitioned off but not finished, stood several frames, not unlike kitchen sinks, with a floor of course wire netting. Around the sides of these frames were set a number of scythe blades, with their edges turned inward; and behind each blade stood a young woman, her head swathed in a handkerchief, busily shredding handfuls of rags by drawing them down the keen edge of the scythe, the dust and finer particles falling through the wire floor, and the handful of shreds being thrown upon a heap behind the workwoman. The air was heavy with dust; the women's clothes, faces, eyelashes, and even the backs of their hands were white with it; and [one visitor], coughing and choking, asked a merry-looking damsel, "Is not this very unhealthy work?" "Well, I don't know. It pays pretty well," was the philosophic reply (emphasis added). Byssinosis is an asthma-like condition and allergic reaction to cotton dust. The seriousness of this problem is illustrated by more recent statistics which indicate that during the period 1979 to 1992 over 35,000 textile workers were diagnosed as disabled and 183 deaths were attributable to advanced cases of this condition 27 . The 27
Not •surprisingly, this condition has increasingly captured the attention of those concerned with occupational health and safety issues. For additional information, consult Occupational Safety and Health Administration
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majority of the affected individual lived in the textile producing regions of North and South Carolina. Symptoms include coughing, breathlessness, and constrictions in the chest. Though this was likely not a serious problem in the South prior to and during the Civil War era simply because such a small percentage of the nation's paper mill workers were employed in the region, the pervasive use of rag based pulp in concert with non-existent structural ventilation and respirators in that era would reasonably suggest that this medical condition was associated with early paper makers28 . Having reviewed the varied methods of manufacturing paper utilized through the early and middle 191h century, it is more than appropriate to present the only known description of a southern paper mill operating under the most trying and frustrating of wartime conditions. The following insightful report on the Rock Island Paper Mill near Columbus, Georgia - likely representative of the plight of numerous other southern mills- was reprinted in the Memphis Daily Appeal (June 13, 1863, pg. I, column 7): Rock Island Mills. The editor of the Columbus Sun has recently visited the Rock Island paper mills, and thus describes the process of paper making and alludes to some of the difficulties which beset paper makers. (OSHA) (1995; 2000a; 2000b) and Levenstein et el. (200 I). Interested readers might also wish to consult the OSHA web site at (use search words "brown lung" and "byssinosis"). Historically, respiratory problems were by no means restricted to paper or textile mill workers. For example, Shaw (1981) examines in some detail the occurrence and devastating effects of silicosis among gunflint makers in 19th century Brandon, England, while Anonymous (l877c) discusses the high mortality associated with British pottery workers inhaling clay dust during the same period. 28 Among the sources examined, the earliest mention of ventilation systems for paper mills was a brief notice (Anonymous 1877b) in The Manufacturer and Builder which observed: Ventilation is one of the most important points to be looked after in erecting a building, and it is the duty of every builder to provide his structures with the best ventilators obtainable. One of the best is Boyd's, manufactured by Daniel Cushing & Company, of Lowell, Mass., and applicable for public buildings, school-houses, dry-houses, papermills, dwellings, etc. [see also Anonymous 189lc). Such systems were likely more oriented toward controlling excessive moisture than dust and lint.
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Through the courtesy of Mr. J. F. Winter we were treated to a delightful drive to and from the above mills, located two and a quarter miles north of the city, in Alabama [sic], on the Chattahoochee river, and at an island bearing the above name. The modus operandi of making paper from rags and cotton was politely shown and explained by Mr. W. It is a rare curiosity to the novice, and must be seen and explained to the one initiated to be understood or appreciated. In the beginning we see the rough, dirty rags which are thrown into revolving boilers, capable of holding fifty thousand pounds, and hot steam let in upon them, which, with the revolving motion of the boilers, aided by some chemicals placed in with the rags, perfectly cleanses them of all filth and dirt. We are then carried to the engine, which cuts or grinds the washed rags or cotton into what is called pulp. This pulp, when finished, is thoroughly washed with clear spring water to remove all remaining dirt, and then carried to the machine for converting it into paper. In another room of the building is a machine used entirely for letter and envelope paper, specimens of which we have now before us both of a superior quality to what they have heretofore manufactured, and which he assures us he shall still improve on, so long as the necessary chemicals and fixtures for his machinery can be obtained. The energy displayed by Mr. Winter in keeping his mill running, is worthy of all commendation. He showed us fine tapestry carpet which he took from his floors as substitutes for felt, without which his mills are entirely useless. When three or more reels of wide paper, say four feet wide, is obtained, they are placed on a machine for cutting to the sizes desired. As the fabric is drawn through this machine little rollers cut it smoothly in the center and trim the edges, while a revolving knife cuts it the desired length. Two girls receive the sheets as cut and lay them even and smooth. So soon as the cutting is done one of the girls proceeds to count it into quires, while another folds it. A stout negro [sic] fellow packs the quires into bundles, binds and marks them ready for shipment to the office in the city. The want of wire cloth has forced Mr. Winter to convert his machine, which is a Feuudrineer [sic], into a cylinder, which he informs us very seriously curtails his operations in the amount of paper turned off. The present capacity of the mill in the news department is about forty thousand pounds per month. We cannot pretend to describe how the pulp
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floats in the water so thin one can scarcely observe it, but is gathered in a smooth thin flake in a revolving cylinder covered with fine wire cloth, which it delivers on to an endless blanket, passing over this, it is taken by either machinery as delicately as dainty fingers could do it, and separated from the endless blanket; a frail wisp looking sheet of white, passing now over and then under cylinders heated with steam, drying as it goes; then through the callendering [sic] rollers which irons it smooth, and on to a reel where it is wound up, which soon as full is taken off and another put in its place. We candidly acknowledge we did not appreciate the half of the labor and vexations to which the mill had been subjected since the commencement of the war and the blockade. Many have said hard things of its management, while, if they had been in charge they would have shrunk from the job before them. The domestic arrangements of the mill and care for the operatives is high toned, noble, and manly and it affords us pleasure to thus pay him the public compliment. WHITEMAN PAPER MILL Thou hast most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a grammar-school; and whereas, before, our forefathers had no other books but the score and the tally, thou hast caused printing to be used; and contrary to the King, his crown, and dignity, thou hast built a paper-mill. William Shakespeare King Henry VI, Part II, Act iv, Scene 7 William S. Whiteman - Entrepreneur. Following his father and grandfather, William S. Whiteman 2 was the third generation of his family to enter the paper making business (Weeks 1916:269). Likely from England, his grandfather settled on the Schuylkill near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was followed in the paper business by his son, William S. Whiteman 1• About 1800, the senior Whiteman transported the required paper making equipment by wagon from Philadelphia to eastern Tennessee and established a paper mill on Middle Brook Creek about four miles from Knoxville (Clements 1987:319; Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946: 427). This was one of the first paper mills built in the state29 • He married in 1801 and fathered at least three 29
Hunter (1947:535-536) observed that another early Tennessee mill was built near Carthage, (north central) Tennessee, during the period 1809-1810 and operated by William Moore, publisher of the Carthage Gazette. Citing
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Ohio VaHey Historical Archaeology children including one son also named William S. Whiteman 2 (Clements 1987:316). As it relates to the history of this early Tennessee paper mill, it is of note that at the age of 18 Whiteman's daughter, Bethena (Bethany), married George Henrich (Henry) Lonas (then 25 years old) in 1819. According to an advertisement in the Knoxville Register (May 3, 1826), within a few years Whiteman's son-in-law was a partner in the Warnack & Lonas paper mill situated three miles southwest of Knoxville which was seeking to purchase cotton and linen rags. The February 20, 1828, issue of the Register contained two notices regarding local paper mills. By this time, Lonas had joined forces with his father-inlaw to form the partnership of Whiteman & Lonas. Concurrently, their nearby competitor had reorganized as the firm of I. E. & H. D. Warnack. A year later, Whiteman & Lonas were in need of hiring a journeyman paper maker (Knoxville Register, February 18, 1829). The Whiteman & Lonas firm was called the Tennessee Paper Mill in an advertisement in the Knoxville Register for November 11, 1829. Whiteman 1 continued to operate the Knoxville mill until his death in 1840. At that time, it was sold and thereafter operated for some time by Gideon Hazen. The reason(s) for Whiteman's son-in-law (who died in 1865) leaving the partnership or otherwise not continuing in a management position at the mill are not known. Though still standing, this mill (see Table 4) was likely not in operation at the beginning of the Civil War (Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:427). The only available description of this facility was prepared late in its history. About the time the mill was demolished during a 1958 highway construction project, it was noted that: The mill had a flat top, at least from about 1940. It had walls about "3 ft. thick" made of old brick that looked "slave made. 30" The last owner - Mr. (A. H.] Wells - lived in the upper floor with an apartment in the lower floor. The owner before him lived upstairs with a barn downstairs. Engineering plans prepared by the Tennessee Department of Transportation indicate that this structure measured about 75 by 100 feet (22.8 x 30.5 meters). If correct, these the March 11, 1811, issue of the Carthage Gazette, Hunter (ibid.:535) notes that this mill offered paper for sale in early 1811. Interestingly, this mill was financed by means of a lottery advertised within the pages of the Gazette (see also Halley 1904; McMurtrie 1933). 30 Presumably, this comment refers to the use of coarse textured, handmade bricks.
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dimensions suggest structural rebuilding or additions at some early point in time and the likely installation of Fourdrinier paper making machinery. In a recent (April 12, 2002) personal communication, Dr. Charles H. Faulkner (Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville) remarked " ... viewing it [the paper mill site] from Papermill Road strongly indicates it [the mill] is under 50 feet of Interstate fill." Whiteman's son, WilliamS. Whiteman 2 (see Appendix C), moved to Nashville in 1838 and soon afterwards entered into a partnership with John A. McEwen, 0. B. Hays, and John M. Hill to build a paper mill in that city near the bank of the Cumberland River where the city workhouse stood in the 1940s (Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:427-428). This partnership was dissolved in the late 1840s at which time Whiteman bought out the interests of his partners and established a new partnership with W. 0. Harris, the chief owner and manager of the Nashville Banner newspaper (ibid.:428). Following his purchase of several hundred acres from Felix Earthman (Clements 1987:198), Whiteman in concert with Harris soon afterwards began construction of a new paper on the left bank of Earthman Branch (also called Judith Branch) about one and one half miles (2.4 km) north of the small settlement of Whites Creek about eight miles (13 km) northwest ofNashville (see Table 6). TABLE 6. CHAIN OF TITLE FOR WHITEMAN PROPERTY AT WHITES CREEK
Owner Claim ofland Lewis Earthman * Felix Earthman
Year late 1700s
Record RODC A:197
RODC G:ll6; M:l74 Davidson County Will Book 10:119 W. S. Whiteman, Sr. RODC 11:278 W. S. Whiteman, Jr. RODC 42:756 RODC 512:663 Ernest Williams 1919 RODC 1323:8 Clyde Owens H. Eugene Martin 1971 RODC 4546:303 * See also National Banner and Nashville Whig, July 11, 1828, pg. 2 for notice of death of Lewis Earthman. Source: Registrar of Davidson County (RODC) deed books cited in Clements (1987:198). 1828
Construction of the new mill apparently began in 1848 and it was likely placed in operation in early 1849 following the installation of the equipment removed from the Cumberland River mill (cf ibid. :3 16 citing article in
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Nashville Daily Union, January 10, 1849). Whiteman's business endeavors were apparently prospering during this period. He is listed as a "paper merchant" in the 1850 census and claimed $7,000 in personal propert)? 1 •
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W. S. WHITEMAN, PAP:EIB.l.\!LA.NVF.A.OTORY !.{)ClA'l'F..O .KJG'Il'r UlL'il! ()}! WBil'W8 (llU~l":R l't'R'R.
Paper Wa1·ebouae, 53 Public Sttu(l.re, Nashville, Tenn.
On October 18, 1853, James Stevens, a mill employee, was killed in a work related accident. Stevens - originally a carpenter by trade initially hired by Whiteman to remodel and expand the much smaller house on the grounds worked 18 hours a day, seven days a week preparing pulp prior to being made into paper and other mill related tasks. Clements (1987:318 citing article in Nashville Republican Banner, October 20, 1853) reports that: ... James Stevens, turning his efforts to the machine which prepared the pulp, put on an apron to deflect some of the liquid which flew from the spinning stone. At some point he stepped too near the apparatus and his apron became caught in the driveshaft, jerking him against the mechanism and battering him repeatedly before his lifeless and mutilated body could be freed. Whiteman2 subsequently collected almost $200 for Virginia Stevens, James' pregnant wife (ibid.:198, 318 citing article in Nashville Republican Banner, November 3, 1853, pg. 3). Already confronted with the responsibility of raising three young children, she gave birth to a son, Elisha, three months later (ibid.). In marked contrast to most paper mills, Whiteman and Harris constructed a pulp mill known as Loggin Springs on Paradise Ridge about five miles (8 km) from the paper mill to take advantage of a bountiful supply of pure, limestone free water for washing and beating the pulp (Halley 1904:214-215; Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946: 428). Following this process, the pulp was hauled by wagon to the mill. Several years later but prior to the Civil War, Whiteman bought out Harris's interest in this facility and thereafter operated it as a sole proprietorship (Figure 11). The business proved to be quite profitable and was based upon the production of news, book, Manila, and wrapping paper. It is reported that the mill operated day and night seven days a week except for "down time" required to maintain the boiler needed for powering the equipment (Clements 1987:318; Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946: 428). Said to have had a daily output of 70 reams of paper (Clements 1987:318 citing a notice in the January 4, 1854, issue of the Nashville Republican Banner, pg. 2), available sources make no mention of any specific watermark used by or attributable to any of the Whiteman mills. 31
This appears in the 1850 census schedule for Davidson County, Tennessee (24th District, pg. 354, household 173).
Rea. at tbo ldanuf~(',tory. highest l'dc.e given fM" re.g.ll in· cMb. FIGURE 11. ADVERTISEMENT FOR WHITEMAN'S NASHVILLE PAPER MILL APPEARING IN 1857 NASHVILLE CITY DIRECTORY (pg. 221). ~ Tb~
In late 1855, only a few weeks after the death of Whiteman's first wife, the mill suffered major damage from fire and required extensive rebuilding (Clements 1987:318). Although the cause of this fire is not further described, similar disasters at early paper mills were frequently attributable to boiler malfunctions and explosions such as occurred at the Platner & Smith Paper Mill in Lee, Massachusetts on October 24, 1860, which killed one workman (Anonymous 1860b), a paper mill at Schuylerville, New York, in February 1864 which demolished eight buildings {Anonymous 1864b), and a paper mill at Troy, New York, which destroyed "a large brick building" on December 21, 1864 (Anonymous 1865d)32 • 32
Though it is appropriate to emphasize that the attribution of the 1855 fire at the Whiteman Paper Mill to a boiler malfunction is conjectural, such disasters at 19th century manufacturing facilities were an ever present and all too commonplace problem. Yet additional boiler explosions at American paper mills are reported to have occurred in 1881 (Anonymous 1882c), 1882 (Anonymous 1883b), and 1890 (Anonymous 1891d). There were likely other incidents. The disastrous consequences of such explosions at numerous manufacturing concerns including paper mills - cannot be overstated and through the 19th century such events literally killed several thousand industrial workers and injured an even larger number. The relative frequency of this type of industrial disaster is exemplified by the occurrence of boiler explosions at three diverse and spatially distant American manufacturing facilities on the same day, February 3, 1873. The sheer magnitude of the power released by one of these ruptured boilers is placed in clearer perspective by observing that this explosion caused $100,000 in property damage, killed seven men and injured 30 others while "Pieces of the boiler, of 200 and 700 lbs., were hurled through the air and fell at a distance of 600 feet through the roofs of houses, exposing the inmates to great danger" (Anonymous 1873b). As noted by Trowbridge (1872:3839): Explosions can occur from two causes only - first, from deficiency of strength in the shell or other
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology During the 1850s, Whiteman2 variously maintained personal residences in both Nashville (Clements 1987:198, 318) and at a still standing house (Figure 12) adjacent to the paper mill (Graves 1975:39; see also Figure 11). Though extensively remodel through the years into a "Southern Colonial" "I" house (cf Kniffen 1936:185-186; O'Malley 1972a; 1972b; Riedl et al. 1976:93-99, 240-243) - a distinctive type of traditional architecture long associated with the more prosperous farms of the region the core of the imposing Whites Creek house is an 1830s era log structure. Not unexpectedly, as a conscientious businessman Whiteman2 sought ways to improve the quality of his mill's products. As noted by Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946:428): ... Mr. Whiteman' s mechanical genius came to his aid and enabled him to perfect many valuable improvements in the existing modes of paper manufacture, one of which was the diamond-shaped plates for beating pulp, which he, unfortunately, did not patent, but which were generally substituted for the plates formerly used by all the mills throughout the country. The invention would have brought him greater returns if patented than he ever received from the uniformly successful operation of his mills (see also Clements 1987:318; Halley 1904). Despite the claim that "The output [of Whiteman's Mill] was the largest of any mill in the South" (Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:428; see also Clements 1987 :318), this simply was not the case. As based upon available statistical information concerning the paper industry in the United States compiled in the 1860 federal census (cf Tables 1-3), the Whites Creek Mill represented an estimated capitol investment ofbut $7,250 in contrast to an average expenditure of $23,869 for the mills established by its competitors elsewhere in the South. In terms of dollar value of product sold, the average figure for the two mills operating in Tennessee in 1860 was about $7,000 each in marked contrast to average annual sales of just over $29,400 by other mills in the South and just over parts of a boiler [and] .. . an accumulation of pressure within the boiler, to a dangerous degree above that which the structure is designed to resist. But a minimal sampling of the voluminous engineering and manufacturing literature of the era devoted to examining both the causes and prevention of boiler malfunctions includes: Allen (1887); Anonymous (1874b; 1876; 1878b; 1880c; 1880d; 1880e; 1881d; 1891e; 1894b; 1894c); Bourne (1854:150-153); Harrison (1871); Kays (1884); Nystrom (1876:82-88; 1882); Robinson (1870); Roper (1874:57, 193-197); and Trowbridge (1872:38-50).
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$38,200 per year nationwide. Though specific production information is typically lacking for most mills in the South (cf Table 4), it may be noted that the Rock Island Paper Mill of Columbus, Georgia, is reported to have had a daily output of 2,500 pounds (White 1854:571), a mill at Neuse River Falls near Raleigh, North Carolina, is said to have produced 520,000 pounds per year, the Franklin Mill in Richmond, Virginia, is reported to have produced 500,000 pounds annually, and the mill in Bath, South Carolina - which burned on April 2, 1863 - was considered to be the largest in the South (Weeks 1916:269). In marked contrast, both of the mills operating in Tennessee in 1860 jointly produced but 200,000 pounds of paper (Secretary of the Interior 1865: cxxii). Although several sources (e.g., Anonymous 1946; Graves 1975:71; Halley 1904:214-215; Hunter 1947:535; Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:428; Weeks 1916:269) repeat the story that some of the first Confederate money and securities were printed on paper made at Whiteman's mill, no firm primary evidence is offered to support this contention. Moreover, one must reasonably question why the newly formed Confederate government would expend the effort and resources to transport paper from Nashville to Richmond when there was already an operating paper mill in downtown Richmond, Virginia, and additional mills elsewhere m Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia (see Table 4). Indeed, a similar story has been circulated about the Bath Paper Mill in Aiken County, South Carolina. As noted by Mr. Erick Montgomery of Historic Augusta, Inc. (personal communication, April 1, 2002), "The family lore claimed that it made ALL the paper for Confederate money ... " This claim becomes all the more incredulous in light of the mill having burned in April of 1863. Identical claims have also been made for the Neuse River Falls mill near Raleigh, North Carolina (cf Table 4), and the Marietta (Smyrna), Georgia, paper mill which burned in July 1864 (Hunter 1947:535; see also New York Times, 1864). It is entirely possible and indeed probable that comparable folklore is attached to the local oral history associated with other Confederate era southern paper mills. In light of the manufacturing and logistical problems confronted by the Confederacy, currency and other securities were likely printed on paper obtained from any available source including imported stock. Whiteman2 was a strong supporter of the southern cause and is reported to have offered free housing to the families of Confederate recruits. After the fall of Fort Donelson to federal forces in February of 1862, he fled
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FIGURE 12. HOME OF WILLIAMS. WHITEMAN, WHITES CREEK, (DAVIDSON COUNTY) TENNESSEE (photograph taken August 9, 2002). Nashville (Graf and Haskins, eds. 1986:501). The loss of his mill did not escape the attention of the southern press causing the Washington [AR] Telegraph to report in its March 19, 1862, issue that " ... now the Paper Mill at Nashville is in the hands of the enemy ... " Presuming he would have moved to an area where he had family or friends and recalling that his uncle James Byrd was involved with the operation of a paper mill near Marietta, Georgia, this may be the same W. S. Whiteman who subsequently sold an "almost twenty-eight years old" Negro male named Willis to a Mr. A. C. Williams of Cartersville, Georgia, for $5,000 in Confederate money on March 7, 1864 (Whiteman 1864a; 1864b)33 • Without 33
To better understand the declining value of Confederate currency through the war, the following comments appearing in Dietz (1945:220) are particularly informative: The first issue [of Confederate currency] was of $1,000,000 under the act of the Confederate Congress of March 9, 1861. August 19, 1861, the Congress authorized a further issue of $100,000,000, and the issues continued until they reached a total of $654,465,963. In December, 1861, a Confederate dollar bill was worth 83 cents; in December 1862, 33 1/3 cents; December, 1863, 5~ cents; December 1864, 2 cents, and in March, 1865, 1% cents. Insightful firsthand commentaries on the drastically declining purchasing power of Confederate currency and
elaboration, one source (Anonymous n.d.b) remarked "He served with distinction in the War Between the States ... " Aside from his involvement with the Whites Creek mill, Whiteman2 had a number of other business interests. According to the 1860 federal population census, Whiteman reported owning real estate valued at $150,000 and personal property valued at $30,000 (Graf and Haskins, eds. 1986:501). With the assistance of a $15,000 loan from the Tennessee Military and Financial Board (Secretary of War 1898b:163), Whiteman 2 built and subsequently operated from the fall of 1861 to late March 1862 a gunpowder mill near Manchester which produced some 125,700 lbs. of this invaluable commodity for the Confederate government prior to its destruction by Union forces (the history of this facility is discussed more fully in Ball200la:53-57; 2002; and Smith 1997). In addition to these activities, as noted by Goodspeed Publishing Company (1886:841; see also Ball:200la), "In 1852 W. S. Whiteman[ 2] erected a paper-mill on Barren Fork of Duck River [near Manchester, Coffee County, Tennessee] ... which was burned in 1871." There is some discrepancy concerning the dates at which the Manchester paper mill 34 was established and burned. Tennessee State
the state of the southern economy near the end of the war appear in Dodge (1886; 1892). 34 Although not specifically recorded in the sources examined, it is likely that some production at this facility
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Historical Commission (1946:428-429} states: "About the beginning of the [Civil] war Mr. Whiteman built another [paper] mill in the old Stone Fort, near Manchester, in Coffee County [Tennessee], to which he removed the machinery of the White's Creek mill." Alternately, Clements (1987:318) states that following the fall of Fort Donelson in February 1862 " ... the mill's machinery [at Whites Creek] was moved to a site in Coffee County and ultimately destroyed by federal troops." Clements may have confused the paper mill at this site with the nearby gunpowder mill operated by Whiteman 2 which was destroyed by a US Army detachment on March 28, 1862 (Secretary ofWar 1884:48). One source (Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:429) states that the paper mill burned shortly after the destruction of the powder mill. Despite any discrepancies regarding the date at which the mill was established, its location is clearly shown on a map dated June 28, 1863, of the area surrounding Manchester prepared by US Captain W. E. Merrill during military operations in Middle Tennessee (Secretary of War 18911895:Plate XXXIV-2). Weighing available historical information (including information on the number of paper mills actually operating in Tennessee in 1860 appearing in Kettell 1867:I, 298), it would seem more plausible that Whiteman 2 built the Manchester mill after the completion of a branchline railroad in 1855 which connected that town with the main railroad line in nearby Tullahoma, Tennessee (Keele 1947), but prior to the beginning of the Civil War. Obviously, the presence of a railroad would have facilitated both importing the required heavy machinery and bales of cloth and exporting the finished product. The logistics of attempting to relocate the inordinately large, cumbersome, and expensive Fourdrinier paper making equipment under war time conditions would have been an exceptionally impractical decision for a very pragmatic businessman. Based upon the topography of this site on a bluff overlooking the left bank of the Duck River and adjacent to a falls, the Manchester facility was likely powered by water rather than steam. It is deserving of note that the Columbus [GA] Enquirer (June 9, 1863, pg. 2, col. 6) reported in an article entitled "New Paper Mill" that: We learn that some enterprising gentlemen from was overseen by James H. Whiteman, son of William S. Whiteman2 , who is known to have served as resident manager of Whiteman' s nearby powder mill in operation from October 1861 to late March 1862 (cf. Smith 1997: 105, Ill}.
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Georgia went to Tennessee, a short time ago, and purchased a paper mill that was exposed to the enemy, and succeeded in removing its machinery just before a raid of the enemy swept through the region where it was located. It is to be put up somewhere in Georgia. Speculatively, it is both likely and indeed highly probable that the referenced Tennessee mill and the mill at the Old Stone Fort in Manchester where one in the same. The only known paper mill subsequently established in Georgia was the Fulton Paper Mill in DeKalb County which went into operation in mid-1864 (see Table 4). The reported commencement of construction at the Fulton Mill on June 24, 1863 (Memphis [TN] Daily Appeal, June 10, 1864, pg. 2, col. 7) certainly coincides with the date at which the equipment of the Tennessee mill was acquired35 • In 1874, Whiteman 2 transferred this property to William P. Hickerson, Sr. (Figure 13), a Manchester attorney who served from 1865-1867 and 1869-1877 as a judge of the Fifth District. Although subsequently partially disturbed by the construction of a second paper mill at the same location (Appendix D), the site of this mill is readily accessible to the public and now protected as part of the Old Stone Fort State Park36 • 35
As reported by Secretary of War (1889:399), Manchester was formally occupied by the US Army on June 23, 1863. In actuality, the occupation may have taken place somewhat later in the month as skirmishes between the conflicting armies where still taking place at that time near the northern portion of the county. The Middle Tennessee campaign, of which this action was but a small part, is discussed in much greater detail in Bradley (2000). 36 Although chronologically beyond the scope of the present study, it may be noted that the second paper mill on this site, the Stone Fort Paper Company under the ownership ofHickerson & Wooten, was in operation from 1879 until about World War I. The mill was badly damaged by a flood in 1910. Capitalized in the amount of $40,000 and employing 30 mill workers, reported daily output of this "large frame paper-mill" was 4,000 pounds (later increased to 12,000 pounds per day), primarily consisting of newsprint but also including writing and wrapping paper. After sitting idle and derelict for a number ofyears, it was dismantled in the 1940s. A portion of a substantial hewn limestone foundation is yet intact at this site (this structural remnant may in fact be associated with the earlier Whiteman mill). Sources further discussing and/or illustrating this facility include Goodspeed (1886:841, 933), McMahan (1965:10; 1983: 378-380), Martinez et al. (1969:137-138), and West (1986: 140). See also the William P. Hickerson, Sr., Papers on file
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sold the machinery piecemeal, and dismantled the mill (Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:429)37 • Thereafter Whiteman2 devoted his time to managing his property in Nashville and prior to 1870 diverted the use of the acreage surrounding the Whites Creek mill to agricultural purposes (Clements 1987:198). The machinery associated with paper manufacture was removed from the mill and the structure converted into a barn (a function it still serves). Though the disposition of this equipment remains uncertain, as a consequence of both design changes and comparatively limited production capability it is likely that the majority of this machinery was obsolete by that time and what could not be sold was subsequently disposed of as scrap metal.
FIGURE 13. JUDGE W. P. IDCKERSON, SR., WHO OBTAINED TITLE TO SITE OF WHITEMAN'S MANCHESTER PAPER MILL IN 1874 (source- Goodspeed 1886: plate facing pg. 932).
Following the Civil War, Whiteman2 did not reopen the mill at Whites Creek but became involved with an attempt to reactivate the Nashville Paper Mills south of Nashville on Browns Creek. This enterprise ultimately failed due to a combination of problems with both outdated machinery and a lack of pure water needed to process the paper pulp (Clements 1987:318-319; Halley 1904:216; Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946:429). After the mill had changed management several times and was finally closed, Whiteman 2 bought the interests of the other shareholders, with the Tennessee State Library and Archives, Nashville, which contains several documents relating to the 1874 transfer of this property from Whiteman2 to Hickerson, Sr. A brief biography of W. P. Hickerson, Sr. (born in Franklin County, Tennessee, on November 26, 1816; died in Manchester on April 18, 1882) appears in Goodspeed (1886:933). Hickerson, Sr., is buried in a small family cemetery about 1.5 miles west of Manchester and about 100 yards south of Powers Bridge Road (Jernigan and Shapard n.d.:l84). His son, W. P. Hickerson, Jr. (born October 20, 1850), owned half interest in the Stone Fort Paper Company said at the time to be " ... the only mills in the State that make the wood pulp" (Goodspeed 1886:933). The mill also processed rag pulp.
Prior to 1889, Whiteman2 transferred the then empty mill, the house, and the surrounding property to his son, William S. Whiteman3, Jr. (Clements 1987:319), who continued to operate the land as a farm. In 1919, the property was sold by Whiteman3 , Jr., to Mr. Ernest Williams who named the farm "Blue Hills." The land was subsequently sold to Mr. Clyde Owens and more recently (1971) purchased by Mr. H. Eugene Martin, its present owner (ibid.). Excluding his interest in various claims pending against the United States government left to his son William S. Whiteman3 , Jr., upon his death in 1889 Whiteman 2 (1888) bequeathed his remaining worldly property to his wife, Larue Whiteman, with instructions " ... to give any portion of it to any one of hers and my children and may and is impowered [sic] to will or devise all in such proportions as she may deem proper and with such care as she may deem wise and proper, but shall give none of it to any person or persons but to hers and my children by her." In compliance with her husband's wishes, the last will and testament of Larue Whiteman (1909) bequeathed real property at 919, 921, and 923 Warren Street in Nashville to their children. The life and times of William S. Whiteman 2 thus ended and became part of the historical record. The Mill at Whites Creek. Located approximately 100 yards (91 meters) west of Highway 431 at 4700 Whites Creek Pike and readily visible from the road, the still standing mill structure (Figure 14) is a sturdy two story, solid brick building measuring about 30 ft. (9.1 meters) across by 80 ft. (24.4 meters) in length. Constructed of 37
Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946:429) attributes Whiteman family involvement with the Brown's Creek mill to William S. Whiteman3 , Jr., son of the operator ofthe Whites Creek mill.
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FIGURE 14. WILLIAMS. WHITEMAN'S 1849 PAPER MILL NEAR THE COMMUNITY OF WHITES CREEK (DAVIDSON COUNTY), TENNESSEE (photograph taken August 8, 2001). hand made bricks (likely of local manufacture) and situated perpendicular to and on the left (east) bank ofEarthman's Branch (also known as Judith Branch) of Whites Creek, this facility is known to have been steam powered. Both the elongated shape of the structure and its historically reported output of 70 reams of paper per day provide clear evidence that this facility was built specifically to accommodate Fourdrinier automated paper making machinery. Although available historical sources make no mention as to the manufacturer of the equipment installed at Whiteman's Whites Creek mill, known American producers ofFourdrinier machinery after 1830 included the firms of Phelps & Spofford of Windham, Connecticut, and Howe & Goddard of Worchester, Massachusetts (Anonymous 1848b; 1875b; Kettell 1867:295). Other American firms manufacturing Fourdrinier equipment prior to the Civil War included the Cyrus Currier machine works (established 1836) ofNewark, New Jersey (Dunlap, comp. 1874:57) and the Nelson Gavit machine works of Philadelphia (Freedley 1858:319-320; 1867:398). Among the many sources examined, few specifically addressed the cost of these rather expensive devices. It is known that in 1849 - significantly, a date contemporaneous with the construction of the Whiteman mill - the firm of Curtis & Brother of Newark, (New Castle County) Delaware, paid $3,067 for a Fourdrinier machine capable of producing continuous sheets of paper 62 inches wide
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(Smith 1975:3, 5). Models produced by the Nelson Gavit machine works of Newark in 1857 were priced from $3,400 to $6,000 (Freedley 1858:319). By 1867, Gavit made Fourdriniers were priced at $6,000 each (Freedley 1867:398). However, less expensive models were also available in the post-war era. As observed by Anonymous (1869f:278): The machines by which the pulp is now formed into paper, dried, and cut into sheets, by one continuous process, are very expensive, as well as heavy of transport. An inferior one will cost four or five thousand dollars. Regardless of the manufacturer, the purchase of this single, indispensable piece of equipment likely accounted for approximately half of the cost of the Whites Creek facility. On the basis of available information concerning the manufacture of paper generally prior to and during the Civil War and the operation of the Whiteman mill specifically (c£ Figure 11 ), there is no reason to believe that this facility was ever adapted to wood pulp technology. Likely the entire output of this mill was based upon pulp prepared from processed rags.
In the course of visits to this mill on November 11, 2001, and August 9, 2002, it was confirmed that all readily visible vestiges of the original machinery had been long removed. Though the structure has received but minimal maintenance for many years, it is yet in generally sound
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FIGURE 15. VIEW OF FOUNDATION NEAR BACK LEFT CORNER OF MILL NEAR CREEK BANK (photograph taken August 9, 2002). (though deteriorating) condition except for a ca. 15 foot (4.6 meter) length of wall which had collapsed or was removed near the creek end of the upstream long axis wall. The structure's solid brick walls rest upon a substantial foundation constructed of sizable hewn limestone blocks measuring ca. 24 inches (61 em) wide, 12 inches (31 em) high, and 18 inches (46 em) thick (Figure 15). The quarry site used to procure these stones is not known though it is presumed to be reasonably close to the mill. An unusual feature of this structure is a small basement located at the rear of the structure adjacent to the stream. Oriented parallel to the stream and measuring 30 by 13 feet (9.1 x 4.0 meters) (Anonymous 1946) and likely about 8 feet (2.4 meters) in height, this area was probably used to house the boiler and steam engine which powered the mill's equipment. Speculatively, the boiler was likely fired (at least in part) by wood harvested on the sizable tract owned by Whiteman situated behind the mill proper. Entry
to this area was gained through a passageway not over 30 inches (76 em) wide about 10 feet (3.0 meters) from the upstream comer of the rear short axis portion of the foundation. Unfortunately, this portion of the building had been used for the disposal of manure for many years and was not accessible for further inspection. The abundance of machine cut ("square") nails in much of the original interior woodwork confirmed the general era of mid-19th century construction (c£ Nelson 1968). Spanning the structure's short axis, the unsupported joists for the second floor consisted of heavy sawn beams ca. 3 inches (7.5 em) thick and 12 inches (30 em) high. A variety of interesting carved initials and dates were observed on the frame of the upper left window as facing the front of the mill. As they appear from top to bottom on the left side of the window frame, these were: "E C/ 1905"; "P PI JULY/ 12 (?)/ 1875", and "J WI JUNI (?)/ 1911 (?)".
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FIGURE 16. PORTION OF DAM ABUTMENT AND RETAINING WALL ALONG LEFT (EAST) BANK OF EARTHMAN'S CREEK NEAR WHITEMAN PAPER MILL (photograph taken August 9, 2002). Initials appearing on the right side of the window frame (also listed from top to bottom) were: "B U'; "K G"; "M D"; "J P"; "J M"; and "D W". Although it is tempting to suggest that the surnames represented by the initial "W'' were carved by members of the Whiteman family, there is no way to conclusively prove this.
construction (cf. Anonymous 1874c), timber crib dams were widely used for a variety of 19th century industrial applications and offered the distinct advantage of being relatively inexpensive and amenable to being readily constructed with both available materials and semi-skilled local labor. Presumably the timber used in Whiteman's dam was harvested from his adjacent property. Such a dam is known to have been used at the 1830s era Stedman paper mill near Frankfort, Kentucky (Hockensmith 1998:85-86, 90).
The streambed of Earthmans Branch in the vicinity of the mill is characterized by a solid limestone bed. About 100 yards (91 meters) upstream of the mill are the remains of the dam which impounded the water needed to both process paper pulp and supply the boiler. Situated along both banks of the branch at this point are the still standing substantive cut limestone block abutments associated with the dam. These stones are comparable in size to those incorporated in the mill's foundation. A series of about 40 iron rods approximately 1 inch (2.5 em) in diameter and arranged in parallel rows are yet embedded in the rock creek bed between the abutments. These rods likely served to secure the lower beams of a now long vanished timber crib dam (cf. Ball 2000; 2001b; Johnson and Parrish 1999:105-118; Starbuck 1990). Following the demolition ofthe dam, the iron rods were bent at almost 90 degrees so that their topmost surfaces were oriented downstream and
The dam abutment along the right bank of the stream is about 30 feet (9 meters) in length. In contrast, the abutment along the left bank (closest to the mill) is about 300 feet (91 meters) in length (Figure 16). Both portions of the abutment stand about 8 feet (2.4 meters) in height and rest upon the creek's solid limestone bed. About half the length of the left bank abutment extents upstream away from the mill while an equal length extends downstream toward the mill. The downstream portion of the left bank abutment served as a retaining wall to allow for the placement of fill on the downward sloping creek bank thus creating more working space in the "yard" area adjacent to the mill. A single story earthen floored wooden tractor
thus less likely to snag stream borne debris.
shed presently stands about mid way between the
Though obviously subject to decay and thus not necessarily representing the best choice of material for dam
downstream terminus of the left bank abutment and the location of the iron bars and the former dam. The site occupied by the existing shed was likely the location of a
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology mill related support structure at the time the mill was in operation. Significantly, no evidence was observed of either any adaptations for the utilization of water power in the operation of the mill's machinery or any means (e.g., flume supports) for diverting impounded water from the dam to the mill's boiler. The grounds surrounding the mill proper appear to have been little disturbed since this facility ceased to be actively used for manufacturing. Though associated outbuildings are not specifically discussed in the sources devoted to the history of this mill, it is reasonable to anticipate that the sub-surface remnants of various support structures such as stables, wagon sheds, maintenance buildings, a woodshed, privies, and cabins for housing slaves are situated nearby. The only source examined which indirectly commented on support structures associated with this industrial facility was Tennessee State Historical Commission (1946:430) which observed that to ensure an adequate skilled workforce at his paper mill "Both white and black were thus trained, Mr. Whitemanr] himself owning several negroes [sic] who were fully trained to the business of paper making." ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXPECTATIONS
Available early descriptions of papermaking operations are of particular advantage in developing locational and archaeological expectations for such facilities. In terms of physical location, early paper mills required: (1) access to transportation arteries to import equipment and supplies (particularly bails of cloth) and export the finished product (reams or rolls of paper) to market; and (2) proximity to a dependable source of clean flowing water to provide the motive force (or steam) needed to power the equipment which converted scraps of cloth into the required fiber and facilitate processing of the shredded fibers actually used for making the paper. At least two distinct categories of purely archaeological residue would reasonably be anticipated within and near the typical pre-Civil War paper making facility. The first of these is relatively abundant deposits of discarded ash and cinders resulting from the low fires used in the process of preparing the pulp from which the paper was made and facilitating the drying of paper during periods of cool or cold weather and/or used for the creation of steam power to operate the mill's equipment. A second expectation for paper mills of this era would be large quantities of discarded buttons (both broken and complete) resulting from the process of sorting and rendering numerous bales of scrap cloth into more workable fibers. Although
available
descriptive
and
photographic
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information concerning the appearance of southern paper mills in this period is meager, it is appropriate to recall that for their era these facilities represented significant capitol investments and were solidly built structures. Accordingly, it may be anticipated that these facilities were placed upon substantial stone or brick foundations. Further, the introduction of Fourdrinier machinery from the late 1820s and afterwards markedly influenced the design of mill architecture by necessitating the construction of elongated rectangular structures to house this massive item of space consumptive equipment. Despite the operation of paper mills in the United States since the late 17th century, one of the few studies to specifically address these facilities as sites of purely archaeological interest is Hockensmith's (1998) investigation of the 1830s-1870s era Stedman paper, grist, and lumber mill complex near Frankfort, Kentucky. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Far from being perceived as either a "final" or "definitive" study, it is hoped that this preliminary effort will simultaneously prompt and encourage others to delve deeper into researching and documenting the histories, personalities, and tangible remains associated with these significant but poorly known early industrial facilities. Despite the relative importance of their product to governmental entities and the civilian populace alike, as a class of manufacturing enterprise paper mills in the Confederate South have been largely ignored and little studied. The thankless toils of those many unnamed workers - male and female, young and old, black and white - who labored in these facilities have been forgotten. Their long hours spent in working conditions both dangerous and unhealthy have escaped the memory and appreciation of those who relied upon and so often took for granted the paper they manufactured. Working under the most trying of conditions - chronic shortages of raw materials, equipment plagued with maintenance problems, and occasional work stoppages caused by lack of qualified workers - these manufacturing facilities are assuredly deserving of a much greater degree of literary documentation and field investigation than has been possible to devote to them in the context of the present study. Coming full circle to Mallet's (1909:7) contention that the ''typical" paper mill in the South was "small," Whiteman's mill at Whites Creek may be taken as all the more representative of the general state of paper making operations in the South in the years immediately prior to and during the Civil War era. Clearly, this structure and the undisturbed grounds surrounding it are worthy of both additional concerted study and preservation and are likely eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic
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Obio Valley Historical Archaeology Volume 17 2002 Kight (Orlando, Florida) kindly assisted with information concerning Whiteman family genealogy.
Places. Based upon the research reported herein, the William S. Whiteman paper mill near Nashville, Tennessee, is likely one of the best - if: indeed, not the only - remaining manufacturing facilities of its type associated with the ante-bellum South and affords an almost unparalleled opportunity to better understand both the physical facilities and processes involved in the production of paper following the general introduction of automated paper making machinery but prior to the widespread usage of wood pulp. The rural location of this mill in concert with its adaptability to being converted into a use never initially envisioned by its builder has aided in its continued existence and these same factors have contributed to little or no substantive ground disturbing activities in the area surrounding the mill proper. Beyond any reasonable doubt, Whiteman's Whites Creek paper mill and the little heralded remains of comparable facilities scattered about the cultural landscape of the South should be accorded much greater attention from historians, industrial archaeologists, and preservationists alike. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As is the case with any extended research project, many hands have united in varied ways to contribute to the configuration of the completed effort. A very heartfelt and sincere ''thank you" is extended to Ms. Vicki Betts, Cataloging and Reference Librarian at the University of Texas at Tyler, for her gracious and truly generous authorization to freely use the numerous references relating to Confederate paper shortages and paper making she painstakingly transcribed from many rolls of microfilmed Civil War era southern newspapers and compiled in her web site accessible at . In a very real and meaningful manner, the availability of these invaluable resources has substantially contributed to the depth and utility of this study. A very special note of appreciation is extended to Mr.
H. Eugene Martin (Whites Creek, Tennessee), current owner of the Whiteman Paper Mill, for graciously allowing the opportunity to study this venerable structure and Mr. Jerry W. Whiteman (Smyrna, Georgia), great-grandson of William S. Whiteman2, for his encouragement, enthusiasm, and generosity in freely sharing information on the paper making activities of his ancestors. The kind assistance of Mrs. Marie Armstrong (Joelton, Tennessee), Ms. Marcia E. Hemming (Hilo, Hawaii), and Ms. Karolyn
Discussions with Mr. Charles D. Hockensmith (Kentucky Heritage Council, Frankfort) were very helpful regarding comparative information and suggestions for improving this study. Dr. Charles H. Faulkner (Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville) graciously provided invaluable information concerning the early Whiteman family paper mill in Knoxville. Mr. Erick Montgomery (Executive Director, Historic Augusta, Inc., Augusta, Georgia) and Dr. C. L. "Chip" Bragg (Thomasville, Georgia) generously shared information on the history of the Bath, South Carolina, paper mill. Ms. Shirley Dunn (Corps of Engineers, Louisville, Kentucky) and Dr. Warren Myers (Department of Industrial and Management Systems Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown) kindly assisted with information on byssinosis. The Historic American Engineering Record (Library of Congress) is acknowledged for the use of their file photograph appearing herein. Photographs appearing herein as Figures 12, 15, and 16 were taken by Ms. Marcia E. Hemming. APPENDIX A: ALTERNATIVES TO RAG PULP DISCUSSED IN AN 1863 SOUTHERN LETTER TO THE EDITOR The following extended discussion concerning alternative (i.e., non-rag) pulp materials appeared as an unattributed letter to the editor published in the Savannah [GA] Republican (November 17, 1863, pg. 2, col. 3). Although a careful reading reveals an individual exceptionally well versed in the paper making literature and technology of the era, the reality of the times dictated that the South lacked the time, man-power, and technological resources (e.g., equipment and required chemicals) to undertake epic experiments in altering the available methods of manufacturing paper regardless of their drawbacks. Paper Making. Editor Savannah Republican: In every issue of our Southern Press we perceive advertisements of Rags! Rags! Rags! and many appeals to the people to economize the same. The public no doubt have responded to these appeals, but, notwithstanding, paper is daily
Smardz (Singhampton, Ontario, Canada) in locating
diminishing in quantity and increasing in price, and
several extremely informative sources relating to Whiteman's mill and the history of paper production in Nashville, Tennessee, is greatly appreciated. Ms. Mary J.
without any hope of importation remedying the evil; neither are the paper mills of the Confederacy able to lessen the exigency.
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A question arises to the public minded, what can be done to ameliorate in some degree this dilemma? The first point presenting itself is, have we the necessary paper mills in the Confederacy to manufacture enough paper to satisfy, in some degree, the present limited demand of publications? On a careful examination of the subject it will, doubtless, appear that we have. The next inquiry is, why do they not manufacture the same. The reply is, because the rags are not to be had, and there is no other material that the present high prices of labor will warrant the manufacture in making use of, for though we have an abundance of material in our great staple, suitable to this purpose, yet paper made out of cotton, at the present prices, increases the cost to the enormous figure we now have to pay for the same, and as cotton is bound to rise in price and value, so naturally must paper. It is well known, Mr. Editor, that cotton will not make as good and strong writing paper as linen rags, except by subjecting it to very expensive manipulations, and as the supply of linen rags will soon be entirely exhausted, it is time that we should look around us and examine all articles that can take the place of the flax fibre and that are cheaper than cotton. Fortunately our Southern country possesses more than one article to supplant the use of rags for the better qualities of paper, and I will take the liberty of pointing out some of them and the necessary process of preparing the same for the paper manufacturer. First of all our attention is claimed by (Josaypium Herbaceum) our own cotton shrub. Secondly, by (Moros Papifora Sativa and Moros Alba) the Japan and Chinese Mulberry. Thirdly, by (Populus Angulatu) the Carolina Poplar and (Poplar Argentia) Cotton Tree, called on the Savannah River Cotton Wood. Fourthly, by (Jucca Filamentosa) Thready Adam's Needle, commonly called Bear or Silk Grass. Fifthly, by (!uncus Effusus) our common Rush. Sixthly, by (Apocynum Cannubinum) Indian Hemp. Seventhly, by (Urtica Divica), the Great Nettle. Eighthly, by (Althea Rosea), the Garden Hollyhock. Ninthly, by (Viscus Album) the Mistletoe. Tenthly, by (Ilix Cassine) the Dahoon Holly of Florida, and other indigenous plants [note: the Latin may be incorrectly transcribed]. The above plants are principally used by the Chinese and Japanese to make their cheap and excellent paper, and deserve from us at least an investigation, and undoubtedly a few experiments would prove that they are all as good, if not better, than the rags we now use.
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As a proof that these assertions are correct, I quote several statements: the first is an article from the Savannah Republican. (I found the same repeated in Turner's Cotton Planters' Manual.) "We called attention some months ago to specimens of hemp made from the bark stripped from cotton stalks and left at our office for public inspection. We now learn from the New York Day Book that specimens of bark have been exhibited to paper manufacturers at the North, which is found to be of fibrous character, and is considered to be well adapted for the manufacture of good paper." "The best period for preparing this cotton hemp will be as soon as practicable after the packing of cotton has been finished. The plants should then be pulled up and dew rotted, like hemp or flax, and afterwards broken up and the bark separated from the wood of the stalk. The specimens of clean bark exhibited to experienced paper makers was considered equal to good rags worth six cents per pound, or about $120 per ton, and was pronounced the best substitute for rags of any raw vegetable material known to the trade." This is plain and to the point, but as few of our planters are acquainted with the mode of preparing hemp or flax, I will add below how cotton stalks should be prepared for the paper mill, as well as other plants enumerated above. To secure the cotton stalk successfully, it should be cut close to the ground, (to pull it up is an easier operation, but the roots will interfere in after manipulations) place them evenly on the ground to dry for a week. When they are dry, they must be tied into bundles and put up in stacks to keep them from becoming moist in sultry weather, (the cover of the stacks ought to be water proof) They are merely put in stacks in case the planter has not time to attend to the preparing of them at once. There are two ways to prepare them for market, either by dew rotting or by water rotting. The last process is preferable. In dew-rotting the stalks are spread out in a field or grass plot, and exposed to the weather for two or three months. The best plan, however, when the crop is large and the fields are not needed immediately for tillage, is to leave the cotton stalks lying in the fields to rot.-They are sufficiently rotted when the ligneous part of the stalks are nearly decomposed and the fibre begins to separate from them. In six weeks the stalks will be ready, (if a wet season) for breaking; this operation is performed by a common brake. To determine if the stalks are sufficiently rotten or not, a few can be broken on the brake, and if the fibre detaches easily
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology from them they are ready for manipulation. The water-rotting is best carried on at a running stream or a clear pond, but it can be successfully performed where there is a good pump or well, but in the latter case, a large water-tight tank or box has to be prepared and the water changed twice a day. In a creek or stream a pit should be prepared to receive the bundles of cotton stalks-they are places in on end and secured by a few boards and weights. But the better plan is to make a frame ten feet square and four feet deep of stout rails, nailed or pinned to strong upright pieces. This frame is filled with the bundles of cotton stalks, standing on end or laid in rows cross-wise, but closely packed. The frame is then immersed in the creek or anchored in the stream. If the weight is not sufficient to sink it, the stalks are covered with boards and stones until it sinks under water. If the weather is warm five or six days will be sufficient to soften the stalks sufficient that its outside bark will come off. As soon as this is accomplished take them [illegible] and spread the stacks singly on a lawn or grass plat, let them lie there for four or five weeks, turning them over twice a week. This process will make the [illegible]. When ready for removal [illegible] and carry them to a bam or close [illegible]. The stalks are now ready for braking. As many planters may not be acquainted with a brake, I will quote a description of [illegible] Johnson's Farmers' Encyclopedia: "The brake is generally [illegible] brake which was [illegible] has always employed here [illegible] though longer than the common flax [illegible]. It is a rough contrivance, [illegible] about two and a half feet high. The [illegible] consists of two jaws with [illegible] in each, the lower jaw fixed and immovable, and the upper one movable, so that it may be lifted up by means of a handle inserted in a [illegible] block at the front end of it. The lower jaw has three [illegible], or teeth, made out of[illegible] oak, and the upper two arranged approaching to about two inches in front, and in such manner that the slats of the upper jaw [illegible] between those of lower. These slats about six or seven feet long and six inches in depth, and about two inches in thickness in their lower edges; they are placed edgeways, rounded a little on their upper edges, which are sharper than those below. The laborer takes his stand by the side of the brake, and grasping in his left hand as many of the stalks as he can conveniently hold with his right hand he seizes the handle in the [illegible] of the upper jaw. Three successive strokes break the woody and reedy parts
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of the stalks into small pieces or [illegible], which fall off during the process. He assists their disengagement by striking the [illegible] or with a small wooden paddle, until the interior bark is entirely clean, and completely separated from the woody particles." The fibre is now ready for the market, but some (paper) manufacturers might [illegible] on account of its not being fine [illegible] purposes. In that case the planter can subject the fibre to an additional manipulation, like hemp, which is called scutching and hackling, but I hardly think this will be necessary as the washing and rotting process at the mill will destroy any woody substance and [illegible] of the fibre; therefore I do not think it will be necessary to describe the operation of scutching and hackling. The common nettle and the Indian hemp are prepared like the cotton stalks- similar to the above described process. The mulberry, the cotton tree, the Carolina poplar, and the Dahoon holly should be prepared in the following manner. Cut the young shoots of these trees into pieces of about three feet long, and collect the same in bundles; boil these bundles in water containing a good deal of ashes. If the wood is too dry it must be steeped in water for twenty-four hours before boiling. The bundles are kept boiling in a closed kettle till the bark at the ends of the [illegible] separates from the stem [illegible] they are then cooled, and the bark is separated and cleaned. The bear grass and the rush are prepared by tying the leaves in bundles; then boil and pound them till the soft vegetable [illegible] and the flesh of the bark is disengaged from the strong fibre. After this the same is easily washed in clean water. Another, but not as good a process, is to let them rot in the water or bury them in the earth until rotted. The fibres are then washed and ready for the manufacturer. Before I close this rather lengthy communication, I will add a few words regarding Garden Hollyhock, (Althea rosea,) the Asiatic Holly (genus Ilex) and the Mistletoe (Viscus arbum, verticillatum.) These three plants are used by the Japanese and Chinese for their fibrous bark, and they prepare them for making paper as other vegetable matter. They use them principally in certain combinations with the above enumerated plants, on account of their glutiluous [?] and viscuous (?] qualities and an extract is made of them and added to the pulp instead of the sizing now used in our paper manufactories.
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology In our present crisis these plants would, if used instead of the size now used, save many dollars. The size is generally prepared by peeling the root of Hollyhocks and [illegible] into small pieces and infusing the same [illegible] night in water. The clear liquid is mixed with an extract of rice prepared by putting the rice in an unvarnished earthen pot, which is [illegible] agitated gently, and then more briskly. New water is next put in, and the whole [illegible] through a linen cloth. The [illegible] determined by the viscosity of the substance. In conclusion, let me beg the [illegible] planter to investigate the subject [illegible] and let him not be deterred by the fear that it may require too much labor, for the principle part, such as breaking and hacking, can be easily performed during leisure hours by the negro [sic] men, who, no doubt, for a stipulated price per hundred pounds, would gladly earn something for themselves during the long winter evening, while to the master it would be beneficial in keeping them at home and out of harm. And let me also request our principal planters to benefit their country by preparing some of the above mentioned fibres for paper mills, and afterwards publishing the result of their experiments, so that the public can form an idea of the national importance of the subject, and thereby induce the majority of the planters that adopt the fibre culture of the cotton stalk and others suitable indigenous plants. APPENDIXB: NOMENCLATURE AND SIZES OF HANDMADE PAPER As recorded by Colange (1871:11, 558), the following names and dimensions were commonly applied to sheets of handmade paper: Name Pott (or Pot) 15" 12W' 14" Foolscap 17" Post 18%" 15W' 16" Copy 20" Large Post 20%'' 16Yz" Medium Post 18" 23" 23" Sheet and third Foolscap 13W' 13W' Sheet and a half Foolscap 24Yz" Double Foolscap 28" 17'' Double Pott 30" 25" Double Post 19" 30Yz" Double Crown 20" 30" Demy 16" 21" Printing Demy 17%" 20Yz"
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23" 18" Medium 24" 19" Printing Medium/Royal 25" 20" Printing Royal 20" 27" Super Royal 21" 27" Printing Super Royal 22" Imperial 30" Elephant 28" 23" 34" 26" Atlas Columbia 34Yz" 23Yz" Double Elephant 40" 26%" Antiquarian 53" 31" See also: Bowker (1887a:126); Brande, ed. (1853:887); Chambers and Chambers, eds. (1872:VII, 242), Kettell (1867:1, 298); Ripley and Dana, eds. (1875:XIII, 50-51); and Ross, ed. (1877:IV, 572). Prior to the advent of a more technologically oriented era which insisted on ever stricter tolerances and consistent specifications, actual paper sizes would vary slightly despite these "industry standard" measurements.
APPENDIXC: PARTIAL WHITEMAN FAMILY GENEALOGY William S. Whiteman 1 b. Pennsylvania (probably near Philadelphia) m. Jean Sims, March 2, 1801, in Knox County, Tennessee d. ca. 1840, Knoxville, Tennessee Issue: 1. James Whiteman (son) b. December 17, 1801, Knox County, Tennessee 2. Bethena (Bethany) Whiteman (dau.) b. December 17, 1801, Knox County, Tennessee m. George Henrich (Henry) Lones, Jr. (b. February 3, 1794, Knoxville, Tennessee) on December 23, 1819, in Knoxville, Knox County, Tennessee [Henry Lones died October 14, 1865] buried: both Betheny and Henry Lones interred at Lones Cemetery, Knoxville, Tennessee; this is reported as having been located on Weisgarber Road near Londontown Apartments; this cemetery may have been subsequently destroyed. [note: James and Bethany were twins] 3. WilliamS. Whiteman 2 (son) [see below] (Names of other children - if any- are not known). WilliamS. Whiteman2 b. 1808, likely in Knoxville, Tennessee d. during or before August 1889, Nashville, Tennessee buried: Nashville, Tennessee (likely Old City Cemetery) M1- Catherine------ (about 1836-1837; likely in Knoxville) b. ca. 1820 d. September 1855, Nashville, Tennessee
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology (death reported in Nashville Republican Banner, September 2, 1855) Issue: 1. Albert Whiteman b. ca. 1838 d. pre-1860 (?) 2. William S. Whiteman 3, Jr. (son) b. ca. 1840 m. Larue Dunam, January 26, 1877 (source: Davidson County, TN, Marriage Book 7, page 42) d. after 1919 3. James H. (W?) Whiteman (son) b. ca. 1842 d. possibly prior to 1889 4. [given name unknown] Mrs. Frank R. Davis (dau.) resided in McMinnville, Tennessee d. after 1889 but likely prior to 1909 5. [given name unknown] Mrs. Enloe Truitt (dau.) resided in Nashville, Tennessee d. after 1889 but likely prior to 1909 [note: 1860 Census lists one dau. named Emily born ca. 1847 and one dau. named Susan born ca. 1849; not possible to attribute either to their married names on basis of available information]. 6. Levan Whiteman (son) b. ca. 1848 d. pre-1860 (?) 7. Marchbanks Whiteman (son) b. after 1850 d. after 1889 but likely prior to 1909 (note: primary sources for children by 1st marriage are 1850 census for Davidson County, 241h District, pg. 354, household 173 and 1860 census for Davidson County, 2nd ward ofNashville, page 337A, household 158i 8 . M2 - Larue Dunn b. ca. 1849, Nashville, Tennessee d. mid-1909 at home, 905 Berryhill Street, Nashville, Tennessee buried: Nashville City Cemetery issue: 8. Allen Rudolph Whiteman (son) b. Nashville, Tennessee m. Grace Moretta Uhl of Cleveland, Ohio resided in Nashville, Tennessee d. after 1909 9. Jessie Forest Whiteman (son) b. March 9, 1873, Big Shanty, Tennessee39 38
Also enumerated in the household in the 1850 census were William Pilkinton, a 17 year old wagon driver, and Mathew Morgan, a 40 year old "colored" laborer. The 1860 census includes Robert Hill (or Will) (age 59; clerk).
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occupation: brick layer m. Janie Zuker prior to 1901 (d. prior to 1941) d. March 5, 1941, Atlanta, Georgia buried: Cedartown, Georgia, March 7, 1941 (sources: Fulton County, Georgia, death certificate; personal communication, Mr. Jerry W. Whiteman) 10. Mattie Lee Whiteman (dau.) m. William A. Lawrence, November 27, 1884 (source: Davidson County, TN, Marriage Book 8, page 148) resided in Nashville at 1408 Ninth Avenue, North d. after 1909 11. Laura (Lola) Whiteman (dau.) m. Walter Wakefield, October 25, 1893 (source: Davidson County, TN, Marriage Book I 0, page 245) resided in Nashville d. after 1909 (source: names of issue from 2nd marriage from Whiteman 1909).
APPENDIXD: POSSffiLE REMNANT OF THE WHITEMAN PAPER MILL AT OLD STONE FORT STATE PARK, MANCHESTER, TENNESSEE As discussed within the text, a second paper mill was built in 1879 atop the ruins of the earlier (1852-1871) mill operated by W. S. Whiteman in Manchester, (Coffee County) Tennessee. The following observations were recorded during the course of a visit to the site of this mill in the Old Stone Fort State Park on Saturday, August 10, 2002. The most salient vestiges of the paper mills at this site atop a limestone bluff immediately adjacent to the left bank of the Big Duck (Barren Fork) River are the stone walls of a basement (illustrated in West 1986:140, 141) excavated into the crest of the bluff about 25 to 30 feet (7.6-9 meters) above the normal flow of the river. These 39
The location of this settlement is not known. Although clearly written on the death certificate, no listing appears in DeLorme Publishing (1997b) for any community named Big Shanty in the state of Tennessee. According to Post Office Department (1870:244), the only community in the United States with a post office bearing this name was located north of Atlanta in Cobb County, Georgia. Notably, the Whiteman family is known to have had relatives living in this area (James Byrd, an uncle of William S. Whiteman2 , was involved with the operation of a paper mill in nearby Marietta, Georgia, prior to and during the Civil War). If the name was incorrectly remembered, a close alternative might be the settlement of Big Sandy, Tennessee, in Benton County west of the Tennessee River (cf DeLorme Publishing 1997b:50).
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology remains do not appear on the detailed contour map of the Old Stone Fort prepared by the University of Tennessee during the course of their archaeological investigations at this property (cf. Faulkner 1968:4-5). The interior dimensions ofthis area are about 25 by 40 feet (7.6 by 12.2 meters), the long axis of which is oriented perpendicular to the river. From the irregular rock and earthen floor of the created cavity, the basement walls stand about 8 feet (2.4 meters) high and are ca. 3 feet (0.9 meter) thick. The walls were constructed of very large, rough hewn limestone blocks, some ofwhich were about 2 feet (61 em) high and doubtlessly weighed hundreds of pounds. The top of the inland wall is at ground level; the wall nearest the downward sloping bluff crest is free standing. The basement was accessible by means of two doorways. These were ca. 3 feet (0.9 meter) wide and located near the portions of the long axis walls situated furthest from the edge of the bluff. Two windows about 3 feet (0.9 meter) wide were placed in the short axis wall nearest to the river. Several stray 1 inch (2.5 em) diameter iron rods of unknown function were observed in various places along the interior surfaces of the basement wall and the sills of the two window openings. The very rough and uneven floor of the basement suggests that any items of machinery (e.g., power transfer pulleys and their associated mounting brackets) in this area were likely attached to heavy floor beams which rested upon the top surface of the walls. Pulp processing and Fordrinier equipment would have been located on the structure's first floor at or near ground level. Though speculative, it is not unreasonable to suggest that this basement area may be a little modified remnant of the original Whiteman paper mill which was subsequently reused as an element of the 1879 Hickerson & Wooten paper mill.
REFERENCES CITED
Note: For purposes of space conservation, with rare exception citations for the numerous newspaper articles, notices, and announcements utilized for this study appear only within the text, tables, or footnotes. All other references (published and unpublished) are listed below. Albaugh, William A., III, Hugh Benet, Jr., and Edward N. Simmons 1993 Confederate Handguns: Concerning the Guns, the Men Who Made Them, and the Times of Their Use. Broadfoot Publishing Company, Wilmington, North Carolina (originally published 1963, Riling & Lentz, Philadelphia). Albright, James W. 1916 Books Made in Dixie. Southern Historical Society Papers 41:57-60. Richmond.
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Allen, J. M. 1887 Steam Boiler Explosions. The Manufacturer and Builder. Part 1- 19(5; May): 110-112; Part 2- 19(6; June):134-135. New York. Ames, Nathaniel 1831 A Leaf from an Old Almanac. The NewEngland Magazine 3(3; September):240-241, Boston. Amman, Jost and Hans Sachs 1973 The Book of Trades. Dover Publications, Inc., New York (originally published as Eygentliche Beschreibung Aller Stande auf! Erden, 1568, Sigmund Feyerabend/Georg Raben, Frankfurt am Main, Germany). Andrews, Eliza Frances 1908 The War- Time Journal of a Georgia Girl, 18641865. D. Appleton and Company, New York. Anonymous 1844 Paper Making. The Living Age 1(4; June 8):217. New York. 1848a New Machine. The Scientific American 3(26; March 18):202. New York. 1848b First Paper Mill in Havana. The Scientific American 3(25; March 11):194. New York. 1849 Untitled news article. The Scientific American 4(52; September 15):410. New York. 1850a Editorial Department. De Bow's Review 9(1; July): 120-128. New Orleans. 1850b Improvement in Machines for Making Paper. The Scientific American 5(29: April 6):225. New York. 1851 Hon. John G. Winter, of Georgia. De Bow's Review 10(5; May):582-586. New Orleans. 1854 New Materials Used in Papermaking in the United States. The Living Age 43(545; November 4):234-235. New York. 1855a Paper Mill Filters (advertisement placed by paper mill in Columbus, Georgia). The Scientific American 10(42; June 30):335. New York. 1855b Paper Mill Filters (advertisement placed by paper mill in Columbus, Georgia). The Scientific American 10(45; July 21):359. New York. 1855c The Paper Difficulty. The Living Age 44(556; January 20):140-142. New York. 1855d Herring on Paper and Paper Making. The Living Age 47(596; October 27):240-242. New York. 1856a First Paper Mill in America. The Ladies ' Repository: A Monthly Periodical, Devoted to Literature, Arts, and Religion 16(5; May):313. Cincinnati. 1856b Southern Items, Etc. De Bow's Review 21(6; December);659-661. New Orleans. 1856c Bleaching Straw Pulp. The Scientific American
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 11(30; April5):238. New York. 1856d Paper Making. The Scientific American 11(33; April 26):26. New York. 1856e Paper and Paper Making. The Scientific American 11(48; August 9):38. New York. 1856f Blueing [sic] White Paper. The Scientific American 11(20; January 26): 155. New York. 1857a Mobile Paper Mill. De Bow's Review 22(1; January): 111-112. New Orleans. 1857b Commercial Movements ofMobile. De Bow's Review 23(5; November):485-488. New Orleans. 1858a Paper and Paper-Making. The Scientific American 14(5; October 9):33. New York. 1858b Papermaking Machine. The Scientific American 13(48; August 7):382. New York. 1859a Paper Mill for Sale (advertisement for the paper mill in Tuscaloosa, Alabama). The Scientific American n.s. 14 (22; February 5): 179. New York. 1859b Paper Mill for Sale (advertisement for the paper mill in Tuscaloosa, Alabama). The Scientific American n.s. 14 (23; February 12):187. New York. 1859c Paper Rag Engines. The Scientific American 14(22; February 5):174. New York. 1860a Augusta a Manufacturing City. De Bow's Review 28(4; October):483-484. New Orleans. 1860b Explosions. The Scientific American n.s. 3(20; November 10):311. New York. 186la The Rebel and Their Capitol: Notes of a Recent Tour in the South. The New York Herald, November 12, 1861. 1861b Mode ofPreparing Paper Stock. The Scientific American n.s. 4(22; June 1):346. New York. 1861c Com Leaf and Grass Paper. The Scientific American n.s. 5(3; July 20):36. New York. 1861d Sizing French Paper. The Scientific American n.s. 4(1; January 5):2. New York. 1862a Paper and Bread from the Husks and Stalks of Indian Com. The Scientific American n.s. 7(15; October 11):230. New York. 1862b [Notice concerning Patent No.] 34,633. - James Hooper, of East Haven, Conn., for Improvement in Machinery for Making Paper. The Scientific American n.s. 6(13; March 29):205. New York. 1862c Improvements in Paper Machinery. The Scientific American n.s. 7(10; September 6):145. New York. 1862d Manufacture of Steel and Brass Wire Cloth. The Scientific American n.s. 7(7; August 16):105106. New York. 1863a Paper-Making in America. The Scientific American n.s. 9(9; August 29):134. New York. 1863b Defects of American Flax. The Scientific American n.s. 8(25; June 20):390. New York. 1863c Paper and Cloth from Indian Com Husks. The
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Scientific American n.s. 8(13; March 28):201. New York. 1863d Manufacture of Paper- Injustice to American Inventors. The Scientific American n.s. 9(8; August 22):118. New York. 1864a Bed-plate for Paper-mill Engines. The Scientific American n.s. 10(25; June 18):397. New York. 1864b A Terrific Boiler Explosion. The Scientific American n.s. 10(10; March 5):150. New York. 1865a Improved Steam Boiler. The Scientific American n.s. 12(18; April29):274. New York. 1865b A Safe Steam Boiler (advertisement for Harrison Boiler Works). The Scientific American n.s. 12(18; April29):284. New York. 1865c Improved Ruling Machine. The Scientific American n.s. 13(5; July 29):66. New York. 1865d Rag Boiler Explosion. The Scientific American n.s. 12(4; January 21):52. New York. 1866a Advertisement to sell the Franklin Paper Mill property in Richmond, Virginia. The Scientific American n.s. 14(26; June 23):437. New York. 1866b Advertisement to sell the Franklin Paper Mill property in Richmond, Virginia. The Scientific American n.s. 15(2; July 7):29. New York. 1866c Editorial and Miscellanies. De Bow's Review n.s. 1(6; June):633-668. New Orleans. 1866d Manufacturing and Business Items. The Scientific American n.s. 14(25; June 16):411. New York. 1866e Safety Paper for the Prevention of Counterfeiting. The Scientific American n.s. 15(11; September 8):169. New York. 1866f Importance ofRags. The Scientific American n.s. 15(5; July 28):71. New York. 1867a Shew's Rag Engine. The Scientific American n.s. 16(21; May 25):340. New York. 1867b Paper Mill Machinery [advertisement for firm ofMegaw & Hillany, Wilmington, Delaware]. The Scientific American n.s. 16(7; February 16):115. New York. 1867c Paper Mill Machinery [advertisement for firm ofMegaw & Hillany, Wilmington, Delaware]. The Scientific American n.s. 16(12; March 23):195. New York. 1867d Paper Mill Machinery [advertisement for firm ofMegaw & Hillany, Wilmington, Delaware]. The Scientific American n.s. 16(14; April6):227. New York. 1868a Untitled advertisement offering to sell paper mill in Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Scientific American n.s. 19(9; August 26): 135. New York. 1868b Untitled advertisement offering to sell paper mill in Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Scientific American n.s. 19(10; September 2):151. New York. 1868c Untitled advertisement offering to sell paper
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology mill in Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Scientific American n.s. 19(12; September 16):183. New York. 1868d Untitled advertisement offering to sell paper mill in Fredericksburg, Virginia. The Scientific American n.s. 19(13; September 23):199. New York. 1868e Editorial Summary [comments on manufacture of paper from esparto grass in England]. The Scientific American n.s. 19(21; November 18):326. New York. 1869a Historical Notes on Paper Manufacture. The Manufacturer and Builder 1(5; May):137-138. New York. 1869b Water Regulators for Paper Pulp Machines. The Scientific American n.s. 20(3; January 16):45. New York. 1869c The Manufacture ofPaper- Paper Made from Rags. The Scientific American n.s. 21(12; September 18):178-179. New York. 1869d Paper, and How it May be Tested. The Manufacturer and Builder 1(10; October):289. New York. 1869e Advertisement for firm ofE. A. Dayton, Richmond, Virginia. The Scientific American n.s. 20(14; April3):222. New York. 1869f Paper-Making Fifty Years Ago. The Scientific American n.s. 20(18; May 1):278-279. New York. 1870a Paper from Tule [a marsh plant found in California]. The Manufacturer and Builder 2(1; January):21. New York. 1870b Treatment ofWood for Paper-Making. The Manufacturer and Builder 2(9; September):259. New York. 1870c Paper Boxes. The Manufacturer and Builder 2(10; October):308-309. New York. 1871a Material for Paper-Making. The Manufacturer and Builder 3(12; December):270. New York. 1871b Producing Photographs with Printing-Press and Ink. The Manufacturer and Builder 3(6; June):l38. New York. 1872a New Sources of Supply for Paper. The Manufacturer and Builder 4(1; January):6. New York. 1872b Treatment ofWood for Paper-Pulp. The Manufacturer and Builder 4(6; June):135. New York. 1872c The Origin of Engraving and ofLithography. The Manufacturer and Builder 4(2; February):35-36. New York. 1873a Editor's Scientific Record. Harper's New Monthly Magazine 46(272; January):304-309. New York. 1873b Three Boiler Explosions on the Same Day. The Manufacturer and Builder. 5(3; March):65. New York. 1874a The Manufacture ofPaper. The Manufacturer and Builder 6(2; February):42. New York.
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1874b Another Criminal Boiler Explosion. The Manufacturer and Builder 8(12; December):274. New York. 1874c Dams as They Should be Built. The Manufacturer and Builder 6(8; August): 184. New York. 1875a The First Century of the Republic. Harper's New Monthly Magazine 50(297; February):371392. New York. 1875b The Manufactories ofNew England. The Manufacturer and Builder 7(3; March):51. New York. 1876 Boiler Explosions Always Preventable. The Manufacturer and Builder. 8(1; January):3. New York. 1877a Value of Cotton Waste and Jute. The Manufacturer and Builder 9(8; August): 172-173. New York. 1877b Review of the Building Material Market for 1876. The Manufacturer and Builder 9(2; February):44. New York. 1877c Disease Among Potters. The Manufacturer and Builder 9(7; July):155. New York. 1878a Fiber-Yielding Plants. The Manufacturer and Builder 10(7: July):157-158. New York. 1878b Steam-Boiler Explosions in 1877. The Manufacturer and Builder. 10(12; December):266. New York. 1880a Paper from Palm Fiber. The Manufacturer and Builder 12(11; November):247-248. New York. 1880b Barking Machine for Wood-Pulp Makers. The Manufacturer and Builder 3(9; September):193. New York. 1880c An Interesting Boiler Explosion. The Manufacturer and Builder. 12(2; February):34-35. New York. 1880d Contributions to the Origin of Steam Boiler Explosions. The Manufacturer and Builder. 12(5; May):106-107. New York. 1880e The Decomposition Theory of Steam Boiler Explosions. The Manufacturer and Builder. 12(8; August):170-171. New York. 1881a Paper Pulp from Wood. The Manufacturer and Builder 13(3; March):70. New York. 1881 b Alum in Manufacture. The Manufacturer and Builder 13(12; December):286. New York. 1881c Heating by Overhead Pipes. The Manufacturer and Builder 13(3; March):67. New York. 1881d Contributions to the Understanding of Steam Boiler Explosions. The Manufacturer and Builder. 13(2; February):34-35. New York. 1882a Paper from Wood. The Manufacturer and Builder 14(11; November):262. New York. 1882b Paper Making in the United States. The Manufacturer and Builder 14(3; March):66. New York.
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 1882c Boiler Explosions in 1881. The Manufacturer and Builder. 14(2; February):37. New York. 1883a New Uses for Wood. The Manufacturer and Builder 15(11; November): 250. New York. 1883b Boiler Explosions in 1882. The Manufacturer and Builder. 15(5; May):ll8. New York. 1884 Luminous Paper. The Manufacturer and Builder 16(6; June):l38. New York. 1885a Cheap Paper. The Manufacturer and Builder 17(1; January):9. New York. 1885b Some Curious Statistics Concerning PaperMaking. The Manufacturer and Builder 17(2; February):28. New York. 1887 Necrology. The New England Magazine 6(31; June-July):89-93. Boston (see entry for Richard Arthington Gilpin, pg. 91 ). 1888 Chataigne 's Fredericksburg and Falmouth City Directories 1888-1889. Publisher and place not given (accessible at ). 1889a Sawdust Powder. The Manufacturer and Builder. 21(8; August):175. New York. 1889b Construction of Mills. The Manufacturer and Builder. 21 (2; February):40. New York. 1890a The First Paper-Maker in America. The Manufacturer and Builder 22(2; February):35. New York. 1890b Lithography. The Manufacturer and Builder 22(11; November):247. New York. 1890c Lithography. The Manufacturer and Builder 22(12; December):281. New York. 1891a How Paper Pulp is Made. The Manufacturer and Builder 23(8; August): 178. New York. 1891 b Lithography. The Manufacturer and Builder 23(1; November):3. New York. 189lc Improved Ventilators and Skylights. The Manufacturer and Builder 23(6; June):127. New York. 1891d Boiler Explosions in 1890. The Manufacturer and Builder 23(4; April):94. New York. 189le Corrosion of Steam Boilers. The Manufacturer and Builder 23(6; June):127. New York. 1892 Fredericksburg, Virginia, City Directory, 1892. Publisher and place not given (accessible at ). 1893 Stone Lithography Discovered. The Manufacturer and Builder 25(9: September):207. New York. 1894a Paper Making Materials. The Manufacturer and Builder 26(11; November):253. New York. 1894b A Disastrous Boiler Explosion. The Manufacturer and Builder. 26(2; February):26-27. New York.
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1894c Boiler Explosions and Boiler Laws. The Manufacturer and Builder 26(10; October):232. New York. 1946 Paper for the Confederacy. Newspaper clipping (likely Nashville Banner) dated April 7, 1946. 2002 Chronicle. Appalachian Journa/29(1-2):252272. n.d.a Reuben Maddison: A True Story. Printed and Published by B. Hudson, Birmingham, England (likely published 1840 or earlier). n.d.b Mr. W. S. Whiteman is Buried at Nashville. Newspaper notice from unattributed and undated source (likely Nashville Banner, 1889) on file, Historical Collections, Nashville City Library, Nashville. Arter, Jared Maurice 1922 Echoes from a Pioneer Life. A. B. Caldwell Publishing Co., Atlanta. Atkinson, Edward 1893 Cellar or no Cellar? The Manufacturer and Builder 25(9; September):214. New York. Austin, Jane G. 1867 Rags. The Atlantic Monthly: A Magazine of Literature, Science, Art, and Politics 19(113; March):364-371. Boston. Bakewell, Frederick Collier 1860 Great Facts: A Popular History and Description of the Most Remarkable Inventions During the Present Century. D. Appleton and Company, New York. Balch, Thomas Bloomer 1866 My Manse, During the War: A Decade of Letters to the Rev. J. Thomas Murray, Editor of the Methodist Protestant. Sherwood & Company, Baltimore. Ball, Donald B. 2000 Useful but Impermanent: The Timber Crib Dam at Lock and Dam Number 4, Green River, Kentucky. Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 15:53-65. 200la Notes on a Lesser Known Early Map of the Old Stone Fort (40CF1), Coffee County, Tennessee. Journal ofAlabama Archaeology 47(1):46-64. 200 I b The Timber Crib Dam. Kentucky Explorer 16(6; November):53-55. 2002 An Ill-Fated "School oflnstruction": Comments on the History and Archaeology of the Confederate Gunpowder Mill at Manchester, Tennessee. Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 17:63-72. Ball, Donald B. and Gary A. O'Dell 200 I Bibliography of Niter Mining and Gunpowder Manufacture. OVHA Monograph No. II Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 16:1-128. Banister, Cowan & Company 1869 The Resources ofNorth Carolina: Its Natural
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Wealth, Condition, and Advantages, as Existing in 1869. Presented to the Capitalists and People of the Central and Northern States. Banister, Cowan & Company, Wilmington, North Carolina. Bearss, Edwin C. 1980 Hardluck Ironclad: The Sinking and Salvage of the Cairo (revised edition). Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rogue and London. Belcher, Joseph J. 1866 Newspaper Advertisements. Harper's New Monthly Magazine 33(198; November):781-784. New York. Bentz, Charles and Yong W. Kim (editors) 1993 The Sevierville Hill Site: A Civil War Union Encampment of the Southern Heights ofKnoxville, Tennessee. Tennessee Anthropological Association Miscellaneous Paper No. 17 and University of Tennessee Transportation Center Report of Investigations No. 1, Knoxville. Bidwell, Jr., M.S. 1869 A Paper-Mill. The Riverside Magazine for Young Readers: An Illustrated Monthly 3(34; October):453-456. Hurd and Houghton, New York. Bishop, John Leander 1866 A History ofAmerican Manufactures from 1608 to 1860 (3 vols.). Edward Young & Co., Philadelphia, and Sampson Low, Son & Co., London. Blake, John L. 1854 The Modern Farmer; or, Home in the Country: Designed for Instruction and Amusement on Rainy Days and Winters Evenings. Derby and Miller, Auburn; Derby, Orton and Mulligan, Buffalo; and Henry W. Derby, Cincinnati. Bourne, John 1854 A Catechism of the Steam Engine, Illustrative of the Scientific Principles Upon Which Its Operation Depends, and the Practical Details ofIts Structure, in Its Application to Mines, Mills, Steam Navigation and Railroads. D. Appleton & Company, New York. Bowker,R R 1887a A Sheet ofPaper. Harper 's New Monthly Magazine 75(445; June):113-130. New York. 1887b A Printed Book. Harper's New Monthly Magazine 75(446; July):165-188. New York. Bradley, Michael R 2000 Tullahoma: The 1863 Campaign for the Control ofMiddle Tennessee. Burd Street Press, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania. Brande, W. T. (editor) 1853 A Dictionary of Science, Literature & Art: Comprising the History, Description, and Scientific Principles o.f Every Branch o.fHuman Knowledge:
with the Derivation and Definition ofAll the Terms
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in General Use. Harper & Brothers, Publishers, New York. Branson & Farrar 1866 Branson & Farrar's North Carolina Business Directory for 1866- '67, Containing Facts, Figures, Names and Locations. Branson & Farrar, Publishers, Raleigh, North Carolina. Bray, Robert T. 1979 Times and Seasons: An Archaeological Perspective on Early Latter Day Saints Printing. Historical Archaeology 13:53-119. Bridenbaugh, Carl 1950 The Colonial Craftsman. New York University Press, New York (reprinted 1990, Dover Publications, Inc., New York). Brown, Gov. Joseph E. 1862 Governor's Message. In: Journal of the Senate of the State of Georgia, at the Annual Session of the General Assembly, Begun and Held in Milledgeville, the Seat of Government, in 1862. Boughton, Nisbet & Barnes, State Printers, Milledgeville. Bruce, Edward C. 1866 In and Around Richmond. Harper 's New Monthly Magazine 32(190; March):409-420. New York. Buckingham, Joseph T. 1852 Specimens ofNewspaper Literature: With Personal Memoirs, Anecdotes, and Reminiscences (2 vols.). Redding & Company, Boston. Burge, Dolly Lunt 1918 A Woman's Wartime Journal: An Account of the Passage over Georgia's Plantation of Sherman's Army on the March to the Sea, as Recorded in the Diary of Dolly Sumner Lunt (Mrs. Thomas Burge). The Century Company, New York. Camp, David N. (editor) 1869 The American Year Book and National Register for 1869. Astronomical, Historical, Political, Financial, Commercial, Agricultural, Educational, and Religious (Vol. 1). 0. D. Case & Company, Hartford. Chambers, William and Robert Chambers (editors) 1857 Chambers's Iriformation for the People (''New and Improved Edition") (2 vols.). J. B. Lippincott & Company, Philadelphia. 1867 Chambers 's Iriformationfor the People (''New and Improved Edition") (2 vols.). J. B. Lippincott & Company, Philadelphia. 1872-1873 Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People (10 vols.). J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, and W. & R. Chambers, Edinburgh. Church, John A.
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 1877 Scientific Miscellany. The Galaxy 24(3; September):409-418. New York (see note entitled "Vandalism in Official Quarters," pp. 413-414). Clapperton, Robert Henderson 1967 The Paper-Making Machine: Its Invention, Evolution, and Development. Pergamon Press, Oxford and New York. Clark W. Bryan & Company n.d. The Paper Mill Directory of the World (published ca. 1884). Clark W. Bryan & Company, Publishers, Holyoake, Massachusetts, and New York City. Clements, Paul 1987 A Past Remembered: A Collection of Antebellum Houses in Davidson County (Vol. 1). Clearview Press, Nashville. Cobb County Government 2002 Cobb County Government - Historic Preservation. Web site accessible at: . Colange, L. 1871 Zell's Popular Encyclopedia, A Universal Dictionary of English Language, Science, Literature, and Art. (2 vols.). T. Ellwood Zell, Philadelphia. Colburn, Zerah 1864 Colburn on Steam Boilers. The Scientific American n.s. 11(17):258-259. New York. Daniel, Larry J. and Riley W. Gunter 1977 Confederate Cannon Foundries. Pioneer Press, Union City, Tennessee. Davis, Charles Thomas 1972 The Manufacture of Paper: Being a Description of the Various Processes for the Fabrication, Coloring, and Finishing of Every Kind of Paper (originally published 1886, Philadelphia). Arno Press, New York. De Bow, J. D. B. 1853 The Industrial Resources, Etc., of the Southern and Western States: Embracing a View of Their Commerce, Agriculture, Manufactures, Internal Improvements, Slave and Free Labor, Slavery Institutions, Products, Etc. , of the South (3 Vols.). Office ofDe Bow's Review, New Orleans, New York, and Charleston. DeLorme Publishing 1997a North Carolina Atlas & Gazetteer (3rd edition). DeLorme Publishing, Yarmouth, Maine. 1997b Tennessee Atlas & Gazetteer (41h edition). DeLorme Publishing, Yarmouth, Maine. de Vere, Schele 1868 A Paper on Paper. Putnam's Magazine of Literature, Science, Art, and National Interests. n.s. 1(4; April):393-404. New York.
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De Vinne, Theodore L. 1880a The Growth of Wood-Cut Printing. I. Early Methods on the Hand-Press, 1450-1850. Scribner's Monthly: An Illustrated Magazine for the People 19(6; Apri1):860-874. New York. 1880a The Growth ofWood-Cut Printing. II. The Modem Methods by Machines. Scribner's Monthly: An Illustrated Magazine for the People 20(1; May):34-45. New York. Dietz Press 1944 Dietz Catalog & Hand-Book (Specialized) of the Postage Stamps and Envelopes of the Confederate States ofAmerica (1945 Edition). The Dietz Press, Incorporated, Richmond, Virginia. Dimitry, Adelaide Stuart n.d. War- Time Sketches: Historical and Otherwise. Louisiana Printing Co. Press, New Orleans (published after 1911). Dodge, David 1886 Domestic Economy in the Confederacy. The Atlantic Monthly 58(346; August):229-243. Boston. 1892 Home Scenes at the Fall of the Confederacy. The Atlantic Monthly 69(415; May):661-670. Boston. Dugan, Frances L. S. and Jacqueline P. Bull (editors) 1959 Bluegrass Craftsman, Being the Reminiscences of Ebenezer Hiram Stedman, Papermaker 18081885. University ofKentucky Press, Lexington. Dunlap, Thomas (compiler) 1874 Wiley's American Iron Trade Manual of the Leading Iron Industries of the United States. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Edwards, Richard 1855 Statistical Gazetteer of the State of Virginia, Embracing Important Topographical and Historical Information from Recent and Original Sources, Together with the Results of the Last Census Population, in Most Cases, to 1854. Printed for the author, Richmond, Virginia. Evans, Clement A. (editor) 1899 Confederate Military History (12 volumes). Confederate Publishing Company, Atlanta, Georgia. Fahs, Alice 2001 The Imagined South: Popular Literature of the North & South, 1861-1865. University ofNorth Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. Faulkner, Charles H. 1968 The Old Stone Fort: Exploring an Archaeological Mystery. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. Fisher, Richard Swainson 1853 A New and Complete Statistical Gazetteer of the United States ofAmerica, Founded and Compiled from Qfficial Federal and State Returns, and the
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Seventh National Census. J. H. Colton, New York. Freedley, Edwin T. 1858 Philadelphia and Its Manufactures: A HandBook Exhibiting the Development, Variety, and Statistics of the Manufacturing Industry of Philadelphia in 1857. Edward Young, Philadelphia. 1867 Philadelphia and Its Manufactures: A HandBook of the Great Manufactories and Representative Mercantile Houses of Philadelphia in 1867. Edward Young & Co., Philadelphia. Freeman, DouglasS. (editor) 1941 Proceedings ofthe First Confederate Congress: Third Session in Part, January 29-March 19, 1863. Southern Historical Society Papers, 48(whole volume). Richmond. Freeman, DouglasS., George L. Christian, and H. R. Mcllwaine (editors) 1923 Proceedings of the First Confederate Congress, First Session (in Part). Southern Historical Society Papers 44:5-206. Richmond. Gardner, Alexander 1959 Gardner's Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War. Dover Publications, Inc., New York (originally published 1866 in 2 volumes as Gardner's Photographic Sketch Book of the War, Philip & Solomons, Publishers, Washington, DC). Geier, Clarence R., Jr. and Stephen R. Potter (editors) 2000 Archaeological Perspectives on the American Civil War. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. Geier, Clarence R., Jr., and Susan E. Winter (editors) 1994 Look to the Earth: Historical Archaeology and the American Civil War. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. Gillispie, Charles C. (editor) 1959 A Diderot Pictorial Encyclopedia of Trades and Industry (2 vols.). Dover Publications, Inc., New York (originally published 1763 in Paris). Goodspeed Publishing Company 1886 A History of Tennessee from the Earliest Times to the Present. Chicago and Nashville. Grat: LeRoy P. and Ralph W. Haskins (editors) 1986 The Papers ofAndrew Johnson (Vol. 7). University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. Grafton, Carol Belanger 1990 Trades and Occupations: A Pictorial Archive from Early Sources. Dover Publications, Inc., New York. Graves, John P. 1975 Northwest Davidson County: The Land- Its People. Privately published by the author, place not given. Gregg, William 1860 Southern Patronage to Southern Imports and Domestic Industry. De Bow 's Review 29(2;
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August):226-232. New Orleans. Halley, R. A. 1904 Paper Making in Tennessee. The American Historical Magazine 9(July):211-217. Hampton, John S. 1877 The North Carolina Guide and Business Office Companion, Containing a List ofAll the Post Offices in the State, with Distances from Principal Commercial Towns. New Steam Book and Job Office and Bindery, Raleigh. Harrison, Joseph, Jr. 1871 An Essay on the Steam-Boiler Read Before the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, January 16, 1867. Harrison Boiler Works, Philadelphia. Harrison, S. Frances 1891 A Glimpse of the Seige ofLouisburg. The New England Magazine 11(2; October):261-265. Boston. Heide, R. E. 1875 Report of Vice-Consul R. E. Heide, on the Resources, Trade and Commerce ofNorth Carolina. North Carolina Presbyterian Publishing House, Wilmington. Herring, Richard B. 1856 Paper and Paper Making, Ancient and Modern. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longman, London. Historical Publishing Company 1885 New York's Great Industries. Exchange and Commercial Review, Embracing Also Historical and Descriptive Sketch of the City, Its Leading Merchants and Manufactures with Numerous Illustrations. Historical Publishing Company, New York and Chicago. Hockensmith, Charles D. 1995 The Stedman Mill Complex, Franklin County, Kentucky. Old Mill News 24(4):8-1 0. 1998 Ebenezer Stedman's Mills: A Nineteenth Century Paper, Grist, and Lumber Milling Complex near Frankfort, Kentucky. Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 13:80-95. Hockensmith, Charles D. and Fred E. Coy, Jr. 1995 A Lithographic Stone Quarry in Meade County, Kentucky. In: Historical Archaeology in Kentucky (Kim A. McBride, W. Stephen McBride, and David Pollack, editors), pp. 106-138. Kentucky Heritage Council, Frankfort. Hofinann, Karl 1895 Hofmann 's Treatise on Paper-Making. H. Lockwood & Company, New York. Honts, III, George E. 1999 The Paper Mills of Botetourt County (18201864). Botetourt County Historical Society, Fincastle, Virginia. Hunter, Dard 1930 Papermaking Through Eighteen Centuries.
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology William Edwin Rudge, New York. 1947 Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft (2nd edition). A. A. Knopf, New York (reprinted 1978, Dover Publications, Inc., New York). 1952 Papermaking in Pioneer America. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Janes, Thomas P. 1876 Hand-book of the State of Georgia. Georgia Department of Agriculture, Atlanta. Jernigan, Vema Thomas and Sarah Marsh Shapard n .d. Tombstone Inscriptions of Coffee County, Tennessee. Privately published (ca. 1972), Tullahoma, Tennessee. Johnson, Guion Griffis 1937 Ante-Bellum North Carolina: A Social History. University ofNorth Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. Johnson, Jacob 1807 The Book of Trades, or Library of the Useful Arts. Whitehall, Philadelphia and Richmond (reprinted 1992 as Early Nineteenth-Century Crafts and Trades, Peter Stockman, editor, Dover Publications, Inc., New York). Johnson, Leland R. and Charles E. Parrish 1999 Kentucky River Development: The Commonwealth's Waterway. US Army Corps of Engineers, Louisville. Jones, J. William (editor) 1885 General Sherman's Method ofMaking War. Southern Historical Society Papers 13:439-453. Richmond. Jones, Virgil Carrington and Harold L. Peterson 1971 The Story of a Civil War Gunboat: US.S. Cairo. National Park Service, US Department ofthe Interior, Washington. Julian, Wilbur C. 1985 The Schober Paper Mill on Peter's Creek. The Forsyth County Genealogical Society Journal 3(2; Winter):77-84. Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Kays, Thomas 1884 Boiler Explosions - The Cause and the Remedy. The Manufacturer and Builder. 16(10; October): 233-235. New York. Keele, Robert L. 1947 Folklore ofthe Branchline Railroad. Tennessee Folklore Society Bulletin 13(1):10-15. Kettell, Thomas Prentice 1867 Paper: Its Manufacture. In: Eighty Years' Progress of the United States: A Family Record of American Industry, Energy and Enterpri~e; Showing the Various Channels ofIndustry and Education Through Which the People of the United States Have Arisen from a British Colony to Their Present National Importance (Volume I) by "Eminent
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Literary Men," pp. 291-298. L. Stebbins, Hartford, Connecticut. King, Edward n.d. Diary ofWilliam King; Cobb County, Georgia, 1864-1879. Ms. on file, Southern Historical Collection (call number 2985-Z), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Kniffen, Fred 1936 Louisiana House Types. Annals of the Association ofAmerican Geographers 26(4): 179193. Lanman, Charles 1856 Adventures in the Wilds of the United States and British American Provinces (2 Vols.). John W. Moore, Philadelphia. Lee, Laura Elizabeth 1909 Forget-Me-Nots of the Civil War: A Romance, Containing Reminiscences and Original Letters of Two Confederate Soldiers. Press A. R. Fleming Printing Company, St. Louis, Missouri. Leggett, M.D. (Commissioner ofPatents) 1874 Subject-Matter Index of Patents for Inventions Issued by the United States Patent Office from 1790 to 1873, Inclusive (3 volumes). Government Printing Office, Washington. Levenstein, Charles, Gregory F. DeLaurier, and Mary Lee Dunn 2001 The Cotton Dust Papers: Science, Politics, and Power in the "Discovery" of Byssinosis. Baywood Publishing Company, Amityville, New York. Lieber, Francis (editor) 1851 Encyclopaedia Americana. A Popular Dictionary ofArts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and Biography (13 vols.). B. B. Mussey & Co., Boston. Lockwood Trade Journal Company 1940 1690-1940 - 250 Years of Papermaking in America. Lockwood Trade Journal Co., Inc., New York. Lossing, Benson John 1851-1852 The Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution; or, Illustrations, by Pen and Pencil, of the History, Biography, Scenery, Relics, and Traditions of the War for Independence (2 vols.). Harper & Bros., New York. Mainfort, Robert C., Jr. 1980 Archaeological Investigations at Fort Pillow State Historic Area: 1976-1978. Research Series No. 4, Division of Archaeology, Tennessee Department of Conservation, Nashville. Mallet, John W. 1909 Work of the Ordnance Bureau. Southern Historical Society Papers 37:1-20. Richmond.
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology
Marthens, John Francis 1875 Typographical Bibliography: A List of Books in the English Language on Printing and Its Accessories. Bakewell & Marthens, Pittsburgh. Martinez, Corinne, Marjorie Collier, and Sarah M. Shapard 1969 Coffee County from Arrowheads to Rockets. Coffee County Conservation Board, Tullahoma, Tennessee. Matthews, James M. (editor) 1862 The Statutes at Large of the Confederate States ofAmerica, Commencing with the First Session of the First Congress; 1862 Public Laws of the Confederate States ofAmerica, Passed at the First Session of the First Congress; 1862 Private Laws of the Confederate States ofAmerica, Passed at the First Session of the First Congress; 1862. R. M. Smith, Printer to Congress, Richmond, Virginia. Maury, M. F. and William M. Fontaine 1876 Resources of West Virginia. State Board of Centennial Managers, Wheeling. McMahan, Basil B. 1965 The Mystery of the Old Stone Fort. Tennessee Book Company, Nashville. 1983 Coffee County Then and Now 1983. Williams Printing Company, Nashville. McMurtrie, Douglas C. 1933 A Lottery Financed Early Tennessee Paper Mill. Paper Industry 15(2; May):81. Moran, James 1973 Printing Presses: History and Development from the Fifteenth Century to Modern Times. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Mordecai, Samuel 1860 Virginia, Especially Richmond, in By-Gone Days: With a Glance at the Present: Being Reminiscences and Last Words of an Old Citizen (2nd edition). West & Johnson, Richmond, Virginia. Morphis, J. M. 1874 History ofTexas, From Its Discovery and Settlement, With a Description ofIts Principle Cities and Counties, and the Agricultural, Mineral, and Material Resources of the State. United States Publishing Company, New York. Morton, Henry 1883 The Harrison Boiler. The Manufacturer and Builder 15(8; August):184. New York. Munsell, Joel 1876 A Chronology of Paper and Paper-Making (51h edition). J. Munsell, Albany. Nelson, Lee H. 1968 Nail Chronology as an Aid to Dating Old
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Buildings (revised edition). Technical Leaflet No. 48, American Association for State and Local History, Nashville. Norman, Matthew W. 1996 Colonel Burton's Spiller & Burr Revolver: An Untimely Venture in Confederate Small-Arms Manufacturing. Mercer University Press, Macon. North Carolina Land Company 1869 A Guide to Capitalists and Emigrants: Being a Statistical and Descriptive Account of the Several Counties of the State ofNorth Carolina, United States ofAmerica. Nichols & Gorman, Raleigh, North Carolina. North Carolina State Grange 1877 A Directory of the Granges in North Carolina, 1877. Place not given. Nystrom, John W. 1876 A New Treatise on Steam Engineering, Physical Properties of Permanent Gases, and of Different Kinds of Vapor. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 1882 The Theory of Steam Boiler Explosions. The Manufacturer and Builder. 14(8; August):184-185. New York. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 1995 Cotton Dust. Fact Sheet No. OSHA 95-23. US Department ofLabor, Washington. 2000a Occupational Exposure to Cotton Dust. Federal Register 65(December 7):76,563-76,567. 2000b Occupational Exposure to Cotton Dust: Notice of the Availability of a Lookback Review Pursuant to the Regulatory Flexibility Act and Executive Order 12866. Federal Register 65(December 7):76,66776,669. O'Hara, C. E. 1878 Paper. In: Johnson's New Universal Cyclopedia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge (Volume 3; Frederick A. P. Barnard and Arnold Guyot, editors-in-chief), pp. 1,071-1,076. Alvin A. Johnson & Son, New York. Olmsted, Frederick Law 1862 The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveller's [sic} Observations on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States (2 vols.). Mason Brothers, New York. O'Malley, James R. 1972a The "I" House: An Indicator of Agricultural Opulence in Upper East Tennessee. MS thesis, Department of Geography, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 1972b Functional Aspects ofFolk Housing: A Case for the "I" House, Union County, Tennessee. Tennessee Folklore Society Bulletin 38(1 ): 1-4. Perry, James M. 2000 A Bohemian Brigade: The Civil War
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Correspondents- Mostly Rough, Sometimes Ready. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Pollard, Edward Alfred 1864 The Rival Administrations: Richmond and Washington in December, 1863. Published for the author, Richmond, Virginia. Porcher, Francis Peyre 1863 Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical, and Agricultural. Being also a Medical Botany of the Confederate States; with Practical Information on the Useful Properties of the Trees, Plants, and Shrubs. SteamPower Press ofEvans & Cogswell, Charleston, South Carolina. Post Office Department 1851 Table of Post Offices in the United States on the First Day ofJanuary 1851, Arranged in Alphabetical Order. W. & J. C. Greer, Printers, Washington. 1870 Post Office Directory: List of Post Offices in the United States. Government Printing Office, Washington. Poussin, Guillaume Tell 1851 The United States; Power and Progress. Lippincott, Grambo and Co., Philadelphia. Prouteaux, Albert 1866 Practical Guide for the Manufacture of Paper and Boards. H. C. Baird, Philadelphia. Putnam, George P. (editor) 1852 Putnam's Home Cyclopedia: Hand-Book of Chronology and History. George P. Putnam, New York. Quertermous, Grant 1999 A Summary of Excavations at Fort Star (15L V207): Archaeology of a Union Civil War Fortification. Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology 14:89-94. Quint, Alonzo H. 1864 The Potomac and the Rapidan. Army Notes from the Failure at Winchester to the Reenforcement [sic} of Rosecrans. 1861-3. Crosby and Nichols, Boston, and 0. S. Felt, New York. Raistrick, Arthur 1972 Industrial Archaeology: An Historical Survey. Eyre Methuen, London. Range, Willard 1954 A Century of Georgia Agriculture: 1850-1950. University of Georgia Press, Athens. Riedl, Norbert F., Donald B. Ball, and Anthony P. Cavender 1976 A Survey of Traditional Architecture and Related Material Folk Culture Patterns in the Normandy Reservoir, Coffee County, Tennessee. Report ofInvestigations No. 17, Department of
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Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Ripley, George and Charles A. Dana (editors) 1859-1863 The New American Cyclopedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge (16 vols.). D. Appleton and Company, New York and London. 1873-1876 The American Cyclopedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge (16 vols.) D. Appleton and Company, New York and London. Robinson, James R. 1870 Explosions of Steam Boilers. Little, Brown, and Company, Boston. Romaine, Lawrence B. 1990 A Guide to American Trade Catalogs: 17441900. Dover Publications, Inc., New York (originally published 1960, R. R. Bowker, New York). Roper, Stephen 1874 A Catechism of High Pressure or NonCondensing Steam Engines. Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger, Philadelphia. Ross, John M. (editor) 1876-1879 The Globe Encyclopedia of Universal Information (6 vols.). Estes & Lauriat, Boston. Sanborn, Inc. 1912 Map ofFredericksburg, Virginia. E. D. R. Sanborn, Inc., New York. Secretary of the Interior 1865 Manufactures of the United States in 1860; Compiled from the Original Returns of the Eighth Census. Government Printing Office, Washington. Secretary ofthe Navy 1903 Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of Rebellion. Series I, Volume 17. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1906 Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of Rebellion. Series I, Volume 21. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1921 Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of Rebellion. Series II, Volume 2. Government Printing Office, Washington. Secretary of War 1884 The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume X, Part I. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1888 The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume XXI. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1889 The War ofthe Rebellion: A Compilation ofthe Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume XXIII, Part 1. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1890 The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the
Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume XXXI, Part I. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1891 a The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records ofthe Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume XXXVIII Part 2. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1891b The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume XXXVIII Part 5. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1891-1895 Atlas to Accompany the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1895 The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series!, Volume XL VII- Part I. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1897a The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series II- Volume II. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1897b The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume XLIX, Part 1. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1898a The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series II- Volume III. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1898b The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series I- Volume LII, Part 2. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1900a The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series IV- Volume II. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1900b The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series IV- Volume V. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1900c The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Series III- Volume II. Government Printing Office, Washington. Shaw, A. Batty 1981 Knappers Rot- Silicosis in East Anglian Flintknappers. Medical History 25:151-168.
SiDdall, Robert Walker 1908 The Manufacture of Paper. A. Constable & Company, Ltd., London. Smith, 1. E. A. 1882 A History of Paper: Its Genesis and
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Revelations, Origin and Manufacture, Utility and Commercial Value ofan Indispensable Staple of the Commercial World. Clark W. Bryan & Co., Holyoke, Massachusetts. Smith, Marion 0. 1997 The Quest for a Supply of Saltpeter and Gunpowder in Early Civil War Tennessee. Tennessee Historical Quarterly 56(2; Summer):96111. Smith, Raymond W. 1975 Historic American Engineering Record: Curtis Paper Mill, HAER-DE-1. Ms. on file, Historic American Engineering Record, Library of Congress, Washington. Smucker, Samuel M. 1865 The History of the Civil War in the United States: Its Causes, Origin, Progress and Conclusion. Jones Brothers & Co., Philadelphia. South Carolina Constitutional Convention 1868 Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of South Carolina. Denny & Perry, Charleston, South Carolina. Starbuck, David R 1990 The Timber Crib Dam at Sewell' s Falls. Industrial Archaeology 16(2):40-61. State of Georgia 1862 Acts of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, Passed in Milledgeville, at an Annual Session in November and December, 1861. Boughton, Nisbet & Barnes, State Printers, Milledgeville. State of South Carolina 1863 Journal of the Senate of South Carolina, Being the Sessions of 1863. Charles P. Pelham, State Printer, Columbia. Swindell, David E., III 1976 Archaeological Excavations of Gun Emplacement Number 17 (8Es126): A Suspected Confederate Battery at Pensacola, Florida. Bureau of Historic Sites and Properties Bulletin No. 5:1-14. Florida Division of Archives, History, and Records Management (now Division of Historical Resources), Tallahassee. Tennessee State Historical Commission 1946 Tennessee Old and New: Sesquicentennial Edition, 1796-1946 (2 vols.). Kingsport Press, Inc., Kingsport, Tennessee. Thomas, J. and T. Baldwin (editors) 1856 Lippincott 's Pronouncing Gazetteer. A Complete Pronouncing Gazetteer, or Geographical Dictionary, of the World. 1. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia. Tracy, 1. L. 1862 The Dead-Letter Office. Harper's New Monthly
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Ohio Valley Historical Archaeology Magazine 25(146; July):256-258. New York. Trowbridge, W. P. 1872 Tables and Diagrams Relating to NonCondensing Engines and Boilers. John Wiley & Son, New York. Turner, J. A. 1857 The Cotton Planter's Manual: Being a Compilation of Facts from the Best Authorities on the Culture of Cotton; Its Natural History, Chemical Analysis, Trade and Consumption; and Embracing a History of Cotton and the Cotton Gin. C. M. Saxton and Company, New York. United States Army Corps of Engineers 1869 Legends of the Operations of the Army of the Cumberland. Government Printing Office, Washington. United States Congress 1865 Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War at the Second Session, Thirty-eighth Congress. Government Printing Office, Washington. Ure, Andrew 1868 A Dictionary ofArts, Manufactures, and Mines; Containing a Clear Exposition of Their Principles and Practice (corrected and revised edition; Volume II). D. Appleton & Company, New York. 1870 A Dictionary ofArts, Manufactures, and Mines; Containing a Clear Exposition of Their Principles and Practice (corrected and revised edition; Volume 1). D. Appleton & Company, New York. Vandiver, Frank E. (editor) 1953 Proceedings of the First Confederate Congress, Fourth Session: 7 December 1863-18 February 1864. Southern Historical Society Papers, VoL 50. Richmond. Virginia Board oflmmigration 1876 Virginia: A Geographical and Political Summary, Embracing a Description of the State. R F. Walker, Superintendent of Public Printing, Richmond. Watehall, E. T. 1909 Fall ofRichmond, April3, 1865. Confederate Veteran 17:215. Nashville. Weeks, Lyman Horace 1916 A History of Paper-Manufacturing in the United States, 1690-1916. The Lockwood Trade Journal Company, New York (reprinted 1969, B. Franklin, New York). West, Judy F. 1986 Manchester, Coffee County, Tennessee: A Business and Community Pictorial History. Privately published, Chattanooga, Tennessee. White, George 1854 Historical Collections ofGeorgia: Containing the Most Interesting Facts, Traditions, Biographical
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Sketches, Anecdotes, Etc. Relating to Its History and Antiquities, from Its First Settlement to the Present Time. Pudney & Russell, New York. White, Nancy Marie, Joe Knetsch, and B. Calvin Jones 1999 Archaeology, History, Fluvial Geomorphology, and the Mystery Mounds of Northeastern Florida. Southeastern Archaeology 18(2): 142-156. Whiteman, Larue 1909 Last Will and Testament (dated March 8, 1909, and probated June 26, 1909). Davidson County, Tennessee, Will Book 37, page 159. Metro Archives, Nashville. Whiteman, W. S. 1864a Letter dated March 6, 1864, from W. S. Whiteman to A. C. Williams offering to sell a Negro male named Willis for $5,000 in CSA treasury notes or $200 in gold. Letter on file, Small Manuscript Collection, Ina Dillard Russell Library Special Collections, Georgia College and State University, Milledgeville, Georgia (synopsis of this and following document accessible at: ). 1864b Receipt dated March 7, 1864, from W. S. Whiteman to A. C. Williams for sale of Negro male named Willis for $5,000 in Confederate money. Document on file, Small Manuscript Collection, Ina Dillard Russell Library Special Collections, Georgia College and State University, Milledgeville, Georgia. 1888 Last Will and Testament (dated April 12, 1888, and probated August 1889). Davidson County, Tennessee, Will Book 30, page 271. Metro Archives, Nashville. Wilmington Chamber of Commerce 1872 Wilmington, North Carolina. Past, Present and Future. History ofIts Harbor, with Detailed Reports of the Works for Improving and Restoring the Same, Now Being Conducted by the US Government. Resources and Advantages as an Entrepot for Western Cities. Harbor of Refuge, and Coaling Depot for the Navy and Merchant Marine. J. A. Englehard, Printer, Wilmington, North Carolina. Winsor, Justin 1893 The Future of Local Libraries. The Atlantic Monthly 71(428; June):815-818. Boston. Woolsey, Theodore D., F. A. P. Barnard, David A. Wells, Frances A. Walker, T. Sterry Hunt, William G. Sumner, Edward Atkinson, Theodore Gill, Edwin P. Whipple, W. H. Brewer, Eugene Lawrence, John F. Hurst, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott, Austin A. Flint, S. S. Conant, Edward H. Knight, and Charles L. Brace 1876 The First Century of the Republic: A Review of American Progress. Harper & Brothers, Publishers, New York.
