penyelidikan

PENYELIDIKAN PEMACU PEMBANGUNAN NEGARA PROSIDING SEMINAR HASIL PENYELIDIKAN S E K TO R PE NGAJIA N TI NGGI KE-3

2013

Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan Jilid 3

disunting oleh ABDUL GHAFAR ISMAIL • ROOSFA HASHIM

PENYELIDIKAN PEMACU PEMBANGUNAN NEGARA PROSIDING SEMINAR HASIL PENYELIDIKAN SEK TO R P E NGAJI A N T IN G GI KE- 3

2013

PENYELIDIKAN PEMACU PEMBANGUNAN NEGARA PROSIDING SEMINAR HASIL PENYELIDIKAN SE K T OR P E N GAJI A N TIN G G I KE- 3

2013

Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan Jilid III

disunting oleh

Roosfa Hashim Abdul Ghafar Ismail

Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia Putrajaya • 2013

Cetakan Pertama / First Printing, 2013 Hak cipta / Copyright Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2013 Hak cipta terpelihara. Tiada bahagian daripada terbitan ini boleh diterbitkan semula, disimpan untuk pengeluaran atau ditukarkan ke dalam sebarang bentuk atau dengan sebarang alat juga pun, sama ada dengan cara elektronik, gambar serta rakaman dan sebagainya tanpa kebenaran bertulis daripada Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia terlebih dahulu. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from Ministry of Education Malaysia. Diterbitkan di Malaysia oleh / Published in Malaysia by KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN MALAYSIA Aras 13, No. 2, Menara 2 Jalan P5/6, Presint 5 62200 Putrajaya, MALAYSIA Atur huruf oleh / Typeset by REKA CETAK SDN BHD No. 12 & 14, Jalan Jemuju Empat 16/13D Seksyen 16, 40200 Shah Alam Selangor D.E., MALAYSIA www.rekacetak.com

ISBN 978-967-0334-81-3 (Versi Cetak) ISBN 978-967-0334-82-0 (Versi DVD)

Prosiding Seminar Hasil Penyelidikan Sektor Pengajian Tinggi 2013

KANDUNGAN Prakata … xi 117. IN SEARCH FOR ISLAMIC WEALTH MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK Amir Shaharuddin, Hanim Misbah, Muhammad Aunnorchim Mas’ad, Siti Nurulhuda Nordin, Yasmin Hanani Mohd Safian & Zurina Shafii … 1275 118. HUBUNGAN PERSONALITI DENGAN TINGKAH LAKU AGRESIF DALAM KALANGAN REMAJA BERTINGKAH LAKU BERISIKO TINGGI DI MALAYSIA Mohd Radzi Tarmizi, Fikri, Rozmi Ismail & Norhayati Ibrahim … 1284 119. FAKTOR DAN KESAN FACEBOOK DALAM INTERAKSI SOSIAL REMAJA Murihah Abdullah, Siti Adawiyah Yusuf & Siti Intan Dahlia Harun … 1294 120. PROFIL DAN ISU PSIKOSOSIAL DALAM KALANGAN ORANG YANG HIDUP DENGAN HIV/AIDS: DAPATAN AWAL Rajwani Md. Zain & Nor Azimah Chew Abdullah … 1304 121. STRATEGI TRADISIONAL KOMUNITI ORANG ASLI DALAM PENGURUSAN KAWASAN LADANG PERTANIAN SECARA LESTARI Syaidatulnor Ibrahim & Mustaffa Omar … 1316 122. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY OF LIFE SATISFACTION AMONG ELDER MALAYSIAN: COMPARISON GENDER AND RACE Homa Mardan, Tengku Aizan Hamid, Mariani Mansor & Siti Farra Zillah Abdullah … 1329 123. KEPENONTONAN DAN MORAL PENAPISAN KENDIRI FILEM DOKUMENTARI SEJARAH Mohd. Nor Shahizan Ali, Normah Mustaffa, Mat Pauzi Abd Rahman, Mus Chairil Samani & Zairul Anuar Md. Dawam … 1338

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124. KEY FACTORS INFLUENCING TARGET CAPITAL STRUCTURE OF PROPERTY FIRMS IN MALAYSIA Razali Haron … 1348 125. CAPITAL MARKETS COMPENSATION FUND: A NEW APPROACH OF INVESTORS’ PROTECTION Asmah Laili Yeon & Nurli Yaacob … 1358 126. PERANAN SIMBOL, GRAF DAN PENYELESAIAN MASALAH DALAM PENCAPAIAN MATEMATIK Arsaythamby Veloo … 1370 127. USAGE OF PROCESS APPROACH IN TEACHING WRITING Parveen Sarjit Sidhu … 1381 128. FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT OF HERITAGE BUILDING: THE INFLUENCE OF REGULATORY BODY AND RESTORER’S BACKGROUND ON THE ASSESSMENT CRITERIA Md. Najib Ibrahim, Mohd Shariffuddin Ibrahim, Azrin Mohd Din, Maisarah Ali, Rodzyah Mohd Yunus & Mohamad Ridzuan Yahya … 1391 129. IMPROVING SERVICE QUALITY IN THE HOTEL OPERATIONS : FOOD AND BEVERAGE DIVISION Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Ahmad Puad Mat Som … 1398 130. KEPIMPINAN TRANSFORMASIONAL PENGETUA DENGAN PENGLIBATAN GURU DALAM MEMBUAT KEPUTUSAN DI SEKOLAH Norazlinda Saad & Surendran Sankaran … 1406 131. PEMBENTUKAN SAIZ PAKAIAN KANAK-KANAK PRA SEKOLAH Siti Balkis Bari, Naimah Mohd Salleh, Norhasmah Sulaiman & Mumtazah Othman… 1415 132. PERSEPSI HUBUNGAN KESATUAN SEKERJA DAN MAJIKAN SERTA FAKTOR KOLEKTIVISME : PERAMAL KEPADA INTEREST BASED BARGAINING (IBB) DALAM KESATUAN SEKERJA DI SABAH Kee. Y. Sabariah Kee Mohd Yussof & Husna Johari … 1424 133. PEROLEHAN HIJAU DAN PEROLEHAN HIJAU KERAJAAN DALAM KONTEKS MALAYSIA Khairul Naim Adham, Chamhuri Siwar & Sarah Aziz Abdul Ghani Aziz … 1435 134. PENGUBAHSUAIAN ALAT PENGUKUR REAP UNTUK LIBATSAMA UNIVERSITI KOMUNITI SETEMPAT (LUKS) DALAM MENTRANSFORMASIKAN WILAYAH BANDAR S. Thanam Subramaniam … 1451 vi


135. BENEFIT OF LEAN SIX SIGMA INITIATIVES FOR MALAYSIAN AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY Nurul Fadly Habidin, Sha’ri Mohd Yusof, Mad Ithnin Salleh, Nor Azrin Md Latip & Hariri Kamis … 1463 136. LEKSIKAL DAN IDENTITI DALAM WACANA KHALED NORDIN Mashetoh Abd Mutalib, Hishamudin Isam Rohaidah Haron & Mohd Izani Mohd Zain … 1472 137. PREDICTING FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH OF AIRCRAFT MATERIALS Haftirman., Wong Chun Hoe., M. Saifuldin. A. M., A., Syayuthi. A. R., M. Syafwan. M. A. & Imaduddin. H. W. N. … 1487 138. PENYERTAAN PEKERJA PERKHIDMATAN SOSIAL DALAM KEUSAHAWANAN SOSIAL PERTUBUHAN SUKARELA ISLAM DI UTARA MALAYSIA Ab Rahman Khudzri Wan Abdullah, Wan Ibrahim Wan Ahmad, Fuziah Shaffie, Ab Aziz Yusof & Azizan Bahari … 1495 139. HUBUNGAN SIRI MASA ANTARA PASARAN SUKUK DAN PERTUMBUHAN EKONOMI Nur Azura Sanusi, Norashikin Draman @ Wahab Suhal Kusairi … 1504 140. NEURAL NETWORK DALAM PERAMALAN PERTUMBUHAN EKONOMI MALAYSIA Fauziah Abu Hasan, Nur Azura Sanusi, Adzie Faraha Moosin & Suriyani Muhamad … 1510 141. CONSUMERS’ MORTGAGE MARKET: A TALE OF CONSUMERS’ CONFUSION? Sek-Choo Tan, Zunarni Kosim, Lip-Sam Thi & Suryati Ahmad Zawawi … 1521 142. UNIT ROOTS AND STRUCTURAL BREAKS: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY IN DEVELOPING ASEAN COUNTRIES Tan Yan Ling, Abu Hassan Shaari Mohd Nor, Nur Adilah Saud & Zailati Ahmad … 1532 143. SINISISME DI KALANGAN KAKITANGAN AKADEMIK INSTITUSI PENGAJIAN TINGGI AWAM (IPTA) DI MALAYSIA: ADAKAH IANYA WUJUD? Nor Azila Mohd Noor, Zamzam Mohd Walid, Fais Ahmad & Amer Darus … 1542 144. DEVELOPING PONDOK INSTITUTIONS AS A RELIGIOUS TOURISM PRODUCT Mohd Fadil Mohd Yusof, Hasnita Buniamin, Ghazali Ahmad & Mazne Ibrahim … 1552 145. WOMEN REPRESENTATION ON THE BOARDS OF DIRECTORS AND FIRM PERFORMANCE: MALAYSIAN EVIDENCE Ku Norizah Ku Ismail & Shamsul Nahar Abdullah … 1558

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146. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH: TIME SERIES EVIDENCE FROM MALAYSIA Dimas Bagus Wiranata Kusuma, M. Rizky Prima Sakti2 & M. Khairul Anwari … 1571 147. SAVINGS AND INVESTMENT BEHAVIOUR OF THE CONSUMER OF FINANCIAL SERVICES: A PRELIMINARY FINDINGS Nor Hayati Ahmad, Asish Saha, Mohamed Nasser Katib1 & Raj Yadav … 1583 148. ELEMEN USABILITY, SOCIABILITY DAN IDENTITI DALAM E-MASJID: KAJIAN TERHADAP MASJID UTEM Muhamad Faisal Asha’ari, Bushral Huda Abd Manan, Norlizam Md. Sukiban & Hidayah Rahmalan … 1595 149. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PERSON-CENTERED THERAPY AND COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AD-DIN GROUP COUNSELLING ON SELF-CONCEPT, DEPRESSION AND RESILIENCE OF PREGNANT OUT-OF-WEDLOCK TEENAGERS Fauziah Mohd Sa’ad, Fatimah Yusooff, Salina Nen & Nasrudin Subhi … 1607 150. TECHNICAL AND SCALE EFFICIENCY OF PUBLIC HOSPITALS IN NOTHERN REGION OF MALAYSIA: A DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS (DEA) Ahmad Sobri Jaafar, Shamzaeffa Samsudin, Shri Dewi Applanaidu, Jamal Ali & Rahimah Majid … 1624 151. KERANGKA KONSEP TINGKAHLAKU PEKERJA INOVATIF: TINJAUAN LITERATUR Noorsafiza Mohd Sapie, Abd Hair Awang, Mohd Yusof Hussain & Suraiya Ishak … 1639 152. RAMALAN JUMLAH HASIL SEDIMEN MENGGUNAKAN JARINGAN SARAF TIRUAN DI KAWASAN LEMBANGAN BERSAIZ KECIL Uca Sideng, Sharifah Mastura, Ekhwan Toriman & Othman Jaafar … 1653 153. PEMBINAAN MODEL BERSEPADU PEMBANGUNAN AMIL ZAKAT FITRAH DI MALAYSIA Azman Ab Rahman, Irwan Mohd Subri & Siti Martiah Anwar … 1670 154. A PSYCHOSOCIAL DYNAMIC MODEL FOR PREDICTING THE WELL-BEING OF FLOOD DISASTER VICTIMS Sapora Sipon, Khatijah Othman, Mohd. Fo’ad Sakdan, Che Su Mustaffa, Najib Ahmad Marzuki & Mohamad Sukeri Khalid … 1681 155. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LENGTH OF CHAIN IN MALAYSIAN PYRAMID FIRMS: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS Irfah Najihah Basir Malan, Norhana Salamudin & Noryati Ahmad … 1688

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156. THE MARKET STRUCTURE DETERMINANTS TO CONSTRUCTION INNOVATIVENESS Norlena Hasnan, Ng Weng Seng, Shahimi Mohtar, Che Sobry Abdullah & Norhasni Osman … 1700 157. NATIONALISM SENTIMENT TOWARDS GREATER SOUTHEAST ASIAN INTEGRATION: PUBLIC OPINION IN INDONESIA, MALAYSIA AND SINGAPORE ON THE PROPOSED ASEAN COMMUNITY Guido Benny … 1709 158. SUKUK STRUCTURE WITH EMBEDDED OPTIONS AS A RISK MITIGATION Roslina Mohamad Shafi, Nur Afizah Ariffin & Norhana Salamudin … 1723 159. KEBERKESANAN PERTANIAN BERKELOMPOK KEPADA PRODUKTIVITI DAN PENDAPATAN PETANI DI KAWASAN LEMBAGA PEMBANGUNAN PERTANIAN MUDA Jamal Ali, Roslina Kamarudin, Nariman Mohd Saad, Lim Hock Eam & Hussin Abdullah … 1731 160. PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIPS, CREATIVITY TEACHER AT SMK NEGERI 1TONDANO Dra Syane Wagey … 1743 161. CORRUPTION – THE POISON IVY Rohami Shafie, Zaleha Othman & Fathilatul Zakimi Abdul Hamid … 1749 162. INVESTMENT OBJECTIVE, MONETARY ENVIRONMENT AND PERFORMANCE OF MUTUAL FUNDS: MALAYSIAN MARKET EXPERIENCE Suhal Kusairi, Nur Azura Sanusi & Suriyani Muhamad… 1755 163. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS AND FIRMS’ RATIONAL FINANCING BEHAVIOUR MALAYSIA EVIDENCE Razali Haron … 1765 164. PENGARUH PENDIDIKAN AKIDAH DALAM PEMBANGUNAN AKHLAK REMAJA MELAYU DI SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN DI MALAYSIA Ahmad Munawar Ismail & Ab. Halim Tamuri … 1777 165. PERSEPSI PENGGUNA LAMAN WEB LZS TERHADAP PUSAT LEMBAGA ZAKAT SELANGOR DAN PEMBAYARAN ZAKAT MELALUI ATAS TALIAN Khadijah Muda, Mohd. Daud Awang, Husniyah Abdul Rahim @ Abdul Wahab & Dayang Shobihah Abang Abai … 1792

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166. MEASURING E-GOVERNMENT SYSTEMS SUCCESS: A VALIDATION OF THE DELONE AND MCLEAN MODEL OF ISLAMIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS SUCCESS Ramdan S.M.M Yousif, Nurdiana binti Azizan & Kamarudin bin Saadan … 1804 167. CIRI-CIRI KEUSAHAWANAN DALAM KALANGAN BANDUAN PAROL DI MALAYSIA: KE ARAH MEMPERKASAKAN KESEJAHTERAAN DIRI BANDUAN Fauziah Ibrahim, Salina Nen, Mohd Suhaimi Mohamad, Khadijah Alavi, Norulhuda Sarnon & Wan Shahrazad Wan Sulaiman … 1819 168. A UNIFIED THEORY OF THE FIRM FROM TAWHIDIC WORLDVIEW: THE VIEWS OF MU’AMALAT MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS SCHOLARS Suhaimi Mhd Sarif, Yusof Ismail & Nur Arfifah Abdul Sabian … 1828 169. PENGARUH PENDIDIKAN AKIDAH DALAM PEMBANGUNAN Ahmad Munawar Ismail & Ab. Halim Tamuri … 1842 170. PERILAKU FERTILITI DALAM KALANGAN ETNIK PRIBUMI SABAH DAN SARAWAK Ubong Imang, Dayang Suria Mulia, Marsitah Mohd Radzi, Mustapha Abd Talip, Kntayya Mariappan, Aliakhbar Gulasan & Salmi Jemon … 1856 171. A SURVEY ON QUALITY OF LIFE, SITUATIONAL MOTIVATION AND COPING STRATEGIES AMONG PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER IN MALAYSIA Poh-Chua Siah & Siew-Huei Tan … 1864 172. KEBERKESANAN PENGURUSAN KITAR SEMULA DI UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA (KAMPUS BANGI) Kian-Ghee Tiew, Noor Ezlin Ahmad Basri, Hassan Basri & Shahrom M Zain … 1873 173. AKTIVITI DAN CABARAN ANAK REMAJA DI WAKTU LAPANG KAWASAN PERUMAHAN BERISIKO: SEKSYEN 7 SHAH ALAM Rosadah Abd Majid, Khadijah Said Hashim, Manisah Mohd Ali, Ahmad Puaad Othman, Azlin Norhaini Mansor & Mashithah Khalid … 1888 174. FINANCIAL STRESS AMONG WORKERS Sapora Sipon & Khatijah Othman … 1896 175. TAHAP KESEDARAN TERHADAP TANGGUNGJAWAB SOSIAL KORPORAT (CSR) DALAM KALANGAN STAF DI ORGANISASI KORPORAT DI MALAYSIA Syahrina Abdullah, Armanurah Mohamad & Nor Idayu Mahat … 1903

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PRAKATA

D

alam Seminar Hasil Penyelidikan Sektor Pengajian Tinggi kali ke-3 ini, bidang sains sosial dan kemanusiaan menerima jumlah makalah yang paling banyak, iaitu sebanyak 175 artikel. Justeru, kami terpaksa menerbitkan semua makalah bidang ini dalam tiga jilid. Selain itu ada dua buah prosiding lagi yang turut diterbitkan serentak dalam seminar kali ini. Satu memuatkan makalah dalam bidang sains tulen dan gunaan yang digabungkan dengan makalah dalam bidang sains kesihatan dan klinikal. Dan, sebuah lagi menghimpun makalah dalam bidang ICT, teknologi dan kejuruteraan. Demikianlah besarnya sambutan yang kami terima daripada para penyelidik yang sedang rancak menjalankan kajian mereka sekarang. Makalah dan peserta seminar datang dari hampir semua universiti awam di negara ini dan juga beberapa buah universiti swasta. Dalam kelompok sains sosial dan kemanusiaan ini kami mengharapkan makalah dalam tiga cabang ilmu. Cabang ilmu pertama ialah bidang antropologi, psikologi, sosiologi, sains politik, pengurusan dan perniagaan, geografi, ekonomi, ekologi manusia dan komunikasi. Kedua, kajian dalam bahasa dan linguistik, kesusasteraan, agama, falsafah, tamadun, sejarah, seni, budaya, pendidikan, dasar dan undang-undang, alam bina (aspek kemanusiaan), alam sekitar (aspek kemanusiaan). Dalam kumpulan ketiga ialah kajian dalam alam sekitar, perhutanan, pertanian, marin, arkeologi, geologi, etnografi, budaya, alam bina (aspek warisan) dan kepelbagaian biologi. Sidang Editor jurnal CREAM – Current Research in Malaysia akan memilih makalah yang baik untuk dikirimkan kepada wasit untuk penilaian bagi mempertimbangkannya terbit dalam jurnal ini. Semua kajian dan makalah ini memberikan sumbangan yang amat bermakna dalam pembinaan dan penyuburan khazanah ilmu tempatan.

ROOSFA HASHIM ABDUL GHAFAR ISMAIL

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Jilid III | Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan

117 In Search for Islamic Wealth Management Framework Amir Shaharuddin, Hanim Misbah, Muhammad Aunnorchim Mas’ad, Siti Nurulhuda Nordin, Yasmin Hanani Mohd Safian & Zurina Shafii ABSTRACT Wealth management is the most recent sector in which the Islamic finance industry attempts to expand on. It focuses on providing services to high net worth individuals. The sector is believed to have a good prospect given the growing number of wealthy Muslims particularly in the Gulf region. Despite the increasing demand for shariah compliant wealth management services, the new sector does not grow to its fullest potential. One of the main reasons for the modest growth is because of the inexplicit development framework. The industry players feel that they need more comprehensive development plan and supportive regulatory framework in order to progress from the current level. Hence, the present article addresses this issue by vindicating the concept of Islamic wealth management from the Quran and Sunnah. The discussion is essential in preparing strategic blueprint for the industry so that the common critic of conventional product imitation can be avoided. As for the methodology, the paper employs content analysis and comparative methods. Writings on philosophy of wealth from both Islam and Western academics are critically analyzed. Then, a series of interview were conducted with industry practitioners to gain in depth inputs on issues and challenges in developing the sector. ABSTRAK Pengurusan harta adalah sektor terbaru yang ingin diceburi oleh industri kewangan Islam. Sektor ini menumpukan fokus kepada memberi perkhidmatan kepada golongan berada menguruskan harta mereka. Sektor ini dipercayai mempunyai potensi yang baik memandangkan peningkatan bilangan golongan berada di kalangan orang Islam terutamanya di rantau Teluk. Namun begitu, walaupun terdapat peningkatan perkhidmatan pengurusan harta berlandaskan syarak, sektor ini didapati tidak berkembang mengikut potensi yang sepatutnya. Salah satu sebab pertumbuhan sederhana dicatatkan adalah kerana sektor tersebut tidak mempunyai kerangka pembangunan yang jelas. Para pengamal industri merasakan bahawa mereka memerlukan pelan pembangunan yang lebih komprehensif dan kerangka undang-undang yang lebih membantu untuk meneruskan kemajuan ke satu tahap yang lebih baik dari sekarang. Justeru, artikel ini cuba mengetengahkan isu-isu ini dengan menjelaskan konsep pengurusan harta Islam menurut pandangan al-Quran dan Sunnah. Perbincangan ini amat penting dalam menyediakan pelan strategik bagi industri ini supaya kritikan biasa tentang peniruan produk konvensional dapat dihindari. Bagi metod kajian, penyelidikan ini mengunakan kaedah analisis kandungan dan perbandingan. Tulisan-tulisan berkenaan dengan falsafah pengurusan harta sama ada dari perspektif Islam dan Barat telah dianalisa. Kemudian, temubual dengan pihak pengamal industri dilakukan untuk mendapatkan pandangan mereka tentang isu dan cabaran dalam memajukan sektor pengurusan harta Islam.

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INTRODUCTION Since its inception, Islamic finance industry has recorded a remarkable growth. From originally established to cater the need of retail banking for majority Muslims, the industry is now expanding into takaful (Islamic insurance) and capital market sectors. Thus far, the Islamic Financial Institutions (IFIs) worldwide grow at average 15-20 percent per year. The total asset of the industry had reached approximately USD 1.6 trillion in 2012 (KFH, 2013). Another sector which Islamic finance tries to tap in is wealth management. It focuses on providing services to high net worth individuals. The prospect of the new sector is bright given the riches of oils money possessed by Arabs in the Gulf Co-operation Councils (GCC) countries. The wealthy Arabs have long invested their money in the Western banks. However, there has seen a rise in the demand for shari’ah compliant wealth management services from both institutional and private investors in the region. In response to the demand, giants Western banks such as Deutch Bank and Sarasin Bank have set up their niche private banking units to serve Muslims clients who seek shari’ah compliant investments instruments and services in wealth protection and succession planning. Malaysia too tries to bring in the GCC funds into the country. In 2010, the government identified Islamic wealth management sector as one of the National Key Economic Areas (NKEA) under the Economic Transformation Programme (ETP). The country aims to make the Islamic wealth management sector as the driving force towards achieving its vision 2020. At present, the funds managed by local wealth management institutions are estimated at RM17 billion. The figure is expected to increase up to RM350 billion in 10 years (Pemandu, 2010). However, the current population of 28 million people is considered a small market. Therefore, to leverage the growth of the sector, the ‘oil’ funds have become the promising target. Despite the increasing demand, however, the Islamic wealth management in Malaysia develops at slower rate as compared to banking, takaful and capital market sectors. In order to progress to the next level, there is a need to enhance the existing development framework. At this point in time, most of Islamic wealth management services in Malaysia are provided by a division of Islamic commercial banks. For instance, retirement, child educational and investment planning are offered by CIMB Islamic bank that also caters for other retail banking services of home, vehicle and personal financing. Unlike in the Western financial organization, the wealth management services are usually offered by specific private banking institutions. It is felt that the lack of focused of wealth management institution will impede the industry’s growth. Besides, the role taken by the Islamic commercial banks in developing the sector is also unsatisfactory for two reasons. Firstly, Islamic bankers are relying heavily on the conventional theories in creating Islamic wealth management services and products. Salleh (2012) argues that the duplication approach is inappropriate since the philosophical underpinning of the conventional theories is contrary to that of Muslim’s worldview. The conventional wealth management practices are indeed confined to merely wealth itself. The wealth is defined by quantitative measurements of one’s material possession, based on the Western’s paradigm. Contrarily, from Islamic perspective, the wealth is not the only subject of concern rather the tawhidic view of its owner is equally important. Secondly, the adaptation of Western concept of wealth has led to the creation of ‘unauthentic’ Islamic services and products. By using Arab terminologies, they may look ‘Islamic’ but indifferent in terms of the substance when compared to their conventional counterparts. The present practice of Islamic banking industry is facing this problem. After four

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decades in application, many have begun to question the shari’ah compliance of its products as the distinction between Islamic and conventional banking products remain unclear. Prominent scholars in Islamic banking have repeatedly complained about this phenomenon (see for example Siddiqi, 2006). The present paper aims to discuss these issues by vindicating the concept of wealth management from Islamic perspective. It attempts to unveil the Islamic teachings pertaining to wealth management from the textual sources of Qur’an and hadith. In addition to that, the paper seeks to understand the current method in managing Islamic wealth. As the conventional theories are thought to be widely adopted by the market practitioners, the paper evaluates the extent to which existing services and products confirm with the Islamic principles. Thus, the assessment of Western theory on wealth creation, wealth accumulation and wealth distribution will be made in the light of Islamic teachings. Such a conceptual discussion is essential in our effort to formulate appropriate development framework for the sector. A correct understanding of Islamic wealth management philosophy will ensure suitable services and products to be developed by the market practitioners. With exception of a few studies conducted in the Arab world, such discussion in English language is perhaps limited. As for the methodology, the paper employs content analysis and comparative methods. Writings on philosophy of wealth from both Islam and Western academics are critically analyzed. Then, a series of interview were conducted with market practitioners to gain in depth inputs on issues and challenges in developing the sector.

WHAT IS ISLAMIC WEALTH MANAGEMENT? Although the Islamic wealth management has increasingly become a popular topic, the issue of terminology has not received much attention. The terms asset management and financial planning are regularly quoted in describing the topic. Many are unclear about the differences between the terminologies. Do they refer to the same functionality and business activity? If not, what are the distinctive features of each terms and how they are inter-related? It is appeared that the Islamic and conventional markets have common understanding with regard to the matter. This is because the conventional wealth management structure is adopted almost entirely by its Islamic counterpart. Figure 1 below illustrates the relationship between the three: Figure 1 suggests the spectrum of financial planning to cover a wider public. This is because financial planning encompasses a range of services in investment, retirement planning, working capital management, real estate planning, tax planning, inheritance planning and charitable giving. These services are becoming crucial for large number of people regardless of their level of earning and income. This is due to fact that the modern financial life has turned to be more complicated and many have caught into huge debts and bankruptcy. The illiteracy in managing personal finance is viewed as the main contributing factor to the problems. Hence, the role of financial planner is comparable to a medical doctor. As doctor diagnoses patient’s sickness and suggests the right prescription, financial planner assists individuals to attain financial independency by recommending a comprehensive financial plan. Both professional services come with fee. In contrast, the wealth management focuses on smaller group of peoples in the community. Islamic wealth management sector is developed to provide shari’ah compliant services in assisting affluent Muslims managing their riches. The common objective is to maintain the same level of wealth and guarantee prosperity for the future generation. Depending on the objectives set by 1277


the clients, the kind of services offered could start from the cycle of wealth creation to wealth protection. Meanwhile, asset management refers to investment portfolio made available for investors to accumulate wealth. A range of shariah compliant investment instruments have been developed by the industry practitioners. These include unit trust, structured investment products and shariah compliant shares. It should be noted however, the existing products are inadequate. Islamic asset management need to develop much more new products to compete with its conventional counterparts. The new products are not only supposed to comply with the shariah principles but also need to be able to generate reasonable return to investors. This is particularly important given the majority mindset of customers who do not consider religious as the only factor in patronizing Islamic finance products. As far as the terminology is concerned, asset management is regarded as a sub-set of wealth management. Asset management is a part of larger wealth management services which concentrate in providing opportunities for customers to increase their wealth through shariah compliant investment instruments.

WEALTH FROM ISLAMIC POINT OF VIEW Literally, wealth means the total value of a person’s or net asset. It may be held in various forms includes money, shares in companies, debt instruments, land, buildings, intellectual property such as patents and copyrights and valuable such as works of art (John, 1997). Besides, it also been defined as owning of large amount of money, goods or property includes economic, financial, industrial, agricultural, and commercial based services (Allene, 1993). Furthermore, the word wealth connotes a large amount of money, property, etc. that a person or country owns. Wealth in Arabic term is known as which means the large number of money and property (Sadiq & Wahab, n.d). Wealth also can be defined as income beyond the daily and basic requirements of a family or surplus income (Affandi, 2001). Hence, wealth literally means anything that is valuable and possessed by humans either in the form of goods or benefits. Basically, wealth means the abundance of valuable material possessions or resources, or all property that has a monetary value or an exchangeable value. The major components of wealth is usually like immovable property, especially land and buildings, moveable property especially means of transport and production, valuable materials especially gold and silver. In simple terms, wealth includes all income that is beyond the daily and basic requirements of a family. In other words, wealth is surplus income or an accumulation of surplus income. Wealth can be in many forms whether it can be in form of money to some people and it also can be in form of property like houses, cars and lands and other assets to other peoples. In Islam, something can be recognized as mal or wealth only when it satisfies the three conditions that are only when you possessed, secured or stored it. For instance, the birds in the sky, the minerals underground and the fish in the sea are not recognized as wealth according to Islamic perspective unless they are able to be possessed, secured and stored. It is totally contrast with the conventional perspective whereby the wealth in conventional is recognized even if it has not been possessed, secured and stored. In the conventional perspective, wealth is totally owned by man and they can use the wealth in any way they want. Basically, they utilize their wealth only for this world purposes without concerning about the Hereafter and this attitude towards mal is totally contrast with the Islamic thought. 1278


The Meaning of Amwal in Arabic and the Shariah In Islam, wealth is also known as mal. The word amwal is the plural of mal which means wealth, property, goods or possession. Mal means all things that people like to acquire and own, for example camels, cattle, sheep, land, palm orchards, gold and silver. From the Arabic dictionaries such Lisan al-‘Arab, the word mal is defined as all things possessed by a person. The Bedouins used the word mal in reference to their livestock whereas the Arab urban dwellers used it in reference to gold and silver. Ibn al-Athir was of the opinion that the original meaning of the word mal referred to gold and silver but then it became generalized to include all material things that are obtained and owned (as cited in al-Qardawi, 1999). There is different opinion among jurists regarding the meaning of the word mal in shariah (Islamic law).The Hanafi jurists’ opined mal as everything that a person acquires and usually uses. There are two conditions for an article to be considered to be mal based on the Hanafi jurists’ opinion, which are the possibility of acquiring it and the possibility of using it in general. Therefore, mal includes all things that are owned such as land, animals, furniture, equipment and money. As for things that are not actually acquired or usually used, but there is possibility of obtaining and using them, then they are considered to be mal. The classical examples for these types of mal were like fish in the sea, birds flying in the sky or animals in the wild. Usually, things that cannot be acquired are not considered mal even though they may be useful, such as sun light and heat. Using the same argument, things that are usually not usable but can be obtained, such as a handful of soil, a drop of water, a bee, or one grain of rice are not considered as mal. The definition obviously implies that mal must be a material thing because non-material things cannot be obtained and possessed. Thus, for the Hanafi jurists service is not mal, such as inhabiting a house, travelling by car or wearing a garment. It is because all of these are not acquirable. Similarly, rights such as custodianship and guardianship are also not mal according to them. On the other hand, Shafi’i, Maliki, and Hanbali jurists consider services as a mal. According to them, the possibility of acquisition is not a condition rather the condition is the possibility of obtaining the source of mal. Since a car can be physically acquired, use of it is considered a mal. In the other sense, scholars of man-made laws consider both usage and rights such as authorship rights and patents as amwal. This means that mal as defined in man-made legal systems includes more than it includes for the jurists.

THE CONCEPT OF WEALTH ACCORDING TO ISLAM Wealth is a gift from Allah SWT to a special individual that He chooses entirely at His own discretion and will. Not all people is destined to have a lot of wealth in this world, only certain people are able to accumulate a lot of wealth for his own. Wealth is a trust from Allah SWT that should be managed appropriately. In Islam, acquisition and accumulation of wealth is allowed and in some circumstances it is mandatory to protect life and property. However, it should be acquired through legal means and free from illegal activities such as acquisition through usury, monopoly or hoarding, cheating, fraud and so forth. Specifically there are many ways of spending wealth which is outlined by Islam. Muslims are responsible to spend his wealth firstly for his own expenditures, then fulfilment the needs of his family members, followed by immediate relatives and other persons who are under his care. 1279


Wealth that is legitimately acquired but not properly spent will not be blessed by Allah. Islam is very concern on management of wealth. It is narrated in Hadith. This Hadith has been reported by Abi Barzah al-Aslami, that the messenger of Allah had said: a human would not step on the Hereafter’s Day until asked about the age what they spent, on his knowledge on what he did, on his property from which it was obtained and where it is spent and on his body on what his spent (Zuhaily, 2009).

According to the Hadith, the wealth management is an important aspect in Islam. Since we are not the absolute owners of the wealth in this world, we have the duty and responsibility to manage the wealth in proper way according to the shariah. By managing wealth according to the shariah, such as by paying zakat, charity, wills, grants, inheritance and endowment, Muslims will be rewarded in the Hereafter.

THE PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC WEALTH MANAGEMENT From Islamic perspective, the management of wealth refers to the issues of how wealth is earned, how it’s grown, how it’s spent and the right of the poor and needy (Billah, 2003). These means that if it is earned, invested and spend in the right way, it brings rewards or ‘barakah’ to an individual as well as his family and the society as a whole. As reported by Abu Hurayra in the Hadith: Abu Hurayra reported that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: “Richness does not lie in the abundance of (worldly) goods but richness is the richness of the soul (heart, self)”.

Islam has outlined guidelines in wealth management. The first major elements of Islamic management of wealth are internal self regulation such as using the wealth with the intention to obtain Allah’s blessing and to ensure that wealth strengthens faith in Allah. Next is the responsibility towards family by using wealth to provide education for the children. Apart from that, the other element is voluntary social responsibility through donation for charity. This includes distributing wealth as much as possible for the betterment of the society (Affandi, 2001). Figure 2 below illustrates the purpose and objective of wealth management from Islamic perspective. Individual Purposes Wealth Creation ISLAMIC WEALTH MANAGEMENT Wealth Protection Attaining His barakah (Blessing) to achieve happiness and welfare here and the hereafter Family Purposes Wealth Distribution Society Purposes Wealth Purification

Graph 2: Purposes and Objectives of IWM

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Islam considers pursuing economic activities as something that is desirable. Wealth is declared as God’s blessing and seeking wealth in proper way is considered as an act of worship. Basically, there are plenty modes of acquiring wealth, either it may be earned through land, labor, capital or it may be acquired through wealth transfer such as inheritance. Islam does not prohibit Muslim to create wealth as long as the wealth creation activities are conducted in halal ways. The acquisition of wealth through riba, monopoly or hoarding, cheating, fraud, stealing, embezzlement, robbery, bribery and gambling are strictly prohibited in Islam. It is based on the Hadith: Principally, Muslim is allowed to acquire wealth based on three conditions. Firstly, wealth should be accumulated in an absolutely honest manner. Apart from that, wealth also must be managed in a highly responsible manner to benefit not only its owner and family but the community as a whole. Last but not least, they have to ensure that the acquired wealth does not distract Muslims from their strong faith in Allah. However, the repeated warning of Allah and the Prophet Muhammad that wealth could weaken a Muslim’s faith in Allah and the warnings that many of the wealthy may not enter paradise to certain extent has led to the misunderstanding of wealth creation among some Muslims. Some faithful Muslims appeared to be so scared of such warnings and they feel that the wealth creation is against the Islamic teaching. Muslims misinterpret such warnings as discouragement for wealth creation due to inappropriate knowledge in understanding the information. Some Muslims would not want to be wealthy because they prefer to lead a simple life or they feel comfortable enough and not to be worried about their future. In the other hand, some of them have tried to acquire wealth but failed and have given up. Therefore, this kind of thinking should be avoided in order to ensure that they have the desire to create and acquire wealth for their own and society interest as well. Nevertheless, Muslims should realize that they can better defend Islam if they have wealth and wealth that has been honestly earned and responsibly managed by persons could strengthen their faith in Allah as they have sufficient financial resources to acquire more religious and other useful knowledge. Apart from that, wealth also brings them security and peace of mind to perform their spiritual obligations to Allah. Last but not least, wealth is a mean of satisfying the needs and as an assistance to carry out many obligations and should be managed responsibly by a mankind. Wealth accumulation is regarded as the second principle in the conventional wealth management. This concept however appears to contradict with the Qur’anic and Sunnah teachings. The term accumulation is mentioned in Surah Al-Humazah, 1-3:”Woe to every backbiter, slanderer. Who amasses wealth and counts it time after time. He thinks that his wealth will make him immortal”. The verse indicates a pessimistic view about wealth accumulation. It explains about man who is busy accumulating and accounting his wealth that he believes that his accumulated wealth will last forever in the world. Indeed, Allah refuses the kind of attitude towards mal. Therefore it is argued that this is a point of distinction between Islamic and conventional perspectives on wealth management. While wealth accumulation is accepted in the conventional wealth management practices, the Quranic verses and hadith discourage it. This is based on the understanding that wealth is not the end rather the means of Muslim’s life. The other principle adopted in Islamic wealth management is wealth protection. It refers to the emergency plan to protect one’ wealth when unexpected incidents such as disaster, death, loss of future income take place. The concept of wealth protection is in line with the Islamic teachings. In the Qur’an 2: 240 Allah commands Muslim to make provision for our family before leaving 1281


this world. It means that Muslims should make their wealth sustainable by minimizing the loss. Allah says: “Those of you who die and leave widows should bequeath for their widows a year’s maintenance and residence; but if they leave (the residence) there is no blame on you for what they do with themselves, provided it is reasonable. And God is Exalted in Power; Wise.” The concept of Islamic insurance (takaful) is in conformity to Islam in which the takaful participants collectively contribute to tabarru’ funds to cover the loss of unexpected incidents of other participants (Rasban, 2006). The third principle of Islamic wealth management is wealth distribution. This stage is stated in many verses of the Qur’an. It is related to the circulation of wealth. Islam forbids any form of idle wealth. Allah says in al-Hasyr,7:”…in order that it (wealth) may not merely make a circuit between the wealthy among you…” and is also mentioned in al-Baqarah, 219: “…hey ask thee how much they are to spend: Say: what is beyond your needs….” According to Yusuf Ali, the verse shows that the wealth must be spent in good work or in charity. The wealth distribution can be executed through several means such as wasiyah (will), waqf (endowment), sadaqah (donation), infaq (gift to Islamic cause), hadayah (present), hibah (gift), nazar (vow) and fara’id (Islamic inheritance). The fourth principle of Islamic wealth management is wealth purification. This is very importance stage to attain His blessing (barakah), as mentioned in Surah al-Layl, 18-21:”Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification, and have in their minds no favour from anyone from which a reward is expected in return, but only the desire to seek the countenance of their Lord Most High; and soon will they attain (complete) satisfaction.” To purify the wealth, Muslim must pay their zakah when it reaches the nisab and its fund of zakah will be distributed to 8 groups of zakat recipients as mentioned in al-Taubah, 60.

CONCLUSION Islamic wealth management is a part of inclusive Islamic finance industry. It offers services to high net worth individual to manage their riches according to Islamic principles. Based on the examination of the related Qurnic verses and hadith, we found that Islam has a different worldview with regard to how wealth should be managed. The main principle of Islamic wealth management lies of the fact that wealth is viewed as a trust from Allah. This tawhidic view asserts that the absolute owner of wealth belongs to Allah and the man should benefit the wealth entrusted to him to seek good life in the Hereafter. Islam does not against the concept of wealth creation. In fact, Islam requires its believers to work and regarded wealth creation activities which are conducted in accordance to shariah as acts of worship. However, the concept of wealth accumulation appears to contradict with the Islamic teachings. Meanwhile, the concept of wealth distribution and wealth protection are found to be in line with Islam.

REFERENCES Al-‘Abri, Muhammad Sadiq & Muhammad Abdul Wahab,(n.d). Lisanul Arab. Beirut: Dar Ihya Al-Tourath Al-Arabi. 3rd edition. p.94. al-Qardawi, Dr. Yusuf. 1999. Fiqh al-Zakat A Comparative Study. (trans.) Dr. Monzer Kahf. London: Dar Al Taqwa Ltd. p.66.

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Billah, Prof. Dr. Mohd. Ma’sum. 3 September 2012. “Islamic Wealth Management & World View”. Islamic Wealth Management. http://www.applied-islamicfinance.com/sp_wealth_mgt_2.htm. p.1. Retrieved 12 May 2013. Black, John. 1997. Oxford Dictionary of Economics. United States: Oxford University Press Inc. p.501. Kuwait Finance House, 2013. Global Islamic Banking 2013, Kuwait Finance House Research Limited, Kuala Lumpur. Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi, 2006. Islamic Banking and Finance in Theory and Practice: A Survey of State the Art, Islamic Economic Studies, vol. 13, no 12. Muhammad Syukri Salleh. 2012. “Rethinking Wealth Management: An Islamic Preliminary View”. International Journal of Business and Social Sciences. 3 (13). p. 234. Pemandu (2010), Government Transformation Programme http://www.pemandu.gov.my/gtp, Retrieved on 20 May 2012. Sadali Rasban. 2006. Personal Wealth Management for Muslim (PWMM). Singapore: Kerjaya Printing Industries Pte Ld, p. 113. Tuck, Allene. 1993. Oxford Dictionary of Business English for Learners of English. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. 1st edition. p.478. Wahbah Zuhaily. 2009. Fiqh Al-Islami wa-Adillatuh. Damsyik: Darul Fikri. vol.8. p.155.

Amir Shaharuddin, Hanim Misbah, Muhammad Aunnorchim Mas’ad, Siti Nurulhuda Nordin, Yasmin Hanani Mohd Safian & Zurina Shafii Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM)

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118 Hubungan Personaliti dengan Tingkah Laku Agresif dalam Kalangan Remaja Bertingkah Laku Berisiko Tinggi di Malaysia Mohd Radzi Tarmizi, Fikri, Rozmi Ismail & Norhayati Ibrahim ABSTRAK Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji hubungan personaliti dengan tingkah laku agresif serta sensation seeking dalam kalangan remaja bertingkah laku berisiko tinggi dengan menggunakan pendekatan penerokaan secara kaunseling kelompok dan individu serta kajian kuantitatif. Sampel kajian ini terdiri daripada remaja yang di tahan di bawah seksyen 42 Akta Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan yang juga dikenakan tindakan CSO (Community Service Order) oleh pihak JKM. Seramai 30 orang responden telah terlibat di dalam kajian ini yang telah dilaksanakan di Kem Brindley Port Dickson, Outward Bound School (OBS) di Lumut serta IKBN di Pekan, Pahang. Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah reka bentuk kajian campuran iaitu The Sequential Explanatory Design. Kesemua responden telah menjawab tiga jenis alat ujian iaitu Big Five Personality Inventory, Buss & Perry Aggression Questionnaire dan Impulsive Sensation Seeking Scale dan juga kaunseling. Kesemua data kuantitatif di analisis dengan menggunakan perisian SPSS 20.0 dan analisis kolerasi pearson digunakan bagi melihat hubungan antara personaliti dengan tingkah laku agresif dan sensation seeking. Data kualitatif pula di analisis dengan menggunakan Thematic Analysis untuk mencari tema-tema yang berkaitan dengan personaliti dan juga tingkah laku agresif. Hasil keputusan kajian ini telah mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara personaliti neuroticism dengan serangan fizikal. Hasil analisis kualitatif pula menemui tema-tema Serangan Fizikal, Sensation Seeking dan Impulsivity. Kata kunci: personaliti, agresif, sensation seeking, lumba haram, kaunseling

PENGENALAN Kegiatan lumba haram merupakan salah satu gejala sosial yang sukar dikawal di Malaysia. Pesalah trafik yang juga dikenali sebagai ‘Mat Rempit’ ini sering kali dilihat pada waktu tengah malam kerana pada waktu ini, jalan raya kurang sibuk dan hal ini menjadi pendorong utama mereka berlumba secara haram. Kegiatan ini bukan sahaja merosakkan masa depan mereka malah turut membahayakan orang ramai. Ramai dari kalangan mereka bukan sahaja terlibat dengan lumba haram tetapi mempunyai ‘pakej’ seperti terlibat di dalam perjudian, arak, dadah dan juga seks bebas. Banyak kajian telah dilakukan bagi meneliti pengaruh personaliti ke atas tingkah laku agresif dan pencarian keseronokan dalam kalangan remaja hinggalah orang dewasa. Bushman & Baumeiter (1998) membuktikan bahawa beberapa tret personaliti yang berkaitan mempunyai hubungan ke atas tingkah laku agresif termasuklah narsisistik dan impulsivity (Campbell & 1284


Muncer, 2009). Tret personaliti kepersetujuan di dapati mempunyai hubungan yang negatif dengan tingkah laku agresif (Gleason, Jensen-Campbell, & Richardson, 2004) dan kezaliman (Heaven, 1996). Sementara itu, tret personaliti neurotisisme yang dicirikan dengan mudah sedih dan emosi tidak stabil (John & Srivastava, 1999) pula mempunyai hubungan yang positif dengan tingkah laku agresif (Sharpe & Desai, 2001). Selain itu, tret personaliti neurotisisme juga telah didapati mempunyai hubungan yang positif dengan emosi pendendam tetapi tret kepersetujuan dan kehematan mempunyai hubungan yang positif dengan emosi pendendam ini. Sharpe & Desai (2001) turut menemui bahawa neurotisisme mempunayi hubungan yang positif dengan kemarahan dan permusuhan manakala tret personaliti ekstrovert, kepersetujuan dan kehematan mempunyai hubungan yang negatif dengan kemarahan dan permusuhan ini. Ode, Robinson dan Wilkowski (2008) pula mendapati bahawa neurotisisme berupaya untuk menangkap sifat baran yang mempunyai hubungan dengan kemarahan dan keagresifan. Pemanduan secara berbahaya sering kali di kaitkan dengan keseronokan dan tingkah laku yang dilakukan mengikut nafsu dan gerak hati tanpa memikirkan bahaya yang bakal terjadi. Pemanduan tidak berhemah ini juga dikaitkan dengan personaliti seseorang pemandu itu. Schwebel, Severson, Ball dan Rizzo (2006) dalam kajian mereka telah mendapati bahawa sensation seeking merupakan peramal terbaik bagi pemanduan secara berbahaya. Selain itu, kajian ini juga mendapati bahawa sifat marah dan permusuhan turut memainkan peranan di dalam pemanduan secara berbahaya. Selain itu, Jonah (1997) turut mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan yang positif di antara sensation seeking dengan pemanduan secara berbahaya. Seseorang yang mempunyai skor yang rendah di dalam neurotisisme biasanya akan mempunyai rasa takut (Costa & McCrae, 1991). Walau bagaimanapun, dalam kalangan mat rempit, mereka biasanya akan mengambil bahan terlarang seperti dadah bagi menghilangkan rasa takut tersebut sebelum melakukan aktiviti lumba haram, mencuri dan sebagainya. Orin, Lake, Kleinman dan Gould (2012) telah membuktikan bahawa sensation seeking mempunyai hubungan yang positif dengan masalah penyalahgunaan bahan. Hal ini secara langsung menjelaskan mengapa golongan mat rempit ini mengambil dadah sebelum memulakan perlumbaan bukan sahaja untuk menghilangkan ketakutan tetapi juga untuk meningkatkan rasa keseronokan yang diperolehi daripada aktiviti itu. Hanse & Berivik (2001) turut menjelaskan bahawa sensation seeking ini mempunyai hubungan yang kuat dengan tingkah laku berisiko dalam kalangan remaja. Seperti mana yang dikaitkan tadi, sensation seeking ini mempunyai kaitan dengan personaliti seseorang itu. Alujaa, Garciab & Garciac (2003) menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan yang kuat antara sensation seeking dengan tret personaliti ekstrovert dan keterbukaan. Dahlen & White (2006) turut membuktikan bahawa umur, jantina dan kekerapan memandu merupakan peramal kepada tingkah laku pemanduan berisiko, sensation seeking, neurotisisme, kepersetujuan dan keterbukaan ke atas pengalaman. Oleh sebab inilah didapati ramai dalam kalangan mat rempit ini terdiri daripada remaja lelaki yang kerap kali menunggang motosikal mempunyai kecenderungan yang tinggi ke atas tingkah laku pemanduan berisiko iaitu merempit. Ramai dari kalangan mat rempit ini juga mempunyai satu sikap iaitu pantang dicabar, malah aktiviti-aktiviti perlumbaan yang diadakan juga banyak diadakan atas cabaran sesama ahli mereka. Atas desakan dan cabaran ini akan membangkitkan kemarahan di dalam diri mereka. Hal ini telah dibuktikan melalui kajian oleh Delhomme, Chaurand & Paran (2012) yang menunjukkan bahawa kemarahan merupakan salah satu faktor peramal kepada tingkah laku pemanduan dalam kemarahan.

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METOD Persampelan Responden terdiri daripada peserta program pemerkasaan remaja (PERKASA) siri 5 2013 seramai 30 orang. Kebanyakan peserta ini adalah pesalah juvana yang pernah ditahan oleh pihak polis dan dikenakan tindakan Community Service Order (CSO) oleh pihak Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat.

Alat Ujian Terdapat tiga buah alat ujian digunakan di dalam kajian ini iaitu: i) Big Five Personality Inventory (John et al. 1991) Alat ujian ini mengandungi sebanyak 44 buah item yang terdiri daripada lima dimensi personaliti iaitu Keterbukaan, Kehematan, Ekstrovert, Kepersetujuan dan Neurotisisme. Semua item diukur melalui skala Likert 1 (Sangat Tidak Setuju) hingga 5 (Sangat Setuju) dan skor ditambah mengikut dimensi masing-masing. ii) Buss & Perry Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry 1992) Alat ujian ini mengandungi sebanyak 28 buah item yang terdiri daripada empat dimensi iaitu Serangan Fizikal, Serangan Verbal, Kemarahan dan Permusuhan. Semua item diukur melalui skala Likert 1 (Tidak langsung mencerminkan tabiat/perangai saya) hingga 5 (Senantiasa mencerminkan tabiat/perangai saya) dan skor ditambah mengikut dimensi masing-masing. iii) Impulsive-Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman 2002) Alat ujian ini mengandungi 19 buah item yang terdiri daripada dua dimensi iaitu Sensation Seeking dan Impulsivity. Semua item diukur melalui skala Ya atau Tidak dan skor ditambah mengikut dimensi masing-masing.

KEPUTUSAN Analisis Kuantitatif Kajian ini melibatkan seramai 30 orang responden yang terdiri daripada remaja yang berumur 16 hingga 18 seramai 12 orang (40%), 19 hingga 21 seramai 16 orang (53.3%) dan 22 hingga 25 tahun seramai 2 orang (6.7%). Dari segi pendidikan pula, didapati bahawa majoriti responden berpendidikan rendah iaitu 8 orang (26.7%) mempunyai pendidikan UPSR, 13 orang (43.3%) mempunyai pendidikan PMR, 7 orang (23.3%) mempunyai pendidikan SPM dan 2 orang (6.7%) berpendidikan sekolah rendah iaitu mereka yang tidak berkesempatan menghabiskan pendidikan sekolah rendah. Dari segi pekerjaan pula, didapati majoriti daripada responden adalah tidak bekerja iaitu seramai 21 orang (70%), diikuti dengan bekerja sebagai mekanik seramai 3 orang (10%) dan 2 orang (6.7%) bekerja sebagai operator, office boy dan despatch masing-masing. Sementara itu, dari segi pendapatan bulanan pula, majoriti responden tidak mempunyai pendapatan iaitu seramai 21 orang (70%), diikuti dengan pendapatan sebanyak RM501 hingga Rm1000 sebulan seramai 8 orang (26.7%) dan hanya seorang yang berpendapatan di bawah RM 500 yang mewakili 3.3%.

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Jadual 1: Profil Sosio-Demografi Peserta Kem Siri 5 Perkara Umur

Tahap Pendidikan

Pekerjaan

Pendapatan

Kekerapan

Peratusan

16 - 18 Tahun

12

40

19 - 21 Tahun

16

53.3

22 - 25 Tahun

2

6.7

UPSR

8

26.7

PMR

13

43.3

SPM

7

23.3

Diploma

-

-

Sekolah Rendah

2

6.7

Pelajar

-

-

Operator

2

6.7

Office boy

2

6.7

Despatch

2

6.7

Mechanik

3

10

Tidak Bekerja

21

70

Tidak Ada Pendapatan

21

70

Dibawah RM 500

1

3.3

RM 501 - RM 1000

8

26.7

RM 1001 - RM 2000

0

0

RM 2001 dan Keatas

0

0

Hasil analisis deskriptif bagi dimensi personaliti dengan menggunakan alat ujian Big Five Personality Inventory telah menghasilkan Keterbukaan yang tinggi (M=32.63, SP=3.79), Kehematan yang tinggi (M=31.27, SP=3.27), Ekstrovert yang tinggi (M=26.90, SP=3.24), Kepersetujuan yang tinggi (M=32.63, SP=3.36), dan Neurotisisme yang agak rendah (M=22.43, SP=2.8. Sementara itu, bagi alat ujian Buss & Perry Aggression Questionnaire, hasil analisis deskriptif telah menunjukkan Serangan Fizikal yang agak rendah (M=21.70, SP=5.21), Serangan Verbal yang agak rendah (M=13.57, SP=2.94), Kemarahan yang agak rendah (M=19.23, SP=5.20), dan Permusuhan yang agak rendah (M=22.40, SP=5.10). Akhir sekali, bagi alat ujian Sensation Seeking Scale pula, hasil menunjukkan bagi dimensi Sensation Seeking yang agak rendah (M=15.13, SP= 2.16) dan Impulsivity yang agak rendah (M=7.90, SP=2.42). Hasil ujian kolerasi pearson pula mendapati bahawa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara neurotisisme dengan serangan fizikal (r=0.58) manakala dimensi-dimensi personaliti yang lain terhadap dimensi tingkah laku agresif menunjukkan kolerasi yang rendah dan tidak signifikan. Selain itu, dimensi kepersetujuan didapati mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan sensation seeking (r= -0.38). Sementara itu, dimensi-dimensi personaliti lain didapati tidak mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan sensation seeking dan impulsivity. Hasil analisis juga telah mendapati bahawa serangan verbal mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan sensation seeking (r= - 0.39) dan kemarahan juga didapati mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan sensation seeking (r= -0.41). Sementara itu, dimensi-dimensi lain tingkah laku agresif didapati tidak mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan sensation seeking dan juga impulsivity.

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Jadual 2: Analisis Kolerasi Bagi Semua Dimensi Personaliti, Tingkah Laku Agresif dan Impulsive-Sensation Seeking 1 Keterbukaan

1

2

3

1

.278 1

2 Kehematan 3 Ekstrovert

4

5

-.028

.306

.105

.403

.355

1

*

4 Kepersetujuan

6

7

8

9

10

11

.100

-.012

-.085

-.067

-.070

-.077

-.391

-.236

.152

-.089

-.083

-.098

-.227

.598

*

-.436

-.100

-.008

.128

.046

-.215

-.063

1

-.318

-.017

.193

.201

.212

-.383

-.155

1

.575

.245

.275

.261

-.094

.349

1

.651

.769

.674

-.299

.174

1

.685

.635

-.386

.122

1

.862

*

-.414

.014

1

-.259

.102

1

.155

1

**

*

5 Neurotisisme 6 Serangan Fizikal

**

7 Serangan Verbal

**

8 Kemarahan

** **

9 Permusuhan

** ** **

10 Sensation Seeking 11 Impulsivity

*

*

*. Aras kesignifikanan pada 0.05 (2-tailed). **. Aras kesignifikanan pada 0.01 (2-tailed).

Analisis Kualitatif Analisis kualitatif ini telah dijalankan dengan menggunakan kaedah Thematic Analysis. Hasil analisis yang diambil daripada sesi-sesi kaunseling kelompok ini telah menjumpai satu tema bagi setiap dimensi tingkah laku agresif dan sensation seeking. Bagi tema yang pertama yang menilai tingkah laku agresif, pengkaji telah menemui tema Serangan Fizikal atau Tingkah Laku Agresif Fizikal. Hampir kesemua responden mempunyai pengalaman melakukan serangan fizikal atau pernah melakukan tingkah laku agresif secara fizikal. Walau bagaimanapun, semasa melakukan sesi kaunseling dan sepanjang program ini berlangsung, semua responden tidak menunjukkan tingkah laku atau serangan fizikal kepada mana-mana pihak. Antara pengalaman serangan atau tingkah laku agresif secara fizikal yang pernah dilakukan adalah seperti berikut: Sufri: Saya terlibat dengan geng kongsi gelap (Geng 606) sejak berumur 14 tahun. Sepanjang di dalam geng tersebut, saya pernah terlibat di dalam pergaduhan bersenjata dan pernah ditangkap oleh polis. Pengalaman yang saya tidak boleh lupa sampai sekarang ialah saya bersama-sama dengan rakan kongsi gelap yang lain telah membunuh salah seorang ahli kongsi gelap kumpulan kami kerana berselisih faham. Dia orang India. Kami bunuh dia dengan memotong badan dia dan campak ke dalam sungai. Saya potong telinga dia. Serangan fizikal juga boleh terjadi walaupun pada penampilan diri seseorang tidak menunjukkan responden itu boleh bertingkah laku agresif. Hasil daripada sesi kaunseling ke atas seorang responden yang bertubuh kecil dan kurus kering turut mendapati beliau pernah melakukan serangan fizikal ke atas pegawai JKM. Hasil ujian psikologi Aggression Scale yang diambil juga mendapati bahawa responden ini mendapat skor yang tinggi bagi dimensi serangan fizikal:

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Amzar: Adik-beradik angkat saya tidak menyukai saya. Sejak kecil saya dijaga oleh pihak JKM kerana ibu saya telah meninggal ketika melahirkan saya. Saya juga pernah bergaduh dengan pegawai JKM yang menjaga saya. Analisis seterusnya dilakukan bagi menilai kecenderungan responden untuk mencari keseronokan walaupun berisiko tinggi (sensation seeking). Hampir semua responden pernah terlibat di dalam aktiviti lumba haram sebagai salah satu aktiviti yang menyeronokkan bagi mereka walaupun terbukti aktiviti tersebut adalah sangat berbahaya kepada diri sendiri dan juga orang lain. Oleh yang demikian, pengkaji telah meletakkan tema Merempit sebagai satu tema di bawah Sensation Seeking. Antara hasil analisis sesi kaunseling yang diadakan adalah seperti berikut: Rafi: Saya pernah bawa kereta BMW milik abang dan Mercedes milik ayah sampai habis meter. Masa tu dekat tengah highway. Kalau bawa motor saya suka bawa laju juga, sampai pernah kemalangan dengan pajero. Kalau masa bawa laju tu saya rasa seronok sangat. Zamri: Saya mula lumba motor masa umur 16 tahun. Saya lumba dengan kawan-kawan sekadar untuk seronok-seronok Faqrurrazi: Saya suka merempit dan curi motor. Saya rasa seronok kalau dapat lumba. Kalau menang dapat perempuan. Dah ramai perempuan jadi mangsa saya. Banyak kali.. tapi mereka tidak pernah mengandung. Hasil analisis ini telah didapati bahawa responden suka melakukan aktiviti lumba haram atau membawa kenderaan dengan laju untuk mencari keseronokan tidak kira keseronokan untuk diri sendiri mahupun keseronokan mendapat habuan dan mendapat pujian daripada rakan-rakan. Tingkah laku yang dilakukan mengikut nafsu dan gerak hati secara berlebihan atau impulsivity juga mempengaruhi para responden terlibat di dalam pelbagai gejala sosial. Perry, Jennifer & Carroll (2008) dan de Wit & Harriet (2008) membuktikan bahawa impulsivity mempunyai hubungan dengan penyalahgunaan bahan. Hasil sesi kaunseling juga telah mendapati bahawa hampir kesemua responden pernah terlibat dan masih lagi terlibat di dalam penyalahgunaan bahan seperti dadah, arak, daun ketum dan juga tembakau. Mereka juga didapati mengalami ketagihan kepada bahan-bahan ini. Berikut adalah antara pengakuan ketagihan dan penyalahgunaan bahan yang pernah dilakukan responden yang pengkaji letakkan di bawah tema Ketagihan Bahan: Zamri: Saya kalau dekat kampung selalu minum arak dengan kawan-kawan. Biasa saya beli sendiri. Hari-hari masa bosan, masa berjudi saya minum. Kadang-kadang minum untuk menambah tenaga untuk kerja. Sekarang kalau saya dengar orang bawa botol, ting.. ting..ting tu saya tidak boleh dengar..mesti ketagih dan saya akan terus ke kedai beli arak. Amzar: Saya tertekan hidup dengan keluarga angkat saya..sebab selalu ada masalah duit. Kalau saya tertekan, saya hidu gam. Dulu saya gemuk..sekarang saya sudah kurus..lepas ni saya nak jumpa dengan doktor pakar..buah pinggang saya sudah rosak, hari tu pergi hospital doktor suruh buat dialisis.

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Nasir: Dekat rumah saya tanam pokok ketum. Boleh kata hampir semua rumah dekat kawasan rumah saya tu mesti ada kebun ketum. Saya biasa buat air ketum sendiri. Saya selalu minum buat tambah tenaga untuk kerja. Saya kerja buruh jadi perlu banyak tenaga. Kalau nak lebih power tu saya selalu tambah ubat batuk. Azuan: Saya biasa dan kerap kali minum arak. Kalau dekat kampung saya ada jual arak kampung. Murah saja..boleh beli tiga ringgit saja. Kalau yang murah tu saya selalu beli. Lagi power daripada yang jual dekat kedai. Hasil analisis kualitatif ini membuktikan bahawa responden mempunyai sifat agresif yang terhasil daripada pelbagai faktor seperti pengaruh diri sendiri, rakan-rakan dan juga kurangnya perhatian daripada keluarga. Oleh sebab itu, mereka akan mencari keseronokan di luar penerimaan sosial seperti merempit, mencuri, bergaduh dan sebagainya. Sebagai pakej melengkapi gelaja sosial yang mereka lakukan, ramai responden terlibat dengan penyalahgunaan bahan seperti dadah, daun ketum dan arak. Kebanyakan bahan-bahan ini diambil sebelum dan semasa mereka ingin melakukan aktiviti-aktiviti berbahaya seperti berlumba, bergaduh, serta mencuri sebagai salah satu cara bagi mereka mengurangkan rasa takut dan langkah ini juga didapati dapat meningkatkan keyakinan diri mereka.

PERBINCANGAN Permasalahan sosial dalam kalangan remaja di Malaysia sangat membimbangkan. Kegiatan merempit pada setiap malam hanya merupakan sebuah luaran yang dapat dilihat. Namun, apa yang berlaku di sebalik kegiatan rempit ini adalah perjudian iaitu mereka mempertaruhkan sejumlah wang kepada mana-mana pelumba yang menang, kemudian mereka akan menyambut kemenangan ini dengan arak atau dadah. Akhir sekali, perempuan juga menjadi habuan kepada pemenang-pemenang pelumba haram ini. Kegiatan ini juga boleh dilihat sebagai satu kitaran iaitu berlumba haram, judi, arak, dadah dan akhir sekali seks bebas. Hal ini pernah ditunjukkan melalui kajian oleh Ismail & Borhanuddin (2009) yang mendapati bahawa masalah rempit ini bukan sahaja masalah tunggal, tetapi juga melibatkan masalah sosial yang lain seperti ragut, rogol, mencuri dan vandalisme. Hasil kajian ini telah menunjukkan bahawa neurotisisme dalam kalangan remaja PERKASA adalah berada di tahap cenderung rendah, tetapi tret personaliti ini mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan serangan fizikal. Costa & McCrae (1991) mengatakan bahawa responden yang mendapat skor yang rendah bagi neurotisisme akan mempunyai personaliti yang kurang rasa takut dan lebih tenang. Hal ini secara langsung dapat menjelaskan mengapa remaja-remaja ini sering terlibat di dalam perlumbaan yang berbahaya kerana mereka kurang rasa takut dan gerun. Hasil analisis kualitatif juga membuktikan bahawa mereka mengambil dadah atau arak untuk mengurangkan lagi rasa takut itu, lantas meningkatkan keyakinan diri serta meningkatkan keberanian mereka untuk berlumba (sensation seeking). Hasil kajian ini telah disokong oleh penemuan di dalam kajian oleh Orin, Lake, Kleinman, & Gould (2012) yang mendapati bahawa penyalahgunaan dadah mempunyai hubungan dengan sensation seeking. Pengaruh rakan sebaya merupakan salah satu faktor terpenting di dalam penglibatan remaja di dalam kegiatan merempit dan salah laku jenayah yang lain. Min skor yang didapati oleh 1290


responden di dalam kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa mereka mendapat skor yang tinggi bagi tret kepersetujuan. Ini bermakna mereka cenderung dan lebih suka mengikut rakan-rakan dan bekerjasama dengan rakan-rakan sealiran mereka (John & Srivastava, 1999). Hasil kajian ini juga menunjukkan bahawa kepersetujuan mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan sensation seeking. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan melalui analisis kualitatif di mana mereka selalu mencari keseronokan dengan berlumba dengan rakan-rakan mereka. Selain itu, sensation seeking ini juga didapati mempunyai hubungan yang signifikan dengan serangan fizikal dan kemarahan. Hal ini turut boleh dibuktikan melalui hasil analisis kualitatif di mana responden biasanya berlumba atau melakukan jenayah untuk mencari keseronokan, tetapi pada masa yang sama mereka akan mempamerkan tingkah laku yang agresif seperti memukul dan mencederakan ahli kumpulan yang tidak bersefahaman dan juga bertindak dan bergaduh sesama mereka atau dengan orang awam yang lain. Walau bagaimanapun, hasil kajian ini tidak disokong oleh penemuan kajian yang telah dilakukan oleh Gleason, Jensen, Campbell & Richardson (2004); Heaven (1996) dan McCullough, Bellah, Kilpatrick & Johnson (2001).

KESIMPULAN Kegilaan remaja menunjukkan kebolehan mereka memandu atau menunggang secara berbahaya bukan sahaja boleh merosakkan masa depan mereka tetapi juga mengundang bahaya kepada orang awam yang lain. Pengaruh rakan sebaya dan persekitaran yang menggalakkan kegiatan ini merupakan salah satu faktor utama mengapa kegiatan jenayah lumba haram, judi, dadah, rogol dan seks bebas ini terus berleluasa. Selain itu, keinginan remaja mengekspresikan keterujaan mereka melalui keseronokan yang berbahaya di dapati mempunyai kaitan yang kuat dengan personaliti seseorang itu. Walau bagaimanapun, cara mereka meluahkan personaliti mereka itu tidak kena dengan tempatnya sehingga boleh melibatkan jenayah-jenayah yang lain. Oleh itu, semua pihak terutama ahli psikologi dan masyarakat perlu mengambil peranan dalam bekerjasama dalam memahami masalah ini dan seterunya membina pelan tindakan bagi mengurangkan masalah ini. Inisiatif pihak kerajaan melalui program PERKASA ini jelas terbukti boleh mengurangkan masalah ini selain memberikan peluang kedua kepada remaja bermasalah ini untuk berubah menjadi insan yang lebih baik.

PENGHARGAAN Kami ingin mengucapkan ribuan terima kasih kepada YAB. Dato’ Sri Mohd Najib Tun Abdul Razak, Perdana Menteri Malaysia kerana memberi peluang kepada kumpulan penyelidik Pusat Pemerkasaan Remaja (PERKASA) dalam membantu remaja-remaja berisiko ini memperolehi peluang dan ruang untuk berubah ke arah yang lebih baik untuk masa hadapan Negara. Juga tidak dilupakan tenaga kerja daripada Jabatan Kebajikan Malaysia kerana membantu bagi mendapatkan peserta di kalangan remaja berisiko. Dan juga ucapan terima kasih diucapkan kepada Kementerian Belia dan Sukan di atas penyediaan tempat latihan kemahiran yang cukup lengkap. Juga ucapan terima kasih kepada semua yang terlibat secara langsung atau tidak langsung. Semoga Program Kem PERKASA Remaja dapat membantu lebih ramai remaja yang tidak bernasib baik dan berisiko mengubah dan meningkatkan potensi dalam diri.

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RUJUKAN Aluja, A., Garcia, O., & Garcia, L. (2003). Relationships Among Extraversion, Openness To Experience, And Sensation Seeking. Personality And Individual Differences, 35, 671-680 Buss, A. & Perry, M. 1992. The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 63(3): 452-459. Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened Egotism, Narcissism, Selfesteem, And Direct And Displaced Aggression: Does Self-Love Or Self-Hate Lead To Violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219–229. Campbell, A., & Muncer, S. (2009). Can ‘Risky’ Impulsivity Explain Sex Differences In Aggression? Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 402–406 Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1991). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO FiveFactor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.: USA Dahlen, E. R & White, R. P. (2006). The Big Five Factors, Sensation Seeking, And Driving Anger In The Prediction Of Unsafe Driving. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 903–915 Delhomme, P., Chaurand., N., & Paran, F. (2012). Personality Predictors Of Speeding In Young Drivers:Anger VS. Sensation Seeking. Transportation Research Part F, 15, 654–666 de Wit, Harriet (2008), “Impulsivity As A Determinant And Consequence Of Drug Use: A Review Of Underlying Processes ,” Addiction Biology,14, 22-31 Gleason, K. A., Jensen-Campbell, L. A., & Richardson, D. S. (2004). Agreeableness As A Predictor Of Aggression In Adolescence. Aggressive Behavior, 30, 43–61. Heaven, P. C. L. (1996). Personality And Self-Reported Delinquency: Analysis Of The ‘‘Big Five’’ Personality Dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 47–54. Hansen, E. B. & Breivik, G. (2001). Sensation Seeking As A Predictor Of Positive And Negative Risk Behaviour Among Adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 627-640 Ismail,R., Ibrahim, N., Zamani, A., Borhanoddin, B. (2009) Angry Thoughts and Aggressive Behavior Among Malaysian Driver: A Preliminary Study to Test Model of Accident Involvement. European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 10, Number 2 Jonah, B. A. (1997). Sensation Seeking And Risky Driving: A Review And Synthesis Of The Literature. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 29 (5), 651-665 John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. 1991. The Big Five Inventory--Versions 4a and 54. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Personality and Social Research. John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big-Five Trait Taxonomy: History, Measurement, And Theoretical Perspectives. In L. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. 102–138). New York: Guilford Press McCullough, M. E., Bellah, C. G., Kilpatrick, S. D., & Johnson, J. L. (2001). Vengefulness: Relationships With Forgiveness, Rumination, Well-Being, And The Big Five. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 601–610. Ortin, A., Lake, A. M., Kleinman, M., & Gould, M. S. (2012). Sensation Seeking As Risk Factor For Suicidal Ideation And Suicide Attempts In Adolescence. Journal of Affective Disorder, 143, 214-222. Ode, S., Robinson, M. D., & Wilkowski, B. M. (2008). Can One’s Temper Be Cooled? A Role For Agreeableness In Moderating Neuroticism’s Influence On Anger And Aggression. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 295–311. Perry, Jennifer L. and Marilyn E. Carroll (2008), “The Role Of Impulsive Behavior In Drug Abuse,” Psychopharmacology, (2008), 200:1-26

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Schwebel, D. C., Severson, J., Ball, K. K & Rizzo, M. (2006). Individual Difference Factors In Risky Driving: The Roles Of Anger/Hostility, Conscientiousness, And Sensation-Seeking. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 38, 801-810. Sharpe, J. P. & Desai, S. (2001). The revised NEO Personality Inventory And The Mmpi-2 Psychopathology Five In The Prediction Of Aggression. Personality And Individual Differences, 31, 505-518 Zuckerman, M. 2002. Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (ZKPQ): An Alternative Five-Factorial Model. Dlm. Raad, B.D. & Perugini, M. (pynt.). Big Five Assessment, hlm. 377-396. Massachusetts: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.

Mohd Radzi Tarmizi Fikri Rozmi Ismail Norhayati Ibrahim Pusat Pemerkasaan (PERKASA) Remaja Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia [email protected]

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119 Faktor dan Kesan Facebook dalam Interaksi Sosial Remaja Murihah Abdullah, Siti Adawiyah Yusuf & Siti Intan Dahlia Harun ABSTRAK Interaksi sosial merupakan keperluan dalaman manusia. Ini disebabkan manusia hidup dalam masyarakat yang saling bergantung antara satu sama lain bagi memuaskan kehendak sosial dan psikologi. Mutakhir ini, media sosial seperti Facebook menjadi platform komunikasi yang aktif dalam segenap masyarakat. Kertas kerja ini membincangkan faktor dan kesan penggunaan Facebook dalam interaksi sosial, khususnya remaja. Kajian ini menggunakan instrumen kajian perpustakaan sebagai sumber data utama manakala instrumen temubual sebagai sumber data sokongan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa faktor yang mempengaruhi penggunaan Facebook ialah kewujudan teknologi yang canggih, selain dapat memenuhi keperluan emosi dan laman sosial yang menarik. Manakala kesan positif Facebook dalam interaksi sosial remaja ialah meluaskan hubungan silaturrahim, memupuk hubungan interaksi antarabudaya, memenuhi kefahaman komunikasi dan sebagai medium pengetahuan dan perkongsian. Kesan negatif yang dapat dikenal pasti pula ialah kemahiran berfikir secara kreatif dan kritis semakin terhakis dan bersikap individualistik. Selain itu, remaja juga terdedah menjadi mangsa buli siber, tekanan emosi dan terdedah kepada gambar atau bahan tidak sesuai serta ditiru. Kata Kunci: Interaksi sosial, Facebook, kesan positif, kesan negatif, faktor

PENGENALAN Perhubungan manusia melibatkan interaksi sosial, iaitu proses asas di mana dua orang atau lebih menggunakan bahasa dan gerakan anggota-anggota badan untuk mempengaruhi fikiran dan tingkah laku satu sama lain (Rohana Yusof, 1997: 304). Dalam keadaan masyarakat tradisi, kehidupan sosial manusia adalah dalam lingkungan kecil, di mana keluarga dan jiran di sekelilingnya akan saling membantu untuk memenuhi kebanyakan keperluan dalam kehidupan seharian. Dalam konteks kehidupan seorang remaja, interaksi memainkan peranan yang penting. Ia melibatkan komunikasi antara satu sama lain, pendidik, ibu bapa serta masyarakat umum. Interaksi melibatkan beberapa dasar antaranya, berdasarkan perasaan, minat atau paksaan, berdasarkan tujuan dan matlamat, dan juga berinteraksi di atas pengaruh rakan-rakan (Ahmad Marzuki Ismail, 2007). Namun, hari ini, Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi (ICT) menjadi sebahagian budaya kerja dan kehidupan dalam masyarakat Malaysia. Ia tidak lagi eksklusif kepada mana-mana pihak tertentu. Buta huruf digantikan dengan buta ICT sekiranya seseorang tidak berupaya untuk mengendalikan aplikasi ICT. Semenjak dunia diresapi oleh teknologi internet pada tahun 1995, perdebatan baik buruk dan perubahan nilai dalam komuniti disebabkan oleh teknologi ini telah dibuat, baik oleh ahli sosiologi, falsafah atau ahli ICT sendiri. Tidak dinafikan, teknologi 1294


ini mampu mendatangkan beberapa perubahan ketara pada setiap urusan individu dan kemasyarakatan (Mokmin Basri, 2004). Teknologi komunikasi membolehkan individu atau kelompok individu bertukar data dan maklumat dalam ruang waktu dan tempat yang tidak terbatas, dengan cepat dalam masa yang sama ‘synchronous’ melalui rangkaian setempat atau global (Syed Muhammad Dawilah al-Edrus & Mohd Lutfi: 2009). Komunikasi bersemuka masih wujud dalam masyarakat ini namun media massa dan sosial telah mengambil peranan yang lebih penting (Rohana Yusof, 1997: 289). Sehubungan itu, dalam perkembangan teknologi komunikasi, muncul istilah cyberspace (ruang maya) oleh Wiliam Gibson yang merujuk pada metafora komunikasi elektronik. Para pencipta laman web mula berinovasi dan berlumba untuk membuat laman web yang produktif dan dilayari oleh pengguna seluruh dunia. Lalu muncullah pelbagai laman sosial seperti Friendster, MySpace, Facebook dan sebagainya. Facebook telah dibangunkan pada bulan Februari 2004 oleh Mark Zuckerberg, seorang bekas pelajar Universiti Harvard. Idea di sebalik pembinaan laman sosial ini ialah sebagai laman yang berada di atas talian, versi interaktif berbanding dengan laman sosial yang ‘tradisional’ yang hanya boleh memaparkan dan mengemaskini profil masing-masing. Pengguna Facebook pada peringkat awalnya hanyalah dihadkan kepada warga universiti Harvard, namun laman sosial ini menjadi semakin popular. Dalam masa yang pantas, ia meluaskan jaringan ke pelbagai universiti, kolej, sekolah tinggi, serta tempat kerja. Sehingga hari ini, berdasarkan kajian syarikat pemasaran di internet, Facebook adalah laman sosial yang paling sibuk dan berpengaruh di dunia (Dave Awl, 2009: 4; Kuan Yu Lin & Hsi-Peng Lu, 2011; Hafsah Salam, 2012). Mengikut kajian, Facebook berada di kedudukan kedua dalam 500 laman web global (dari segi jumlah paparan halaman) diikuti oleh Youtube (kedudukan ketiga) dan Twitter (kedudukan ke sebelas); menunjukkan rangkaian sosial adalah salah satu daripada aktiviti-aktiviti internet yang popular dalam kalangan rakyat digital dunia (Yeslam al-Saggaf, 2011: 4). Remaja ialah mereka yang berusia antara 11 hingga 21 tahun, merupakan zaman transisi antara zaman kanak-kanak dengan zaman dewasa yang melibatkan perubahan biologi, psikologi, sosial dan ekonomi serta melibatkan perubahan peringkat tidak matang. Pada masa ini, remaja mula memikirkan persoalan kesedaran sosial, perhubungan interpersonal dan pertimbangan moral (Myers, 1995 dalam Azizi Yahaya, 2005). Kemahiran interpersonal remaja bermula apabila mereka mula beralih minat daripada ibu bapa kepada hubungan rakan sebaya. Perhubungan remaja dengan dunia persekitarannya mempengaruhi pembentukan personaliti mereka. Perhubungan dalam kalangan remaja adalah salah satu aspek penting kerana tanpa hubungan itu mereka tidak mempunyai keluarga, rakan, teman rapat ataupun rakan sekerja. Sebenarnya, perhubungan ini membentuk kualiti hidup remaja (Shahizan et.all, 2006: 2). Oleh itu, interaksi sosial terhadap remaja adalah penting untuk diteliti. Ini kerana remaja merupakan fasa perubahan daripada kanak-kanak yang bergantung (dependence) kepada orang dewasa yang akan memikul tanggungjawab (responsibilities). Tingkahlaku serta penerapan kendiri dalam diri remaja amat penting bagi kelangsungan perkembangan fizikal, kognitif, emosi dan sebagainya. Namun, sejak ICT meledak dan internet menjadi suatu kelaziman, interaksi sosial remaja lebih tertumpu kepada rangkaian laman sosial. Dalam kajian Johari Hassan & Raja Shahrina (2012) mengenai ketagihan penggunaan internet dalam kalangan remaja sekolah di Johor Bahru, menunjukkan bahawa laman web yang kerap diakses oleh pelajar adalah laman web rangkaian sosial. Berdasarkan statistik yang dikeluarkan oleh SocialBakers.com, pengguna 1295


laman web Facebook di Malaysia berada di kedudukan ke 20 daripada 230 buah negara di dunia (http://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/). Ini menunjukkan interaksi sosial remaja terbina bukan hanya di dunia nyata, malah juga di alam maya.

OBJEKTIF DAN PERSOALAN KAJIAN Kajian ini bertujuan melihat penggunaan Facebook dalam interaksi sosial khususnya remaja. Secara terperincinya, kajian ini bertujuan untuk (i) mengenalpasti faktor penggunaan Facebook dalam kalangan remaja, (ii) mengenalpasti kesan positif Facebook dalam interaksi sosial remaja, dan (iii) mengenalpasti kesan negatif Facebook dalam interaksi sosial remaja. Manakala persoalan kajian yang timbul daripada tujuan kajian ini ialah (i) Apakah faktor penggunaan Facebook dalam kalangan remaja, (ii) Apakah kesan positif Facebook dalam interaksi sosial remaja, dan (iii) Apakah kesan negatif Facebook dalam interaksi sosial remaja.

METODOLOGI KAJIAN Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif. Pengkaji menjadikan instrumen kajian perpustakaan sebagai sumber data utama manakala instrumen temubual sebagai sumber data sokongan. Kajian perpustakaan digunakan bagi menghuraikan data-data berkenaan dengan tajuk kajian ini. Manakala bagi instrumen temubual pula, responden kajian terdiri daripada 2 orang ahli akademik dari Jabatan Tahfiz al-Quran wal Qiraat, Kolej Pengajian Islam Johor (MARSAH).

ANALISIS DAN DAPATAN KAJIAN Dapatan kajian yang dianalisis diperolehi melalui kajian perpustakaan dan temu bual bersama dua orang ahli akademik. Dapatan yang diperolehi ini dianalisis mengikut beberapa pembahagian berdasarkan kepada persoalan kajian yang telah dinyatakan. Persoalan pertama ialah berkaitan faktor penggunaan Facebook dalam kalangan remaja. Keduanya adalah merujuk kepada persoalan kesan positif Facebook dalam interaksi sosial remaja dan persoalan terakhir adalah fokus kepada kesan negatif .

Faktor Penggunaan Facebook dalam Kalangan Remaja Terdapat beberapa faktor utama yang dapat dikenalpasti mendorong remaja untuk menggunakan Facebook, antaranya ialah kemunculan teknologi canggih. Kecanggihan teknologi bukan sekadar memudahkan urusan seharian. Kini, ia juga turut melancarkan urusan penyebaran dan penerimaan maklumat dalam kalangan pengguna (Hafsah Salam, 2012: 1). Remaja lebih mudah berkomunikasi antara satu sama lain dengan kemunculan pelbagai jenis telefon pintar dan boleh mengakses internet di mana sahaja. Hal ini disokong oleh responden, sebagai contoh: “Dengan faktor teknologi sekarang..yelah, kalau kita tengok teknologi sekarang kan semakin canggih.. (Temubual, 2013: April).” “Kalau kita tengok telefon pun..lepas keluar yang satu keluar yang dua.. macam-macam eh.. semua boleh internet on the spot je kan.. (Temubual, 2013: April.” 1296


Faktor kedua yang dapat dikenalpasti ialah Facebook dapat memenuhi keperluan emosi remaja. Berdasarkan dapatan kajian Ratih Dwi Kusumaningtyas (2010) dan Hafsah Salam (2012: 20) menunjukkan kebanyakan remaja merasa selesa bercerita tentang diri secara terbuka (self disclosure) di laman sosial tersebut. Ini kerana keinginan remaja untuk dirai, dipuji dan diterima dapat dipenuhi. Hasil daripada interaksi di laman sosial tersebut memberikan remaja atau pengguna akaun merasa dihargai oleh pengguna Facebook yang lain. Remaja juga memperolehi harga diri di Facebook, iaitu merasa diri sebahagian daripada komuniti yang merasakan kewujudan dirinya (Edwi Arief Sosiawan, 2010). Selain itu, kajian mendapati Facebook merupakan medium yang dapat membantu melindungi orang yang berimej lemah seperti remaja yang tertekan dan kesepian. Facebook dapat memberi manfaat dengan cara menjadi tempat untuk berkongsi dan meluahkan perasaan agar dapat membantu meringankan tekanan perasaan (Hafsah Salam, 2012; Edwi Arief Sosiawan, 2010). Jumlah Friends juga menjadi indikasi jaringan komunikasi pengguna akaun. Semakin ramai jumlah rakan di Facebook, semakin luas jaringan komunikasi dalam laman sosial tersebut. Hal ini juga dapat dikaitkan dengan faktor dorongan sosial (persekitaran) remaja. Kebanyakan remaja mempunyai akaun Facebook, jadi remaja yang lain terikut untuk membuka akaun sekaligus menerusi medium ini mereka berinteraksi dan bersosial. Komunikasi dalam Facebook ternyata memberikan kepuasan kepada persekitaran, hiburan, identiti diri dan interaksi sosial remaja (Yayan Herdianto, 2011; Edwi Arief Sosiawan, 2010; Cheryl A. Mclean, 2010). Laman sosial yang menarik dan pengantar muka yang mesra pengguna (user-friendly) menjadi faktor ketiga remaja memilih Facebook sebagai laman sosial yang digemari. Facebook popular kerana menyediakan perkhidmatan-perkhidmatan yang boleh menarik minat pengguna sekaligus menjadikan bilangan pengguna kian meningkat dari hari ke hari. Konfigurasi pengguna boleh dibahagi kepada lapan kategori asas iaitu profil, rakan, foto, kumpulan, peristiwa, mesej, set akaun, dan set privasi. Maklumat profil pula dibahagikan kepada enam kategori iaitu maklumat asas, maklumat yang boleh dihubungi, maklumat peribadi, maklumat kerjaya, maklumat kursus (bagi pelajar), dan gambar (Hafsah Salam, 2012: 14; Dave Awl, 2009). Pemilik akaun juga mempunyai pilihan dalam melakukan hubungan interaksi. Mesej peribadi, ruangan komen, ruang sembang merupakan aplikasi dalam Facebook yang digunakan dalam hubungan interaksi dua hala atas talian. Bagi mengekalkan hubungan sosial di luar talian, Facebook mempunyai aplikasi lain seperti nota, notis atas talian untuk mesyuarat, parti dan sebagainya. “Repondez s’il vous plait” (RSVP) dalam bahasa Perancis bermaksud ‘tolong respon’ merupakan aplikasi Facebook yang digunakan untuk membuat jemputan ke majlis-majlis tertentu seperti peperiksaan, perjumpaan semula (reunion) dan sebagainya (Mohd Zuwairi, 2010). Faktor ini juga disokong oleh responden: “Ok...faktor yang mendorong pelajar menggunakan Facebook, kalau kita tengok facebook tu memang dia menariklah..(Temubual, 2013: April).” “Untuk guna facebook kan..maknanya, antara yang pertamanya itulah dia ada suatu benda yang macam seronok bagi remaja sekian besarnya.. (Temubual, 2013: April).”

Kesan Positif Facebook dalam Interaksi Sosial Remaja Secara umumya, kesan positif Facebook dalam interaksi sosial remaja dapat dikenalpasti dalam komunikasi antara rakan dan keluarga, penglibatan dalam masyarakat dan kesan moral. Ini 1297


kerana Facebook ternyata dapat meluaskan hubungan sosial dan mengeratkan hunbungan sedia ada antara satu sama lain (Deborah Johnson, 2011). Kebanyakan mereka yang mempunyai sumber sosial yang baik, akan mengintegrasikan dan memanfaatkan internet dalam kehidupan harian mereka (Mokmin Basri, 2004). Remaja dapat mencipta jaringan yang meluas, dan tidak lagi hanya yang terikat dengan rakan sekampung, rakan persekolahan dan sebagainya (Ratih Dwi Kusu Maningtyas, 2010). Kesan ini turut diakui oleh responden: “Di situ kita boleh ada link dengan kawan-kawan kita.. daripada sekolah rendah sampai ke sekarang..(Responden: 2013).” “Dia akan gunalah benda tu sebab di situlah tempat dia berhubung dengan rakan-rakan, dia meluahkan perasaan, post gambar-gambar ke apa kan.. (Responden: 2013).” “Ok, kita bagi specific kepada facebook.. kelebihan dia..ok di situ kita boleh jumpa rakanrakan..jadi mengeratkan silaturrahim..aa, maknanya bergantunglah, kalau kita guna untuk bertanya khabar, sekadarnya..” Selain itu, interaksi sosial remaja dalam Facebook juga dapat memupuk hubungan interaksi antarabudaya (Mohd Zuwairi Mat Saad, 2010). Dunia Facebook sangat besar, merentasi negara dan benua. Oleh itu, remaja boleh berkenalan dan berkomunikasi dengan cepat (Jesse Feiler, 2008: 6). Kesan ini boleh dilihat dalam konteks global mahupun tempatan. Ini kerana, Malaysia juga terdiri daripada pelbagai etnik dan bangsa. Sebagai contoh, remaja di Johor boleh berinteraksi dengan remaja beretnik Kadazan dari Sabah, remaja berbangsa India berkawan dengan remaja berbangsa Cina dan sebagainya. Interaksi ini wujud secara tidak langsung dalam membuat komentar, berdiskusi atas isu tertentu dan pelbagai lagi. Menurut Perdana Menteri Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak dalam temubual bersama akhbar Utusan Malaysia (2010) mengatakan bahawa keindahan internet ialah ia dapat meruntuhkan banteng sesama individu. Ia meruntuhkan banteng (perbezaan) bangsa, agama dan juga usia. Fenomena Facebook juga mengurangkan jurang antara kaum dan agama di mana bersesuaian dengan Malaysia yang terkenal dengan kepelbagaian kaum dan budaya (Mohd Zuwairi, 2010). Sementara itu, dalam kajian Yayan Herdianto (2011) pula mendapati komunikasi verbal secara tulisan memberi kefahaman komunikasi yang lebih mendalam dan berkesan. Ini membuktikan interaksi sosial menerusi Facebook dapat memenuhi kefahaman dalam menyampaikan sesuatu mesej. Facebook menjadikan pengguna akaun lebih terbuka dan jujur semasa memberi pendapat ataupun komen (Davey Winder, 2008: 18). Selain itu, Facebook juga berkesan sebagai medium pengetahuan dan perkongsian bagi remaja. Memetik kata-kata pengasas Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg dalam temubual bersama majalah Times mengatakan bahawa apa yang mereka (kumpulan pembangun Facebook) cuba lakukan ialah menjadikan Facebook benar-benar berkesan untuk orang ramai bagi tujuan berkomunikasi, mendapatkan maklumat, dan berkongsi maklumat. Mereka sentiasa cuba menekankan komponen utiliti sosial (Jesse Feiler, 2008: 5). Ini terbukti kerana sebagai contoh para saintis boleh menggunakan Facebook untuk berkongsi keputusan kajian terbaru. Para agamawan dapat berkongsi sedikit pesanan untuk mengingatkan kembali minda dan jiwa, dan sebagainya (Andi Anto Patak, 2012). Ternyata, tidak hanya individu yang menggunakan laman sosial tersebut, malah laman ini juga digunakan oleh sektor kerajaan dalam menyampaikan segala maklumat mengenai langkah kerajaaan untuk memajukan negara 1298


(Mohd Zuwairi, 2010). Natijahnya secara tidak langsung, remaja dapat mengetahui pelbagai maklumat menerusi Facebook. Pengetahuan mereka tidak lagi terhad kepada proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran di kelas mahupun buku teks. Selari dengan peluang menambah maklumat secara mudah di Facebook, ia juga berkesan menjadi platform dakwah secara tidak langsung sesama remaja. Islam tidak mengehadkan kepada umatnya untuk menggunakan apa jua media yang boleh memberi kejayaan dalam usaha berdakwah dalam kalangan umat manusia seluruhnya (Syed Muhammad Dawilah al-Edrus & Mohd Lutfi: 2009). Kesan positif ini juga diakui oleh responden: “Sebenarnya kalau kita gunakan dia untuk sebagai media pengetahuan, bukan untuk suatu benda yang lagha..emm...benda tu ada kebaikan..(Temubual, 2013: April).” “..Apa-apa ilmu kita boleh berkongsi dan aa..facebook jika kita guna kepada satu err..apa.. satu benda yang baik, di situ juga boleh menjadi satu... elemen dakwah..kita boleh sebarkan kepada rakan-rakan kita.. Haa, katakan kita ni belajar agama, tapi rakan kita yang tidak belajar agama.. ok, di situ kita boleh memberi, berkongsi..pengalaman, berkongsi ilmu di situ..(Tembual, 2013: April).”

Kesan Negatif Facebook dalam Interaksi Sosial Remaja Terdapat beberapa kesan negatif yang dapat dikenalpasti, antaranya adalah menerusi interaksi sosial di Facebook, remaja mudah terdedah menjadi mangsa jenayah siber. Oleh kerana penggunaannya yang semakin meluas, kadar jenayah yang datang dari Facebook juga turut sama meningkat. Berdasarkan kes-kes yang telah berlaku adalah berpunca daripada faktor kesahihan dan ketepatan maklumat yang diberikan dan kebanyakan mangsanya terdiri daripada kaum wanita. Ciri asal Facebook bertujuan membantu memudahkan pengguna berkenalan dan berkongsi maklumat, ternyata secara tidak langsung mendedahkannya kepada risiko penipuan maklumat dan jenayah kepada pengguna oleh mereka yang tidak bertanggungjawab. Jenayah adalah sebarang perbuatan (tinggalan) yang melanggar undang-undang yang boleh diambil tindakan (seperti ditangkap) dan diadili (melalui mahkamah) dan apabila disabitkan bersalah dikenakan hukuman keseksaan (Zaini Nasohah et.al, 2004). Jenayah siber pula merupakan jenayah yang melibatkan segala aktiviti jenayah yang biasa dilakukan seperti kecurian, penipuan, peras ugut dan segala aktiviti yang melibatkan pelanggaran undang-undang yang sedia ada dengan menggunakan internet di ruang siber (Mohd Dahlan & Ida Shafinaz, 2010). Tanpa kita sedar, peningkatan mendadak jumlah pengguna ruang siber yang berinteraksi di rangkaian sosial sebenarnya antara punca meningkatkan lagi risiko menjadi mangsa jenayah siber dunia (Hafsah Salam, 2012: 7). Jenayah siber tidak melibatkan fizikal tetapi lebih kepada emosi seperti pembulian, merasa terluka, terasing dan sedih. Jenis pembulian siber adalah termasuk membuat khabar angin, menyebarkan gambar yang memalukan sehingga menghantar mesej memalukan, berulang kali mengganggu, mengancam dan sebagainya (Deborah Johnson, 2011). Pusat Penyelidikan Buli Siber mendapati bahawa 33% daripada remaja adalah mangsa buli siber, manakala 22% remaja berasa sedih dan membunuh diri akibat buli siber (http://www.cyberbullying.us). Selain itu, Facebook juga membawa ancaman tekanan atau dikenali sebagai ‘Facebook depression’. Ini boleh berlaku apabila remaja gagal berhubung dengan rakan-rakan di laman sosial tersebut untuk beberapa ketika, lalu mengundang kesepian dalam jiwa remaja (kesunyian sosial). 1299


Hakikatnya, remaja bukanlah keseorangan kerana mempunyai keluarga, adik-beradik, jiran dan sebagainya, namun dia merasa sepi. Kajian mendapati individu yang kesunyian atau kesepian lebih mengalami kemurungan, merasa bimbang, mengalami ketegangan fikiran, bosan, merasa kekosongan, resah, lebih cenderung untuk menggunakan dadah malah membunuh diri (Saks & Krupat dalam Mohd Makzan Musa, 1997: 84). Menurut Weiss (1973) dalam Mohd Makzan Musa (1997: 84) mengatakan bahawa kesunyian sosial ini berlaku apabila individu mengalami kekurangan dari segi integrasi sosial yang boleh membentuk perhubungan dengan rangkaian kawan-kawan. Walau bagaimanapun, ada juga pendapat yang menyatakan bahawa Facebook menjadi punca yang menyebabkan emosi pengguna menjadi tertekan dan semakin murung apabila pengguna dan rakan-rakan pengguna berkongsi maklumat (Hafsah Salam, 2012: 21). Ini berlaku bukan kerana faktor gagal berhubung, tetapi disebabkan rakan-rakan mereka di laman sosial itu sendiri. Emosi remaja menjadi tidak stabil apabila pengguna atau rakan-rakan yang lain mengemaskini dan mengambil tahu status dinding mereka (wall) dengan lebih kerap (Hafsah Salam, 2012: 21). Interaksi sosial di Facebook dikatakan memudahkan penyebaran maklumat. Namun,kesan negatif yang dapat dikesan ialah remaja hanya menerima bulat-bulat fakta sekaligus memimpin ke arah kemahiran berfikir yang tidak kreatif dan kritis. Ini termasuklah samaada maklumat sains, pengetahuan agama, mahupun sesuatu khabar angin atau berita. Sedangkan ketepatan dan kesahihannya adalah penting bagi menjamin tidak berlaku penyelewengan dan kepalsuan fakta. Hal ini memberi cabaran kepada remaja terhadap proses tradisional dalam mendapatkan makulmat yang sahih. Rujukan maklumat semata-mata kepada internet tanpa pengesahan akan menimbulkan masalah tentang kebenaran fakta sesuatu maklumat (Syed Muhammad Dawilah al-Edrus & Mohd Lutfi: 2009). Remaja tidak mengambil peduli tentang maklumat di Facebook sama ada benar ataupun palsu (Hafsah Salam, 2012: 22). Islam telah mengariskan keperluan dalam menyelidik kesahihan fakta dan maklumat sebelum menerimanya. Berpandukan firman Allah SWT yang bermaksud: “Sekiranya datang kepadamu orang yang fasiq (jahat) membawa berita maka hendaklah kamu berwaspada (berhati-hati akan kebenarannya.” (QS al-Hujurat: 6). Kesan negatif ini turut disokong oleh responden: “Ok, kalau kata nak mencari maklumat..er..kadang-kadang remaja ni dia menerima bulatbulat apa yang dipaparkan oleh Facebook itu sendiri..ok..tanpa apa ni..cek terlebih dahulu.. apa betul ke.. fakta-fakta ni..(Temubual, 2013: April).” Selain itu, interaksi sosial remaja di laman Facebook juga membawa remaja bersikap individualistik. Berbekalkan pelbagai aplikasi yang menarik, Facebook berjaya menarik pengguna untuk menghabiskan banyak masa di internet termasuklah aktiviti mencari kenalan dan perjudian. Ini menyebabkan mereka lebih banyak bersendirian dan tidak bergaul dengan masyarakat (Julia Ying et.al, 2012: 197). Remaja yang menghabiskan terlalu banyak masa di Facebook juga menyebabkan masa bersama keluarga berkurangan dan mengurangkan interaksi bersemuka. Seorang pelajar menjelaskan pengalaman beliau sendiri bahawa Facebook telah menjejaskan hubungannya dengan ahli keluarga (Yeslam al-Saggaf, 2011: 13). 1300


Manakala Kraut et.al (1998) dan pengkritik budaya Yoffe (2009) menyatakan bahawa sikap individualistik dan hanya menghabiskan masa dengan melayari Facebook menjadikan remaja kurang berinteraksi bersemuka, dan meninggalkan orang-orang di sekeliling tertekan dan kesepian. Lebih-lebih lagi, Facebook dianggap sebagai ‘kawasan-kawasan perlindungan bagi orangorang yang mempunyai imej diri yang lemah dan menuntut perhatian dunia’ (DiSalvo, 2010: 53; Buffardi & Campbell, 2008 dalam Hafsah Salam, 2012: 20 ). Pakar Psikologi Pendidikan dan Kaunseling, Mariani Md Nor berkata tumpuan terlalu lama terhadap internet akan menyebabkan pelajar lebih suka menyendiri dan bersifat individualistik (Norakmah Mat Youb, 2011). Sikap individualistik dan tidak ambil kisah jika berlarutan boleh membawa kepada pergaduhan dan mungkin juga menyebabkan kecederaan dan persengketaan yang membabitkan ahli keluarga. Secara tidak langsung semua ini akan menyebabkan kualiti kehidupan terganggu (Haryati Ariffin, 2010). Hal ini membawa kesan yang buruk, di mana keluarga tidak lagi dijadikan sebagai pusat utama untuk seseorang dalam masyarakat (Rohana Yusof, 1997: 284). Kesan sikap individualistik ini turut disokong oleh responden: “Ha, macam kita tengok remaja sekarang ni.. lebih banyak bersendirian..masing-masing remaja dengan telefon masing-masing..(Temubual, 2013: April).” Kesan negatif lain yang dapat dikenalpasti menerusi interaksi sosial di Facebook ialah remaja terdedah kepada gambar yang tidak bersesuaian dan meniru aksi tersebut. Satu kajian di sebuah kolej menunjukkan bahawa pelajar-pelajar sering mendedahkan gambar mereka meminum minuman berat (alkohol) sedangkan mereka adalah pelajar di bawah umur. Pendedahan gambar tersebut boleh mempengaruhi tingkah laku rakan-rakan pengguna Facebook, terutamanya remaja dalam pembinaan norma sosial (Tavis Glassman, 2009: 42). Hal ini turut diakui oleh responden: “Seandainya satu laman web Facebook tu dia letak kat situ macam-macam gambar.. yang orang kata tak senonoh ke apa.. benda-benda tu boleh jadi..apa ni..boleh jadi tiru..orang kata, gaya tiru oleh remaja yang lain.. (Temubual, 2013: April).”

PERBINCANGAN Kehadiran Facebook dalam kemudahan rangkaian laman sosial ternyata berjaya menjadi suatu fenomena. Melihat kepada trend atau budaya penggunaan Facebook masa kini, pengguna terutamanya remaja banyak menghabiskan masa dengan melayari internet semata-mata untuk mengemaskini status, membalas mesej, bersembang di ruang sembang dan sebagainya. Jika diteliti secara kritikal, ia menimbulkan persoalan tentang sejauh mana keperluan Facebook dalam kehidupan sekarang. Jika diimbau sedikit masa dahulu, interaksi sosial terhad melalui tatapan bersemuka atau penulisan dalam surat, namun ia memberi kesan dan sentuhan yang erat dan harmoni. Berbanding dengan teknologi maklumat terkini, meskipun ia jauh lebih cepat dan efektif namun kesannya tidak sama dengan interaksi sosial tradisi. Ketaksuban remaja terhadap perkembangan teknologi maklumat terutamanya Facebook membuatkan mereka lebih senang berinteraksi atas talian berbanding mengamalkan interaksi secara interpersonal atau komunikasi secara muka ke muka. Hal ini perlu dilihat dengan lebih rapi terutamanya ibu bapa kerana dalam jangka masa yang panjang, ia memberi kesan dalam pembentukan kognitif, sosial dan emosi remaja itu sendiri. 1301


Masyarakat pula perlu merenung kembali dan menghayati konsep kejiranan dan persahabatan yang wajar dipraktikkan. Komuniti yang aktif dan saling berhubung akan membuka mata remaja untuk meluaskan interaksi sosial di alam nyata. Kepelbagaian aktiviti menarik yang boleh dianjurkan oleh pihak tertentu mungkin boleh menjadi pilihan bagi remaja berbanding bermain di atas talian. Keghairahan dan kelekaan dalam ledakan teknologi maklumat akan memberi kesan mendalam kepada institusi kemasyarakatan kita. Perlu diingat bahawa remaja-remaja inilah yang akan membentuk corak dan gaya masyarakat akan datang.

PENUTUP Masyarakat moden kini - yang menekankan sains dan teknologi - berdiri di tengah-tengah kehidupan yang wujud perhubungan sosial (social relations) yang semakin luas, bahkan pelbagai kekuatan sosial (social groups) yang bertentangan dengan nilai-nilai peradaban kita ini. Namun, kemunculan teknologi maklumat yang canggih tidak boleh kita ketepikan dan abaikan dalam mendepani arus globalisasi sekarang. Sesungguhnya kita perlu mempertimbangkan bagaimanakah langkah kita untuk tetap mempunyai keperibadian yang dipusakai turun temurun, di tengahtengah kemasukan pelbagai jenis kemajuan teknologi, fahaman, nilai hidup tanpa menganggu dan merosak hubungan-hubungan antara seluruh manusia. Kewujudan sesuatu aplikasi dalam era teknologi komunikasi perlu digunakan dengan berhemah bagi mengimbangi baik buruknya tanpa meninggalkan kesusilaan dan adab timur yang diwarisi.

RUJUKAN Ahmad Marzuki Ismail, (2007). Komunikasi Asas Kemahiran Membaca dan Menulis untuk Pelajar. Shah Alam: Karisma. Andi Anto Patak (2012), Facebook Phenomena. Kompasiana. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/ abstract=2057955 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2057955 Azizi Yahaya & Jaafar Sidek Latif, (2006). Membentuk Identiti Remaja. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Publications. Cheryl A. Mclean (2010). A Space Called Home: An Immigrant Adolescent’s Digital Literacy Practises. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 54, No.1. pp 13-22. International Reading Association. Dave Awl (2009). Facebook Me! A Guide to Having Fun With Your Friends and Promoting Your Projects on Facebook. United States of America: Peachpit Press. Davey Winder (2008). Being Virtual Who You Really Are Online. England: British Library ISBN. Deborah Johnson (2011). Wired: Encourage Positive Aspects of Social Media for Children, Teens While Guarding against Risks. Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP News). DOI: 10.1542/ aapnews.2011324-1b. Edwi Arief Sosiawan (2010). Penggunaan Situs Jejaring Sosial Sebagai Media Interaksi dan Komunikasi di Kalangan Mahasiswa. Yogyakarta, Universitas Pembangunan Nasional “ Veteran”. Hafsah Salam (2012). Garis Panduan Amalan Penggunaan Maklumat Facebook Dengan Selamat Berdasarkan Ciri Kualiti Maklumat. Tesis Ijazah Sarjana, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Hariyati Ariffin (2010). Berjiran Tanpa Bermuka. Harian Metro Online. http://www.cyberbullying.us/cyberbullying_and_suicide_research_fact_sheet.pdf http://www.socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/ Jesse Feiler (2008). Facebook Application. United States of America: The McGraw- Hill Companies.

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Johari Hassan & Raja Shahrina (2012). Ketagihan Penggunaan Internet di Kalangan Remaja Sekolah Tingkatan 4 di Bandaraya Johor Bahru. Journal of Technical, Vocational & Engineering Education, vol. 6, pages 23-43/ISSN: 2231-7376. Julia Ying, Chao Lin, Angelina Nhat Hanh Le, Shadab Khalil, Julian Ming & Sung Cheng (2012). Social Media Usage And Work Values: The Example Of Facebook In Taiwan. Social Behavior And Personality, 2012, 40(2), 195-200. Kuan-Yu Lin & Hsi-Peng Lu, (2011). Intention to Continue Using Facebook Fan Pages from the Perspective of Social Capital Theory. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, vol. 14, No. 10. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. Doi: 10.1089/cyber.2010.0472. Mohd Dahlan A. Malek & Ida Shafinaz Mohamed Kamil, (2010). Jenayah Dan Masalah Sosial Di Kalangan Remaja: Cabaran Dan Realiti Dunia Siber. Program Jenayah Siber dan Isu Pemerdagangan Manusia di Malaysia, Kota Kinabalu: Universiti Malaysia Sabah. 26 Aug 2010. Mohd Makzan Musa (1997). Psikologi Sosial. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd. Mohd Zuwairi Mat Saad (2010). Peranan Facebook dalam Memupuk Hubungan Interaksi Antarabudaya. Kertas Kerja: Seminar Komunikasi Antarabudaya Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Mokmin Basri (2004). Teknologi Maklumat dan Komunikasi (ICT) dan Nilai dalam Masyarakat. Selangor: Kolej Islam Selangor Darul Ehsan. Norakmah Mat Youb (2011). 60,000 pelajar kita tagih FB. Berita Harian Oline. Diakses pada 6 April 2013. Ratih Dwi Kusumaningtyas (2010). Peran Media Sosial Online (Facebook) Sebagai Saluran Self Disclosure Remaja Putri di Surabaya. Tesis Sarjana Muda, Universitias Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa Surabaya. Rohana Yusof (1997). Asas Sains Sosial dari Perspektif Sosiologi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Shahizan Hasan, Tsai Chen Chien & Saw (2006). Intrapersonal & Interpersonal untuk Remaja. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Publications. Syed Muhammad Dawilah al-Edrus & Mohd Lutfi Solehan (2009). Peranan ICT dalam Penyebaran Dakwah. Seminar Kebangsaan Dakwah Islamiah di IPT dan Komuniti. UTHM: Batu Pahat. 2-3 Disember 2009. Tavis Glassman (2009). Implications for College Students Posting Pictures of Themselves Drinking Alcohol on Facebook. Journal of Alcohol & Drug Education. Utusan Malaysia (2010). Kedutaan Amerika Syarikat di Iraq Buka Akaun Facebook. Yayan Herdianto (2011). Pengaruh Situs Jejaring Sosial Facebook Terhadap Pola Komunikasi Interpersonal. Tesis Sarjana Muda, Universitias Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa Surabaya. Yeslam Al-Saggaf (2011). Saudi Females on Facebook: An Ethnographic Study. International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2011, pp: 1-19. Zaini Nasohah (2004). Syariah dan Undang-Undang: Suatu Perbandingan. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications.

Murihah Abdullah Siti Adawiyah Yusuf Siti Intan Dahlia Harun Fakulti Tamadun Islam Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)

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120 Profil dan Isu Psikososial dalam Kalangan Orang yang Hidup dengan HIV/AIDS: Dapatan Awal Rajwani Md. Zain & Nor Azimah Chew Abdullah ABSTRAK Statistik menunjukkan sehingga Jun 2009, kadar jangkitan HIV di Malaysia telah mencapai angka 86,127 manakala 14,955 kes AIDS. Namun, jumlah tersebut hanyalah berdasarkan kadar yang telah direkodkan oleh pihak Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia (KKM) sahaja. Jangkitan HIV/AIDS telah dikenal pasti bukan hanya memberikan impak dari segi masalah kesihatan sahaja tetapi turut melibatkan masalah sosial yang lain termasuk hubungan sosial, ekonomi, dan psikologi. Impak yang dihadapi bukan hanya terhadap penghidapnya malah turut melibatkan ahli keluarga. Kajian yang dilakukan ini bertujuan meninjau latar belakang penghidap HIV/AIDS di Malaysia serta permasalahan lain yang menyumbang kepada kesan psikososial. Soal selidik telah digunakan bagi mendapatkan maklumat yang diperlukan daripada penghidap HIV/AIDS sebagai repsonden kajian. Hasil kajian yang diperolehi boleh digunakan bagi menyediakan perkhidmatan dan bantuan yang diperlukan oleh penghidap HIV/AIDS serta keluarga. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bilangan responden dalam kalangan lelaki, Melayu dan bujang merupakan kumpulan terbesar dalam kalangan orang yang hidup dengan HIV/AIDS (OHDHA). Majoriti daripada responden mendapat jangkitan melalui hubungan seks rambang serta sebahagian besar daripada mereka mengamalkan orientasi seks tidak normal. Antara beberapa isu psikososial yang sering dihadapi oleh mereka adaalah pendedahan status kesihatan, diskriminasi dan keselamatan sosial. Hasil kajian ini boleh digunakan oleh pihak pemegang taruh (stake holders) untuk merancang program baru serta melakukan penambahbaikan terhadap program sedia ada bagi pencegahan, mengurangkan kadar jangkitan HIV/AIDS serta mengurangkan impak dalam aspek psikososial terhadap penghidap dan ahli keluarga OHDHA. Kata kunci: Profil, psikososial, HIV/AIDS, program, pencegahan. ABSTRACT Statistics show until June 2009, the rate of HIV infections in Malaysia has reached 86,127 and 14,955 numbers of AIDS cases. However, this numbers is only based on the rate recorded by the Ministry of Health (MOH) only. HIV / AIDS has been identified not only have an impact in terms of health problems but also involves other social problems including social, economic, and psychological. The impact not only on the sufferer but also involve family members. Studies done is to find out the background of people living with HIV / AIDS in Malaysia as well as other problems that contribute to psychosocial effects. Questionnaires were used to obtain the required information from people living with HIV / AIDS as respondents. From the results can be used to provide services and assistance needed by people living with HIV / AIDS and their families. Results showed that the number of

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respondents among men, Malay and single largest group among people living with HIV / AIDS (PLWHA). The majority of the respondents got the infection through promiscuous sex and most of their sexual orientation is not normal practice. Some of the psychosocial issues faced by them are self-disclosure (about health status), discrimination and social security. Results of this study can be used by stakeholders to plan new programs and making improvements on existing programs for the prevention, reducing the rate of HIV / AIDS and reduce the impact on the psychosocial aspects of patients and family members of PLWHA. Keywords: Profile, psychosocial, HIV / AIDS, programs, prevention.

PENGENALAN Istilah ‘HIV/AIDS’ sering mempunyai tafsiran yang negatif atau menakutkan. Mereka yang sudah dijangkiti dianggap sudah tidak mampu menjalani aktiviti harian seperti biasa, mengalami simptom yang serius dan sudah menghampiri kematian. Malah apa yang lebih serius singkatan kepada perkataan AIDS juga ditafsirkan sebagai “Angkara Iblis Dan Syaitan”. Tanggapan ini sering diberikan terutama oleh mereka yang tidak memahami perkembangan penyakit tersebut. Justeru istilah ‘orang yang hidup dengan AIDS’ (OHDA) lebih sesuai digunakan bagi menggambarkan situasi mereka yang masih berpeluang menjalani kehidupan harian seperti biasa dan juga untuk mengurangkan stigma dan diskriminasi. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) atau Sindrom Kurang Daya Tahan Melawan Penyakit merupakan satu penyakit yang berpunca daripada sejenis virus daripada retroviral iaitu Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Virus ini boleh menyebabkan kerosakan sistem daya tahan tubuh secara perlahan-lahan. HIV boleh dijangkiti melalui tiga cara, pertama melalui hubungan seks dengan individu yang telah dijangkiti HIV tanpa menggunakan kondom. Kedua, melalui perkongsian jarum suntikan yang telah tercemar dengan HIV. Ketiga, melalui ibu yang telah dijangkiti HIV/AIDS kepada anak semasa hamil, melahirkan anak dan semasa penyusuan. Hanya ketiga-tiga kaedah ini sahaja telah dikenal pasti sebagai kaedah utama jangkitan HIV/ AIDS. HIV juga boleh dijangkiti melalui pemindahan darah tetapi di Malaysia darah yang didermakan telah disaringkan dan peluang untuk dijangkiti oleh HIV melalui cara ini adalah tipis (Andrew & Novick, 1995; Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia [KKM], 2002).

LATAR BELAKANG KAJIAN Bilangan kematian disebabkan AIDS masih lagi berterusan malah meningkat walaupun telah banyak program kesedaran dan pencegahan dilakukan oleh pelbagai pihak (Mary Huang & Hisham Hussien, 2004; The joint United Nations programme on HIV/AIDS [UNAIDS], 2006; Malaysia AIDS Council, 2008; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2007). Banyak kajian telah membuktikan pengetahuan dan sikap terhadap HIV/AIDS dalam kalangan anggota masyarakat yang terdiri daripada pelajar, pekerja sosial, guru, kakitangan perubatan, kaunselor dan sebagainya masih lagi rendah dan negatif. Ketidakfahaman tentang HIV/AIDS juga merupakan salah satu faktor mengapa jangkitan HIV dan kematian disebabkan AIDS masih lagi berterusan (Owens, 1995; SIECUS, 2001; Werner, Carmel & Ziedenberg, 2004; Strydom & Strydom, 2006; Chomat, et al. 2009; Piper & Yeoh, 2005). Menyedari kesan yang timbul akibat

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HIV/AIDS begitu meluas, KKM telah mengambil langkah proaktif dengan menjadikan AIDS sebagai tema utama bagi Kempen Cara Hidup Sihat bagi tahun 1992. Kempen tersebut yang diadakan setiap tahun mempunyai tema dan fokus bagi wabak atau penyakit tertentu. Objektif utama kempen adalah memberikan kesedaran kepada orang ramai mengenai langkah-langkah utama pencegahan AIDS (Kempen Cara Hidup Sihat, 1992). Selain langkah proaktif oleh pihak berwajib iaitu KKM, pada tahun 1992 satu badan bukan kerajaan telah ditubuhkan bertujuan menyokong dan menyelaras aktiviti dan program yang berkaitan dengan isu-isu HIV/AIDS. Badan yang dikenali sebagai Majlis AIDS Malaysia (Malaysia AIDS Council) itu mempunyai lima objektif utama iaitu 1) meningkatkan kesedaran HIV/AIDS, 2) mencegah penyebaran HIV, 3) menghapuskan diskriminasi, stigma dan prejudis yang berkaitan dengan HIV/AIDS, 4) memastikan kualiti kehidupan yang terbaik bagi mereka yang mempunyai HIV/AIDS, dan 5) menyediakan penjagaan dan sokongan kepada individu-individu yang mempunyai HIV/ AIDS (Malaysia AIDS Council [MAC], 2009). Senario di Malaysia menunjukkan sehingga Jun 2009, terdapat sebanyak 86,127 kes jangkitan HIV dan 14,955 kes AIDS. Manakala bagi kes kematian disebabkan AIDS ialah sebanyak 11,549 kes. Kes HIV/AIDS dan kematian mula dikesan di Malaysia pada tahun 1986, dan terdapat hanya satu kes kematian AIDS dilaporkan pada masa tersebut. Setelah lima tahun dikesan iaitu bermula tahun 1990 peningkatan yang berlaku menunjukkan perubahan lebih ketara seterusnya peningkatan terus berlaku dari tahun ke tahun. Taburan dari segi demografi menunjukkan kaum lelaki terutama yang berusia antara 30 hingga 39 tahun merupakan kumpulan paling ramai menghidapi AIDS. Perkongsian jarum dalam kalangan penagih dadah adalah penyebab utama jangkitan HIV/AIDS berlaku di negara ini. Kaum Melayu merupakan kumpulan yang mendominasikan sama ada kes jangkitan HIV, kes AIDS atau kes kematian AIDS. Dari aspek pekerjaan, mereka yang tidak bekerja pula adalah kumpulan terbesar terlibat dengan kes-kes HIV/AIDS (Malaysia AIDS Council, 2010). Walau bagaimanapun, data yang disediakan oleh MAC tidak meliputi keadaan dan status sosio-ekonomi secara lebih mendalam. Justeru, satu kajian tentang isu berkenaan perlu dijalankan bagi membolehkan data tersebut diketahui seterusnya akan boleh digunakan bagi tujuan-tujuan tertentu. Orang yang hidup dengan AIDS (OHDA) bukan hanya berhadapan dengan cabaran dan kesukaran untuk menguruskan keadaan kesihatan mereka yang dianggap serius tetapi antara cabaran utama yang lain ialah isu stigma dan diskriminasi (Anderson, 1992; Lekas, Siegel & Schrimshaw, 2006; Chan, Stoove & Reidpath, 2008). Antara diskriminasi yang sering berlaku dalam kalangan OHDA ialah diberhentikan kerja atau tidak diterima bekerja oleh majikan apabila mengetahui status HIV mereka (Fong, 2007). Walaupun HIV/AIDS telah melanda dunia sejak lebih tiga dekad yang lalu namun isu stigma dan diskriminasi terhadap golongan OHDHA masih lagi berlaku sama ada dalam kalangan masyarakat yang tidak mempunyai pengetahuan berkaitan virus tersebut malah turut juga berlaku dalam kalangan kakitangan perubatan. Stigma terhadap OHDHA bukan hanya berlaku di negara kurang maju tetapi dianggap sebagai masalah global yang berlaku tanpa mengira status negara. Kebanyakan hasil kajian berkaitan stigma mendapati sememangnya wujud persepsi dan sikap negatif terhadap OHDHA seterusnya boleh menyumbang kepada kesan sosio-ekonomi dan psikologi (VarasDiaz, et al. 2005; Thomas, et al. 2005; Visser, Makin & Lehobye, 2006; Finn & Saragi, 2009;

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Surgevil & Akyol, 2011). Malah OHDHA sering dipersalahkan kerana terlibat dengan aktiviti yang menjadi faktor risiko jangkitan HIV/AIDS. Kesalahan yang diletakkan kepada OHDA menyebabkan interaksi antara keluarga menjadi renggang (Li, et al. 2007). Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Rajwani (2011) mendapati kebanyakan mereka yang menghidap virus HIV/AIDS turut mengalami masalah kewangan seterusnya memberi kesan kepada keluarga. Masalah ekonomi yang dihadapi disebabkan dua faktor utama iaitu tidak mempunyai pekerjaan tetap atau berpendapatan rendah. Faktor kedua ialah pendapatan yang diperolehi banyak dihabiskan untuk aktiviti berisiko iaitu pembelian dadah atau melanggan pekerja seks. Justeru, situasi dan masalah tersebut akan memberi kesan kepada keluarga termasuk masalah perbelanjaan harian dan persekolahan anak-anak. Reilly dan Woo (2004), menjelaskan mengenai keperluan sokongan sosial dalam kalangan OHDHA sebagai sumber kekuatan kepada mereka untuk meneruskan kehidupan. Antara pihak yang dianggap penting untuk memberikan sokongan sosial adalah pasangan, keluarga, komuniti dan kakitangan perubatan. Berdasarkan kajian yang dijalankan, penyelidik mendapati kebanyakkan responden yang telah dijangkiti HIV/AIDS adalah dalam lingkungan umur 31 hingga 50 tahun. Mereka terdiri daripada pelbagai bangsa, mempunyai tahap pendidikan dan taraf ekonomi yang berlainan. Di samping itu, penyelidik turut menjelaskan tentang orentasi seks yang mereka amalkan iaitu homoseksual, heteroseksual dan biseksual. Menurut Piper & Yeoh Brenda (2005), terdapat pelabagai cabaran dalam menghadapi penularan virus HIV/AIDS dalam kalangan masyarakat. Kajian yang dijalankan di rantau Asia Pasifik virus HIV/AIDS merebak melalui hubungan seks bebas dan juga perkongsian jarun suntikan (IDU). Pelbagai langkah pencegahan dilakukan untuk memastikan virus HIV/AIDS tidak meningkat. Antara langkah pencegahan yang dijalankan ialah menyarankan penggunaan kondom ketika mengadakan hubungan seks, mengunpul dana untuk rawatan dan pencegahan pesakit-pesakit HIV/AIDS dan program-program pencegahan yang dijalankan oleh kerajaan dan badan bukan kerajaan (NGO). Namun begitu, terdapat pelbagai cabaran yang perlu diatasi untuk memastikan program yang dianjurkan memberi kesan kepada mereka yang hidup dengan HIV/AIDS. Antara cabaran yang dihadapi adalah dari segi sistem politik-ekonomi yang mana melibatkan migrasi dalam kalangan masyarakat yang menceburkan diri dalam bidang industri seks dan pelacuran. Keadaan ini menyumbang kepada peningkatan kadar hubungan seks bebas yang menyumbang kepada HIV/AIDS. Hal ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa HIV/ AIDS mempunyai kaitan dari aspek jantina, faktor ekonomi, keperluan seks dan juga peranan kerajaan dan juga NGO. Daripada beberapa hasil kajian yang telah dinyatakan, didapati keadaan psikososial yang dihadapi oleh OHDHA akan mempengaruhi kehidupan mereka termasuk status sosio-ekonomi. Selain daripada OHDHA, kesan daripada penyakit tersebut turut mempengaruhi keluarga mereka sama ada dalam aspek psikologi dan juga ekonomi. Justeru, satu kajian berkaitan sosio-ekonomi mereka perlu dijalankan bagi menyalurkan perkhidmatan yang diperlukan oleh mereka. Selain itu, kajian berkaitan HIV/AIDS terutama dalam aspek sosial masih tidak banyak dilakukan di Malaysia. Kajian ini penting kerana bagi ia merupakan salah satu kajian penerokaan yang membolehkan pengkaji cuba mengketengahkan apakah isu-isu yang sering dihadapi oleh OHDHA. Diharapkan melalui kajian ini isu HIV/AIDS akan mendapat

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perhatian umum terutama bagi program pencegahan serta dapat membantu pihak berkenaan lebih mengetahui bentuk sokongan dan perkhidmatan yang diperlukan oleh OHDHA serta keluarga mereka.

OBJEKTIF KAJIAN 1. Menganalis profil orang yang hidup dengan HIV/AIDS 2. Mengenal pasti isu-isu psikososial yang dihadapi oleh golongan OHDHA 3. Menyenaraikan bantuan dan program yang mungkin diperlukan oleh OHDHA (dan keluarga mereka) 4. Mencadangkan model bagi langkah pencegahan dan pengurangan kadar jangkitan dalam kalangan masyarakat

METODOLOGI Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif. Reka bentuk ini ditentukan berdasarkan objektif kajian yang memerlukan data bagi mengetahui profil responden dan tidak melibatkan data berbentuk pengalaman atau penceritaan (narrative). Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan menggunakan kaedah tinjauan iaitu dengan menggunakan borang soal selidik. Untuk tujuan pengumpulan data, beberapa NGO yang terlibat memberikan perkhidmatan kepada OHDHA telah dikenal pasti seperti Malaysia AIDS Council (MAC), Pink Triangle Foundation (PT Foundation), dan Rumah Solehah. Beberapa NGO tersebut telah dihubungi seterusnya sebagai perantara kepada penyelidik bagi tujuan pengumpulan data. Berdasarkan jawapan yang telah diberikan dan dengan mengambilkira pelbagai faktor, hanya pihak Malaysia AIDS Council (MAC) yang terlibat sepenuhnya dalam proses pengumpulan data bagi kajian ini. Responden yang terlibat dalam kajian ini dalam kalangan penghidap HIV/AIDS, dan telah diperolehi melalui NGO (MAC). Populasi sehingga Jun 2009 (laporan terkini yang dikeluarkan oleh KKM) ialah 86, 127. Menurut jadual Krejcie & Morgan (1970), saiz sampel untuk aktiviti penyelidikan ini ialah sebanyak 383 orang. Penyelidik hanya sanggup mengambil tahap keyakinan sebayak 95% dengan margin kesilapan (margin of error) sebanyak 5. Kaedah pemilihan sampel secara random sampling (persampelan rawak mudah). Walaubagaimanapun, tidak semua responden yang memberikan persetujuan untuk terlibat dalam kajian ini atau menjawab soal selidik yang diedarkan. Instrumen kajian yang digunakan ialah borang soal selidik yang telah dibuat berdasarkan objektif kajian. Sebelum diedarkan kepada responden, boring soal selidik disemak terlebih dahulu oleh beberapa orang yang menyediakan perkhidmatan kepada kumpulan sasaran iaitu OHDHA. Data dianalisis menggunakan kaedah SPSS-PC (Statistical Package for Social Science) versi 15. Maklumat dan data yang diperolehi dianalisis dengan menggunakan kaedah analisis statistic deskriptif yang melibatkan penganalisisan menggunakan peratus, jadual silang (cross tab), dan min.

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HASIL KAJIAN Profil responden Jadual 1: Profil responden Frekuensi

Peratus

Jantina

Lelaki Perempuan Transgender

148 49 10

71.5 23.7 4.8

Umur

17 – 20 21 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 keatas

2 55 90 42 18

0.9 26.5 43.4 20.2 8.6

Bangsa

Melayu Cina India Lain-lain

161 24 14 8

77.7 11.5 6.7 3.8

Status perkahwinan

Bujang Kahwin Janda/Duda Balu/Duda

136 50 15 6

65.7 24.2 7.3 2.9

Tahap pendidikan

Tidak bersekolah Sek. Rendah SRP/PMR SPM/STPM Diploma Ijazah Lain-lain

5 18 25 60 36 54 9

2.4 8.7 12.1 29.0 17.4 26.1 4.3

Pekerjaan

Penganggur Pelajar Bekerja sendiri Swasta Kakitangan awam NGO/outreach worker Surirumah

39 10 25 78 22 27 6

18.8 4.8 12.0 37.6 10.6 13.0 2.8

Pendapatan

Tiada RM500 kebawah RM501 – RM1500 RM1501 – RM3000 RM3001 – RM5000 RM5000 keatas Tidak menentu

41 9 8 104 16 9 16

19.8 4.3 3.8 50.2 7.7 4.3 7.7

Orientasi seks

Homoseks Biseksual Hetroseksual Tidak dinyatakan

76 32 77 22

36.7 15.5 37.2 10.6

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Isu Psikososial Daya Tindak

Antara beberapa bentuk daya tindak yang diambil oleh responden terbahagi kepada dua bentuk iaitu positif dan negatif. Bagi responden yang mengambil tindakan positif mereka mula mencari maklumat berkaitan HIV/AIDS, mencari sokongan moral, segera mendapatkan pemeriksaan dan rawatan serta mengambil keputusan untuk cuba memperbaiki gaya hidup secara lebih sihat. Manakala bagi responden yang melakukan daya tindak secara negatif mereka pernah melakukan cubaan membunuh diri dan melarikan diri dari rumah. Walaubagaimanapun hanya sebilangan kecil daripada responden yang mengambil tindakan berbentuk negatif. Stigma dan Diskriminasi Berdasarkan maklumat yang diberikan oleh responden, 38 peratus daripada jumlah responden menyatakan mereka mengalami stigma dan diskriminasi untuk mendapatkan rawatan. Selain itu, majoriti daripada responden yang didiskriminasikan mengalaminya di hospital kerajaan. Antara bentuk diskriminasi yang berlaku termasuk diabaikan atau dilengahkan pmeriksaan kesihatan serta disindir dalam bentuk perkataan. Walaubagaimanapun, bagi responden yang tidak melalui pengalaman didiskriminasi ketika mendapatkan rawatan kesihatan mereka menyatakan status kesihatan mereka tidak diketahui oleh pesakit lain, serta keadaan fizikal mereka yang masih kelihatan sihat. Pendedahan Status Kesihatan Kebanayakan responden mendedahkan status kesihatan mereka hanya kepada pasangan dan keluarga terdekat (ibu bapa). Kebanyakan responden mengambil keputusan untuk memberitahu status kesihatan kepada pasangan sejurus selepas menjalani ujian darah (38.2%), atau mengambil masa beberapa bulan untuk berkongsi status kesihatan diri mereka. Reaksi yang berbeza ditunjukkan oleh pasangan mereka bergantung kepada status hubungan sama ada hubungan perkahwinan atau hubungan sosial. Kebanyakan pasangan (isteri) yang mengetahui status kesihatan suami majority daripada mereka merasa kecewa, terkejut dan marah namun lama kelamaan akan memberikan sokongan dan bantuan. Manakala bagi pasangan sosial antara reaksi yang ditunjukkan adalah menerima kerana sudah dijangkakan atau mengambil keputusan untuk mencari pasangan lain. Daripada jumlah 207 orang responden kajian ini 36.2 % (75 orang) mengambil keputusan untuk merahsiakan status kesihatan mereka kepada keluarga. Antara tindakan atau reaksi oleh keluarga apabila mengetahui status kesihatan responden adalah memberikan sokongan dan bantuan tetapi ada juga yang memulaukan responden. Manakala sebahagian besar responden dan keluarga mengambil keputusan untuk merahsiakan status kesihatan daripada pengetahuan masyarakat setempat (komuniti). Tindakan tersebut diambil bagi mengelakkan berlakunya stigma dan diskriminasi. Keselamatan Sosial Keselamatan sosial dalam kajian ini termasuk perlindungan kesihatan, jaminan kewangan dan hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan kewangan. Majoriti (81.2%) daripada responden tidak mempunyai perlindungan kesihatan (insuran kesihatan atau perubatan). Walaubagaimanapun, bagi responden

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yang mempunyai insuran kesihatan perlindungan yang diperolehi tidak termasuk penyakit HIV/AIDS atau penyakit-penyakit kelamin (STD) yang lain. Kebanyakan daripada responden berhadapan dengan masalah pekerjaan apabila mendapat keputusan ujian saringan HIV/AIDS. Terdapat responden yang dinasihatkan untuk berhenti, diberhentikan atau mengambil keputusan untuk berhenti kerja secara sukarela sebelum majikan mengetahui status kesihatan mereka. Selain itu, kebanyakan daripada responden menyatakan mereka terpaksa mengambil langkah tertentu apabila berhadapan dengan masalah kewangan termsuk menggunakan wang simpanan, meminjam daripada ahli keluarga, menggadaikan harta benda serta cuba mendapatkana bantuan daripada agensi-agensi tertentu. Menyedari keadaan kesihatan mereka yang mengundang pelbagai komplikasi penyakit lain sebahagian besar responden mengambil langkah menabung untuk kegunaan anak-anak atau pasangan. Walaubagaimanapun, berdasarkan keperluan semasa mereka terpaksa menggunakan wang tabungan bagi keperluan harian.

PERBINCANGAN Dapatan kajian ini telah mengenalpasti profil OHDHA secara lebih jelas dan terperinci. Berdasarkan statistik yang telah dikeluarkan oleh KKM didapati hasil kajian ini telah menunjukkan penemuan yang sedikit berbezaterutama dari segi punca jangkitan iaitu majority responden mendapat jangkitan melalui hubungan seks, malah sebahagian responden turut mengamalkan orientasi seks yang tidak normal. Perbezaan ini mungkin berlaku disebabkan kaedah pengumpulan data yang hanya melibatkan kumpulan tertentu sahaja iaitu OHDHA yang menyertai program atau aktiviti anjuran MAC. Pengkaji mungkin akan dapat statistik yang sama sekiranya melibatkan semua golongan. Walaubagaimanapun kaedah tersebut tidak dapat dilakukan disebabkan kekangan tertentu serta risiko yang agak tinggi. Selain itu, dari segi pendapatan didapati ramai responden yang mempunyai status ekonomi yang agak stabil (berdasarkan pendapatan). Walaubagaimanapun, ada dalam kalangan mereka yang masih mempunyai masalah kewangan disebabkan gaya hidup dan penglibatan dalam aktiviti berisiko. Berdasarkan maklumat yang diberikan oleh responden, didapati antara bantuan dan sokongan yang diperlukan oleh mereka adalah sokongan emosi dan moral. Sokongan ini diperlukan oleh mereka yang berhasrat untuk memperbaiki gaya hidup tetapi tidak mendapat bimbingan dan sokongan pihak tertentu. Peranan NGO yang menyediakan perkhidmatan sokongan kepada OHDHA dilihat amat berkesan terutama yang menjalankan kumpulan sokongan, menyediakan penempatan sementara serta member peluang kepada OHDHA untuk membantu golongan senasib. Aktiviti dan program yang dianjurkan dilihat mampu untuk mendorong OHDHA untuk meneruskan rawatan serta mengekalkan gaya hidup sihat serta akan cuba meninggalkan aktiviti berisiko Stigma sememangnya tidak dapat dipisahkan apabila membincangkan isu HIV/AIDS. Stigma dan diskriminasi bukan hanya berlaku ke atas penyakit HIV/AIDS, malah turut melibatkan OHDHA serta ahli keluarga mereka. Stigma dan diskriminasi juga berlaku dalam kalangan kakitangan kesihatan kepada OHDA. Dapatan kajian ini selari dengan kajian-kajian terdahulu oleh Paxton et al. (2005); Frain, et al. (2008); Li, et al. (2008) yang juga menunjukkan stigma juga boleh berlaku dalam kalangan ahli keluarga sendiri. Manakala kajian-kajian oleh Boyle dan Ferrell (1992); Hinnen dan Collins (2000); Namal (2003); Paxton, et al. (2005); Mwinituo dan

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Mill (2006) yang mendapati stigma juga berlaku dalam kalangan kakitangan perubatan. Walau bagaimanapun, masih ada ahli keluarga OHDHA yang telah memberikan sokongan yang positif dan tumpuan sepenuhnya kepada OHDA (Brown & Stetz, 1999; Schofield, 1998; Abell, 2001; Knodel, et al. 2001; Fredriksson & Kanabus, 2007; Aga, et al. 2009). Manakala bagi OHDA yang diterima dan tidak dipulaukan oleh ahli keluarga disebabkan OHDHA dianggap sebagai ”mangsa” keadaan dan mendapat jangkitan daripada pasangan masing-masing, atau tidak tahu sama sekali bagaimana jangkitan HIV itu berlaku. Manakala bagi responden yang tidak melalui pengalaman distigma dan didiskriminasikan, mereka telah mengambil langkah dengan menyembunyikan status kesihatan. Tindakan tersebut diambil disebabkan mereka dapat membuat andaian bahawa stigma dan diskriminasi akan berlaku sekiranya masyarakat terutama jiran-jiran terdekat mengetahui masalah kesihatan ahli keluarga mereka. Hasil kajian ini menyokong kajian-kajian yang telah dilakukan oleh Dane (2002); Strydom dan Raath (2005); Geurtsen (2005); Woodring, et al. (2005); Kittikorn, et al. (2006); Ostrom, et al. (2006); Blackford (2006); Ncama (2007); Kipp, et al. (2007); Demmer dan Burghart (2008); Finn dan Saragi (2009); Mitchell dan Knowlton (2009) yang mendapati ahli keluarga atau pesakit tidak mendedahkan status kesihatan bagi mengelakkan berlakunya stigma. Senario ini menunjukkan stigma dan diskriminasi berlaku dalam masyarakat kepada mereka yang mempunyai HIV/AIDS serta keluarga mereka tanpa mengira faktor kedudukan georgrafi dan bangsa. Kajian ini mengenalpasti terdapat beberapa isu yang berkaitan psikososial. HIV/AIDS bukan hanya memberi kesan kepada individu yang dijangkitinya, malah turut melibatkan ahli keluarga dan orang-orang yang mempunyai hubungan yang rapat dengan mereka. Kebanyakan impak yang dihadapi berpunca daripada HIV/AIDS adalah berbentuk negatif (Hedge, 1999; Demmer, 2001; Varas-Diaz, et al. 2005; Visser, et al. 2006; Finn & Saragi, 2009). Sebahagian besar daripada responden kajian perlu diberikan bimbingan untuk menguruskan kewangan dengan lebih berhemah bagi memastikan kehidupan mereka dapat diteruskan walaupun telah disahkan menghidap penyakit yang dianggap merbahaya.

CADANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN Berdasarkan dapatan kajian yang telah diperolehi, beberapa cadangan dikemukakan bagi penambahbaikan usaha atau langkah yang yang telah dan sedang diambil oleh pihak berwajib bagi mengatasi penularah virus ini daripada terus meningkat. Cadangan tersebut adalah: 1. Kempen dan program pencegahan bukan hanya tertumpu kepada golongan yang dianggap berisiko seperti pengguna dadah sahaja tetapi melibatkan golongan professional. 2. Perlu perkukuhkan setiap individu dengan pendidikan agama sebagai landasan untuk menjalani kehiduan harian dan tidak terjebak daripada kegiatan tidak bermoral khususnya orientasi seks yang bercanggah dengan norma dan nilai budaya masyarakat setempat. 3. Pelbagai pihak perlu turut bekerjasama dan turun padang bagi membendung gejala tidak sihat sekaligus dapat mengurangkan penularan virus HIV. 4. Pemeriksaan dan saringan yang lebih teliti perlu dilakukan terhadap darah yang didermakan oleh orang ramai kepada pihak hospital. Hal ini perlu dititikberatkan memandangkan terdapat 13 orang (6.3%) daripada responden mendapat jangkitan HIV daripada pemindahan darah. Walaupun peratusan yang terlibat dianggap kecil tetapi risiko yang perlu dihadapi oleh mereka adalah tinggi termasuk dalam aspek psikososial. 1312


Seseorang individu yang telah dijangkiti HIV/AIDS bukan hanya perlu berdepan dengan masalah kesihatan tetapi turut melibatkan aspek lain yang dapat menjejaskan kehidupan harian mereka. Justeru, golongan OHDHA sendiri perlu mengambil sikap positif dan proaktif dalam berhadapan dengan permasalahan semasa. Mereka perlu mengambil langkah tertentu supaya dapat meneruskan kehidupan secara sihat. Langkah tersebut perlu dilakukan bagi mengelakkan virus tersebut dapat dijangkiti oleh orang lain serta untuk tahap kesihatan mereka sendiri. Selain itu, Semua pihak perlu sedar dan mengambil sikap lebih berhati-hati kerana berdasarkan dapatan kajian menunjukkan mereka yang menghidap HIV/AIDS bukan hanya golongan yang dianggap berisiko sahaja tetapi kajian ini menunjukkan penglibatan golongan professional dan pelajar dalam aktiviti dan gaya hidup yang berisiko.

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Fredriksson, J. & Kanabus, A. (2007). Why is there stigma related to HIV and AIDS?. Diakses dari http:// www.avert.org.aidsstigma.htm pada 22 Februari 2008. Geurtsen, B. (2005). Quality of life and living with HIV/AIDS in Cambodia. Journal of transcultural nursing (16): 41-49. Hedge, B. (1999). The impact of HIV infection on partners and relatives. Dalam Catalan, J (ed.). Mental health and HIV infection: Psychological and psychiatric aspects. London: UCL Press. Hinnen, R.D. & Collins, M. (2000). HIV and home health care: challenges faced treating the stigmatized patient. Home health care management & practice (12): 7-15. Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia. (2010). HIV/AIDS. Diakses dari http://www.infosihat.gov.my/penyakit. Dewasa/HIV-AIDS.php pada 11 Februari 2010. Kempen cara hidup sihat (1992). AIDS pembunuh: cegah AIDS sekarang, hargailah kehidupan anda. Diakses dari http://www.infosihat.gov.my.kchs pada 11 Februari 2010. Kerrel, M. (2005). We don’t have AIDS, but we suffer too. Newsweek. 146(22): 14. Kipp, W., Tindyebwe, D., Karamagi, E. & Rubaale, T. (2007). How much should we expect? Family caregiving of AIDS paients in Rural Uganda. Journal of transcultural nursing (18): 358-365. Kittikorn, N., Street, A.F. & Blackford, J. (2006). Managing shame and stigma: case studies of female carers of people with AIDS in Southern Thailand. Qualitative health research (16): 1286-1301. Knodel, J., Saengtienchai, C., Im-Em, W. & Vanlandingham, M. (2001). The impact of AIDS on parents and families in Thailand. Research on aging (23): 633-670. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30: 607-610. Lekas, H.M., Siegel, K. & Schrimshaw, E.W. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in the experiences of felt and enacted stigma among women with HIV/AIDS. Qualitative health research (16): 1165-1190. Li, L., Lin, C. Wu, Z., Wu, S., Borus-M, M.J., Detels, R. & Jia, M. (2007). Stigmatization and shame: consequences of caring for HIV/AIDS patients in China. AIDS care 19(2): 258-263. Li, L., Wu, Z., Wu, S., Jia, M., Lieber, E. & Lu, Y. (2008). Impacts of HIV/AIDS stigma on family identity and interactions in China. Families, systems, & health 26(4): 431- 442. Malaysia AIDS Council. (2008). 2008 annual report. Malaysia AIDS Council. (2009). Who we are. Diakses dari http://www.mac.org.my/mac.htm pada 30 Disember 2009. Malaysia AIDS Council. (2010). Malaysia statistics: overview of HIV/AIDS in Malaysia. Diakses dari http://www.mac.org.my/v2/hidden/malaysian-statistics/ pada 5 Mei 2010. Mary Huang & Hisham Hussien. 2004). The HIV/AIDS epidemic country paper: Malaysia. Aids Education & Prevention. Mitchell, M.M. & Knowlton, A. (2009). Stigma, disclosure, and depressive symptoms among informal caregivers of people living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS patient care and STDs 23(8): 611- 617. Mwinituo, P.P. & Mill, J.E. (2006). Stigma associated with Ghanaian caregivers of AIDS patients. Western journal of nursing research (28): 369-382. Namal, A. (2003). The death of a patient with AIDS in Turkey: thoughts on the ethical dimensions. Nursing ethics (10): 497-503. Ncama, B.P. (2007). Acceptance and disclosure of HIV status through an integrated community/home based care program in South Africa. The Author: Journal complilation, 391-397. Ostrom, R.A., Serovich, J.M., Lim, J.Y. & Mason, T.L. (2006). The role of stigma for HIV disclosure and non-disclosure to children. AIDS care 18(1): 60-65. Owen, S. (1995). Attitudes towards and knowledge of AIDS among African American social work students. Health and social work 20(2): 110-116.

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Paxton, S., Gonzales, G., Uppkaew, K., Abraham, K.K., Okta, S., Green, C., Nair, K.S., Merati, T.P., Thephtien, B., Marin, M., & Quesada, A. (2005). AIDS-related discrimination in Asia. AIDS care. 17(4): 413-424. Piper N. & Yeoh Brenda S.A. (2005). Introduction : meeting the challenges of HIV/AIDS in Southest and East Asia. Asia Pacific Viewpoint, 46(1): 1-5. Rajwani Md. Zain. (2011). AIDS dan kematian: Impak psikososial terhadap keluarga. Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Thesis PhD. Reily T. & Woo G. (2004). Social support and maintenance of safer sex practices among people living with HIV/AIDS. Health Social work 29(2): 97-105. Schofield, H., Bloch, S., Herman, H., Murphy, B., Nankervis, J. & Singh, B. (1998). Family caregivers: disability, illness and ageing. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Sexuality information and education council of the United State (SIECUS). (2001). Teachers’ knowledge and attitudes toward HIV/AIDS education. Diakses dari http://www.thebody.com/siecus/teacher_ knowledge.html pada 5 November 2009. Strydom, H. & Strydom, C. (2006). The level of knowledge of South African pupils regarding HIV/AIDS. International social work (49): 495-505. Strydom, H., Raath, H. (2005). The psychosocial needs of adollescents affected by HIV/AIDS. International social work. 48(5): 569-580. Surgevil.O dan Akyol E.V. (2011). Discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS in the workplace: Turkey context. An International Journal. (30): 463-481. Thomas, B.E., Rehman, F., Suryanarayanan, D., Josephine, K., Dilip, M., Dorairaj, V.S. & Swaminathan, S. (2005). How stigmatizing is stigma in the life of people living with HIV: a study on HIV positive individuals from Chennai, South India. AIDS care. 17(7): 795-801. UNAIDS/WHO. (2006) AIDS epidemic update. Varas-Diaz, N., Serrano-Garcia, I. & Toro-Alfonso, J. (2005). AIDS-related stigma and social interaction: Peurto Ricans living with HIV/AIDS. Qualitative health research (15): 169-187. Visser, M.J., Makin, J.D. & Lehobye, K. (2006). Stigmatizing attitudes of the community towards people living with HIV/AIDS. Journal of community & applied social psychology. 16: 42-58. Werner, P., Carmel, S. & Ziedenberg, H. (2004). Nurses ‘and social workers’ attitudes and beliefs about and involvement in life-sustaining treatment decisions. Health and social work. 29(1): 27-36. Woodring, L.A., Cancelli, A.A., Ponterotto, J.G. & Keitel, M.A. (2005). A qualitative investigation of adolescents’ experiences with parental HIV/AIDS. American journal of orthopsychiatry. 70(4): 658-675.

Rajwani Md. Zain & Nor Azimah Chew Abdullah Universiti Utara Malaysia

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121 Strategi Tradisional Komuniti Orang Asli dalam Pengurusan Kawasan Ladang Pertanian Secara Lestari Syaidatulnor Ibrahim & Mustaffa Omar ABSTRAK Masyarakat pribumi atau dikenali sebagai masyarakat orang asli merupakan masyarakat minoriti yang tinggal di Malaysia.Mereka kebanyakannya tinggal di kawasan-kawasan pedalam. Pekerjaan utama mereka adalah mengutip hasil hutan dan selain itu, mereka juga menjalankan aktiviti bercucuk tanam./pertanian. Bagi meneruskan kelangsungan hidup, aktiviti pertanian menjadi keutamaan kepada mereka untuk memperoleh makanan. Pelbagai jenis tanaman ditanam dan tanaman yang menjadi keutamaan mereka adalah padi. Selaian itu juga, masyarakat orang asli ini kaya dengan nilai-nilai tradisi dan kepercayaan. Setiap benda yang dilakukan harus berpandukan kepada prinsip, strategi dan amalan tradisi yang telah ditetapkan dalam sesuatu suku kaum mereka. Dengan itu, prinsip dan amalan-amalan yang ada telah menjadi panduan dalam menguruskan ladang pertanian mereka secara lestatri. Penulisan ini ditulis bertujuan untuk memberikan panduan kepada masyarakat luar bagaiamana masyarakat orang asli telah mengadaptasikan prinsip, strategi dan amalan-amalan tradisi mereka dalam menguruskan hutan secara lestari dan sekaligus mengurangkan keterancaman ke atas hutan. Melalui kajian ini, maklumat diperolehi dengan melakukan soalselidik separa berstruktur dan pemerhatian juga dilakukan dalam kalangan suku kaum Lanoh, Jahai, Temiar di Grik, Perak, dan suku kaum Jah Hut di Kuala Krau, Pahang. Dapatan kajian yang diperolehi seterusnya dianalisis dengan menggunakan analisis kandungan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa segala strategi dan amalan tradisi masyarakat orang asli mampu mengawal sikap negative masyarakat dalam melakukan akitviti pertanian dan seterusnya meningkatkan lagi modal insan yang sedia ada. Malahan dengan berlandaskan kepada amalan-amalan tradisi mereka juga mampu menjadikan hutan dan alam semesta ini bebas dari segala jenis pencemaran dan juga bencana serta mengekalkan sumber semulajadi yang ada untuk tatapan generasi yang akan datang. ABSTRACT Indigenous community, also known as orang asli community is one of the minorities groups that live in Malaysia. Most of them live in the rural area. Their main jobs are collecting the products from the forest and also from agricultures activities. For the sake of survival, agricultures activities became the most important source of foods for them. Varieties of crops are planted and the main crop for them is paddy. Orang asli community is rich with traditional values and believes. Everything that been done should be according to the principals, strategies, and traditional practices that were fixed in their tribes. With that, the principals and practices that existed became the guidelines in took care their agricultures fields using sustainable ways. This paper aims to become the guidelines to the outsiders how the orang asli community adapted the principals, strategies and the traditional practices in taking care and managing the forest sustainably and at once reduces the threat towards to forest. Through this study, the data are collected using semi- structural questionnaire and observation towards certain tribes. Those tribes are Lanoh, Jahai and Temiar who lived at Grik, Perak and also Jah Hut tribe who lived at Kuala Krau, Pahang. The data then were analyzed using contains analysis. The results showed that

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all strategies and traditional practices among orang asli community were able to control the negative attitudes in the community during agriculture activities and helped to increase the amount of human capitals that already existed. Furthermore, guided by the traditional practices, they were able to ensure that the forest and universe are free from all types of pollutions and disasters and also helped them to preserve the natural sources that we have for the sake of the future generation to ensure that they can see the nature that we have today.

PENGENALAN Masyarakat orang asli merupakan kaum minoriti yang tinggal di Malaysia. Mereka terdiri daripada tiga kumpulan etnik iaitu etnik Negrito, Senoi dan Proto Melayu dan dalam setiap etnik ini pula terdapat enam suku kaum dan menjadikan jumlah keseluruhan suku kaum adalah sebanyak 18 suku. Masyarakat orang asli di Malaysia kebanyakan mereka menjalankan aktiviti mengutip hasil hutan dan aktiviti ini menjadi rutin harian mereka. Selain daripada mengutip hasil hutan, mereka juga ada menjalankan kativiti bercucuk tanam/pertanian. Aktivit pertanian yang dilakukan mereka adalah secara kecil-kecilan. Pertanian yang dilakukan mereka adalah untuk kegunaan diri sendiri, keluarga dan komuniti. Aktiviti pertanian ini dilakukan mereka semata-mata adalah bagi mendapatkan bekalan makanan untuk meneruskan kelangsungan hidup. Tanpa masyarakat luar sedari, masyarakat orang asli ini mempunyai pelbagai pengetahuan mengenai amalan dan strategi dalam menguruskan ladang pertanian secara lestari. Dengan adanya amalan dan strategi yang bagus membolehkan mereka memperoleh hasil yang banyak serta berkualiti tanpa memerlukan mereka mengeluarkan modal yang banyak serta menghindarkan tanaman daripada bahan kimia yang berbahaya sekaligus menjadikan orang yang makan tanaman tersebut terhindar daripada sebarang penyakit. Malahan dengan berpandukan kepada pengetahuan tradisi yang mereka ada juga mampu mengekalkan kesejahteraan hutan yang ada tanpa mengalami sebaranga kecacatan pada ekosistem hidupan hutan serta mampu mengawal berlakunya pencemaran yang sedia ada. Masyarakat orang asli sangat menitik beratkan soal hutan kerana bagi mereka hutan merupakan tempat mereka untuk dapatkan keperluan bekalan mereka. Bahkan bukan sahaja dari segi makanan malahan juga dari segi perubatan dan sebagainya dan hutan juga merupakn sebahagian daripada kehidupan mereka. Dengan itu pengurusan pertanian yang lestari secara amnya mampu mengelakkan dari berlakunya keterancaman terhadap hutan.

Permasalahan kajian Apa yang menjadi permasalahan dalam kajian ini adalah bagaimana cara manusia untuk menguruskan pertanian secara lestari tanpa mendatangkan sebarang kemudahterancaman terhadap hutan mahupun alam sekitar. Seperti yang sedia maklum, pertanian merupakan salah satu aktiviti yang mampu menjanakan pendapatan kepada manusai. Namun begitu pengurusan hutan secara rakus dan tidak lestari oleh masyarakat luar telah menyebabkan penerokan hutan secara berleluasa berlaku. Malahan pelbagai bancana alam juga turut berlaku seperti tanah runtuh dan pencemaran yang berleluasa. Hal ini telah menyebabkan berlakunya ketidakseimbangi bumi telah berlaku. Oleh hal yang demikian, dalam penulisan ini telah dilakukan suatu penelitian terhadapa prinsip, strategi dan amalan yang dilakukan oleh masyarakat orang asli dalam memastikan pengurusan ladang pertanian dapat dilakukan secara lestari. Diharapkan dengan bertambahnya

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ilmu pengetahuan ini dapat membantu masyarakat diluar sana agar lebih prihatin dan bertanggungjawab dalam melaksanakan sesuatu aktiviti yang melibatkan hutan terutamanya dalam menjalankan aktiviti pertanian.

Sorotan literature Seperti yang diketahui umum, pengetahuan tradisi masyarakat orang asli ini diperolehi melalui warisan turun temurun. Pengetahuan ini dipelajari daripada nenek moyang mereka dan diperturunkan dari satu generasi kepada satu generasi. Pengetahuan ini dipelajari secara tidak formal oleh masyarakat orang asli. Mereka mempelajari ilmu tersebut berdasarkan kepada apa yang diberitahu oleh orang yang lebih tua dan berpengetahuan tentang ilmu tradisi ini kepada mereka dan melihat apa yang dibuat dan dipraktikkan oleh mereka sendiri. Oleh itu pengetahuan tradisi ini sememangnya salah satu ilmu pengetahuan yang dipelajari secara tidak formal seperti yang diperjelaskan oleh Clinton et al. (2006) “Local knowledge, and its associated skills, has been developed outside the formal educational system and is embedded in culture and steeped in tradition.” Pengetahuan tradisi ini menjadi panduan kepada masyarakat orang asli dalam meneruskan kelangsungan hidup.Malah dengan pengetahuan tradisi yang ada pada mereka ini mampu menjadikan mereka manusia yang berani berhadapan dengan masalah yang berkaitan dengan alam semulajadi. Perkara ini juga telah diperjelaskan dalam kajian yang dijalankan oleh Richard (1985) dalam Clinton et al. (2006) dengan menyatakan bahawa pengetahuan tradisi yang dinamik menjadikan mereka berupaya dalam melakukan kerja harian serta mampu menyesuaikan dan menangani apa saja masalah yang berdepan dengan alam semulajadi.

Metodologi Kajian ini telah dijalankan ke atas beberapa suku kaum orang asli di Malaysia iaitu terdiri daripada suku kaum Jahai.Lanoh, dan Temiar di Grik, Perak dan suku kaum Jah Hut di Kuala Krau, Pahang.Sampel bagi kajian ini adalah terdiri daripada orang asli yang berumur diantara 30 hingga 80 tahun yang mempunyai pengalaman dan pengetahuan tradisi tentang pengurusan hutan. Informan ini terdiri daripada batin, pengamal perubatan tradisional dan golongan yang berpengetahuan luas tentang hutan. Kaedah yang digunakan dalam proses pengumpulan maklumat ini adalah berdasarkan kepada soal selidik separa berstruktur dan pemerhatian dilakukan ke atas kawasan perkampungan mereka. Maklumat yang diperolehi kemudiaanya dianalisis dengan menggunakan kaedah analisis kandungan. Selain itu juga, kaedah temu bual ke atas informan yang berpengetahuan luas mengenai hutan juga dilakukan. Segala maklumat yang diperoleh hasil daripada temubual tersebut direkodkan dan .

PRINSIP-PRINSIP YANG DIGUNAKAN DALAM PENGURUSAN PERTANIAN OLEH MASYARAKAT ORANG ASLI BAGI MENJAMIN KELESTARIAN HUTAN Dalam melakukan aktiviti pertanian, beberapa prinsip telah digunakan oleh masyarakat orang asli amnya dalam memastikan mereka mampu melaksanakannya tanpa menjejaskan kelestarian hutan yang sedia ada. Antara prinsip-prinsip yang dilaksanakannya ialah: 1318


a) Mengusahakan pertanian bagi memperoleh hasil untuk keperluan diri sendiri, keluarga dan komuniti. Masyarakat orang asli ini hanya akan mengusahakan pertanian secara kecilkecilan dan keluasan pembukaan kawasan pertanian juga adalah kecil. Dengan berlakunya pembukaan ladang pertanian secara kecil-kecilan ianya mampu mengekalkan tahap keluasan hutan yang ada dan tanpa menjejaskan mana-mana habitat haiwan serta tumbuhan lain dan sekali gus mampu mengekalkan ekosistem yang ada. Pengurusan kawasan ladang pertanian secara letari juga harus diterapkan dalam diri masyarakat lain agar sama-sama dapat mengekalkan kelestarian hutan pada masa hadapan. b) Mempunyai hubungan baik dengan alam semula jadi yang dipandu oleh tuntutan-tuntutan yang mencegah masyarakat orang asli daripada melakukan kemusnahan terhadap flora dan fauna. Tuntutan-tuntutan yang menjadi garis panduan masyarakat orang asli dalam mengekalkan hubungan yang harmoni terhadap alam semulajadi ini dapat dilihat dalam bentuk strategi dan amalan pantang-larang yang diperturunkan dari satu generasi kepada satu generasi. Contohnya dalam melakukan penyediaan tapak kawasan perladangan, masyarakat orang asli tidak menggunakan teknologi yang tinggi untuk membersihkan kawasan ladang sebaliknya mereka menggunakan kapak dan parang kerana bungi yang bising dalam penggunakan peralatan teknologi yang tinggi mampu mengganggu ketenteraman hidupan lain dan penggunaan kapak dan parang juga mampu mengawal keluasan hutan agar ianya kekal luas dan menghadkan pembukaan ladang secara berleluasa yang mampu menjejaskan habitat-habitat haiwan dan tumbuhan lain. c) Mengamalkan prinsip perkongsian. Masyarakat orang asli di Malaysia kaya dengan mengamalkan sikap suka berkongsi. Dengan adanya sikap perkongsian ini mampu mengeratkan lagi silaturrahim yang ada. Mereka tidak hanya melakukan tanaman untuk mereka sahaja tetapi ianya dilakukan juga untuk ahli komuniti mereka. Amalan perkongsian yang ada ini juga mampu menghadkan kawasan pembukaan ladang dan jenis pertanian yang dilakukan juga pelbagai bagi setiap orang daripada mereka. Dengan ini pembaziran tidak berlaku dan mereka akan sentiasa berkongsi setiap hasil tuaian yang diperoleh dan dapat meresa pelbagai jenis tanaman. d) Kepercayaan kepada kuasa ghaib. Kuasa ghaib merupakan kepercayaan masyarakat orang asli sejak daripada keturunan nenek moyang mereka lagi. Kepercayaan kepada kuasa ghaib ini mampu mengawal sikap masyarakat orang asli terhadap hutan dan secara tidak langsung ianya mampu mendidik masyarakat orang asli agar menghormati setiap hidupan di muka bumi ini. Sebagai contoh, mereka percaya bahawa setiap tumbuhan yang ada di dalam hutan mempunyai penunggu dan mereka tidak boleh melakukan perkara yang tidak elok terhadap tumbuhan tersebut. Dengan ini mereka akan sentiasa berhati-hati terutamanya semasa menyediakan ladang pertanian kerana mereka juga bimbang sekiranya mereka bersikap lebih kurang dengan hidupan hutan, maka tanaman mereka juga akan turut terjejas kerana diganggu makhluk ghaib.

STRATEGI DAN AMALAN TRADISI ORANG ASLI DALAM MELAKUKAN AKTIVITI PERLADANGAN Perladangan merupakan salah satu pekerjaan yang sering dilakukan oleh masyarakat orang asli bagi menampung keperluan makanan harian mereka. Pelbagai strategi dan amalan tradisi 1319


yang diamalkan dalam melakukan aktiviti perladangan/pertanian bagi memastikan mereka memperolehi hasil yang memuaskan dan secara tidak langsung dapat mengekalkan kelestarian hutan. Dalam melakukan aktiviti perladangan, masyarakat orang asli ini perlu melalui beberapa peringkat dalam menguruskan ladang sebelum mereka dapat bercucuk tanam dan memperolehi hasil. Antara perkara yang perlu dilakukan mereka adalah (a)pemilihan tapak perladangan, (b)penyediaan tapak ladang, (c)bercucuk tanam, (d)mengekalkan produktiviti tanaman, (e) pengumpulan hasil ladang.

Pemilihan kawasan ladang Pemilihan kawasan pertanian adalah penting bagi masyarakat orang asli. Pemilihan kawasan pertanian ini seringkali dilakukan oleh bomoh atau pawang (Temiar, Jahai, Lanoh, Jah Hut). Ianya dilakukan bagi memastikan kawasan yang akan dijadikan ladang pertanian ini bebas daripada penunggu. Perkara ini dianggap penting bagi masyarakat orang asli kerana mereka percaya bahawa sekiranya terdapat penunggu di kawasan yang akan dijadikan ladang, nescaya tanaman mereka tidak akan menjadi atau hasil tanaman yang diperolehi nanti tidak berkualiti. Bahkan bagi mereka, sekiranya kawasan perladangan tidak dipilih dengan baik, pembaziran masa dan tenaga juga akan berlaku dan secara tidak langsung iainya juga akan menjejaskan ekosistem hutan yang mana sedikit demi sedikit hutan telah diterokai bagi membuka ladang. Hal ini terjadi disebabkan pemillihan kawasan hutan yang tidak sesuai akibat daripada gangguan penunggu dan menyebabkan mereka berpindah dari satu kawasan ke satu kawasan untuk membuka ladang. Ini membuktikan bahawa peranan bomoh amat penting dalam melakukan pemilihan ladang agar ladang yang dipilih adalah sesuai bagi tujuan pertanian. Malahan bagi mengelakkan tanaman daripada diganggu oleh binatang liar, pemilihan kawasan ladang yang jauh daripada kawasan laluan binatang liar juga adalah penting (Temiar, Jahai, Lanoh, Jah Hut). Sekiranya kawasan ladang tidak dipilih dengan betul dan sesuai, keberangkalian tanaman akan diserang oleh haiwan liar adalah tinggi dan ilmu pengetahuan tradisi yang ada pada masyarakat orang asli ini mampu memberikan mereka panduan dalam mengenalpasti kawasan yang sering menjadi laluan binatang liar. Ini merupakan salah satu keistimewaan yang ada pada masyarakat orang asli yang wajar dipelajari oleh masyarakat di luar sana sebelum memulakan aktiviti pertanian. Sementara itu, pemilihan kawasan ladang yang berjauhan dengan kawasan sungai juga adalah penting (Jahai). Sungai merupakan kawasan yang rendah dan sekiranya hujan turun secara berlarutan, sungai tidak mampu untuk menampung sejumlah air yang banyak dan limpahan air (banjir) akan berlaku. Pemilihan kawasan ladang yang berjauhan dengan kawasan sungai dapat mengelakan tanaman daripada musnah akibat banjir kerana kawasan sungai merupakan kawasan yang berpotensi tinggi untuk berlakunya banjir. Dengan ini, kawasan yang berdekatan dengan bukit akan menjadi pilihan kerana kawasan bukit adalah tinggi dan potensi untuk berlaku banjir juga adalah rendah. Selain itu, pemilihantekstur dan warna tanah juga merupakan salah satu faktor penting bagi menentukan kawasan yang sesuai untuk dijadikan kawasan ladang. Bagi masyarakat orang asli, tanah yang bewarna hitam merupakan tanah yang sesuai untuk melakukan aktiviti bercucuk tanam. Tanah hitam merupakan tanah yang mengandungi banyak cacing (Jahai). Dalam konteks ini, tanah yang mempunyai banyak cacing merupakan tanah yang subur kerana cacing berperanan 1320


dalam menghasilkan ruang-ruang pengaliran air yang baik di dalam tanah. Pengaliran air yang baik mampu mengekalkan kelembapan tanah serta membekalkan air kepada tanaman mereka.

Pernyediaan Tapak Ladang Setelah selesai pemilihan tapak ladang pertanian dilakukan, langkah penyediaan tapak ladang akan diteruskan. Namun, sebelum mereka memulakan aktiviti membersihkan ladang, mereka harus menjalankan ritual-ritual tertentu yang boleh menenangkan penunggu dan mengelakkan tanaman daripada dijangkiti penyakit. Masyarakat orang asli ini akanmemulakan upacara ritual tersebut dengan meminta bomoh untuk menjampikan kawasan ladang pertanian tersebut bertujuan untuk menghindarkan kawasan tersebut daripada ancaman gangguan makhluk lain ke atas tanaman mereka nanti. Bomoh akan melakukan upacara menjampi di seluruh kawasan ladang pertanian serta alatan-alatan yang akan digunakan ketika berladang antaranya ialah kapak, parang, dan sebagainya (Jahai, Lanoh). Bagi suku kaum Temiar, mereka percaya bahawa sekiranya mereka membelakangkan peranan bomoh maka akan wujudnya makhluk yang menjaga kawasan tersebut akan datang mengganggu kesuburan tanaman. Begitu juga dengan kepercayaan suku kaum Jah Hut yang mengatakan bahawa tanaman akan mudah dijangkiti penyakit sekiranya mereka mengetepikan peranan bomoh. Malah mereka juga percaya gangguan-gangguan makhluk lain juga adalah untuk mengingatkan mereka bahawa tanah tidak boleh digunakan sesuka hati dan bukan sebarangan orang yang boleh membuka ladang pertanian. Malahan, mengikut kepercayaan dalam kalangan suku kaum Jahai dan Lanoh pula, mereka tidak dibenarkan memasuki kawasan ladang selepas tiga hari upacara menjampi dilakukan dan mereka juga harus berpantang daripada menarik rotan dan buluh daripada menyusuri kawasan ladang tersebut kerana dikhuatiri babi dan binatang liar yang lain akan turut masuk bersama dikawasan ladang tersebut serta akan mengganggu tanaman yang akan ditanam nanti. Apabila selesai upacara ritual, acara pembukaan ladang akan bermula. Kawasan ladang akan dibuka mengikut keluasan tertentu. Bagi masyarakat orang asli (Jahai) kebiasaannya keluasan ladang pertanian akan dibuka berdasarkan kepada keperluan mereka. Namun begitu, mereka sama sekali tidak boleh membuka ladang melebihi daripada 3 ekar dan sekiranya mengingkarinya dikhuatiri mereka akan ditimpa musibah. Pegangan kepada kepercayaan ini amnya mampu mengelakkan daripada berlakunya pengecilan kawasan hutan secara berleluasa dan sekiranya berlaku pengecilan kawasan hutan, maka secara tidak langsung akan menjejaskan keluasan kawasan rayau mereka dan menyebabkan sumber hutan juga menjadi semakin berkurangan. Berikutan daripada pembukaan ladang yang luas juga secara tidak sedarnyaakan mendedahkan kawasan ladang pertanian mereka kepada ancaman haiwan di kawasan tersebut. Pembukaan kawasan ladang pertanian yang luas mampu menarik perhatian haiwan kerana tidak mustahil pembukaan ladang tersebut telah mengganggu ekosistem mereka. Dengan selesainya semua urusan menjampi, maka proses membersihkan ladang dimulakan. Bagi suku kaum Jah Hut, hanya pokok-pokok kecil sahaja yang akan dibuang dan seterusnya dibakar manakala pokok-pokok besar pula akan dibiarkan hidup. Begitu juga dengan suku kaum Jahai, mereka membersihkan ladang dengan cara merumput di tepi pokok sahaja dan membiarkan pokok-pokok besar dan yang masih kecil itu membesar. Strategi ini digunakan kerana pokokpokok besar ini memainkan peranan penting dalam menguruskan aktiviti pertanian. Antara peranan yang dimainkan oleh pokok-pokok besar ini adalah ianya mampu bertindak sebagai

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penampan air hujan kepada tanaman-tanaman yang kecil dan juga tanah yang boleh menyebabkan berlakunya kemusnahan tanaman kecil dan hakisan tanah. Selain itu juga, pokok-pokok besar ini mampu menyerap air hujan yang turun ke permukaan bumi dan kemudiaannya serapan air tersebut akan dialirkan kepada anak-anak pokok yang lain menerusi akar di bawah tanah. Dengan ini, tanaman-tanaman kecil akan sentiasa memperolehi air daripada pokok besar. Dengan terlaksananya strategi ini mampu mengelakkan berlakunya penebangan pokok secara berleluasa dan sekali gus mampu mengekalkan kelembapan tanah. Selain itu juga, cara pembakaran ladang juga dititik beratkan oleh suku kaum Jahai. Mereka akan melakukan pembakaran ladang di kawasan yang atas dahulu dan seterusnya diikuti di bahagian bawah pula. Pembakaran ini dilakukan dengan membuat mengikut cara pusingan. Cara ini dilakukan bagi mengelakkan api pembakaran daripada merebak ke kawasan lain dan mengelak daripada berlakunya pembakaran hutan. Bagi menyediakan kawasan ladang pertaniaan, maka peralatan seperti kapak dan parang digunakan. Kapak dan parang digunakan untuk memangkas kayu dan menebas hutan. Masyarakat orang asli hanya menggunakan peralatan yang mudah untuk dibawa dan hanya peralatan seperti ini yang mampu dimiliki oleh mereka. Namun begitu dengan menggunakan kapak dan parang ini mampu memberikan impak yang positif kepada hutan. Hal ini dapat dibuktikan kerana dengan hanya menggunakan kapak dan parang sahaja, maka kemampuan untuk membuka ladang adalah terhad disebabkan oleh keterbatasan kudrat manusia yang tidak seberapa jika dibandingkan dengan penggunaan teknologi yang canggih. Malah dengan keterbatasan yang ada ini juga mampu mengawal pembukaan ladang secara berlebihan dan berleluasa. Penggunaan kapak dan parang juga mampu mengawal berlakunya pencemaran bunyi kerana kapak dan parang hanya mengeluarkan frekuensi bunyi yang rendah dan secara tidak langsung dapat mengekalkan keamanan dan kesejahteraan penghuni-penghuni yang berada di dalam hutan. Setelah selesainya penyediaan ladang, maka ladang pertanian akan dibuka bagi tujuan bercucuk tanam. Sebelum aktiviti bercucuk tanam dilakukan, suku kaum Jahai percaya bahawa apabila ladang sudah dibuka, penunggu yang berada di ladang itu perlu “dijamu” bagi mengelak berlakunya sebarang gangguan dan sekiranya pantang larang ini tidak dilakukan maka, mereka akan diserang demam panas dan merasakan kepala mereka akan berpusing ke belakang. Segala gangguan yang dilakukan boleh mendatangkan kemudaratan kepada mereka dan juga tanaman

Bercucuk Tanam Langkah seterusnya yang dilakukan selepas pembersihan kawasan ladang pertanian ialah aktiviti bercucuk tanam. Sebelum sebarang jenis tanaman ditanam, pemilihan musim akan dilakukan. Misalannya, suku kaum Jahai dan Temiar akan memastikan bahawa musim tersebut bukan musim wujudnya burung “cak”. Burung “cak” merupakan perosak kepada pokok padi kerana padi juga merupakan makanan burung tersebut. Dengan itu mereka akan memastikan musim burung “cak” bukan pada musim mereka melakukan tanaman padi. Bagi masyarakat orang asli, tanaman yang sering ditanam oleh mereka ialah padi.Padi merupakan makanan ruji bagi mereka. Mengikut suku kaum Jahai, padi akan ditanam pada hari Jumaat kerana bagi mereka padi adalah “ibu”. Berlainan pula dengan suku kaum Jah Hut kerana bagi suku kuam Jah Hut, hari Sabtu merupakan hari yang sesuai untuk tanaman padi kerana dipercayai hari sabtu merupakan hari sejuk bagi mereka.Namu begitu, hari Rabu

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tidak boleh berladang bagi mereka kerana hari Rabu merupakan hari api/angin bagi mereka. Sekiranya mereka ingkar, tanaman yang ditanam pada hari Rabu akan mampu bertahan selama tiga hari sahaja. Suku kaum Jah Hut percaya bahawa sekiranya padi ditanam secara bersama dan beramai-ramai, tanaman padi tidak akan dimakan oleh burung. Namun, sekiranya salah satu daripada amalan ini tidak dipatuhi maka mereka yang berladang akan ditimpa musibah seperti luka ketika berladang. Mengikut suku kaum Lanoh pula, sebelum padi ditanam, mereka akan basahkan dahulu bahagian bawah padi. Hal ini dilakukan bagi memastikan kelembapan tanah berterusan serta tanaman padi juga akan memperoleh lembapan yang berpanjangan. Mengikut pantang larang mereka, tanaman padi hanya dilakukan mengikut bulan yang telah ditetapkan dan sekiranya salah seorang daripada mereka melanggar peraturan maka, seluruh tanaman mereka akan turut tidak menjadi. Apabila selesai tanam tanaman padi, masyarakat ini menggunakan tanah yang samauntuk menanam sayur seperti labu, lada dan juga pokok getah. Ketika sedang bercucuk tanam, mereka dilarang sama sekali untuk mengambil daun-daun hijau yang berada di sekeliling kawasan ladang. Tumbuh-tumbuhan dan daun-daun hijau yang berada di sekeliling kawasan ladang ini merupakan pelindung atau dikatakan juga sebagai zon penampan kepada kawasan ladang tersebut agar tidak diganggu oleh haiwan-haiwan yang terdapat di dalam hutan dan tumbuhan-tumbuhan hijau ini juga mampu mengekalkan kelembapan tanah. Dengan adanya aturan ini akan menyebabkan hutan dan tumbuhan hijau di dalam hutan akan sentiasa terpelihara. Mangikut amalan suku kaum Temiar, pisang dan tebu akan ditanam di sekeliling kawasan ladang manakala padi pula akan ditanam di tengah-tengah. Bagi mereka padi tidak boleh ditanam secara bersendirian. Padi dan tebu pula ditanam kerana ianya akan dijadikan sebagai “jamuan” kepada penunggu ladang. Suku kaum Temiar, Lanoh dan Jah Hut percaya bahawa sekiranya salah satu daripada amalan pantang larang ini dilanggar, maka ianya akan menyebabkan hilangnya semangat padi dan tanaman tidak akan memberikan sabarang hasil. Selain daripada padi, suku kaum Jahai juga ada melakukan penanaman ubi. Ubi ditanam dengan menggunakan batangnya. Batang pokok ubi akan dipotong dan kemudiannya di tanam dengan menghadap sebelah matahari naik. Amalan ini merupakan pantang larang yang harus dilakukan kerana sekiranya tersilap tanam, hasil ubi yang akan diperolehi nanti tidak berkualiti. Malah bukan sahaja ubi, timun, terung dan kacang juga ditanam oleh mereka. Timun, terung dan kacang ditanam dikawasan yang terdapat banyak buluh kerana kawasan tersebut terdapat tanah yang mengandungi baja dan subur untuk tanaman seperti timun, terung dan juga kacang. Ketika bercucuk tanam mereka sama sekali tidak dibenarkan untuk bercakap dan hanya bomoh sahaja yang boleh bercakap kerana dikhuatiri akan mendatangkan gangguan kepada makhluk lain yang berada di dalam hutan. Sekiranya amalan dan pantang larang tidak dituruti oleh suku kaum Jahai ketika bercucuk tanam, maka mereka akan diserang demam panas dan merasakan kepala akan berpusing ke belakang. Dengan adanya amalan pantang-larang ini mampu membataskan penggunaan hutan oleh suku kaum Jahai.

Mengekalkan Produktiviti Tanaman Bagi masyarakat orang asli, pelbagai strategi dan amalan yang dilaksanakan bagi memastikan tanaman yang ditanam sentiasa subur dan boleh mendatangkan hasil yang banyak dan

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berkualiti.Tanaman yang subur memerlukan (a) baja yang mencukupi, (b) kelembapan dan kesuburan tanah yang berpanjangan dan juga (c) terhindar daripada haiwan perosak.Dengan diwarisinya pengetahuan tradisi daripada nenek moyang mereka, maka segalanya dapat dilaksanakan dengan sebaik mungkin. Tanaman yang subur memerlukan baja yang mencukupi dan menurut suku kaum JahHut, mereka memperoleh baja dengan cara membakar daun-daun kering dan kemudiaan abunya akan digaulkan bersama tanah. Mereka juga berpendapat bahawa tanah yang bewarna hitam dicampurkan dengan daun kering dan tahi kelawar yang telah dibakar mampu menjadikan tanah lebih subur. Untuk tanaman padi pula, mereka memperolehi baja dengan cara membakar jerami padi dan dibiarkan pada kawasan yang akan ditanam dengan tanaman padi dan secara tidak langsung abu jerami tersebut akan meresap ke dalam tanah serta berfungsi sebagai baja. Selain itu, buluh dan kayu yang dibakar juga mampu menjadi baja dengan menggunakan abunya dan amalan ini juga dilakukan oleh suku kaum Jahai dan Lanoh.Dengan adanya pengetahuan tradisi untuk menghasilkan baja ini maka kawasan perladangan tersebut tidak akan tercemar dengan bahan kimia yang terdapat pada baja yang berada di pasaran dan pencemaran juga dapat dikawal. Bahkan hasil tuaiannya nanti lebih selamat untuk dimakan tanpa disaluti dengan bahan kimia. Malahan kelembapan tanah juga memainkan peranan yang penting bagi memastikan kesegaran tanaman.Dalam hal ini, hujan merupakan salah satu punca bagi tanah memperolehi air dan suku kaum Jahai bergantung kepadanya bagi memastikan tanah di kawasan ladang sentiasa berada dalam keadaan lembap.Berlainan pula dengan suku kaum Jahai kerana suku kaum Jahai menggunakan tumbuhan seperti rumput untuk mengekalkan kelembapan tanah. Rumput yang tumbuh di sekeliling tanaman mereka akan dibiarkan tumbuh dan hanya pada pokok padi sahaja rumput-rumput tersebut perlu di tebas kerana ianya akan menjejaskan tumbesaran pokok padi. Selain itu, mereka juga akan menyiram tanaman mereka agar sentiasa memperolehi air dan amalan ini juga dikongsi bersama dengan suku kaum Jah Hut. Bagi suku kaum Jah Hut pula, semasa mereka melakukan pembersihan kawasan ladang, mereka akan membuang pokok-pokok kecil dan membiarkan pokok-pokok besar hidup. Dengan adanya pokok-pokok besar ini dapat melindungi tanaman mereka daripada terjejas ketika hujan.Pokok-pokok besar ini berperanan menjadi pelindung dan penapisan daripada air hujan terus jatuh kepada tanaman mereka yang masih kecil dan ianya juga mampu melindungi tanah daripada terhakis.Bahkan, pokok-pokok besar ini juga mampu menyerap air hujan yang turun kebumi dan lantas menyalurkan air tersebut kapada tanaman-tanaman kecil menerusi akar di bawah tanah. Sementara itu, haiwan dan serangga perosak juga mampu mengancam tanaman yang telah diusaha oleh masyarakat orang asli.Dengan hadirnya haiwan-haiwan perosak ini menyebabkan mereka harus melaksanakan strategi dan amalan pantang-larang bagi mengelakkan tumbuhan mereka dari di serang oleh haiwan dan serangga perosak. Antara strategi yang digunakan mereka ialah dengan meletakkan batu di dalam tin kosong dan menggoncangkannya atau tin tersebut akan digantungkan di sekeliling kawasan ladang tersebut supaya burung-burung tersebut tidak lagi mengganggu tanaman mereka. Perkara sedemikian dilakukan oleh suku kaum Jah Hut kerana mereka percaya bahawa sekiranya burung-burung itu dibunuh, maka akan datang lebih banyak lagi burung-burung tersebut di kawasan tanaman mereka dan ianya akan menjejaskan penghasilan tanaman itu. Selain itu, bomoh juga memainkan peranan untuk

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menghalau serangga perosak. Bomoh akan melakukan jampian ke atas pasir dan daun kayu yang telah dibakar dan kemudiannya dikumpulkan abunya dan pasir tersebut untuk diberikan kepada tuan punya ladang. Pasir dan abu kayu kemudiannya akan ditaburkan sendiri oleh tuannya bernula terbitnya matahari apada pukul 5 pagi sehingga terbenamnya matahari iaitu pada pukul 5 petang. Manakala suku kaum Jahai pula mengamalkan cara yang lebih kurang sama dengan suku kaum Jah Hut iaitu dengan menaburkan abu (pokok yang dibakar) ke atas daun-daun tanaman mereka bagi mengelakkan tanaman mereka diserang serangga perosak. Namun begitu, terdapat juga amalan pantang-larang yang mampu menjauhkan haiwan liar dan serangga perosak daripada memasuki kawasan ladang. Antaranya ialah suku kaum Jahai percaya bahawa ketika bercucuk tanam, mereka sama sekali tidak dibenarkan bercakap kecuali bomoh. Hal ini kerana sekiranya mereka bercakap maka gelombang bunyi yang terhasil akan dapat dikesan oleh haiwan liar dan secara tidak langsung ianya mampu menarik perhatian haiwan-haiwan tersebut untuk menghampiri kawasan ladang pertanian tersebut. Haiwanhaiwan liar ini bukan saja dapat mengesan bunyi tetapi juga bau. Oleh itu, wanita yang datang bulan (haid) dan wanita yang bersalin(melahirkan anak) dilarang sama sekali untuk datang ke ladang serta bercucuk tanam kerana darah yang terdapat pada mereka mampu menarik perhatian haiwan liar dan keberangkalian untuk haiwan datang ke kawasan ladang tersebut adalah tinggi. Pantang larang ini banyak diamalkan dalam kalangan masyarakat orang asli terutamanya bagi suku kaum Temiar, Jahai dan Jah Hut. Manakala bagi suku kaum Lanoh pula mereka percaya bahawa sekiranya mereka menyebut belalang dan burung ketika berada di ladang, haiwan dan serangga tersebut akan datang dan menyerang tanaman mereka dan mereka dilarang sama sekali untuk menyebut tentang haiwan dan serangga tersebut. Malah, mereka juga harus mendiamkan diri apabila mendapati tanaman mereka rosak akibat diserang oleh binatang liar atau serang perosak kerana mereka percaya bahawa hukum yang menyatakan bahawa binatang tidak akan mengganggu jika manusia tidak memulakan gangguan terhadap binatang dan serangga tersebut. Mereka juga dilarang sama sekali membawa benda yang bewarna putih melalui kawasan ladang mereka kerana dikhuatiri tanaman tidak menjadi. Amalan pantang-larang ini juga diamalkan oleh suku kaum Jahai. Bukan itu saja, mereka juga dilarang memasuki kawasan ladang selepas beberapa hari dijampi kerana dikhuatiri babi dan binatang lain akan turut masuk bersama dan akan mengganggu tanaman mereka. Begitu juga dengan Jah Hut, kerana mereka dilarang sama sekali malangkah buluh yang telah dijadikan pagar kawasan ladang kerana sekiranya mereka melangkah pagar tersebut maka binatang lain juga akan turut melakukan perkara yang sama sebagai mana yang dilakukan oleh mereka. Bagi memastikan tanaman tidak diganggu, suku kaum temiar perlu menyebut “jangan marah kalau orang kita lalu-lalang, main-main dekat padi, main malam dan budak perempuan mengutip sayur di ladang” sekiranya tidak disebut, tanaman mereka berkecenderungan untuk daganggu oleh penunggu mahupun haiwan lain. Segala strategi dan amalan pantang-larang yang ada sentiasa dilaksanakan oleh mereka, kerana mereka percaya dengan setiap yang berlaku ada kaitannya dengan hukum alam.Sekiranya mereka melakukan kebaikan kepada alam maka benda baik jugalah yang akam mereka perolehi dari alam.

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Pengumpulan Hasil Ladang Setelah sekian lama masyarakat orang asli bertungkus lumus dalam melakukan aktiviti pertanian, maka tiba masanya untuk mereka mengutip hasil tanaman yang telah cukup tempoh matangnya dan sesuai untuk dipetik.Walau bagaimanapun mereka masih lagi terikat dengan pelbagai amalan pantang-larang yang harus dipatuhi bagi memastikan hasil yang diperolehi berbaloi dengan usaha mereka selama ini. Namun begitu sebelum tibanya tempoh matang beberapa amalan harus dilakukan bagi memastikan hasil yang diperolehi banyak dan berkualiti. Misalannya, bagi suku kaum Jah hut, padi akan ditongkatkan apabila ianya mula menunduk dan ini adalah untuk mengelakkan padi daripada rebah ke bumi. Apabila padi mulai masak tujuh tangkai padi harus diambil pada waktu pagi, tengah hari dan petang serta padi yang diambil itu tidak boleh ditumpahkan.Padi tersebut diambil pada waktu-waktu tertentu untuk memastikan bahawa hasil tanaman betul-betul masak dan boleh dituai bagi mengelakkan berlakunya pembaziran disebabkan pengambilan hasil tanaman yang belum tiba masanya untuk di tuai dan tidak boleh dimakan. Sebelum tanaman padi dituai, ibu padi akan dijampi dahulu oleh bomoh dan setelah selesai, padi-padi yang lain akan dituai dahulu berbanding ibu padi dan ibu padi merupakan padi yang terakhir akan dituai. Ketika tanaman padi hendak dituai, padi tidak boleh dipijak dan selepas tiga hari menuai barulah padi boleh dipijak. Malahan ketika hendak menuai juga, mereka dilarang untuk membawa cincin, besi keledang serta duit syiling kerana mereka percaya bahawa padi tidak akan diperolehi sebaliknya “penunggu” ladang yang akan turut pulang serta mereka juga harus berpantang ketika menuai padi iaitu semasa menuai mereka dikehendaki menahan nafas sehingga tujuh tangkai padi diperolahi. Amalan ini dilakukan kerana dikhuatiri semangat padi akan hilang sekiranya nafas dilepaskan dengan kuat. Ketika membawa padi tersebut pulang, mereka sekali lagi dilarang untuk menoleh ke kiri mahupun kanan serta tidak boleh bercakap sepanjang perjalanan pulang ke rumah. Pada hari keempat selepas tujuh tangkai padi diambil, barulah mereka secara beramai-ramai pergi menuai padi. Malahsuku kaum Jahai juga percaya bahawa semasa menuai, mereka tidak dibenarkan membawa benda yang berdarah ke kawasan ladang, contohnya ayam dan sama sekali mereka dilarang untuk melakukan penyembelihan di kawasan ladang pertanian tersebut tetapi ikan dibenarkan untuk dibawa ke ladang kerana dikhuatiri bau darah akan menarik perhatian haiwan atau penunggu lain untuk datang ke kawasan ladang pertanian mereka. Walau bagaimanapun, bomoh masih lagi menjadi keutamaan bagi suku kaum Temiar, Jahai, Lanoh dan Jah Hut ketika hasil tanaman boleh dituai. Bomoh akan diberikan keutamaan untuk merasai hasil tanaman terlebih dahulu sebelum hasil tanaman tersebut diagihkan sama rata kepada semua ahli keluarga yang terdapat di kampung mereka. Hasil tuaian yang diperolehi akan dikongsi bersama sesama mereka. Selepas selesai menuai, mereka dilarang untuk melihat padi selama tiga hari dan mereka juga dikehendaki menuai padi dalam masa tiga hari kerana sekiranya melewati sehingga hari keempat, maka semangat padi sudah tiada dan hasil yang diperolehi sedikit. Setelah selesai tuaian, padi tersebut akan diproses untuk dijadikan beras. Sekali lagi mereka percaya bahawa nasi yang dimasak tidak boleh dimakan sehingga habis dan perlu dikongsi dengan semangat padi.Bagi suku kaum Jahai, selepas hasil diperolehi kawasan ladang tersebut akandibiarkan begitu saja untuk tanaman akan datang pula.

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Bagi suku kaum Jahai, hari yang paling sesuai untuk mereka mengumpul hasil ladang adalah pada hari Selasa dan Rabu.Begitu juga dengan suku kaum Temiar dan Lanoh kerana bagi mereka, hari Rabu merupakan hari yang mulia dan sangat sesuai untuk mereka melakukan aktiviti pengumpulan hasil pertanian secara bergotong-royong. Akan tetapi suku kaum Temiar dilarang untuk pergi ke ladang sekiranya ada kematian pada hari Rabu dan segala aktiviti harus ditangguh ke minggu seterusnya iaitu selama tujuh hari tempoh bergabung. Amalan pantang larang ini juga terdapat dalam suku kaum Jah Hut iaitu sekiranya berlaku kematian, pantang untuk mereka pergi ke ladang selam satu hari dan sekiranya yang meninggal adalah ahli keluarga yang perempuan maka lelaki akan berpantang selama tujuh hari dan jika sebaliknya perempuan akan berpantang selama enam hari.

PERBINCANGAN DAN KESIMPULAN Perladangan merupakan aktiviti pertanian yang dijalankan bagi menampung bekalan makanan setiap individu. Bagi masyarakat orang asli, ladang adalah amat penting bagi mereka untuk meneruskan kelangsungan hidup. Dengan itu, perladangan yang dijalankan oleh masyarakat orang asli hanya secara kecil-kecilan demi memenuhi keperluan diri sendiri, keluarga dan komuniti. Walau bagaimanapun bagi masyarakat luar pula, mereka menjadikan perladangan sebagai salah satu sumber pendapatan mereka dan hasil tanaman tersebut akan dikomersialkan. Apabila permintaan terhadap pertanian tinggi maka keluasan ladang akan bertambah dan masyarakat luar dengan rakusnya akan meneroka kawasan hutan tanpa ada perasaan sayang dan bersalah terhadap hutan dan hidupan di dalam hutan. Apabila berlaku bencana alam yang diakibatkan oleh penerokaan hutan, kebanyakan pihak yang bertanggungjawab mula menuding jari diantara satu sama lain dan akhirnya tiada jalan penyelesaian. Berdasarkan kepada kajian yang dilakukan menunjukkan bahawa masyarakat orang asli merupakan masyarakat yang mempunyai pengetahuan yang bagus dalam menguruskan hutan serta mampu memelihara hutan dalam tempoh yang lama. Hutan juga merupakan sebahagian daripada kehidupan masyarakat orang asli. Pelbagai pengajaran yang dapat dipelajari daripada mereka bagi memastikan kelestarian hutan dan flora dan fauna juga tidak terancam ketika melakukan perladangan. Pelbagai prinsip yang telah diguna pakai oleh masyarakat orang asli ketika berladang yang patut dijadikan sebagai contoh kepada masyarakat luar kerana prinsip-prinsip yang diguna pakai ini mampu melahirkan modal insan yang berkualiti, mengurangkan berlakunya pencemaran dan bencana alam serta meminimakan kos dalam menguruskan perladangan. Dengan terlaksananya prinsip-prinsip tersebut mampu menjadikan hutan di Malaysia ini sebagai hutan yang kaya dengan sumber-sumber semulajadi dan keseimbangan hidupan di dalam hutan juga terjamin dan kemudahterancaman juga dapat dikurang sama ada keterancaman terhadap hidupan luar mahupun manusia di bumi ini.

PENGHARGAAN Makalah ini merupakan salah satu hasil daripada kajianPengurursan Sumber Semulajadi Berasaskan Pengetahuan Tradisi Orang Asli di Malaysia yang mendapat tajaan geran dari Fundamental Term Research Grant Scheme (LRGS).

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RUJUKAN Clinton, B. & David, B. (2007), Royal Geographical Society.The role and Value of Local Knowledge in Jamaican Agriculture: Adaptation and Change in Small-Scale Farming. 173(2): 118-128. Fikret, B. et al. (2000), Traditional Ecological Knowledge.Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management. 10(5):1251-1262. Francesco, M. et al. (2000), Traditional Ecological Knowledge. Traditional Knowledge og Indigeneous and Local Communities: International Debate and Policy Initiatives 10(5): 1263-1269. Sally H. (1993), Human Ecology. The Intensification of Traditional Agriculture among Yucatec Maya Farmes: Facing up to the Dilemma of Livelihood Sustainability 21(1): 87-102. Yogeswaran S. (2007), Beyond Sagong Bin Tasi: The Use of Traditional Knowledge to Prove Aboriginal Customary Rights Over Land in Peninsular Malaysia and Its Challenges, vol:2.

Syaidatulnor Ibrahim & Mustaffa Omar Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

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122 Cross-Sectional Study of Life Satisfaction among Elder Malaysian: Comparison Gender and Race Homa Mardan, Tengku Aizan Hamid, Mariani Mansor & Siti Farra Zillah Abdullah ABSTRACT Elder life satisfaction (ELS) as the characteristics of well being and quality of life is an important psychological concern. However, little is known about life satisfaction in multi-community society such as Malaysia with a variate ethnicity that may seem with different level among community- dwelling populations. The study aim was to identify the differences level of life satisfaction between gender and ethnicity. Population based study conducted in 2008 with 1077 participating. Subject with the population of 480 elderly filled the questionnaire successfully. The reported group related to perception, experience and awareness of elder abuse in Malaysian population comprises of three major ethnicity Malay, Chinese and Indian living in community dwelling in four zones Perak, Selangor, Kelantan, and Perak. This study based on secondary data is about the situation of life satisfaction among elderly in community-dwelling. T-test and ANOVA were utilized to assess level of life satisfaction among them. The results revealed that despite of different level of life satisfaction in some country with different race, in this study, in Malaysian population, there was no significant different level of life satisfaction among Malay, Chinese and Indian and also in terms of gender. Average life satisfaction among all of participation was about 6-7 from 10 that mean people in this community have moderate level of life satisfaction of life. In order to increase this level, it should be considering same programs for men and women and also in different ethnicity Moreover, identification of factors related to increase/decrease elder life satisfaction suggested. Keywords: life satisfaction, elderly, ethnicity, community-Dwelling, Malaysia

BACKGROUND Population of elderly in the world is increasing because of declining rates of mortality and fertility and life expectancy (Tengku, Aizan. Hamid et al. ( 2007). Malaysia as a multi-pillar system needs to broader political and elder structure to achieve a high level of safety and healthy older person in 2020 via higher productivity improvements and high value- creating health activities. Life satisfaction in older person is an important health issue that impact on quality of life especially in elderly. However, the knowledge about it is limited especially in Malaysian community with different race and culture that is necessary to any program and policy in level of nationality or even internationality. There are some challenges of risk factors of life satisfaction as well as factors decreasing quality of life in elderly.

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DEFINITION OF LIFE SATISFACTION life satisfaction suggested by Seligman is about factors go into general happiness which is a way to life and a measure of well-being related to achieved goals and self-perceived ability for coping with daily life. It can be as a degree to person positively evaluate of life. “Life satisfaction is a cognitive appraisal process in which individuals subjectively assess life quality on the basis of their own unique set of criteria (Miller. D, 2013). Personality traits and life satisfaction A study has been done by Eugenio Proto Aldo Rustichini (2011), in title of “life Satisfaction, Income and Personality Theory”. The study used two national data sets include: The British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) and the German Socioeconomic Panel Study (SOEP). Big five Personality traits with the high reliability measured for determine the dimensions of personality traits effects. The finding revealed that personality traits are the significant factor to change level of satisfaction. For instance, surprisingly, neuroticism the independent- culture variable (Mardan, 2012) is not only responsible for the happiness decline with high income; also it rises with lower incomes. Furthermore, High income individual fail to meet expectation. Indeed, lower level of life satisfaction for highly neurotic people can be seen with higher income levels although there are hump-shaped relation between life-satisfaction and income. According to the research results, these effects are because of individual difference & with the Psychological cost. Another factor is motivation that can impact on the relationship between income and happiness. The finding illustrated that people earn income as a mean of the increase happiness with the moderate role of personality traits (i.e. Neuroticism reduces happiness but Extraversion, Openness, and Conscientiousness increase it). Of course, more research is needed to understand other factors related to happiness.

Living alone and life satisfaction Sun. X. et al. (2011), mention that living alone is an important factor of mobility, pain and anxiety or depression. The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study that policy makers should try to expand social network, more contact with friends and relatives and social activities that will be useful for the most elderly with having living alone. It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the other areas. The current study was limited by urban people. Although authors pay attention to use interviews face to face on family members; only children and grandchildren to understand responded better and contact with them, the most important limitation is lack of a multi- level analysis instead of only test-retest based on secondary analysis that is utilized in this research for the sample design and methodology. The reliability and validity of EQ-5D have not been expanded in Chinese populations. The role of family and relation between them among research published in the past decade is as global concerns, especially about “how family relationships of older adults function differently across national populations and political regimes (Sun. X. et al. 2011).

Health (physical and psychological) and life satisfaction Bader.et al., (2002) examined the relationship between Life satisfaction and other predictor factors such as: physical status, emotional health, and social support among elderly with 1330


physical limitation related to life satisfaction. This study were took place in Salt Lake County, Utah. The respondents were 99 low-income frail elderly who were interviewed randomly by trained undergraduate and graduate MSW students in participants’ homes. The main purpose was to extend the prior study via analyzing factors related to life satisfaction in frail elder adults including self-esteem, physical health, financial resources, sense of connectedness, and locus of control. Before data collection, interview and the diverse of measure based on previous studies were utilized. A multiple regression analysis is used to develop a model which was described the significant factors related to life-satisfaction. Life satisfaction as a dependent variable, was measured by LSI-Z as a shorter form of the LSI-A. Health as another variable was measured by a 5- point Likerts scale. To analyze the data, two multiple regression were utilized. The results revealed that the frail elders who perceive their health as poor, limited social supports and emotional status should be considered for low life satisfaction. Furthermore, the majority of respondents had low level of life satisfaction and below the cut-off score. In addition, no significant difference was found between other variables. Study by Soleman H. Abu-Bader. & Amanda S., Barusch (2002) revealed that there are relationship between Life satisfaction and other predictor factors; physical status, emotional health, and social support among elderly with physical limitation related to life satisfaction were studied. The research took the place in Salt Lake County, Utah. In this research, 99 respondents of low-income frail elderly were interviewed randomly face to face by trained undergraduate and graduate MSW students in participants’ homes. The main purpose is to extend the previous study via analyzing factors related to life satisfaction in frail elder adults include: self-esteem, physical health, financial resources, a sense of connectedness, and locus of control. Before data collection, interview and the diverse of measure based on previous studies were used. Then, they were incorporated with a multiple regression analysis in order to develop a model which was described the significant factors related to life-satisfaction. Life satisfaction as a dependent variable, was measured by LSI-Z; a shorter form of the LSI-A. For data analysis, two multiple regression were used and all variables were distributed that did not have any outliers. The results demonstrated that the frail elders who perceive their health as poor, limited social supports and emotional status should be considered for low life satisfaction. According to this research, life satisfaction was considered as a function of physical health as the strongest contribution, social support, emotional balance and powerful others locus of control. However, other importance aspects of individuals’ characteristics such as personal traits, perceptions, and social support with evaluation measure should be examined to understand the real role of various predictors. Although this report increases supporting of prior research, the other dimensions of life-satisfaction may be unclear; additional research needs to be done. In new studies, the results revealed that association of satisfaction of life and cope on illness. Research by Titan, et al, (2013) investigated Linking between life satisfaction and successful treatment in diabetes patient. Moreover, low leisure satisfaction, are associated with systemic inflammation in patient with dementia. This knowledge may provide a promising way of improving cardiovascular health in dementia caregivers through behavioral activation treatments targeting low leisure satisfaction (Roland Von Kanel, et al, 2013). Results of the article by Vijay kumar, k, and Varghese R.T., (2013), illustrated that factors associated with Diabetes in India consist of demographic, socioeconomic, behavioral, and psychological factors. Patient educational, co morbidities, complications, and treatment regime 1331


on quality of life were discussed. So, it needs to pay attention this key point for nursing and Doctors who concern about patient treatment successfully. Also, it should be developed standards of care especially for elder patients to make feel safer and more secure particulate in emergency care units (ECUs). Also, we need to have principles of nursing to encourage them to get active role in their own health process ( Nyden, K, Petersson, M, Nystrom, M, 2003) when they face to care elder patient.

Sociodemographic variables and life satisfaction To study the levels of happiness perception in the elderly in different regions, and determine the reasons affecting it, a study has done by Sumngern, C, Azered, O, Subgranonr, Sungvor, A, Wongphana, N, Matos, E, (2010). The result revealed that approximately, half of elderly have received happiness poor (49.7%) that in rural and suburban were more than the urban areas (64.2%, 61.2% and 22.8%, respectively, p TB1 and zero otherwise t > TB 2 and zero otherwise

DU1t and DU2t are two dummy variables that allow structural changes in the intercept at TB1 and TB 2 , respectively. While DU1t and DU1t are two dummy variables account shifts in the trend variable at TB1 and TB 2 , respectively. Model AA allows for two structural breaks in the intercept, while model CC allows for two structural breaks in the intercept and the slope. Model CA allows for the first breaks in the both intercepts and second break in the slope only. The possible break dates, TB1 and TB 2 are selected based on the minimum value of t-statistic. The null and alternative hypotheses, the optimal lag length (k) and the selection criterions are the same in the framework of ZA. They re-examine the Nelson-Plosser data and reject the null of a unit root for seven out 1536


of 13 macroeconomic series at the 5% and two additional macroeconomic series at the 10% level of significance. In brief, they find more evidence in rejecting the unit root hypothesis than ZA, but less evidence than Perron (1989).

EMPIRICAL RESULTS In this study, firstly, we test the presence of a unit root using the ADF tests on level, as displayed in Table 2. The findings of the null hypothesis of a unit root cannot be rejected for most series except gross domestic product deflator in Indonesia and Malaysia. Therefore, the overall ADF results show more supportive evidence of random walk in level regardless of whether including a time trend or without a time trend in the series. These findings suggest that shocks to the index and rate variables have a permanent effect. Table 2: Unit root tests (ADF)

IDN With Trend

Variables

1

LCPI

2 3

ADF

MYS With Trend k

ADF

k

ADF

k

ADF

k

ADF

k

7

-1.6655

8

-2.1325

6

-0.6952

1

0

-1.2932

0

-2.7546

3

-1.6386

3

6

-1.5196

0

-1.6384

1

-0.7418

1

Without Trend k

ADF

-1.7190

8

-0.4333

8

-2.7107

EA

-2.3888

0

-0.7000

0

-1.6781

LGDPD

-15.5181

5

-3.5890

*** 5

-4.0382

***

THA Without Trend

**

With Trend

Without Trend

Notes: The optimal lag length for the ADF tests is selected using t-sig approach as suggested by Ng and Perron (1995), with the maximum lag set to 8. The ADF tests are based on the null hypothesis of unit root. ***, **, and * indicate significant at 1 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent level respectively.

The results of the conventional unit root tests, which is presented in Table 2 show more evidence in favor of unit root. Nevertheless, the ADF tests could lead to misspecifications and misinterpretations if potential structural breaks are ignored. We thus further include an endogenous break and two endogenous breaks in unit root tests accordingly. However, the most important question is to choose the most preferable model among models A, B and C for ZA. According to Sen (2004), model C is more preferable and reliable than models A and B when the break points are unknown. However, in this study, we follow Chaudhuri & Wu (2003) in which one model is chosen if the model gives the most negative results in the unit root hypothesis or the model provides the most significant test statistic on a = 0 . The most negative results for ZA as well as LP are then reported in Table 3 and Table 4 accordingly. By comparing the endogenous one-break and two-break models, we can observe the following findings. Firstly, unit root tests with endogenous breaks (LP and ZA models) are relatively strong in rejecting the unit root hypothesis than the findings from ADF tests. In this case, Indonesia has the largest number of rejections of unit root where all variables can reject the unit root null 5 percent level of significance or better, then followed by Malaysia and Thailand. Secondly, Indonesia and Thailand reveal a relatively consistent finding for both LP and ZA models. Conversely, Malaysia shows a slightly different result. For example, the unit root null for consumer price index and gross domestic product deflator can be rejected in ZA models. While for LP models, we can reject the null hypothesis of a unit root for exchange rate and gross domestic product deflator at 1 percent significance level. 1537


Table 3: Results for Zivot and Andrews (1992)

Variables Model k

IDN

MYS TB

tstatistic

-8.0912

THA

Model k TB

t-statistic

1

LCPI

A

8 1998

***

B

7 1984 -5.4954

2

EA

A

0 1998 -18.1994 ***

A

0 1997 -4.4650

A

3 1984

A

6 1986 -5.1625

3 LGDPD

-5.2165

**

*** **

Model k TB

t statistic

A

1 1977 -4.1713

A

4 1997 -6.5829 ***

A

1 1973 -4.5612

Notes: The optimal lag length is selected using t-sig approach as suggested by Ng and Perron (1995), with the maximum lag set to 8. The ZA tests are based on the null hypothesis of a unit root. ***, **, and * indicate significant at 1 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent levels respectively. The 1 percent, 5 percent and 10 percent critical values for Model A: -5.34, -4.80 and -4.58; Model B: -4.93, -4.42 and -4.11; Model C: -5.57, -5.08 and -4.82.

On the one hand, models LP and ZA suggest almost identical break points. In most series, the break points in ZA models suggest the same break date, which is also the first break or second break point in models LP. For consumer price index, the estimated break point is 1998 in ZA model; coincide with the second break point in LP model. Some of the break dates are closely connected with global events which have an influence on ASEAN macroeconomic fluctuations. To name a few (Chien-Chiang & Chun-Ping, 2008; Lumsdaine & Papell, 1997) have identified the location of break points coincide with the Great Depression, World War I, World War II and the energy shock periods. In addition, Lee, Lee, & Lee (2010) found that the structural breaks are associated with global economic depression in 2000-2002 for 26 of the 32 developed countries as well as 21 of the 26 developing countries. In this study, we find some common breaks in each series regardless of the one-break or two-break models. Generally, the break dates in model ZA and model LP are basically coincide with, the first and second oil crisis in 1973 and 1979, respectively, the commodity crisis in 1985-1986 and the Asian financial crisis in 1997-1998.

CONCLUSION The objective of this study is to examine the unit root hypothesis for economic time series in three developing ASEAN countries covering the period of 1960 – 2010, using endogenous onebreak and two-break ADF-type unit root tests. Our empirical findings reveal to several important conclusions. Firstly, the evidence is more favorable for the unit root null regardless of whether the model includes a time trend or without a time trend using the ADF unit root tests. Secondly, by allowing the one-break and two-break in the models (Zivot and Andrews, 1992, Lumsdaine and Papell), we find more rejections of a unit root null than without considering breaks in the models. This indicates that most index and rate variables are trend-stationary in Indonesia and Malaysia. Alternatively, we only can reject the null hypothesis of a unit root for exchange rate in Thailand. Lastly, our result suggests that most variables are trend-stationary rather than unit root process. Then the series will return to their trend of growth over time as the shocks to the series are temporary. The policy authorities may use the historical information to forecast future movements in time series. The break dates are basically coincide with, the first and second oil crisis in 1973 and 1979, respectively, the commodity crisis in 1985-1986 and the Asian financial crisis in 1997-1998.

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LCPI

EA

1

2

1539

AA

AA

AA

Model

6

6

7

k

1979

1977

1979

TB1

1998

1998

1998

TB2

IDN

-12.9885

-31.8389

-17.9113

tstatistic

***

***

***

CA

CC

AA

Model

1

0

7

K

1979

1973

1982

TB1

1986

1998

1989

TB2

MYS

-9.1250

-9.4056

-5.1586

t-statistic

***

***

CA

AA

AA

Model

2

5

7

k

1973

1985

1973

TB1

1999

1997

1989

TB2

THA

-5.7910

-8.3738

-4.5300

tstatistic

percent critical values for Model AA: -6.94, -6.24 and -5.96; Model CA: -7.24, -6.65 and -6.33; Model CC: -7.34, -6.82 and -6.49.

Notes: The optimal lag length is selected using t-sig approach as suggested by Ng and Perron (1995), with the maximum lag set to 8. The LP (1997) tests are based on the null hypothesis of unit root. ***, **, and * indicate significant at 1 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent levels respectively. The 1 percent, 5 percent and 10

LGDPD

Variables

3

Table 4: Results for Lumsdaine and Papell (1997)

***



Funding sources: This work was supported by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE) under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) Phase 2/2010.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE) under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) Phase 2/2010, code project is 600-RMI/SSP/FRGS 5/3/Fsp (134/2010).

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Lumsdaine, R. L., & Papell, D. H. (1997). Multiple trend breaks and the unit-root hypothesis. Review of Economics and Statistics, 79(2), 212-218. Narayan, P. K., & Smyth, R. (2005). Are OECD stock prices characterized by a random walk? Evidence from sequential trend break and panel data models. Applied Financial Economics, 15(8), 547-556. Narayan, P. K., & Smyth, R. (2005). Structural breaks and unit roots in Australian macroeconomic time series. Pacific Economic Review, 10(4), 421-437. Narayan, P. K., & Smyth, R. (2007). Mean reversion versus random walk in G7 stock prices evidence from multiple trend break unit root tests. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, 17(2), 152-166. Narayan, S., & Smyth, R. (2008). Unit roots and structural breaks in PNG macroeconomic time series. International Journal of Social Economics, 35(12), 963-984. Nelson, C. R., & Plosser, C. R. (1982). Trends and random walks in macroeconmic time series. Some evidence and implications. Journal of Monetary Economics, 10(2), 139-162. Newbold, P., Leybourne, S., & Wohar, M. E. (2001). Trend-stationarity, difference-stationarity, or neither: further diagnostic tests with an application to U.S. Real GNP, 1875-1993. Journal of Economics and Business, 53(1), 85-102. Ng, S., & Perron, P. (1995). Unit Root Tests in ARMA Models with Data-Dependent Methods for the Selection of the Truncation Lag. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 90(429), 268-281. Perron, P. (1989). The Great Crash, the oil price shock, and the unit root hypothesis. Econometrica, 57(6), 1361. Perron, P. (1997). Further evidence on breaking trend functions in macroeconomic variables. Journal of Econometrics, 80(2), 355-385. Perron, P., & Vogelsang, T. J. (1992). Nonstationarity and Level Shifts With an Application to Purchasing Power Parity. Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 10(3), 301-320. Rapach, D. E. (2002). Are real GDP levels nonstationary? Evidence from panel data tests. Southern Economic Journal, 68(3), 473-495. Romero-Ávila, D., & Usabiaga, C. (2009). The hypothesis of a unit root in OECD inflation revisited. Journal of Economics and Business, 61(2), 153-161. Sen, A. (2004). Are US macroeconomic series difference stationary or trend-break stationary? Applied Economics, 36(18), 2025-2029. Smyth, R., & Inder, B. (2004). Is Chinese provincial real GDP per capita nonstationary?: Evidence from multiple trend break unit root tests. China Economic Review (1043951X), 15(1), 1. Zivot, E., & Andrews, D. W. K. (1992). Further Evidence on the Great Crash, the Oil-Price Shock, and the Unit-Root Hypothesis. Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, 10(3), 251-270.

Tan Yan Ling*, Nur Adilah Saud and Zailati Ahmad Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA Johor Branch, Segamat, Johor, Malaysia Abu Hassan Shaari Mohd Nor Faculty of Economics and Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia *Corresponding author. Tel. : +6012-636 5395 E-mail address: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] and [email protected]

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143 Sinisisme di Kalangan Kakitangan Akademik Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Awam (IPTA) di Malaysia: Adakah ianya Wujud? Nor Azila Mohd Noor, Zamzam Mohd Walid, Fais Ahmad & Amer Darus ABSTRAK Untuk menjadi sebuah entiti yang dinamik, pihak pengurusan dalam organisasi terpaksa melakukan pelbagai bentuk activiti untuk disesuaikan dengan perubahan dalam persekitaran dalaman dan luaran. Pihak pengurusan mengharapkan agar pekerjanya sentiasa bersedia untuk menghadapi perubahan yang berlaku. Walau bagaimanapun,adakalanya perubahan yang ingin dilakukan berhadapan dengan penentangan. Terdapat banyak alasan yang berpotensi untuk menjadi punca kepada penentangan ini, namun yang menjadi perhatian sejak akhir-akhir ini ialah sinisisme pekerja terhadap perubahan organisasi.Sinisisme pekerja terhadap perubahan organisasi atau dikenali sebagai sinisisme perubahankhusus merujuk pada kecenderungan pekerja untuk bersikap sinis terhadap sesuatu perubahan yang diperkenalkan oleh organisasi mereka.Kajian ini memfokus kepada sikap sinisisme perubahan khusus di kalangan tenaga akademik di institusi pengajian tinggi awam di Malaysia.Kajian ini melibatkan 263 orang kakitangan akademik di Politeknik di Semenanjung Malaysia.Pengutipan data adalah melalui borang soal-selidik yang diedarkan secara personal kepada responden. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa sikap sinis wujud di kalangan tenaga pengajar di institusi pengajian tinggi awam di Malaysia, .Implikasi terhadap teori dan amalan secara terperinci serta cadangan kajian pada masa hadapan turut dibincangkan. Kata kunci: Sinisme, Sinisisme Perubahan Khusus, Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Awam Malaysia ABSTRACT To become as a dynamic entity, management team in the organization have to implement various activities to fit with the internal and external changes. Management team expects that the employeeswill be ready to face the changes. However, sometime changes have to confront with resistance. There are many potential reasons that lead to resistances, however, the one that gain great attention lately is employee’s cynicism towards organization change. Employee’s cynicism towards organizational change or known as change-specific cynicism refers to the tendency of employees to be cynical about any changes introduced by their respective organizations. This study focuses to employee’s cynicism towards organization change among academician at Malaysian Higher Education Institution. This study involves 263 academicians at Polytechnics in Peninsular Malaysia. Data were collected via questionnaires distributedface-to-face to the respondents. Findings show that cynicism exists among the academicians at the Malaysian Higher Education Institute. Theoretical and practical implications of the study details as well as suggestions for future research are discussed. Keywords: Cynicism, Change-specific cynicism, Malaysian Higher Education Institution.

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PENGENALAN Dalam usaha organisasi mengharungi cabaran ekonomi, teknologi dan persekitaran sosial, pihak pengurusan mengharapkan agar pekerjanya sentiasa bersedia untuk menghadapi perubahan (Armenakis, Harris, & Mossholder, 2002). Walau bagaimanapun perubahan sering berhadapan dengan penentangan (Strebel, 1996).Terdapat banyak alasan yang berpotensi untuk menjadi punca kepada penentangan ini, namun yang menjadi perhatian sejak akhir-akhir ini ialah sinisisme pekerjaterhadap perubahan organisasi (cth., Abraham, 2000; Reichers et al., 1997; Vance, Brooks, & Tesluk, 1996; Wanous, Reichers, & Austin, 2000). Kajian lepas menunjukkan perubahan organisasi akan menyebabkan berlakunya sinisisme (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999, Dean, Brandes, & Dharwadkar, 1998). Pekerja akan cenderung untuk bersikap sinis terhadap perubahan organisasi yang berterusan (Wanous et al., 2000). Merekajuga menyatakan bahawa sinisisme boleh bertindak sebagai penghalang kepada usaha untuk berubah (Reichers et al., 1997). Perkara ini menjadi semakin penting apabila sesuatu perubahan itu kerap berlaku akibat persekitaran ekonomi dan politik yang tidak menentu (Qian & Daniels, 2008). Sungguh pun begitu, kajian yang memfokus kepada sinisisme pekerja terhadap perubahan organisasi masih lagi terhad (Qian & Daniels, 2008; Rubin et al., 2009) dan kajian yang ada pula kebanyakannya dijalankan dalam bidang pengurusan dan psikologi (cth., Abraham, 2000; Andersson, 1996; Anderson & Batemen, 1997; Dean et al., 1998; Kanter & Mirvis, 1989;Stanley et al., 2005; Wanous et al., 2000). Ini adalah kerana sinisisme biasanya dilihat sebagai sikap negatif pekerja yang mampu merosakkan organisasi (Watt & Piotrowski, 2008). Sehingga kini, kebanyakan kajian yang berkaitan dengan sinisisme yang dilakukan di negara barat memberi fokus kepada sinisisme organisasi secara keseluruhan (Reichers et al., 1997; Wanous, Reichers, & Austin, 1994). Hanya sedikit kajian yang memfokus kepada sinisisme pekerja terhadap sesuatu perubahan secara khusus atau lebih dikenali sinisisme perubahan-khusus (Qian & Daniels, 2008; Stanley et al., 2005). Sinisisme perubahan-khusus (change-specific cynicism) ialah ketidakpercayaan pekerja terhadap kenyataan atau motif pengurusan untuk melakukan perubahan organisasi secara khusus (Stanley et al., 2005). Melihat sinisisme pekerja terhadap sesuatu perubahan secara khusus (sinisisme perubahan-khusus) adalah penting kerana ianya memberikan tumpuan secara spesifik kepada sesuatu perubahan yang menerbitkan sinisisme pekerja, berbanding dengan melihat perubahan organisasi secara umum (Stanley et al., 2005). Di sebalik kepentingan sinisisme perubahan-khusus ini, kajian yang dilakukan mengenainya adalah masih terhad (Qian & Daniels, 2008; Stanley et al., 2005). Selain sektor perniagaan dan sektor perkhidmatan yang lain, sektor pendidikan terutamanya institusi pendidikan tinggi juga mengalami perubahan yang pesat (Lindholm, 2003). Perubahan ini juga mencetuskan sinisisme (Martin, Manning, & Ramaley, 2001; Ramaley, 2002; Young, 1997) terutamanya dikalangan tenaga akademik (Qian & Daniels, 2008).Sebagai contoh, Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi (KPT) yang ditubuhkan pada 27 Mac 2004 telah melakukan perubahan skim perkhidmatan kakitangan ke atas tenaga pengajar di Politeknik dari skim DG ke skim DH mulai 1 Januari 2008 . Setelah hampir lapan tahun perlaksanaan perubahan ini berlaku, masih kedengaran rungutan di kalangan kakitangan akademik yang terlibat. Rungutan, ketidakpuasan hati dan kata-kata sinis terhadap perubahan ini jelas dapat dilihat di laman web www.mygstt.com/ forum di samping mendapat liputan yang meluas di akhbar-akhbar tempatan (Berita Harian, 6 Februari 2012; Harian Metro, 8 Februari 2010;Kosmo, 7 Februari 2010;Mstar Online, 6 Februari,

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2010; Utusan Malaysia, 6 Februari 2011). Diikuti oleh Morris, Yaacob dan Wood (2004) yang mendapati bahawa kakitangan akademik di institusi pengajian tinggi di Malaysia tidak berpuashati dengan kadar bayaran gaji dan polisi kenaikan pangkat yang dilaksanakan. Perubahan demi perubahan yang dilaksanakan ke atas skim perkhidmatan kakitangan akademik dilihat belum dapat memuaskan hati mereka. Bahkan senario siri perubahan-perubahan ini dipandang sinis oleh sesetengah pihak. Justeru, ini membayangkan bahawa sinisisme terhadap perubahan skim perkhidmatan tersebut juga berlaku di kalangan kakitangan akademik yang terlibat. Malangnya, sorotan literatur terhadap kajian sinisisme perubahan organisasi terutamanya di institusi pengajian tinggi Malaysia sehingga kini tidak banyak ditemui.

SOROTAN LITERATUR Menurut Andersson (1996) serta Kanter dan Mirvis (1989), sinis di tempat kerja ialah seseorang individu yang tiada kepercayaan kepada pemimpin atau ketua organisasi dan percaya bahawa jika diberi peluang, pihak pengurusan akan mengeksploitasikan pekerjanya. Terdapat beberapa penyelidik yang mengembangkan pandangan sinis di tempat kerja ini dengan menjalankan kajian yang melibatkan pekerjaan, individu, organisasi dan proses perubahan. Sinisisme mudah merebak luas di dalam organisasi-organisasi (Qian & Daniels, 2008). Menurut Kanter dan Mirvis (1989), lebih empat puluh peratus tenaga kerja rakyat Amerika Syarikat memenuhi dan menepati profil sinis. Sinisisme dipercayai menjadi punca kepada kesan yang tidak diingini di tempat kerja. Kajian mendapati bahawa sinisisme organisasi dikaitkan secara negatif dengan kepuasan kerja, komitmen organisasi, dan tingkah laku kewarganegaraan organisasi (organizational citizenship behaviors) (Abraham, 2000; Andersson & Bateman, 1997). Memandangkan masalah ini timbul di dalam banyak organisasi, sinisisme wajar mendapat perhatian untuk dikaji lebih lanjut. Perubahan organisasi sering menemui sikap pesimisme (pessimism), skeptisisme (skepticism), ketidakyakinan (distrust), ketidakpuasan kerja (job dissatisfaction), dan penentangan kepada perubahan (resistance to change) dan sinisisme (cynicism) yang lahir di kalangan warganya. Konstruk sikap-sikap tersebut telah mendapat perhatian yang semakin meningkat di kalangan masyarakat barat terutamanya negara Amerika Syarikat. Sejak sedekat yang lalu, ahli akademik dan ahli politik menyatakan bahawa “cynicism has spiraled up and down in twentieth-century American life to the point that it has become an endemic part of the psyche in the 1980s” (Eisinger, 2000). Menurut Goldfarb (1991), “Cynicism dominates the assumptions of our political and cultural life dan “[it]… is a component of the social structure” .Penyelidik-penyelidik seperti Kanter dan Mirvis (1989, 1991) juga memberikan pemerhatian yang khusus kepada konstruk ini dan hubungannya dengan masalah organisasi. Sinisisme perubahan organisasi, atau apa yang Wanous et al. (2000) sebut sebagai CAOC didefinisikan sebagai; “a pessimistic viewpoint about change effort being successful because those responsible for making change are blamed for being unmotivated, incompetent, or both”

Stanley et al.(2005)pula menyatakan bahawa CAOC adalah terlalu umum dan tidak menyentuh tentang sinisisme pekerja terhadap sesuatu perubahan organisasi secara khusus.Oleh itu, mereka 1544


membangunkan konsep yang dipanggil “sinisisme perubahan-khusus (change-specific cynicism)”. Menurut Ajzen dan Fishbein (1980), sesuatu sikap merupakan peramal yang baik terhadap niat dan tingkah laku seseorang. Sehubungan itu, sinisisme perubahan-khusus sepatutnya menjadi peramal yang baik kepada niat seseorang untuk menentang sesuatu perubahan yang berkaitan. Stanley et al. (2005), mendefinisikan sinisisme perubahan-khusus sebagai; “a disbelief of management’s stated or implied motives for a specific organizational change”

Manakala Qian dan Daniels (2008) pula mendefinisikan sinisisme perubahan-khusus sebagai; “a negative attitude toward a specific organizational change consisting of three dimensions; (i) a disbelief in management’s stated or implied motives for the change, (ii) a feeling of pessimism and frustration about the change efforts, and (iii) tendencies to disparaging and critical behaviors toward the specific organizational change.”

Berdasarkan definisi yang diberikan oleh Andersson (1996), Andersson dan Bateman (1997), Dean et al. (1998), Qian dan Daniels (2008), Stanley et al. (2005), serta Wanous et al. (2000), kajian ini mengambil definisi sinisisme perubahan-khusus yang diutarakan oleh Qian dan Daniels (2008) iaitu; Sinisisme perubahan-khusus merujuk kepada sikap negatif terhadap perubahan organisasi yang merangkumi tiga dimensi: (a) ketidakpercayaan kepada kenyataan atau motif pihak pengurusan untuk berubah; (b) perasaan pesimisme dan kecewa terhadap usaha untuk berubah; dan (c) cenderung untuk bertingkah laku memperkecil dan mengkritik sesuatu perubahan organisasi secara khusus.

METODOLOGI Kajian dijalankan bertujuan untuk memahami sikap sinisisme terhadap perubahan organisasi di kalangan tenaga pengajar di Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Awam di Malaysia. Kajian ini merupakan kajian rentas (cross-sectional) di mana data dikumpulkan sekali untuk menjawab soalan-soalan kajian. Kaedah tinjauan (survey) digunakan kerana kaedah ini adalah yang terbaik untuk memperolehi fakta berkaitan dengan sikap (Kerlinger, 1973). Unit analisis kajian ini ialah individu staf tenaga pengajar akademik yang bertugas sebagai tenaga pengajar sepenuh masa di Politeknik di Semenanjung Malaysia. Politeknik dipilih sebagai lokasi penyelidikan kerana sumbangannya yang besar bagi melahirkan tenaga kerja separa mahir yang teramai negara berbanding dengan institusi lain. Politeknik juga telah mengalami perubahan yang besar dalam sejarah penubuhannya apabila diletakkan di bawah KPT mulai tahun 2004. Tenaga pengajar Politeknik yang baru sahaja menerima skim perkhidmatan yang baru mulai 1 Januari 2008 merupakan kumpulan kakitangan KPT yang terbesar terlibat dalam perubahan ini. Unit analisis kajian ini ialah individu staf tenaga pengajar akademik dan terhad kepada individu yang bertugas sebagai tenaga pengajar sepenuh masa di Politeknik Malaysia.

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Sinisisme perubahan-khusus juga dioperasikan menggunakan tiga dimensi iaitu kognitif, afektif dan tingkah laku (Qian & Daniels, 2008). Dimensi kognitif merujuk kepada ketidakpercayaan pekerja terhadap kenyataan atau motif perubahan yang diperkenalkan oleh pihak pengurusan. Dimensi afektif atau emosi merujuk kepada perasaan pesimisme dan kekecewaan terhadap perubahan. Manakala dimensi tingkah laku merujuk kepada perbuatan seperti memperkecil, mengkritik dan mengelakkan diri dari melaksanakan tugasan yang berkait dengan perubahan (Dean et al., 1998; Qian & Daniels, 2008; Stanley et al., 2005).Sinisisme perubahan-khusus diukur dengan mengadaptasikan intrumen yang dibangunkan oleh Qian dan Daniels (2008). Sebanyak 13 item dengan format 5-point Likert-type dalam julat dari“1=sangat tidak bersetuju” kepada “5=sangat bersetuju”. Sebanyak 500 soal selidik telah diedarkan kepada kakitangan Politeknik Malaysia yang terlibat dengan perubahan skim perkhidmatan dari skim DG ke skim DH bagi tujuan pengumpulan data. Dari jumlah tersebut, 298 telah dikembalikan. Namun terdapat 35 soal selidik yang tidak lengkap diisi dan diketepikan dari kajian ini. Justeru, sejumlah 263 respon yang diterima boleh digunapakai bagi tujuan penganalisisan selanjutnya. Ianya memberikan kadar respon sebanyak 52.6 peratus dari jumlah keseluruhan soal selidik yang diedarkan. Kadar respon ini adalah hasil dari usaha yang bersungguh-sungguh dan melibatkan kos tambahan. Saiz sampel ini dilihat mencukupi dan kadar respon yang diperolehi adalah memadai dengan membuat perbandingan di antara kajian lepas seperti 29.4 peratus oleh Bedeian (2007) yang menggunakan kakitangan akademik di institusi pengajian tinggi sebagai sampel. Profil responden adalah seperti yang dipaparkan di Jadual 1 di bawah.

ANALISIS Jadual 1: Profil Responden Pembolehubah

Kategori

Jantina

Umur

Pencapaian Akademik Tertinggi

N

(%)

Lelaki

100

38.0

Perempuan

163

62.0

30 dan ke bawah

47

17.9

31 ke 40

131

49.8

41 ke 50

67

25.5

51 dan ke atas

18

6.8

Diploma

20

7.6

Ijazah

107

40.7

Sarjana

133

50.6

3

1.1

PhD

Analisis faktor berdasarkan principal component analysis (PCA) dengan putaran varimax (varimax rotation)dijalankan untuk mengetahui dimensi sinisisme perubahan khusus. Analisis faktor dijalankan ke atas sinisisme perubahan-khusus yang menunjukkan nilai Kaiser-MeyerOkin .86, melebihi nilai yang disyorkan iaitu .50 (Hair et al., 2010) dan Bertlett’s Test of Sphericity menunjukkan signifikan sangat tinggi (p= .00), menyokong faktorabiliti correlation matrix. Pada

1546


peringkat awal analisis, terdapat empat item yang mempunyai nilai communalities yang rendah daripada .50. Umumnya item-item harus mempunyai nilai communalities .50 ke atas untuk dikekalkan di dalam analisis (Hair et al., 2010). Principal components analysis menunjukkan satu komponen yang wujud dengan nilai eigen melebihi satu. Faktor ini menyumbang sebanyak 68.69 peratus perubahan varians item-item.Seperti mana yang ditunjukkan di Jadual 2 di bawah, muatan faktor (factor loadings) adalah di antara .77 dan .88. Kebolehpercayaan (Cronbach’s Alpha) bagi faktor ini ialah .91, iaitu menunjukkan kebolehpercayaan yang tinggi. Analisa deskriptif mendapati bahawa nilai min yang diperolehi adalah 3.32 dan nilai sisihan piawai adalah .96. Jadual 2: Analisis Faktor dan Kebolehpercayaan ke atas Sinisisme Perubahan Khusus Item-item

Muatan Faktor

Saya percaya bahawa niat pihak pengurusan dalam memperkenalkan perubahan skim ini adalah berbeza dengan apa yang mereka beritahu kepada kakitangannya.

.88

Saya percaya bahawa pihak pengurusan mempunyai “agenda tersembunyi” dalam memperkenalkan perubahan skim ini.

.86

Pihak pengurusan cuba menyembunyikan alasan bagi perubahan ini.

.83

Saya mempersoalkan motif pihak pengurusan terhadap perubahan ini.

.82

Pihak pengurusan jujur dalam menyatakan objektif bagi perubahan skim ini. (R)

.81

Pihak pengurusan jujur dalam menyampaikan alasan bagi perubahan skim ini. (R)

.77

Eigenvalue

4.12

% of variance

68.69

Cronbach’s Alpha (α)

.91

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measures of Sampling Adequacy

.86

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity : Approx Chi-Square

1053.11

df

15

Sig

.00

Mean value

3.32

Standard deviation

.96

Jadual 2 di atas menunjukkan min dan sisihan piawai sinisisme perubahan-khusus di kalangan responden. Ianya menunjukkan skor min 3.32 ke atas skala lima mata. Ini bermaksud bahawa sinisisme perubahan-khusus di kalangan responden adalah pada tahap yang sederhana. Sisihan piawai yang menunjukkan nilai .96, menunjukkan bahawa variasi sinisisme perubahan-khusus di kalangan responden adalah tinggi.Ujian t-test bebas digunakan untuk melihat perbezaan tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus di dalam jantina yang berbeza. Hasil ujian ini ditunjukkan di dalam Jadual 3. Secara statistiknya tiada perbezaan yang signifikan di dalam skor min sinisisme perubahan-khusus di antara lelaki dan perempuan. Ini menunjukkan bahawa jantina yang berbeza tidak memperlihatkan perbezaan di dalam sinisisme perubahan-khusus. Jadual 3: Sinisisme Perubahan-khusus mengikut Jantina Pembolehubah Bebas

Min

Sisihan Piawai

Nilai F

Nilai p

Lelaki

3.36

1.04

2.41

.59

Perempuan

3.30

.91

Note: *p< .05

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Perbezaan tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus di kalangan kakitangan akademik diperhalusi lagi dengan melihat mengikut umur dan pencapaian akademik. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) digunakan untuk menguji perbezaan di antara pembolehubah. Jadual 4 merumuskan keputusan ujian tersebut. Didapati bahawa tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus adalah berbeza mengikut umur (F=20.70; p= .00), dan pencapaian akademik (F=3.93; p= .02). Mengikut umur, analisis post-hoc menunjukkan bahawa responden yang berumur 35 tahun ke bawah adalah kurang sinis berbanding dengan yang berumur 36 hingga 40 tahun. Manakala responden yang berumur 41 tahun ke atas pula kurang sinis jika dibandingkan dengan responden yang berumur 35 tahun ke bawah. Melalui penganalisisan post-hoc pencapaian akademik pula didapati bahawa responden yang memiliki diploma sebagai pencapaian tertinggi akademiknya lebih sinis berbanding dengan kumpulan yang berijazah.Ringkasnya, tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus di kalangan kakitangan akademik adalah sederhana. Tiada perbezaan dari segi tahap sinisisme di kalangan responden yang berbeza jantina. Responden yang berumur di antara 36 hingga 40 tahun menunjukkan lebih sinis berbanding dengan yang berumur 35 tahun ke bawah dan 41 tahun ke atas. Manakala responden yang mempunyai diploma sebagai pencapaian akademik tertingginya didapati lebih sinis berbanding dengan responden yang berijazah. Jadual 4: Sinisisme Perubahan-khusus Mengikut Umur, Gred Jawatan, Pencapaian Akademik dan Jumlah Tahun Pengalaman di Skim DG M

F-value (p value)

35 tahun & ke bawah

3.41

20.70 (.00)**

36 – 40 tahun

3.81

41 tahun & ke atas

2.86

Diploma

3.85

Ijazah

3.21

Sarjana & PhD

3.34

Pembolehubah Bebas

Kategori

Umur

Pencapaian Akademik

3.93 (.02)*

Nota: *p< .05; **p< .01; N=263

PERBINCANGAN Pada tahun 2008, seramai 6,585 orang kakitangan akademik Politeknik telah bertukar skim perkhidmatan dari skim DG ke skim DH. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus di kalangan kakitangan akademik di institusi pengajian tinggi adalah sederhana. Selari dengan definisi sinisisme perubahan-khusus, ianya boleh dijelaskan bahawa dalam menghadapi cabaran perubahan organisasi, kakitangan akademik cenderung untuk bersikap sinis secara sederhana dengan perubahan yang dihadapinya.Mereka bersikap sedemikian kerana tidak mahu terlalu mengharapkan kejayaan sesuatu perubahan yang dilaksanakan. Sikap sinis itu wujud kerana mereka tidak diberi ruang yang seluasnya untuk mengutarakan pandangan dan maklum balas terhadap pelaksanaan skim yang baru diperkenalkan itu. Ini selari dengan dapatan kajian tahap kepuasan terhadap pelaksanaan skim perkhidmatan DH yang dijalankan oleh Bahagian Pengurusan Sumber Manusia (BPSM), Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia. Dalam dapatan kajian tersebut, kumpulan responden yang sama menyatakan bahawa 59.62 peratus tidak bersetuju kepada pernyataan yang mengatakan mereka mempunyai saluran yang mencukupi bagi mengutarakan pandangan dan cadangan penambahbaikan terhadap pelaksanaan

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skim DH (BPSM, 2010).Dapatan kajian ini adalah sama seperti kajian Bedeian (2007), Bernerth et al. (2007),Brown dan Cregan (2008), Reichers at al. (1997), dan Turner & Valentine (2001)yang mendapati bahawa perubahan yang dilaksanakan di organisasi masing-masing telah mewujudkan sinisisme di kalangan.pekerja-pekerjanya. Dapatan kajian ini mendapati bahawa tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus kakitangan akademik tidak berbeza mengikut jantina. Ini mungkin disebabkan oleh penguasaan kaum wanita di dalam sistem pendidikan di Politeknik. Sampel kajian meliputi 62 peratus adalah perempuan. Majoriti yang banyak ini boleh mendorong kepada statistik ketakberubahan (statistical invariance) yang boleh menerangkan mengapa sinisisme perubahan-khusus tidak berbeza mengikut jantina. Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa kakitangan lelaki bersikap sinisisme perubahan-khusus pada tahap yang sama dengan kakitangan perempuan. Malah kedua-dua jantina menunjukkan sinisisme perubahan-khusus pada tahap yang sederhana. Ini menyokong kajian lepas oleh Bedeian (2007), Brown dan Cregan (2008), Ferres dan Connell (2004), Turner dan Valentine (2001), dan Wu et al. (2007) yang juga mendapati bahawa jantina tidak memberi pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap tahap sinisisme.Namun ianya bertentangan dengan dapatan Kanter dan Mirvis (1989) yang menyatakan bahawa lelaki lebih sinis daripada perempuan.Dalam bidang politik, lelaki juga didapati lebih bersikap sinis berbanding dengan perempuan (Lin & Lim, 2002). Dapatan kajian ini juga mendapati bahawa tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus kakitangan akademik adalah berbeza mengikut umur. Kakitangan yang berumur di antara 36 sehingga 40 tahun mempunyai tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus yang paling tinggi berbanding dengan yang berumur 35 tahun ke bawah dan yang berumur 41 tahun ke atas. Ini adalah kerana umur seseorang berkait rapat dengan tahap psikologi masing-masing. Pada umur sekitar ini biasanya pekerja memerlukan dorongan dan pemerhatian yang lebih daripada pihak pengurusan kerana mereka sering gagal mengawal emosi dengan baik. Justeru, perubahan organisasi yang diperkenalkan mampu mewujudkan sikap sinis di kalangan mereka.Dapatan kajian ini selari dengan dapatan Brown dan Cregan (2008), Bedeian (2007) dan Ferres dan Connell (2004) yang menunjukkan bahawa perbezaan umur mempunyai kesan kepada tahap sinisisme pekerja. Walau bagaimana pun ianya bertentangan dengan dapatan Abraham (2000), Andersson dan Bateman (1997), Berneth et al. (2007) dan Wu et al. (2007) yang menunjukkan bahawa tiada perkaitan yang signifikan di antara perbezaan umur pekerja dengan tahap kesinisannya terhadap organisasi. Pencapaian tertinggi akademik kakitangan juga memberi perbezaan kepada tahap sinisisme perubahan-khusus. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa kakitangan yang mempunyai diploma sebagai pencapaian tertinggi akademik mereka lebih sinis berbanding dengan yang mempunyai ijazah. Ini mungkin dapat dijelaskan dengan melihat kepada aspek imbuhan pendapatan. Pendapatan bagi kakitangan kumpulan ini adalah yang paling rendah berbanding dengan kumpulan lain. Keperluan kewangan yang tinggi dan tidak setara dengan pendapatan memungkinkan mereka bersikap sinis dengan perubahan skim perkhidmatan yang diperkenalkan. Dapatan ini konsisten dengan dapatan Brown dan Cregan (2008), dan Rubin et al. (2009) yang menyatakan bahawa pencapaian pendidikan memberi kesan kepada tahap sinisisme pekerja. Namun ianya tidak selari dengan dapatan Andersson dan Bateman (1997), Bedeian (2007) dan Wu et al. (2007) yang mendapati bahawa tiada perkaitan di antara pencapaian akademik dengan tahap sinisisme di kalangan pekerja.

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KESIMPULAN Kajian ini menyumbang kepada literatur dengan mengkaji isu sinisisme perubahan-khusus dalam konteks kakitangan akademik di institusi pengajian tinggi tempatan. Ianya memberi indikasi bahawa sikap sinis terhadap perubahan yang wujud di kalangan kakitangan akademik akan mewujudkan niat mereka untuk menentang perubahan yang berlaku. Kajian ke atas sinisisme perubahan-khusus sebelum ini dijalankan di negara-negara barat. Kajian ini membuktikan bahawa faktor tersebut adalah benar dalam konteks institusi pengajian tinggi di Malaysia. Oleh itu, ianya menunjukkan bahawa beberapa dapatan yang diperolehi di negara barat boleh juga digeneralisasikan ke negara-negara Asia atau pun sekurang-kurangnya ke Malaysia. Ini membuktikan bahawa usaha untuk mengkaji dapatan di negara barat dengan menggunakan sampel tempatan adalah tepat.

PENGHARGAAN Kajian ini adalah dibiayai sepenuhnya oleh Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia di bawah peruntukan Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS).

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Eisinger, R.M. (2000) Questioning cynicism. Culture and Society. p. 55-60. Ferres, N. & Connell, J. (2004) Emotional intelligence in leader: an antidote for cynicism towards change? Strategic Change. 13(2). p. 61-71. Goldfarb, J.C. (1991) The cynical society. The culture of politics and the politics of culture in American life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. & Black W.C. (2010) Multivariate data analysis (5th ed). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kanter, D.L. & Mirvis, P.H. (1991) Cynicism: the new American Malaise. Business Society Review.p. 57-61. Kerlinger, F.N. (1973). Foundations of Behavioural Research. (2nd edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Lin, Y. & Lim, S. (2002) Relationships of media use to political cynicism and efficacy: a preliminary study of young South Korean voters. Asian Journal of Communication. 12(1). p. 25-39. Lindholm, J.A. (2003) Perceived organizational fit: nurturing the minds, hearts and personal ambitions of university faculty. The Review of Higher Education. 27(1).p. 125-149. Martin, R.R., Manning, K. & Ramaley, J.A. (2001) The self-study as a chariot for strategic change. New Direction For Higher Education. 113. p. 95-115. Morris, D., Yaacob, A. & Wood, G. (2004) Attitudes towards pay and promotion in the Malaysian higher educational sector. Employee Relations. 26(2).p. 137-150. Qian, Y. & Daniels, T.D. (2008) A communication model of employee cynicism toward organizational change. Corporate Communications: an International Journal. 13(3).p. 319-332. Ramaley, J.A. (2002) New truth and old verities. New Directions for Higher Education. 119. p. 15-19. Reichers, A.E., Wanous, J.P. & Austin, J.T. (1997) Understanding and managing cynicism about organizational change. The Academy of Management Executive. 11(1).p. 48-59. Rubin, R.S., Dierdorff, E.C., Bommer, W.H. & Baldwin, T.T. (2009) Do leaders reap what they sow? Leader and employee outcomes of leader organizational cynicism about change. Leader Quarterly, 20(5). p. 680. Rubin, R.S., Dierdorff, E.C., Bommer, W.H. & Baldwin, T.T. (2009) Do leaders reap what they sow? Leader and employee outcomes of leader organizational cynicism about change. Leader Quarterly. 20(5). p. 680. Stanley, D.J., Meyer, J.P. & Topolnytsky, L. (2005) Employee cynicism and resistance to organizational change. Journal of Business and Psychology.19(4), 429-459. Strebel, P. (1996) Why do employees resist change? Harvard Business Review, 86-92. Turner, J.H. & Valentine, S.R. (2001). Cynicism as a fundamental dimension of moral decision-making: a scale development. Journal of Business Ethics.34(2).p. 123-136. Wanous, J.P., Reichers, A.E. & Austin, J.T. (2000) Cynicism about organizational change: measurement, antecedents and correlates. Group & Organization Management.25(2). p. 132-153. Watt, J.D. & Piotrowski, C. (2008) Organizational change cynicism: a review of the literature and intervention strategies. Organizational Development Journal. 26(3).p. 23-31. Wu, C., Neubert, M.J. & Yi, X. (2007) Transformational leadership, cohesion perceptions, and employee cynicism about organizational change: the mediating role of justice perceptions. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 43(3).p. 327-351. Nor Azila Mohd Noor, Zamzam Mohd Walid, Fais Ahmad & Amer Darus Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia Email: [email protected]; Tel: 604-9285206 Jabatan Pendidikan Politeknik, Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia School of Business Management, Universiti Utara Malaysia 1551


144 Developing Pondok Institutions as a Religious Tourism Product Mohd Fadil Mohd Yusof, Hasnita Buniamin, Ghazali Ahmad & Mazne Ibrahim ABSTRACT This paper presents a research in progress about the potential of pondok institutions or Islamic religious seminaries to be developed as a spiritual or religious tourism product. It puts forward how traditional religious education providers might be utilised and developed into spiritual tourism product. It analyzes the current status and conditions of these religious seminaries located at various locations in Malaysia. At the same time, it identifies what are the attributes that are able to attract and motivate the tourists to visit the places and contribute to the local economic development. In order to explore various attributes of pondok institutions, series of in-depth interviews with the operators is applied. Based on the evidence from six pondok operators in the country, the potential of pondok institutions or Islamic religious seminaries to be developed as a spiritual tourism product is very promising. All the operators seem to agree to market the product more extensively especially through the internet to reach for more broad audience. However, most of the institutions are still lacking in terms of basic facilities such as accommodation, classrooms and number of religious teachers. Various important attributes are identified such as having knowledgeable Islamic teachers, curricular contents providing good facilities and services. With the increase numbers of visitors or tourists come to Pondok to learn about Islamic religion and searching for a peaceful mind, Pondok institutions may able to expand as a reputable Islamic education provider. Keywords: Religious tourism, Pondok Institutions, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION The purpose of this paper is to present a research in progress about the potential of pondok institutions or Islamic religious seminaries to be developed as a spiritual or religious tourism product. This article reports the preliminary findings of the study based on the views from the pondok operators in terms of the pondok’s current condition and various pondok attributes that can be developed as a tourism product. It also identifies some of the challenges in marketing the institutions to the wider Muslim audience and concludes by providing recommendations to the operators in order to attract more Muslim visitors to the place. Presently, there are various pondok institutions available in the country particularly at various locations in Kelantan, Kedah, Perak and Penang.

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Spiritual or Religious Tourism The growth of the interest among tourism academic in spiritual tourism is not new. Based on the various series of international conferences organised and journal publications pertaining to the area indicate that the spiritual tourism is getting a place within the tourism academic circle (Haq and Wong, 2010). Many factors have led to the emergence of rapid growth in spiritual tourism. These factors include the increasingly hectic pace of living, high stress-levels among the workforce, and the resultant desire to slow down, to simplify, and to find meaning in life (Voigt, Brown & Howat, 2011; Smith & Puczko, 2009). According to Haq and Wong (2010), there is no accepted definition of spiritual tourism being made yet however the following definition of spiritual tourist is used to explore the research: [...] someone who visits a specific place out or his or her usual environment, with the intention of spiritual meaning and or growth, without overt religious compulsion, which could be religious, non religious, sacred, or experiential in nature, but within a Divine context, regardless of the main reason for traveling (Haq and Jackson, 2009, p.145). The term religion and spiritually are highly debated but conceptually, there is common agreement among many scholars that both religion and spirituality are closely related. (Willson et al. , 2013). From the western perspectives, religious tourism is about visiting sacred places for worshipping, spirituality and devotion which include visiting a places like English Cathedrals, temples and others and visiting religious buildings or sites to study about the historical, architectural and artistic elements of the building itself (Hughes et. al, 2013 and Wilson et al., 2013). However, in Islam, the concept of spiritual or religious tourism is classified into different categories which include performing hajj or umrah , rihla, ziyara and musafir. Hajj is the obligatory (if possible) visits for all Muslims to Mecca once in their lifetime whereby umrah is not obligatory. Umrah can be performed throughout the year while hajj has to be performed on 9th and 10th of Zulhijjah, the last month of the Islamic calendar. According to Kessler (1992), Rihla is a Muslim’s journey in search of knowledge, commerce, health or research. Ziyara , is described as a Muslim’s journey to visit friends and family, mausoleums and historical places. Ziyara is also performed for spiritual healing by meeting with famous Islamic scholars or attending religious festivals and seminars for seeking and strengthening Islamic knowledge. Based on the above definitions about religious tourism, Pondok institutions may be suggested as an ideal place for Muslims to perform Ziyara. By attending pondok institutions for a specific period of time listening to the face to face lecture from tuan guru or grand master, that person may able to reflect about being a truth Muslim. While staying at the pondok with no contact from the outside world such as the internet and mass media, that person can really focus on the religion and seek meaning in their life. Presently, Pondok institutions are not opened for Non Muslims. Visitors are only among Muslims who want to learn about basic knowledge of Islam such as reading Quran, Tauhid, Fiqh and Tasawuf. Learners also will be exposed to other subjects such as Quranic interpretations, eloquent recitation, traditions of the prophet Muhammad pbuh, jurisprudence and others. The text used is written in original Jawi Malay by Islamic scholars who received Islamic education in Mecca. Each pondok student is required to purchase the text and

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to get ready in front of the tok guru for talaqqi (face to face) session. The teacher will read and explain sheet by sheet and any question raised about a particular topic will be explained in detail.

What is Pondok institution? Pondok institution is a traditional Islamic education school in Malaysia. The institutions are historically important to the Muslim community in Malaysia. The main role of Pondok institution is to provide religious instruction and also in deepening the community understands of Islam. Moreover, it is closely related to the Malay-Muslim identity and often acts as the axis of the Malay social life. Traditional features in Pondok education has become one of the tourist attractions for religious travelers. Currently, these institutions are able to attract visitors as far from Cambodia, Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand (Fauzi, 2010). Pondok education is very popular among people in Kelantan, Kedah and Penang. The word pondok (literally: hut) is an arabic word alfunduq meaning ‘residential house, hostel or house. It is also defined as an accommodation for three or four students in a form of small houses. Pondok system also is popular in Indonesia and it is known as ‘pesantren’ meaning religious students. Based on the definition provided by Kamus Dewan (a Malay Dictionary), pondok means ‘madrasah’ (school) or hostel which is as a place to learn about Quranic recitation and religious knowledge. In the traditional pondok systems, everyone can apply to learn about Islam under the supervision of tuan guru or grand master. The religious experience and Islamic environment provided by Pondok is very interesting indeed. Historically, the history of Islamic education in Kelantan began since the 12th century and it started at the royal palace for the family of Sultan and state government dignitaries. Subsequently, it was continued in surau, madrassas and mosque taught by tok guru. Pondok institutions in Malaysia start to emerge at the beginning of 19th to 20th century. This education system is believed to have originated from Pattani, Southern Thailand (Pusat Pembangunan Pondok Berhad, 2009). There is also an opinion stating that it comes from Aceh Indonesia. Fauzi, (2010) in his study states that the establishment of pondok institutions in Malaysia is due to the efforts of ulama from Pattani in Southern Thailand. That’s why pondok institutions are mostly located in the northern and east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia such as Kedah, Kelantan and Terengganu. Besides Pondok, there are many other names assigned to this traditional Islamic Education. In Java for example, the term used is ‘Pesantren’, in Minangkabau ‘Surau’, ‘Penjantren’ in Madura, ‘Meunasah’, ‘Rangkang’ and ‘Balee’ in Acheh. In Malaysia, Kelantan is believed to be the first states that establish pondok institutions. The first Pondok institution was built in Pulai Chondong in early 1820 AD by Tuan Guru Haji Abdul Samad bin Abdullah. Besides Pondok Pulai Chondong, another earliest Pondok institutions that was established before 1910 AD was Pondok Tok Bachok in 1900 AD, Pondok Haji Abdul Malik Tumpat in 1907 AD and Pondok Haji Yusuf Pulau Ubi, Geting Tumpat in 1908. This system continues to grow until World War II. The golden era for development of pondok education system in Kelantan was between the years of 1910 to 1045 AD. Pondok institutions during that time had achieved outstanding improvement with the proliferation of famous Islamic religious scholars that had resulted in more people came to Pondok to learn about Islam. Nowadays, according to the list provided by Pusat Pembangunan Pondok, there are ninety five pondok institutions available throughout the country (Table 1). The increase numbers of Pondok institution in Malaysia are among the evidence that Pondok education is still relevance

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among Islamic communities. At the same time, Pondok institutions also may serve as a tourism destination for visitors who want to seek Islamic knowledge and heal their spirit by meeting with the Islamic scholars at various Pondok locations in the country. Table 1 Number of Pondok institutions by States in Malaysia Table 1: Number of Pondok institutions by States in Malaysia

State Kelantan Terengganu Kedah Pahang Perak Negeri Sembilan Melaka Selangor Johor Total

Total Number of Pondok Institution 39 12 27 6 1 2 2 3 3 95 Source:Pusat Pembangunan Pondok (2012) http://epondok.wordpress.com/pondok-malaysia/

METHOD As noted above, the purpose of this research is to identify various pondok attributes that can be developed in order to transform the institutions as a tourism attraction. Therefore, it focuses on pondok institutions available in the state of Kelantan, Kedah and Penang. Based on the list provided by the center of Pondok development, there are ninety five pondok currently operated in the country. Presently, a total of six pondoks have been approached for the study and the details are as follows: List of Pondok Institutions Approached for In Depth Interviews Pondok Institution

Location

Year of Establishment

Pusat Pengajian Pondok YIK

Kandis, Bachok, Kelantan

2005

Madrasah Diniah Bakriah

Pondok Pasir Tumboh, Kota Bharu Kelantan

1954

Madrasah Ar Rahmaniah Ad Diniah Pondok Lubuk Tapah, Pasir Mas, Kelantan

1931

Yayasan An Nadhoh

Bukit Mertajam, Pulau Pinang

2003

Pondok Bandar Hilir

Sik, Kedah

1992

Madrasah Ar Rahmaniah

Sik, Kedah

N/A

This study uses a qualitative research methodology by conducting series of in depth interviews guided by a semi-structured questionnaire. As an exploratory research, ideally a qualitative research method can generate more insights and detailed information (Hudson and Lang 2001). According to Walsh (2003), a qualitative approach can expose a researcher to a real situation of how the industry is managed and further stimulate the theory building. Such approach is able to find answer for the ‘why’ question and collect a detailed and rich description of a particular issue from the management of the institutions.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based on the interviews with the management of the pondok institutions, the following important attributes are identified in order to establish the institutions as a tourism attraction: Reputation of Tok Guru/Teachers/Islamic scholars or founder of the Pondok One of the strengths of a pondok depends upon the status or reputation of its founder. One of the reasons why people come to visit Pondok institutions is to learn religious knowledge from respectful Islamic scholars. Curricula Contents Pondok institutions still emphasis on the traditional ways of teaching Islamic knowledge using reference resources in the form of old (yellowish) texts which had been written in original Jawi Malay. This old traditional references texts delivered by tok guru is very unique and may entice visitors to experience a different way of learning Islamic knowledge. A mosque is used as one of the classrooms where students circle around the teachers/ulama to learn and discuss about religious knowledge. Different Educational Packages The informants explained that many visitors are interested to learn certain topics such as reading Quran and fardhu ain (basic Islamic teaching) at Pondok institutions. They also want to attend short courses organised by Pondok during weekend, public holidays and during fasting months. However, due to lack of facilities and religious teachers, the short courses are difficult to arrange. The informants also mentioned that there are certain hotels and travel agencies that are interested to collaborate with pondok institutions in designing travel packages. Facilities and Services Many informants state that pondok institutions need to upgrade their facilities and services in order to cater for tourists who want to visit the places. For examples, they need to increase the number of rooms, dormitories or hostels if they want to open the institutions to a larger society. They also need have their own transportation to assist the tourists, recruit more religious teachers and add more facilities such as eating places and other relevant facilities.

CONCLUSION This paper reports preliminary findings of the research on the potential of pondok institutions in Malaysia to be developed as a spiritual tourism product. Based on the evidence from the in depth interviews with six pondok operators in the country, the potential of pondok institutions or Islamic religious seminaries to be developed as a spiritual tourism product is very promising. All the operators seem to agree to the suggestion of opening up their institutions to the wider market. They also appear to support the idea of marketing the pondok as a tourism destination more extensively especially through the internet to reach for more broad audience. However, most of the institutions are still lacking in terms of basic facilities such as accommodation, classrooms and number of religious teachers. The management structure of the pondok also is not clear 1556


seems most of the pondok are managed and run as a family owned institution. It is difficult for the management to make decision if the owner is not available. From the pondok operators point of view, they are interested to promote their pondok institutions for the sake of spreading Islamic religious knowledge to the society. However, due to the financial constraints and lack of human resources such as religious teachers, they seem not convinced in promoting pondok institutions as a religious tourism product. Pondok operators also need to improve the way they manage the institutions. It is imperative for the operators to commercialize the institutions by doing marketing and educating more people to seek Islamic religious knowledge. Based on the demand of specific courses taught at Pondok, the operators should develop tourism packages in collaborating with other tourism organisations such as travel agencies and hotels. Presently, the researchers are developing a survey questionnaire to get a feedback from the public about developing pondok institutions as a spiritual tourism product based on the attributes identified. It is hoped that Pondok institutions may contribute to the success of the growing tourism industry and to become one of the popular Islamic tourism products.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This paper reports preliminary findings of the research on ‘The Potential of Pondok Institutions as Spiritual Tourism Product which was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education under the FRGS. The research code is FRGS/FASA-2-2010/SS/UMK/03/17. This is an ongoing research and it is expected to be completed by end of year 2013. The researchers would also like to thank Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Pusat Pembangunan Pondok and the participants from Pondok Institutions who are willing to take part in this study.

REFERENCES Fauzi, A. (2010). Islamic Education In Malaysia. Singapore: S, Rajaratnam School of International Studies. Haq, F., & Wong, H. Y. (2010). Is spiritual tourism a new strategy for marketing Islam? Journal of Islamic Marketing, 1(2), 136. Hughes, K., Bond, N., & Ballantyne, R. (2013). Designing and managing interpretive experiences at religious sites: Visitors’ perceptions of Canterbury Cathedral. Tourism Management, 36, 210–220. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.11.022 Kessler, C. S. (1992). Review essay for Pilgrim’s progress: the travelers of Islam. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(1), 147-153. Pusat Pembangunan Pondok Berhad. (2012, January). Pondok Malaysia. Retrieved April 5, 2012, from Pusat Pembangunan Pondok Berhad: http://epondok.wordpress.com/pondok-malaysia/ Smith, M., & Puczko´, L. (2009). Health and Wellness Tourism. Butterworth Heinemann: Oxford. Walsh, K. (2003). Qualitative research: Advancing the science and practice of hospitality. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 44(2), 66-74. Willson, G. B., McIntosh, A. J., & Zahra, A. L. (2013). Tourism and Spirituality: a Phenomenological Analysis. Annals of Tourism Research, 42, 150–168. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2013.01.016 Mohd Fadil Mohd Yusof, Hasnita Buniamin, Ghazali Ahmad & Mazne Ibrahim Tourism and Hospitality Dept., Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Business, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Kota Bharu, Kelantan [email protected] 1557


145 Women Representation on The Boards of Directors and Firm Performance: Malaysian Evidence1 Ku Norizah Ku Ismail & Shamsul Nahar Abdullah ABSTRACT Governments around the world are encouraging companies to appoint women to the boards of directors and some have even established quotas for women representation on the boards. The Malaysian government is also serious on this issue and recently set a 30 percent quota for female representation at the decision-making levels in the public and private sectors. This study examines the level of women representation on the boards of Malaysian listed companies, and the association between women participation on the board and firm performance. We use normalized Tobin’s q and return on assets (ROA) to measure market and accounting performance, respectively. An analysis of 841 companies in 2008 shows that 362 (43 percent) of the boards are represented by women, a majority of which are represented by only one woman. On average, women occupy only 7.72 percent of the board seats. This study also shows that a majority of the women directors belong to the Chinese ethnic group, areyounger than their male counterparts, have one to five years of director experience, and are nonindependent directors. Results on the association between women participation on the boards and firm performance are mixed. With regard to market performance, we find that firms with women directors perform poorer than those without women, at a 10 percent significant level. On the other hand, the accounting performance of firms with women on boards is better than that of those without women, at a 10 percent significant level. This result is consistent with the hypothesis that women representation on the boards of companies is positively associated with company performance. This study supports the initiative taken by the authorities to promote women leadership and provides input to the authorities responsible for promoting women to become company directors. Keywords: gender diversity, women on boards, firm performance, women directors

INTRODUCTION The board of directors is regarded as an important mechanism to protectthe interest of shareholders. Fromstakeholders’ point of view, the role of the board of directors is to fulfill not only the goal of the shareholders, but also the goal of other stakeholders. This is especially true 1

This paper waspresented atthe ATINER 5th Annual International City-Break Conference, Greece (2011). Different versions of this paper were presented at the Department of Accounting, International Islamic University of Malaysia (Nov. 2012), the Academy of Management South Africa Conference (Jan. 2013) and the Academy of International Business-MENA conference (2013). The latest version of the paper is being reviewed by a journal. Our deepest gratitude goes to our co-author of the recent version of the paper, Prof. LilachNachum of Baruch College, City University New York for her invaluable contribution in enhancingthe paper. We also would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education for funding this project.

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in today’s complex business environment where the actions of a company inevitably affect not only the shareholders but also the other stakeholders. Since the board plays a wider role, it needs to be composed of directors with diverse backgrounds. This is to ensure that, when making decisions for a firm, all pertinent aspects from various perspectives are considered. Board diversity provides the board with new insights and perspectives and thus it could improve organizational value and performance (Barnhart et al., 1994; Siciliano, 1996; Coffey and Wang, 1998; Carter et al., 2003). Not only that board diversity increases the perspectives of the board, but it also recognizes the importance of other groups in the society who do not get the opportunity to hold directorship posts. These other groups are women, young people and minorities. Usually, the CEO of a firm dominates the appointment of directors to the board. It is thus seen that the appointment of directors is largely driven by the “old-boy’s network” where directors who share the same values and norms are more likely to be appointed. It is also an accepted view that directors are typically middle class, middle-aged males with similar educational and professional backgrounds. In the UK, non-executive directors are predominantly “white males nearing retirement age with previous PLC director experience” (Higgs, 2003: 42). Similarly, in Malaysiamost directors are men who are in their 50’s and 60’s. These features signal that the board memberships are typically homogenous. One important issue of board diversity that has been the focus of researchers and academicians worldwide is the representation of women on the board of directors. Across the globe, except for the case of Norway, the representation of women on the board is not encouraging, despite the relatively highpercentage of women in the workforce, and the persistent demand for increased appointments of women on the board.In the US, for example, women occupied 16.1% of the director seats in 2011 (Catalyst, 2012), rising from 4.7% in 1987 and 13.6% in 2003 (Catalyst, 2003). In the UK, the proportion of female directors in UK FTSE 100 companies increased from a mere 3.7% in 1995 to 8.6% in 2003 (Conyon and Mallin, 1997; Vinnicombe and Singh, 2003), and to 15.0% in 2011 (Catalyst, 2012). However, in Norway, the picture is considerably different. Listed companies in Norway have been required to have at least 40% women on the board by the end of 2007, the failure of which would result in firm closure. The proportion of women directors increased from 6% in 2000 to 22% in 2003 (Smith et al., 2006). By the end of 2007, the figurehad increased to 37% (Oslo, 2007), and in 2011, it stood at 40.1% (Catalyst, 2012). Research suggests that women play a significant role in enhancing board effectiveness and company performance. Previousfindings, although mixed, provide evidence that women’s participation is positively associated with firm performance (see for example Singh et al. (2001) in the UK, Nguyen and Faff (2007) in Australia, Smith et al. (2006) in Denmark, and Erhardt et al. (2003) in the U.S). Malaysia has made significant improvement in promoting women’s interests.One major catalyst is the establishment of a ministry in 2001which specifically promotes the development of women in Malaysia. Subsequently, in 2004, the Government adopted a policy toappoint 30%women at the decision-making levels in the public sector.In 2011, the government announced that the private sector, need to comply with this policy by 2016 through the appointment of women to their boards. This policy mirrors the approach taken by the Norwegian Government. Norway, since 2003, has required all listed firms to appoint 40%women to serve the boards of directors. 1559


Unlike in the developed countries, there is a limited empirical studies that examine gender diversity and company performance in emerging economies. Given the uniqueness of Malaysia, being an Asian and Muslims dominated country, the issue of gender deserves an empirical research. This study offers significant contribution as it will provide insightful information about women directors and whether their appointments lead to a better firm performance. This would be the first comprehensive empirical study on gender diversity on the board of directors of Malaysian companies. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Next, the literature review and theoretical development on board diversity will be presented. This is followed by the methodology section. Results and discussion will be presented next. Finally, this paper will end with a conclusion section.

LITERATURE REVIEW It is an accepted view that board diversity is important as it is argued to improvea board’s decisionmakingperspectives, as directors from various backgrounds are involved in the processes.From the perspective of agency theory, board diversity increases board independence. Thus, the more diverse the board is, the more the independent the board is of management. This is becausethe board monitoring intensity will improveas a result of an improvement in board independence. It is argued that this consequently results in the alignment of management and shareholders’ interest (Jensen and Meckling, 1976; Fama and Jensen, 1983; Mallette and Fowler, 1992). Resource dependence theory, on the other hand, sees the board as an essential link between the firm and the external resources, which are essential in maximizing the firm’s performance (Pfeffer, 1973; Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978). The board is regarded as an important resource for a firm as it provides a link with the external environment (Hillman et al., 2000; Palmer and Barber, 2001). Based on the earlier works by Cox and Blake (1991) and Robinson and Dechant (1997), Carter et al. (2003)reiterate that board diversity would enhance a better understanding of the market place since the board makes up of individuals of various backgrounds. This is especially true for women, who are argued to have “a deep and intimate knowledge of consumer markets and customers” (Stephenson, 2004, p.3). Based on the findings of earlier studies (for example, Catalyst, 2004, and Adler, 2001) Stephenson (2004) discussed the reasons why women,in particular, should be on the boards. First, research shows that boards with more women are more likely to give more attention to audit and risk oversight and control. Second, women directors would help companies attract and retain valuable female employees, and promote positive attitudes among female employees. Finally, women directors do not only focus on financial performance measures, but also emphasize on non-financial performance measures such as innovation and social responsibilities. Empirical research on the association between gender diversity and company performance mainly concentrates on developed countries with inconclusive evidence. In the UK, Singh et al. (2001) examine FTSE 100 companies in 1999 and 2000, and reveal that more women directors are found in companies that are more profitable. Nguyen and Faff(2006-2007) observe 832 Australian companies over a two-year period from 2000 to 2001. Using Tobin’s q as a measure of performance, they provide evidence that increased women’s participation on the boards is associated with enhanced firm value. Smith et al. (2006) conducted a panel study of 2,500 Danish firms over 1560


the years 1993 to 2001 to determine if there is any relationship between gender diversity (in top management posts and board of directors) and firm performance.Their findings show that the relationship is positive, even after controlling for firm’s age, size, sector, and export orientation. However, Rose (2007) who also examines Danish firms (from 1998 to 2001), but fails to provide evidence that women directors influence firm performance. A study by Francoeur et al. (2008) in Canada not only examines women’s representation on the board, but also women in senior management. Using Financial Post’s list of 500 largest Canadian firms over a two-year period (2001 to 2003 for directorship and 2002 to 2004 for senior management), they provide evidence of a positive relationship between women’s participation in senior management and firm performance, while no relationship is found between women’s representation on the board and performance. Although the involvement of women on the board does not appear to influence firm performance,Francoeur et al. (2008)provide an indication that firms with a high participation of women in both management team and board generate sufficient value to keep up with normal stock market returns. In the US, Carter et al. (2003) observe 638 Fortune 1000 firms in 1997. After controlling for firm size, industry and several corporate governance measures, they find that participation of women on the boards increases firm value. The finding is supported by Erhardt et al. (2003) who examine the relationship between gender diversity on firm performance (i.e. return on assets and return on investments) of 127 large companies in the US. Board diversity is measured by dividing the total number of non-white and women executive directors by the total number of executive directors. Results indicate that there is a positive association between board diversity and firm performance. Examining Fortune 500 companies in 1991 to 1999, Farrell and Hersch (2005), reveal that women are likely to serve on better performing boards. However, an event study fails to find evidence that women’s appointment to the board is value enhancing. There appears to be insignificant abnormal returns following the announcement of a woman added to the board of directors.

HYPOTHESIS Thetheoretical perspectives, the business case put forward of board diversity and prior empirical evidence (although mixed), provide a basis for our empirical test. We thus propose the following: Women’s representation on the BODs of companies in Malaysia is positively associated with company performance. In testing the hypothesis, selected corporate governance variables and firm characteristics are included as control variables. They include board independence, boardnon-executive directorship, board size, audit committee size, firm size, family ownership, board age and board ethnic diversity. We also control for audit committee size and family ownership of the company.

METHODS For the purpose of this study,data for the year 2008are collected from all companies listed on the Main Board of Bursa Malaysia. As at the time of data collection, this is the most recent data available. The structural equation is estimated using OLS regression procedure as follows:

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n i =2

Performance = α + β1WOMAN + ∑ βiX + ε

We use two measures of performance -Tobin’s qfor the market performance and ROA for the accounting performance. Tobin’sqis measured by the sum of the market value of equity and book value of total debts divided by book value of total assets. WOMAN is a dummy variable, measured as 0 if a board has no woman director and 1 if it has at least one woman director. X is a vector of control variables which include board independence(BODIND), board non-executivedirectorship (BODNE) board size (BODSIZE), company size (COSIZE), family ownership (FAMILY), board age (AGE), board ethnic diversity (ETHNIC) and audit committee size (ACSIZE). Board independence is measured by the proportion of independent directors on the board, board nonexecutive directorship as the proportion of non-executive directors on board, board size by the total number of board members, audit committee size as the number of audit committee members and company size by natural log of total assets.Board age is the average age of board members. The dividing line between family and non-family firms is not clear-cut. Following La Porta et al. (1999), we use the 20% demarcation line. A company is given a score of 1 if family ownership is greater than 20%, and 0 otherwise. Board ethnic diversity is measured by Simpson’s diversity index as defined by Gibbs and Martin (1962)(cited in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /Diversity_ index#References) for use in sociology as:

where, p = proportion of individuals or objects in a category N = number of categories. A score of 0 means all directors are of the same ethnic group.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The distribution of women directors by number and proportion is shown in Table 1. Out of the 841 companies surveyed, 360 (i.e. 42.8%) companieshave women on their board. A majority of boards with womenare represented by only one women (261 or 31.3%), and three companies (0.4%) have four women on their boards.Two companies are retailers of gold and gem-set jewelleries,products known to be women’s best friends and one company is involved in property development and hotel operations, industries in which feminine touches are of great importance. As far as the proportion of women directors is concerned, on average, women made up 7.72% of the board. This is far from the recently announced requirement in which by 2016, the private sector is required to have 30% women at the decision making level (The Star, 27 June 2011).

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The distribution of women directors according to their demographic profilesis shown in Table 2. A majority of the women directors are Chinese (62.9%), followed by Malays (30.2%). The remaining 6.9%% of the seats are occupied by Indians and other ethnic groups. A majority of the women are between 40 to 69 years old (70%) with an average age of 50 years old. This indicates that women directors are younger than the average age of all board members, which is 55 years old. Table 1: Distribution of women directors Panel A No. of women directors on board

No. of companies

Percentage

0

481

57.2

1

261

31.1

2

86

10.2

3

10

1.2

4

3

.4

Total Mean = 0.567

841

100.0

Proportion of women director seats to total director seats

No. of companies

Percentage

0

481

57.2

1%- 9%

17

2.0

10% - 19%

226

26.9

20% - 29%

85

10.1

30% or more

32

3.8

Total Mean = 7.72% Maximum = 50%

841

100.0

Panel B

The distribution of women directors according to their demographic profilesis shown in Table 2. A majority of the women directors are Chinese (62.9%), followed by Malays (30.2%). The remaining 6.9%% of the seats are occupied by Indians and other ethnic groups. A majority of the women are between 40 to 69 years old (70%) with an average age of 50 years old. This indicates that women directors are younger than the average age of all board members, which is 55 years old. Table 2 also shows that half of the women have five or less years of director experience, with an average of seven years. Many women directors have a family relationship with other board members. This is expected as many companies in Malaysia are owned by families. A majority of them are spouses of the company directors, followed by sisters, daughters and others.

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Table 2: Demographic background of women directors Ethnicity Malay Chinese Indians Others Total

Frequency 144 300 11 22 477

Percentage Academic Qualification 30.2 Without degree 62.9 Bachelor Master 2.3 &PhD 4.6 Total 100.0

Percentage 201 204 72 477

42.1 42.8 15.1 100.0

143 334 477

30.0 70.0 100.0

100.0 Accounting 119 Finance 27 Business 78 Economics 27 Law 31 Science 12 Others 61 Not stated 122 477 52.2 Total 23.7 14.7 Relationship with other directors 5.4 268 4.0 None spouse 95 100.0 sister 47 daughter 43 niece 15 mother 6 cousin 2 sister in law 1 Total 477

24.9 5.7 16.3 5.7 6.5 2.5 12.8 25.6 100.0

Age

Professional qualification

Less than 30

12

30-39

59

40 -49

155

2.5 Yes 12.4 No 32.5 Total

50 – 59

179

37.5

60 – 69

57

11.9

70 and above

15

Total

477

Mean

50.22

Maximum

88

Minimum

23

No. of years on Board 5 years or less 6 – 10 11 – 15 16 – 20 More than 20 Total Mean Maximum Minimum

Frequency

249 113 70 26 19 477 6.9 years 45 years Less than 1 year

3.2 Field of study

56.2 19.9 9.9 9.0 3.1 1.3 .4 .2 100.0

Table 3 summarizes women’s positions on the boards. It shows that 45.5% are executive directors. Only 28.3% of them are independent directors. This shows that the number of independent women directors is lacking in companies. Further analysis shows that other women executive directors hold posts mainly in finance, administration, sales and human resource related areas. These are roles where more women are traditionally found. It appears that only a handful of them specialize in technical areas such as engineering. The result also shows that 370 women are directors of only one company. The remaining 107 board seats are held by women who hold multiple directorships in other listed companies.

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Table 3: Women Directors’ Positions Executive director Yes No Total

Frequency 217 260 477

Percentage 45.5 54.5 100.0

Independent Director Yes No Total

135 342 477

28.3 71.7 100.0

Post CEO Chairman Chairman andCEO Neither CEO nor Chairman Total

23 17 1 436 477

4.8 3.6 .2 91.4 100.0

Director of other companies Yes No Total

107 370 477

22.4 77.6 100.0

Table 4 shows the descriptive statistics of the dependent and the independent variables. Table 4: Descriptive statistics Variable

Min

Max

Mean

Std. Dev.

Tobin’s q

0.12

11.96

1.00

0.92

ROA

-1.77

0.74

0.017

0.135

Presence of female directors

0

1

0.430

0.495

No. of female directors

0

4

0.57

0.752

Proportion of female directors

0

0.50

0.077

0.104

34.80

73.40

55.19

5.034

0

0.76

0.383

0.181

Total assets (in RM million)

1163

267,883

2695

1.539E7

Board independence

0.11

0.92

0.450

0.1247

Non-executive directors (proportion)

0.22

1.00

0.639

0.1722

0

1.00

0.222

0.416

3.26

0.622

Average age of directors Ethnic diversity

Family ownership

Audit Committee size 2 9

Table 5 shows the results of the univariate analysis using Pearson correlation. There is a significant negative correlation between Tobin’s q and women representation on the board. Variables that are positively associated with Tobin’s q are boardsize and company size, audit committee size, and proportion of non-executive directors. Family ownership is negatively associated with Tobin’s q.

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Table 5: Pearson Correlation Analysis Variable

1

1 Tobin’s q§

1.000

2 ROA§

.006

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1.000

3 WOMAN

-.063**

.080**

1.000

4 BODIND

-.015

-.134***

-.080**

1.000

5 BODNE

.055*

-.028

-.073**

.337***

6 BODSIZE

.091***

.199***

.139***

-.247***

-.078**

1.000

7 COSIZE

.117***

.149***

.019

.001

.207***

.347***

1.000

8 ACSIZE

.064**

.121***

.038

.198***

.157***

.328***

.190***

1.000

1.000

.012

.096***

-.115***

.096***

.236***

.081***

.305***

.156***

1.000

10 FAMILY

-.094***

.035

.125***

-.141*** -.217***

.068**

-.010

-.022

.068**

1.000

11 ETHNIC

-.004

-.007

.013

.070**

.112***

.043

.103***

-.067**

9 AGE

*

2

.010

.092***

1.000

significant at 0.10 level (one-tailed); ** significant at 0.05 level (one-tailed), *** significant at 0.01 level (one-tailed) Tobin’s q and ROA are normalized using the Van de Waerden formula.

§

However, there is a significant positive association between women representation and the accounting performance, ROA. The correlation analysis using ROA also supports our prediction that board size, company size, audit committee size and age of directors are positively associated with performance. However, contrary to our expectation, board independence is negatively associated with ROA. Table 5 also shows that companies with women representation on boards tend to havea lower level of board independence, more proportion of executive directors, bigger boards, and younger board members compared to companies with no women representatives on boards. In addition, boards with women are more likely to be associated with family firms. Results of the multivariate analysis using multiple regressions are shown in Table 6. Model 1 and Model 2 show the results when Tobin’s q and ROA are used to measure firm performance, respectively. Because the distribution of the raw scores of Tobin’s q and ROA are not normal, we normalized the scores using Van der Waerden formula available in SPSS. The results of Model 1 show that women representation on boards (WOMAN) is negatively associated with market performance. Our findings contradict to that of Nguyen and Faff (20062007) who observe Australian companies, and use Tobin’s q as a measure of performance. They provide evidence that increased women’s participation on the boards is associated with enhanced firm value. As our results also show that women directors are more likely to be found in family firms, and family firms are associated with a lower Tobin’s q, it is very likely that companies with women directors tend to perform poorer than those with women directors. The result using ROA as a measure of firm performance is in disagreement to that found using Tobin’s q. The model shows that there is a significant positive association between firm performance and women representation on boards (WOMAN), thus supporting our hypothesis that boards with women are associated with better firm performance. Our findings thus support those of Singh et al. (2001) in the UK, Nguyen and Faff (2007) in Australia, Smith et al. (2006) in Denmark, and Erhardt et al. (2003) in the U.S, who find that firms with women directors are associated with better firm performance. The model also supports our prediction that board size, company size, audit committee size and age of board members are significantly and positively associated with firm performance.

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Table 6: Results from multiple regression analyses (n = 840) Variable

Model 1 (Tobin’s q)

Model 2 (ROA)

Coeff.

Std. error

t value

Coeff.

Std. error

t value

Constant

-.740

.442

-1.677*

-1.838

.433

-4.247***

WOMAN

-.135

.070

-1.923*

.120

.069

1.739*

BODIND

-.252

.309

-.816

-.985

.302

-3.256***

BODNE

.183

.224

.819

-.123

.219

-.562

BODSIZE

.032

.022

1.503

.052

.021

2.440**

COSIZE0

.063

.026

2.445**

.054

.025

2.142**

ACSIZE

.054

.061

.874

.142

.060

2.365**

AGE

-.006

.007

-.825

.015

.007

2.103**

FAMILY

-.202

.085

-2.374**

-.015

.083

-.176

ETHNIC

-.134

.190

-.703

-.177

.186

-.951

Adj. R square F-statistic

0.022

0.062

3.145***

7.123***

*significant at 0.10 level, ** significant at 0.05 level, *** significant at 0.01 level. § Tobin’s q and ROA were normalized using the Van de Waerden formula.

Our results using ROA as a measure of performance appear to support agency and resource dependence theories as far as women representation on boards is concerned. Agency theory perspective argues that board diversity increases board independence which ultimately results in the alignment of management and shareholders’ interest (Jensen and Meckling, 1976; Fama and Jensen, 1983; Mallette and Fowler, 1992).Resource dependence theory, on the other hand, views a board as a link between the firm and the external resources, which are pertinent in maximizing firm performance (Pfeffer, 1973; Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978). Thus, it is argued that the higher the level of the diversity of a board is, the better is the link between the firm and the external resources. We also support the arguments put forward in support of women participation on the boards of directors. Women are argued to have better knowledge of consumer markets, are more likely to give more attention to audit and risk oversight and control, and would promote positive attitudes among female employees (Stephenson, 2004). These qualities would in turn enhance firm performance. The findings of this study bring a significant policy implication to the Malaysian government as far as the policy with respect to women participation on the board of directors is concerned. This study supports the policy of having an increased participation of women at the decision making levels in the private sector.This study suggests that the view that promoting women to the boards to merely fill up a quota is likely to be wrong.However, we cannot tell if 30% is the right quota because there are very few companies (3.8%) with at least 30% women directors in Malaysia to warrant the test. 1567


CONCLUSION This study examines the extent of women representation on the boards of Malaysian listed companies. It also examines if women participation on the boards is associated with better company performance.Our results show that only 43%of Malaysian listed firms have women on their boards and a majority of them have only one woman director. Overall, women occupy 7.7% of the board seats. These statistics show that Malaysian companies have a long way to go in fulfilling the 30%board seats reserved for women. Results on the association between women participation on the boards and firm performance are mixed. Using normalized Tobin’s q, we find that there is a negative association between women representations on boards and firm performance. Perhaps, the reason market reacted unfavorably on women representation on the board is due to fact that women are viewed as less aggressive than men. In addition, the appointment of women to the board is not well accepted by the society, thus leading to the negative reaction by the market. As our evidence reveals that a majority of women’s appointment to the boards is based on their familial connection to the owners, the market may perceive women appointment to the boards as a tool to control the board of the company by the family. On the other hand, when the ROA is employed, firms with women on boards perform better than those without women.The findings of this study may provide input to the authority responsible for promoting women to become directors.This study supports the policy of having an increased participation of women at the decision making levels in the private sector, and denies the view that women are promoted to the boards to merely fill up a certain quota. This study is limited in a sense that it does not observe if specific qualities of a woman director would contribute to the success of a company. There are several pertinent questionsthat still remain to be answered: Are Malaysian women ready for the challenge? Do we have a sufficient pool of women who are capable of filling up the 30%policy? What are the constraints, if any, that may deter women from breaking the “glass ceiling”?Future studies may look into these issues.

REFERENCES Adler, R.D. (2001). Women in the executive suite correlate to high profit, Glass Ceiling Research Center, available online at:http://glass-ceiling.com/InTheNewsFolder/ HBRArticlePrintablePage.html. Barnhart, S.W., Marr, M.W. & Rosenstein, S. (1994). Firm performance and board composition: some new evidence.Managerial and Decision Economics, 15, 329-340. Carter, D.A., Simkins, B.J., & Simpson, W.G. (2003).Corporate governance, board diversity, and firm value. Financial Review, 38 (1), 33-53. Catalyst.(2003).The catalyst census of women board directors of the Fortune 1000. New York, NY:Catalyst. Catalyst. (2004). The bottom line: Connecting corporate performance and gender diversity. Catalyst Publication Code D58, New York. Catalyst (2012). Women on Boards Quick Takes. New York, NY: Catalyst.http://www.catalyst.org/file/591/ qt_women_on_boards.pdf.accessed on 11 June 2012. Coffey, B.S. & Wang, J. (1998). Board diversity and managerial control as predictors of corporate social performance.Journal of Business Ethics, 17, 1595-1603. Conyon, M. J. and Mallin, C. (1997). Women in the boardroom: evidence from large UK Companies, Corporate Governance: an International Review, 5(3), 112-117.

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Cox, T.H. & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. Academy of Management Executive, 5, 45-46. Erhardt, N., Werbel, J., &Shrader, C. (2003). Board of director diversity and firm financial performance. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 11 (2), 102-111. Fama, E.F., & Jensen, M.C.(1983). Separation of ownership and control.Journal of Law and Economics, 24, 301-325. Farrell, K., &Hersch, P. (2005). Additions to corporate boards: The effect of gender.Journal of Corporate Finance, 11 (1/2), 85-106. Finkelstein, S.,&Hambrick, D. (1996). Strategic leadership: Top executives and their effects on organizations. St. Paul, MN: West. Francoeur, C., Labelle, R., &Sinclair-Desgagné, B. (2008).Gender diversity in corporate governance and top management. Journal of Business Ethics, 81 (1), 83-95. Gibbs, J. P., & William T. M. (1962). Urbanization, technology and the division of labor,American Sociological Review, 27, 667–77. Higgs, D. (2003).Review of the role and effectiveness of non-executive directors. London: Department of Trade and Industry/HMSO, available online at: http://www.dti.gov.uk/cld/non_exec_review. Hillman, A.J., Canella, A. A. Jr.,&Paeztzold, R.L. (2000). The resource dependence role of corporate directors: strategic adaptation of board composition in response to environmental change.Journal of Management Studies, 37, 235-255. Jensen, M.C.,&Meckling, W.H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs, and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4),305-360. La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., &Shleifer, A. (1999). Corporate ownership around the world.Journal of Finance, 54, 471 -517. Mallette, P.,& Fowler, K.L. (1992). Effects of board composition and ownership on adoption of “poison pills”.Academy of Management Journal, 35(5), 1010-1035. Nguyen, H.,&Faff, R. (2006/2007). Impact of board size and board diversity on firm value: Australian evidence.Corporate Ownership & Control, 4 (2), 24-32. Oslo, G. F. (2007) Quarter of Norway’s firms face shutdown as female directors deadline approaches, The Guardian, available online at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/ 2007/dec/2007/norway.female. director. Palmer, D.,& Barber, B.M. (2001). Challengers, elites, and owning families: A social class theory of corporate acquisitions in the 1960s.Administrative Science Quarterly, 46, 87-120. Pfeffer, J. (1973). Size, composition and function of hospital boards of directors: A study of organization environment linkage.Administrative Science Quarterly, 18, 349-363. Pfeffer, J.,&Salancik, G.R. (1978).The external control of organizations: A resource dependence perspective. New York: Harper and Row. Robinson,G.,&Dechant, K. (1997). Building a business case for diversity.Academy of Management Executive, 11, 21-30. Rose, C. (2007). Does female board representation influence firm performance? Danish evidence.Corporate Governance: An International Review, 15(2), 404-413. Shrader, C.B., Blackburn, V.B., & Iles, P. (1997). Women in management and firm financial value: An exploratory study. Journal of Managerial Issues, 9, 355-372. Siciliano, J.I. (1996). The relationship of board member diversity to organizational performance.Journal of Business Ethics, 14, 1313-1320. Singh, V., Vinnicombe, S.,& Johnson, P. (2001). Women directors on top UK boards.Corporate Governance,9 (3), 206-216.

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Smith, N., Smith, V.,&Verner, M. (2006).Do women in top management affect firm performance?A panel study of 2,500 Danish firms.International Journal of Productivity & Performance Management, 55 (7), 569-593. Stephenson, C. (2004). Leveraging diversity to maximum advantage: The business case for appointing more women to boards.Ivey Business Journal, 69 (1), 1-5. Vinnicombe, S. and Singh, V. (2003).The Female FTSE Index.Cranfield School of Management. Zhang, Y., Zhou, J. & Zhou, N. (2007).Audit committee quality, auditor independence, and internal control weaknesses.Journal of Accounting Policy, 26, 300 – 327.

Ku Norizah Ku Ismail Professor, School of Accountancy UUM College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia Phone: +604-9283906 E-mail: [email protected] ShamsulNahar Abdullah Professor, Kulliyyah of Economics and Management Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia, P.O. Box 10, 50728 Kuala Lumpur Phone: +6019-4700927 E-mail: [email protected]

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146 The Relationship Between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth: Time Series Evidence from Malaysia Dimas Bagus Wiranata Kusuma1, M. Rizky Prima Sakti2 & M. Khairul Anwari3 ABSTRACT Using a neo-classical one-sector aggregate production where energy is used as one inputs, the paper develops a time series model to test for the existence and direction of causality between output growth and energy consumption in Malaysia during the 1980 to 2010. Using the Johansen co-integration technique, the empirical findings indicate that the long-run movements of output and energy do not exist by one co-integrating vector. Then, using a VEC specification, the short-run dynamics of the variables indicate that Granger-causality is not running in both directions between output growth and energy consumption. Hence, those findings conform the presence of “neutral hypothesis theory” which imply Malaysia’s economic growth is not dependent upon energy consumption, and energy cannot be considered as a limiting factor to output growth in Malaysia. Keywords: Granger Causality, Output Growth, Energy Consumption, and Malaysia

INTRODUCTION The Government Transformation Programme (GTP)4 was officially designed to be an ambitious programme of change aiming to transform the very foundation of Malaysian Government. The implementation of the GTP is in part a response to request from the people, who were demanding more from the government, and in part a recognition of the fact that the impetus to become a high-income nation by 2020 is fast approaching. Given such policy, for sure, Malaysian government would be pushing the income generated over all citizens in order to accelerate and signify with the GTP aspiration.

1

Ph.D Student in Economics, Kulliyyah of Economics and Management Sciences (KEMNS), International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM). Corresponding author : [email protected], H/p:0102906105

2

Master Student in Finance, KEMNS, IIUM. Corresponding author : [email protected]

3

Master Student in Finance, KEMNS, IIUM. Corresponding author : [email protected]

4

It is derived into seven Numbers Key Result Areas, namely (1) addressing the rising cost of living, (2) reducing crime, (3) fighting corruption, (4) improving student outcomes, (5) raising living standards of low income households, (6) improving rural basis infrastructure, (7) improving public transport.

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Additionally, it is very interesting to tie up GTP goal with current Malaysian Economy. According to quarterly update on Malaysian Economy in 4th quarter 2012, published by Ministry of Finance, the Malaysian economy registered a robust growth of 6.4% in the fourth quarter of 2012 (Q3 2012 : 5.3%) led by strong performance in all sectors. The services and manufacturing sectors remained the key drivers of growth. The services sector recorded a growth of 6.3% (Q3 2012:7%) spurred by the finance and insurance, wholesale and retail trade as well as communication subsectors. In line with higher industrial production index (IPI), the manufacturing sector expanded 5.8% (Q3 2012: 3.3%) driven by the stronger performance of the transport equipment, petroleum and chemical products as well as electrical and electronic subsectors. The agricultural sector made up a higher growth of 5.6% (Q3 2012 : 0.5%) mainly attributed to strong growth in the oil palm, livestock and fishing subsectors. Meanwhile, growth in the mining sector rebounded strongly by 4.3% (Q3 2012: -1.2%) on account of increased production of crude oil and natural gas. For whole year, the economy expanded 5.6% surpassing the forecast of 4.5-5% in October 2012. In other words, the pro-growth policies were pushed by government in the sake for inclining towards long term goal. Table 1.1. Real Gross Domestic Product (% Annual Change) Supply Side

Sector

2011

2012

GDP

5.1

Agriculture

2012

2013

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q1

5.6

5.1

5.6

5.3

6.4

4.5-5.5

5.9

0.8

2.1

-4.7

0.5

5.6

2.4

Mining

-5.7

1.4

0.3

2.3

-1.2

4.3

2.7

Manufacturing

4.7

4.8

4.4

5.6

3.3

5.8

4.9

Construction

4.6

18.5

15.5

22.2

18.3

18.1

11.2

Services

7.0

6.4

5.7

6.6

7.0

6.3

5.6

Source: Department of Statistics, Malaysia

Meanwhile, Jacobsen (2007) did the input-output tables for Malaysia in 2000 and the energy goods domestically supplied as well as imported. His study took three energy commodities/ sectors in the Malaysia input-output tables. According to table 1.2, we extract that crude petrol, natural gas, and coal are the main contributors for output formation, accounted for RM 46 billion, meanwhile electricity and gas is a small amount, around RM 15 billion. Interestingly, those three energy commodities/sectors are mainly impetus for Malaysian growth since they are used to supply either for domestic intermediate or domestic final goods. In other words, Malaysian economic growth is highly dependence on the energy consumption, particularly crude oil, natural gas, coal, petrol, and coal product. This phenomenon was explained by Ang (2008) who explores long run relationship and causality among output, energy consumption and pollutant emissions for Malaysia over the period 1971-1999. He found pollution and energy consumption positively affect output in the long run. The causality runs from economic growth to energy consumption growth, both in the short and the long-run. More specifically, Shaari et all (2012) concluded that there is a long-run relationship between energy consumption and GDP. However, once the granger causality model is used, the oil and coal consumption do not granger cause economic growth and vice versa. A unidirectional relationship exists between gas and economic growth in Malaysia. 1572


Table 1.2. Energy Input Domestically Supplied and Imported in 2000. (1000 RM)

Imported Intermediate Use

Imported Final Demand

Total Import

Domestic Intermediate

Domestic Final

Total Domestically Supplied

Total Use Including Export

Crude petrol, natural gas &coal

4,875,477

125,144

5,000,621

12,660,572

28,659,788

41,320,360

46,320,981

Petrol & coal product

9,016,995

282,860

9,300,855

14,668,060

17,809,985

32,478,045

41,778,900

Electricity &Gas

1,174

0

1,174

12,051,610

3,402,012

15,453,662

15,454,796

Source : Jacobsen (2007)

Therefore, looking at the fact that composition of energy towards output formation is attributable a large portion in Malaysian economic growth, it is relevant to look into detail empirically to what extent it contributes. However, although past study mentioned there existed a long term relationship between economic growth and energy consumption, the study which is concern with direction whether economic growth affects energy consumption affects economic growth is no consensus judgment. As noted by Jumbe (2004), amongst others, if causality runs from energy consumption to GDP then it implies that an economy is energy dependent and hence energy is a stimulus to growth implying that a shortage of energy may negatively affect economic growth or may cause poor economic performance, leading to a fall in income and employment. In other words, energy is a limiting factor in economic growth (Stern 2000). Whereas, if causality only runs from GDP to energy consumption this implies that an economy is not energy dependent hence, as noted by Masih and Masih (1997) amongst others, energy conservation policies may be implemented with no adverse effect on growth and employment. If, on the other hand, there is no causality in either direction (referred to be as the “neutrality hypothesis”), it implies that energy consumption is not correlated with GDP, so that energy conservation policies may be pursued without adversely affecting the economy (Jumbe 2004). The aim of this paper is to empirically investigate the causal interactions between energy consumption and output growth in the case of Malaysia. More specifically, the paper tries to trace the direction of causality within the neo-classical aggregate production model. Thus the significant contribution of this study is to enrich the literature particularly related to energy growth nexus in the case of developing countries and favor Malaysian Government in achieving a high income nation policy by 2020 via analyzing the dynamic between the economic growth and the source of growth (energy consumption). Thus, it might provide policy makers some more complete plan for ensuring such noble goal in track. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents a brief review of the recent literature. Section 3 elaborates theoretical underpinnings. In section 4, we describe our model and the econometric methodology used in the analysis. Section 5 reports the empirical results and section 6 concludes.

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LITERATURE REVIEW The empirical literature provides mixed and non-consensus evidence with respect to the energy consumption-growth nexus. This inconsistency is due to various econometric methods and time period, besides country-specific characteristic in climate conditions, economic development, and energy consumption patterns, among other things. Table below shows the overview of selected studies which emanates numerous methods of related study on energy consumption-growth nexus. Table 2.1. Overview of Selected Studies

Study Kraft and Kraft (1978)

Method Bivariate Sims Causality

Countries USA

Yu and Choi (1985)

Bivariate Granger Test

Erol and Yu (1987) Yu and Jin (1992) Masih and Masih (1996)

Bivariate Granger Test Bivariate Granger Test Trivariate VECM

South Korea, and Philippine USA USA Malaysia, Singapore, and Philippines India Indonesia Pakistan

Growth Energy Energy Energy Energy

Energy Growth Growth Growth Growth

Energy Growth Energy

Growth Energy Growth

Glasure and Lee (1998)

Bivariate VECM

Energy

Growth

Masih and Masih (1998) Asafu-Adjaye (2000)

Trivariate VECM

South Korea and Singapore Srilanka and Thailand

Energy

Growth

Trivariate VECM

India and Indonesia Thailand and Philippines

Energy Energy

Growth Growth

Hondroyiannis et al. (2002) Soytas and Sari (2003)

Trivariate VECM

Greece

Energy

Growth

Bivariate VECM

Fatai el al. (2004)

Bivariate Toda Yamamoto (1995)

Argentina South Korea Turkey Indonesia and Poland Canada, USA, and UK Indonesia & India Thailand & Philippines

Energy Growth Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy

Growth Energy Growth Growth Growth Growth Growth

Energy Energy

Growth Growth

Energy Growth

Growth Energy

Energy

Growth

Oh and Lee (2004b) Wolde-Rufael (2004)

Trivariate VECM South Korea Bivariate Toda and Yamamoto Shanghai (1995) Lee (2005) Trivariate Panel VECM 18 Developing Nations Al-Iriani (2006) Bivariate Panel VECM Gulf Cooperation Countries Lee and Chang(2008) Multivariate Panel VECM 16 Asian Countries

Result Growth Energy

Lee et al (2008)

Trivariate Panel VECM

22 OECD Countries

Energy

Growth

Narayan and Smyth (2008) Apergis and Payne (2009b)

Multivariate Panel VECM

G7 Countries

Energy

Growth


Energy

Growth

Apergis and Payne (2009b) Lee and Lee (2010)


11 countries of the commonwealth of independent states 6 Central American Countries 25 OECD Countries

Energy

Growth

Energy

Growth


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THEORETICAL REVIEW In many situations, some researchers are interested in the proximate determinants of growth. The Solow model is one of among growth theories in neo-classical economics school of thoughts which focus on several input variables, namely capital, labor, and knowledge. The central assumptions of the Solow model concern the properties of the production function and the evolution of the observable inputs into production over time. The model’s critical assumption concerning the production function is that it has constant returns to scale in its two arguments. For instance, doubling capital and effective labor, with keeping technology constant, the amount of production doubles. The assumption of constant returns theoretically can be thought of as a combination of two separate assumptions. The first is that the economy is big enough that the gains from specialization have been exhausted. In very small economy, there are probably enough possibilities for further specialization that doubling the amounts of capital and labor more than doubles output. The Solow model assumes, however, that the economy is sufficiently large that, if capital and labor double, the new inputs are used in essentially the same way as the existing inputs, and thus that output doubles. The second assumption is that inputs other than capital, labor, and knowledge are relatively unimportant. In particular, the model neglects land and other natural resources. If natural resources are important doubling inputs could be less than double output. In practice, however, the availability of natural resources does not appear to be a major constraint on growth. Assuming constant returns to capital and labor alone therefore appears to be a reasonable approximation. In addition, we often want to know how much of growth over some period is due to increases in various factors of production, and how much stems from other forces. Growth accounting, which was pioneered by Abramovitz (1956) and Solow (1957), provide a way of tackling this subject. To see how growth accounting works, consider again the production function: Y(t) = F(E(t))………………………………………….………(1) Where Y = aggregate output or real GDP; E is total energy consumption, and the subscript t denotes the time period. Taking differential of Eq. (1) we obtain : dYt = YEdEt ………………………………………….……..(2) Where Yt is the partial derivative of Y with respect to equation 1. On dividing equation 2 through by Yt and rearranging the resulting expression, we obtain the following growth equation. Yt = aEt ……………………………………………………..(3) Where a dot on the top of a variable means that the variable is now in a growing rate from. The constant parameter a is representing the elasticity of output with respect to energy. The relationship between output and energy input described by production function in Eq. (1) suggests that their long-run movement may be related. Furthermore, if we allow for short-run dynamics in factor-input behavior, the analysis above would also suggest that past changes in energy could

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be a useful information for predicting the future change of current output, ceteris paribus. This implication can be easily exercised using tests for bivariate co-integration and granger causality.

DATA AND METHODOLOGY Data and Variables Definitions Data used in the analysis are annual time series on real GDP and energy use for Malaysia during the period 1980-2010. The variables’ notations and definitions are as follows.

E : Total Energy consumption in Kj Y : Real GDP in US Dollars

All variables are transformed into their natural logarithm so that their first differences approximate their growth rates. The data were retrieved from World Bank Database and Energy Information Administration from US Government.

Testing for Co-integration If we test for short run dynamic of the variable in Eq (1), then we can articulate the intertemporal interaction within a VAR specification as follows : Zt = 𝜱1Zt-1 + 𝜱2Zt-2 + ……+ 𝜱tZt-l + μ + ᴨt, t = 1,…………..,T …………….………(4)

Where l is the lag-length and Zt is a 2X1 vector containing Y, and E. the two variables will be measured by their by their natural logarithm so that their first difference approximate their growth rates. In addition, if these variables have unit roots, then we can express the idea that there may exist co-movements in their behavior and possibilities that they will trend together towards a long run equilibrium state. Then, using the Granger representation theorem, we may posit the following testing relationships that constitute a VEC model for output growth :

𝜟Zt = 𝝉1 𝜟Zt-1 + 𝝉2 𝜟Zt-2 + ……+ 𝝉t-1 𝜟Zt-1+l + ԤZt-l + μ + ᴨt, t = 1,……..,T ………(5)

Where 𝜟Zt contains the growth rates of the variables. The 𝝉’s are estimable parameters, 𝜟 is a difference operator, ᴨt is a vector of impulses which represent the unanticipated movements in Zt with ᴨt-niid (0,𝜖) and Ԥ is the long run parameter matrix. With r cointegrating vectors (11

7.790349

16.87

21.47

R2

2.714417

3.74

6.40

According to table 5.2, we can see that both tests suggest there is no cointegration between observed variables at both 1% and 5% levels. Thus, there is no evidence for the presence of a long run relationship between the variables in all system we estimate.

Test results for granger-causality Table 5.3 reports the results of the granger causality tests. These tests are conducted using a joint F-statistic for the exclusion of one variable from one equation as illustrated above. The results of these tests indicate that granger causality is no longer running in both directions between output growth and energy use. The results are in line with findings by Erol and Yu (1987), Yu and Jin (1992), and Masih and Masih (1996), who obtained similar results on other countries as well as Malaysia case. Table 5.3. Test Results for Granger Causality Null Hypothesis

F(2,28)

99% Critical Value

LNGDP does not Granger Cause LNEC LNEC does not Granger Cause LNGDP

0.98473 1.31308

0.32984 0.26189

The granger causality tests conducted above indicate only the existence of causality. They do not, however, provide any indication on how important is the causal impact that energy has on output formation. For example, when there is a shock to energy supply, it would also be interesting to gauge by how much this shock will affect the output formation. In addition, it is very important to know how long the effect of such a shock will last. In order to provide such explanation, we decompose the variance of the forecast-error of output into proportions attributable to innovations in variable energy in the system including its own. Impulse response analysis is taken into account to further capture temporal responses of a variable to its own innovation and innovations in other variables in the system. The function can observe whether the response of observable variables is temporal or persistent in nature. 1578


Table 5.4. Results of Variance Decomposition Forecast Variance of

𝜟Y

Forecast Period

2 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 30

Percentage of Forecast Variance due to Innovation in 𝜟Y 94.31525 91.47030 84.18546 78.22102 73.96214 70.97904 68.86316 67.33264 66.72686

𝜟E 5.684750 8.529698 15.81454 21.77898 26.03786 29.02096 31.13684 32.66736 33.27314

Forecast Variance of

𝜟E

Forecast Period

2 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 30

Percentage of Forecast Variance due to Innovation in 𝜟E

95.10014 88.74731 82.23897 78.80246 76.81087 75.57895 74.77383 74.22364 74.01292

𝜟Y

4.899865 11.25269 17.76103 21.19754 23.18913 24.42105 25.22617 25.77636 25.98708

According to table 5.4, the results suggest that the proportion of energy use attributable to output formation is increasing. In the second period, its contribution is around 5.7% and becomes 32.67% in the 30 period. Meanwhile, the contribution of output formation towards energy consumption is roughly 4.9% in the second period and jumps to 25.77% in the 30 period. Even though there is no longer co-integration between two variables, the table 5.4 indicates either energy or future growth of output in Malaysia has an important impact each other. At least, in the short run, the shock both in energy use and output formation would create instability or disturbances on demand for energy and generated output. Stabilization policy through fiscal policy could be one proposed exercise for maintaining and monitoring the level of stability in the economy. Looking at variance decomposition function, we deduce the importance of either energy consumption or output formation in favoring the formation of both output formation and energy consumption despite of no longer causality relationship. No causal relationship is meant confirming the “neutral theory” of energy against output growth. This condition is also confirmed by accumulated response of either output growth or energy use. With respect to figure 5.1, the shocks happen on output growth, meaning raising, the energy use would respond accordingly. Meanwhile, looking at accumulated response of output associated with energy shocks is in line, which is increasing, respectively. In other words, potential shocks occur on energy use is no longer effect towards output growth.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION This paper attempted to analyse the causal relationship between energy and output growth in Malaysia. Based on the neo-classical one sector aggregate production. By using time series data, the findings suggest that no cointegration exists over the observation, particularly between energy use and output growth. In addition, the short-run dynamics of the variables show that the flow of causality is not running in both directions between observable variables. With this, our results seem to significantly comply the neo-classical assumption that energy is neutral to growth. Consequently, we deduce that energy is not a limiting factor to output growth in Malaysia, and hence, shocks to energy supply will not have a negative effect to output. In addition, due to

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Accumulated

Respons e of LN EC to Generalized S.D. Innovations

One

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

5

10

15 LNEC

Accumulated

20

25

30

LNGDP

Respons e of LNG DP to Generalized S.D. Innovations

One

1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

5

10

15 LNEC

20

25

30

LNGDP

Figure 5.1. Accumulated Response of LnEC (Energy Consumption) and LnGDP (Output Growth) to Generalized One S.d. Innovations.

unbirectional between growth to energy use, it implies the output growth is not only dependent upon energy consumption. All in all, Malaysia government has a wide range of creative policy measure to respond the dynamic of energy prices with respect to growth. the vision 2020 achievement is finally totally in the hand of government regardless energy use volatility.

REFERENCES Abramovitz, Moses. 1956. Resource and Output Trends in the united states since 1870. American Economic Review 46 (may): 5-23. Adjaye, John Asafu. 2000. The relationship between energy consumption, energy prices, and economic growth: time series evidence from Asian developing countries. Energy Economics 22 : 615-625. Al-Iriani, M. (2006). Energy–GDP relationship revisited: An example from GCC countries using panel causality. Energy Policy 34(17), 3342–3350. Amiri, Arshia and Mansour Zibaei. 2012. Granger Causality between Energy use and Economic growth in France with using geostatistical models. MPRA paper No.36357. Ang, J. B., 2008. Economic development, pollutant emissions and energy consumption in Malaysia, Journal of Policy Modeling, 30, 271–278. Apergis, N. and J. E. Payne (2009b). Energy consumption and economic growth in Central America: Evidence from a panel cointegration and error correction model. Energy Economics 31(2), 211–216. Asafu-Adjaye, J. (2000) The Relationship between Energy Consumption, Energy Prices and Economic Growth: Time Series Evidence from Asian Developing Countries. Energy Economics 22: 615-625. Belke, Ansgar, et al. 2010. Energy Consumption and economic growth : New Insights into the Cointegration Relationship. Ruhr Economic Papers.

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Bouzid, Amaira. 2012. The Relationship of Oil Prices and Economic Growth in Tunisia: A Vector Error Correction Model Analysis. The Romanian Economic Journal No 43. Chontanawat, Jaruwan, et al. 2008. Causality between Eergy Consumption and GDP : Evidence from 30 OECD and 78 Non-OECD Countries. Surrey Energy Economics : Discussion Paper Series. Costantini, Valeria, and Chiara Martini. 2009. The Causality between energy cosnumption and economic growth: A multi-sectoral analysis using non-stationary cointegrated panel data. Working paper No 102. Erol, U., Yu, E. S. H. (1987) Time Series Analysis of the Causal Relationships between U.S. Energy and Employment. Resources and Energy 9: 75-89. Fatai, K., Oxley, L., Scrimgeour, F. (2001) Modelling the Causal Relationship between Energy Consumption and GDP in New Zealand, Australia, India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand. MODSIM, Australian National University, Canberra: 1091-1096. Ghali, Khalifa H, and El-Sakka. Energy use and output growth in Canada : A Multivariate Cointegration Analysis. Energy Economics 26 : 225-238. Glasure, Y. U., Lee, A. R. (1998) Cointegration, Error-Correction, and the Relationship between GDP and Energy: The case of South Korea and Singapore. Resource Energy Economics 20: 17-25. Gylfason, Thorvaldur. 2001. Natural Resources and Economic Growth : What is the connection?. Cesofo Working paper No. 530. Hondroyiannis, G., Lolos, S., Papapetrou, E. (2002) Energy Consumption and Economic Growth: Assessing the Evidence from Greece. Energy Economics 24: 319-336. Hye, Qazi Muhammad Adnan, and Sana Riaz. 2008. Causality btween Energy Consumption and Economic Growth : The Case of Pakistan. The Lahore Journal of Economics 13: 2, pp.45-58. Islam, Faridul, Muhammad Shahbaz and Mahmudul Alam. 2011. Financial development and energy consumption nexus in malaysia : A Multivariate time series analaysis. MPRA paper No. 28403. Jacobsen, Henrik Klinge. 2007. Energy Intensities and the Impact of high energy prices on producing and consuming sector in Malaysia. Eaviron Dev Sustain 11 : 137-160. Johansen, S., 1988. A statistical analysis of co-integration vectors? J. Econ. Dyn. Control 12, 231–254. Jumbe, C. B. L. (2004) Cointegration and Causality between Electricity Consumption and GDP: Empirical Evidence from Malawi. Energy Economics 26: 61-68. Kraft, J., Kraft, A. (1978) Note and Comments : On the Relationship between Energy and GNP. The Journal of Energy and Development 3: 401-403. Lee, C-C. (2005) Energy Consumption and GDP in Developing Countries: A Cointegrated Panel Analysis. Energy Economics 27: 415-427. Lee, C. and C. Chang (2008). Energy consumption and economic growth in Asian economies: A more comprehensive analysis using panel data. Resource and Energy Economics 30(1), 50–65. Lee, C., C. Chang, and P. Chen (2008). Energy-income causality in OECD countries revisited: The key role of capital stock. Energy Economics 30(5), 2359–2373. Lee, C. and J. Lee (2010). A panel data analysis of the demand for total energy and electricity in OECD countries. Energy Journal 31(1), 1–23. Masih and Masih. 1996. Energy Consumption, real Indome, and Temporal causality : Results from a multi-country based on cointegration and error-correction modelling techniques. Energy economics 18 : 165-183. Masih, A. M. M., Masih, R. (1997) On the Temporal Causal Relationship between Energy Consumption, Real Income, and Prices: Some new Evidence from Asian-Energy Dependent NICs based on a Multivariate Cointegration/Vector Error-Correction Approach. Journal of Policy Modeling 19(4): 417-440.

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Masih, A. M. M. and R. Masih (1998). A multivariate cointegrated modeling approach in testing temporal causality between energy consumption, real income and prices with an application to two Asian LDCs. Applied Economics 30(10), 1287–1298. Narayan, P. K. and R. Smyth (2008). Energy consumption and real GDP in G7 countries: New evidence from panel cointegration with structural breaks. Energy Economics 30(5), 2331–2341. Nielsen, Heino Bohn, 2007. A “maximum eigenvalue” test for the cointegration ranks in I (2) vector autoregressions. Economic ltter 94 : 445-451. Oh, W., Lee, K. (2004b) Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in Korea: Testing the Causality Relation. Journal of Policy Modeling 26: 973-981. Shaari, Mohd Shahidan et al. 2012. Relationship between Energy Consumption and Economic Growth : Empirical Evidence for Malaysia. Business System Review Vol 2-issue 1. Stern, D. (2000) A Multivariate Cointegration Analysis of the Role of Energy in the US economy. Energy Economics 22: 267-283. Soile, Ismail O. 2012. Energy-Economy Nexus in Indonesia : A Bivariate Cointegration Analaysis. Asian Journal of Empirical Research 2 (6) : 205-218. Solow, Robert M. 1957. Technical Change and the aggregate production function. Review of Economics and Statistics 39 : 312-320. Soytas, U., Sari, R. (2003) Energy Consumption and GDP: Causality Relationship in G-7 Countries and Emerging Markets. Energy Economics 25: 33-37. Wolde-Rufael, Y. (2004) Disaggregated Industrial Energy Consumption and GDP: The Case of Shanghai, 1952-1999. Energy Economics 26: 69-75. Yazdan, Gudarzi Farahani, el al. 2012. Is cointegration between oil price and economic growth? Case study Iran. Procedia-Social and behavioral Sciences 62 : 1215-1219. Yu, E. S. H., Jin, J. C. (1992) Cointegration Tests of Energy Consumption, Income, and Employment. Resources and Energy 14: 259-266.

Dimas Bagus Wiranata Kusuma, M. Rizky Prima Sakti & M. Khairul Anwari Department of Economics, International Islamic University Malaysia, P.O. BOX 10, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

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147 Savings and Investment Behaviour of the Consumer of Financial Services: A Preliminary Findings Nor Hayati Ahmad, Asish Saha, Mohamed Nasser Katib1 & Raj Yadav ABSTRACT This paper attempts to investigate the savings and investment behavior of the consumers of financial services in Malaysia. There is a perceptible change in the dynamics of the savings and investment behaviour of the Malaysian households in the recent years and is likely to gain further momentum in the future. As the country shifts towards a higher-income status, it is envisaged that the financial needs of consumers will become more varied and sophisticated, leading to increased demands for more high-quality and innovative retail financial services. Changes in the demographic structure are expected to be accompanied by changes in the financial products and services by banks. A survey of bank customers in three major cities of the Peninsular Malaysia was conducted based on an interview using a set of questionnaire. A total of 1,107 respondents from eight local commercial and Islamic banks were interviewed. Survey findings at the aggregate level suggest that there is a rather even distribution of male and female bank customers. Students account a visible percentage of bank customers. Relatively younger generation and middle aged customers form the dominant group. Majority of the responding customers are married individuals who are either professionals or executives belonging to a nuclear family with an average size of consisting of 3 to 6 people with two earning members. Majority of the households have more than one sources of income namely viz., salary, business and rental income. The average monthly income of bank customers is between RM2001 to RM5000; however, 20 percent earned between RM5001-RM10000 and high income group (with average monthly income of above RM 15000per month) constitute 8.4% of the sample respondent of bank customers. Majority of the respondents are found to be diploma holders or undergraduates implying thereby that a typical Malaysian would prefer to join a profession immediately after their tertiary education. Keywords: Savings; Investment; Financial Services; Banking; Bank Customer

INTRODUCTION The Malaysian economy is in the threshold of entering into an era of major transformation under the Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) of the Government. Malaysia’s transition towards a high value-added, high-income economy is expected to be led by the private sector in an increasingly more competitive environment. Competition will contribute to a more efficient allocation of resources and the creation of greater economic vibrancy and dynamism. The focus of the Government is expected to be in providing the necessary preconditions and on continuously nurturing a competitive environment for the efficient functioning of the market that will generate the appropriate incentives for private sector initiatives. The target is to double income per capita to RM48, 000 (approximately equivalent to USD16,000) by 2020. It is projected that a larger

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and more affluent middle income population will support higher and more broad-based private consumption. It is estimated that approximately a quarter of the more mature population will belong to the middle income group in 2020 (2007: 19%). The middle 60% of the population (20th to 80th percentile) is projected to earn a higher real annual income (after adjusting for inflation) of RM36, 000 (2007: RM 20, 400). This is expected to provide key support to the continued growth in private consumption over this decade, raising the share of private consumption to about 60% of GDP by the year 2020 (2010: 53%). As one looks at the projected profile of the Malaysian economy in 2020, it is pertinent to have a look at some key parameters of household spending and savings behaviour. In 2010, the household debt level continued to expand at a faster pace of 12.5% reflecting a rebound in consumer sentiment. The ratio of household debt-to-GDP remained almost unchanged at 75.9%. Debt coverage, as measured by the household financial asset-to-debt ratio, is more than two times of household debts. Financial assets of households expanded at 13.1% (2009: 14.9%) for the year 2010. The growth in household financial assets was mainly attributed to the strong performance of the equity market which bolstered market valuations and holdings of equity by households. With one third of household financial assets in the form of equity, households are susceptible to volatile swings in equity prices as observed in 2008. It is pertinent to mention here that in 2010, the percentage of financial savings of Malaysian households indicate that their Deposits with banking institutions and development financial institutions account for 31% followed by Retirement savings with Employees Provident Fund 30%, Equity holdings 17%, Unit trust funds 16% and Endowment policies 6%. As at end-2010, the ratio of financial asset-to-debt remained relatively unchanged at 238.4%, with more than 60% of the financial assets held in the form of highly liquid assets. Liabilities of households grew at a slower rate relative to financial assets in 2010. The growth was led mainly by financing for the purchase of properties and for personal use: 12.5% in 2010 compared to 9.4% in 2009. This has however, largely been offset by a corresponding increase in personal disposable income at the aggregate level. The higher household debt level is also partially attributed to increases in credit card transactions: outstanding credit card balances increased by 15.2% to RM30.8 billion as at end-2010 to account for 5.3% of household debts. Similarly, outstanding balances per credit card holder rose by 15.1% to RM9,516 as at end-2010. More than half of credit card holders with revolving balances were those earning an annual income of RM36,000 and below. There is therefore a perceptible change in the dynamics of the savings and investment behaviour of the Malaysian households in the recent years and is likely to gain further momentum during the present decade. As the country shifts towards a higherincome status, it is envisaged that the financial needs of consumers will become more varied and sophisticated, leading to increased demands for more high-quality and innovative retail financial services. Changes in the demographic structure are expected to be accompanied by changes in the financial products and services by banks. In order to spur greater innovation and raise the level of financial service quality, country’s central bank is expected to encourage greater competition through progressive liberalisation of delivery channels. The Malaysian financial system has played an important catalytic role in facilitating the economic transformation and growth of the Malaysian economy through the various phases of economic development. This strategic role of the Malaysian financial sector will increase in importance in the years ahead. It is envisioned that in the next ten years, the Malaysian financial sector will increasingly be intermediating domestic, regional and international financial resources 1584


and contributing to the efficient allocation of resources not only in the domestic economy but also across borders. Within this decade, the financial system is expected to grow at an annual rate of 8-11%, increasing the depth of the financial system to six times of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2020 (2010: 4.3 times of GDP). Correspondingly, the financial sector contribution to nominal GDP in 2020 is expected to increase to 10-12% (2010: 8.6%). The contribution of financial institutions is also expected to strengthen, with assets of the banking sector rising to almost three times of GDP by 2020 (2010: 2.4 times of GDP). Notwithstanding the urge of commercial banks to grow through the inorganic route, the fact remains that the very growth and survival of banks in an era of stiff competition will depend upon their abilities to workout appropriate strategies not only to capture new business through acquisition of new customer segments but also retain them in their portfolio. Ever increasing demand from customer to have better products and efficient services at lower cost coupled with lesser loyalty is making the proposition of strategy formulation more difficult and challenging for the top management of banks. The main objective of this study is to investigate the savings and investment behavior of the consumers of financial services in Malaysia. The secondary objectives are to assess the changing profile of savings of the Malaysian households in physical and financial assets, to evaluate the relative preference for various forms of financial savings and to study the investment behavior of the various segments of population. The paper is organized as follows. Section two provides a discussion of the relevant literature review. This is followed by a description of the methodology which includes the sampling in section three. Section four describes the key findings up to this point of the study. Finally, in section five, a summary of the findings and conclusion are offered.

LITERATURE REVIEW There is a plethora of literature on savings and investment and some of these studies focus on the behaviour of savings and investment of the consumers. Saving1 and investment2, two major economic indicators, play a significant role in achieving economic growth, self reliance, mobilization of domestic resources and their efficient utilization will also undergo a transformation with the development of the Malaysian economy. Collins (1991) examined the saving behavior in nine Asian developing countries plus Turkey since the early 1960s. The paper has two primary objectives. The first is to present a variety of facts about saving and other key variables. The second objective of the paper is to empirically examine the determinants of saving across these 10 countries and over time. The paper reported that Malaysian saving is positively correlated with real growth rates. The paper showed that the

1

‘Saving’ this word was clarified by Keynes (1936) as the excess of income over what is spent on consumption. In details, saving also can be defining as a portion of disposal income which excess after consumption of consumer goods. (Keynes.J.M.(1936)). Read more: http://www.ukessays.com/essays/economics/an-analysis-of-saving-behaviour-in-malaysia-economics-essay. php#ixzz2UbTS0a1x

2

Investment as coined by Investopedia dictionary is an asset or item that is purchased with the hope that it will generate income or appreciate in the future. In terms of an economic sense it’s stated that an investment is the purchase of goods that are not consumed today but are used in the future to create wealth.

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countries with the highest saving rates in the 1980s were also the ones with the fastest real growth rates during 1960-84 and the ones that underwent a dramatic shift in their age distributions-from over 40% under the age of 15 to barely 30%. Ho (2001) study was aimed at identifying what the consumer wants from their bank and to investigate if the bank has delivered or fulfilled their wants thus far. It is a descriptive research that provides the banks with a sample of consumers’ opinion of the level of importance in their expectation and satisfaction towards the banks along with the degree of performance of how the banks have fulfilled these expectations and met customer satisfaction. Ang (2010) paper attempted to identify the key factors behind Malaysia’s remarkable savings performance. Drawing on the life cycle theory, the saving function is estimated by incorporating other relevant structural features and institutional settings of the Malaysian economy into the specification. Particular emphasis has been placed on the roles of financial factors in mobilizing funds in the private sector. The results suggest that financial deepening and increased banking density tend to encourage private savings. Development of insurance markets and liberalization of the financial system, however, tend to exert a dampening effect on private savings. A study by Delafrooz and Paim (2011) was aimed at identifying the relationship between selected demographic variables with savings behaviour and to determine the factors affecting savings bahaviour among Malaysian employees and concluded that there are significant differences in the financial behaviour according to age, education, income and financial literacy. The study reported that literacy, income and marital status are most influential predictors of savings behaviour. Seong et. al (2011) explored the effects of psychological factors, such as, social influence, attitude towards savings, and self-control on savers in Malaysia. Based on the ordinal regression analysis, the findings shown that those who able to exercise self-control and receive parental influence during childhood are tending to save more. However, attitudes towards saving do not have significant impact on the saving patterns of savers. This study will help retail banks to craft out better products and marketing strategies so that they can be more competitive in attracting and retaining customers.

METHODOLOGY Our study is based on primary data collected through a survey. A set of questionnaire is designed specifically for this study. Questionnaire for this study has been developed on the basis of previous studies on savings and investment behaviour. Questionnaire is divided into three sections namely section (A) on customer profile; (B) on savings and investment behaviour and (C) on service expectations of the customer. The population is the customers of both commercial banks and Islamic banks. Data are collected using selected bank customers in the three major cities in Peninsular Malaysia, namely Georgetown, Kuala Lumpur and Johor Bahru, representing the northern, central and southern regions, respectively. Presumably these cities will have more affluent population and therefore, will have diverse financial needs and furthermore, their savings and investment behaviour differs significantly from those in the semi-urban and rural areas. Eight local banks and five Islamic banks have been selected to participate in this survey. However, two local commercial banks and three Islamic banks opted not to participate. The sample will be selected from customers who 1586


come to the bank premise, by using systematic and probability sampling technique. The process of systematic sampling is to choose customers who have departed the bank as they finish their banking businesses. 40 branches (approximately five branches from each of the eight banks selected) and 30 customers from each branch, providing us with a sample size of 1,200 respondents from each city and a total of 3,600 respondents from all the three cities. The data collection was conducted through an interview using the questionnaire. The survey was conducted for one month from mid-January to mid-February 2013. A total of 1107 respondents were interviewed by specially trained enumerators during that period. Descriptive analysis such as frequency tables and pie charts are used for data analysis.

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Since our study is based on primary data, the results of the research provide us with a new database on consumer behaviour particularly on their changing pattern of savings and investment habits. This section reports the broad findings of the survey of bank customers carried out for the study. The survey findings are reported in two sections; Section 4.1 deals with the profile of the respondents, while Section 4.2 deals with the profile of savings of the household in financial and physical assets both at the present time and the expected profile of future savings. This section also deals with the savings, investment and consumption behaviour of the respondents.

Profile of Respondent’s Household A typical respondent is a male or female married professional or executives in the age group between 25 to 42 years of age belonging to a nuclear family with an average household size of 3-6 people and have two earning members. The annual average household monthly income of a typical respondent is between RM2,001 to RM15,000 and is either undergraduate or college diploma holder. About 9 percent of the respondents are postgraduates. The research finding indicates that 31 percent of the respondents who are bank customers are in the age group of 24 to 30 years old. About 55 percent of the respondents are male while 45 percent are females as shown in Table 2. About 26 percent of them are of 31-40 years age and about 18 percent are in between 41 to 50 years. Only about 4.8 percent of the respondents are of 51-56 years of age. The remaining are in the age group of above 56 years. This finding suggests that the age profile of the bank customers is skewed towards younger generation and middle-aged group. About 64% of the respondents are married. 50% of the respondents are either professionals or executives. This is in tandem with the finding on the age profile of the respondents. It is also interesting to note that about 10% of the respondent households are self employed and 11% are students. Majority of households (52%) have 2 earning members, probably husband and wife of nuclear family, and about 28% have 3 to 4 earning members in the family, probably the joint-family which constitutes about 21 percent of the respondent households. Majority of the households have more than one sources of income namely viz., salary, business and rental income. It is found that about 27% of the respondents earned between RM2,001 to RM5,000 per month and 37% earned between RM5,001 to RM10,000. About 20% earned between RM10,001 to RM15,000 and only 8.4% earned more than RM15,000. The finding reveals that the respondents are mostly in the middle to lower income group. 1587


Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Respondent’s Profile

Mean

Std. Deviation

Minimum

Maximum

Gender

1.45

0.498

1

2

Age

34.60

10.571

18

82

Marital Status

1.40

0.564

1

4

Occupation

3.37

2.180

1

8

Number of Household Members

4.93

1.761

1

13

Number of Household Members Working

2.37

1.095

0

9

Type of Family

1.21

0.410

1

2

Monthly Household Income

3.91

1.101

1

6

N = 1058

Table 2: Frequency of Respondent’s Gender Frequency

Percent

Male

580

54.8

Female

478

45.2

Total

1058

100.0

Table 3: Respondent’s Age Frequency Frequency

Percent

18 - 23 years

134

12.7

24 – 30 years

330

31.1

31 – 40 years

317

30.0

41 – 50 years

183

17.3

51 - 60 years

74

7.0

61 - 82 years

20

1.9

1058

100.0

Total

Table 4: Frequency of Respondent’s Marital Status Frequency

Percent

Married

671

63.4

Single

358

33.8

Widow/Widower

23

2.2

Divorced

6

0.6

Total

1058

100.0

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Table 5: Frequency of Respondent’s Occupation Frequency

Percent

Professional/Managerial

188

17.8

Executive

340

32.1

Clerical/Non-Clerical

156

14.7

Self employed

105

9.9

Retired

43

4.1

Housewife

53

5.0

Student

112

10.6

Others

61

5.8

Total

1058

100.0

Table 6: Frequency of Respondent’s Household Members Frequency

Percent

1

1

0.1

2

72

6.8

3

150

14.2

4

213

20.1

5

268

25.3

6

182

17.2

7

101

9.5

8

38

3.6

9

17

1.6

10

6

0.6

11

5

0.5

12

3

0.3

13

2

0.2

Total

1058

100.0

Table 7: Respondent’s Number of Household Members Working 0

Frequency 1

Percent 0.1

1

171

16.2

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total

546 181 118 26 9 2 3 1 1058

51.6 17.1 11.2 2.5 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.1 100.0

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Education profile of the respondents, which is largely diploma holders (23%) and undergraduates (46%), indicate that member of Malaysian households prefer to work immediately after the completion of their tertiary level of education. Only 9 percent are postgraduate degree holders. It appears that there is lesser attraction of a typical Malaysian household towards higher education which is probably due to the fact that job opportunities are more in the middle management cadre. Table 8: Frequency of Respondent’s Type of Family Frequency

Percent

Nuclear Family

832

78.8

Joint Family

226

21.4

Total

1058

100.0

Table 9: Frequency of Respondent’s Level of Education Frequency 40 200 241 484 93

Primary Education Secondary/High School College Diploma Undergraduate Degree Postgraduate Degree

Total

1058

Percent 3.8 18.9 22.8 45.7 8.8

100.0

Table 10: Frequency of Respondent’s Monthly Household Income Frequency

Percent

Less than RM1,000

19

1.8

RM1,001 to RM2,000

68

6.4

RM2,001 to RM5,000

284

26.8

RM5,001 to RM10,000

391

37.0

RM10,001 to RM15,000

207

19.6

More than RM15,000

89

8.4

Total

1058

100.0

Profile of Present Savings of the Respondents The profile of the avenues of financial savings of a Malaysian household indicates that 95% of the respondents have savings account, 41% have current accounts. 78% of the respondents have Employee Provident Fund (EPF) and insurance (57%). In addition, 22% has savings in unit trusts and mutual funds. About 56% have saved in the form of Insurance products and about 11% of the respondents hold equity shares. Only 2% have savings in private debt securities and 1.4% in Government bonds. The profile of physical savings of the respondents indicates that 62% have savings in the form of residential properties, 30% in the form of landed properties. Profile of physical savings in other physical assets indicates that 82% own vehicles, consumer durables (25%) and golden jewellery (42%). Majority (52%) of savings in residential property are below RM 0.4 million about 5.5% in the range of RM0.4 million to RM 0. 6million. Similarly it was found that majority (24%) of 1590


savings in Landed property are also below RM0.4 million and 14 % in the range of RM0.4 million to RM0.6 million. Present savings of Malaysian households in the form of gold and jewellery majority is of value less than RM0.1 million. Art and artefacts have also been recognised as a form of physical savings but only 4% of respondents own art and artefacts.

Preference of Future Savings of the Respondents Financial Savings The future savings preference of the respondents is in more than one form of financial savings products/assets: 91% of the respondents said that they would keep some of their future savings in savings account. This is inclusive of 30% respondents who would save 50-60% of their future in this account and 14% would save 100% of their savings in savings account (these are likely to be small savers). About 15% of respondents said that they would keep 20 percent of their future savings in premium savings deposit account and about 6% have said that they would keep between 25 to 30 percent in this product. 80% respondents have said that they would continue to save in EPF of which 27percent have said that they would save between 40 to 50 percent of their future savings in EPF. 19% have said that they would keep about 20percent of their future savings in unit trusts schemes; similarly, about 14 % have said that they would keep between 40 to 60percent in this form of financial savings. 15% of respondents have said that they would invest about 20percent of their future savings in Equity shares and about 18% have said that they would invest 30 to 50% of their future savings in this form. It is found that about 68% have said that they would buy insurance products from their future savings; of which, about 25% said that between 20 to 25 percent of their future savings would account for this savings avenue and about 24% have said that this would account for between 30 to 50 percent of their future savings. 53% of the respondents have indicated that they would have current accounts. This group is inclusive of 21%, who are probably in ‘business’, have indicated that 30-40% of their future savings will be in current account. This result also implies that other respondents are holding current accounts for transactions purposes. Only 36% of the respondents have indicated that they will keep their money in fixed deposits, of which 14% have said that they would keep 20% of their future savings in fixed deposits.

Preference of Future Savings of the Respondents Physical Savings About 92 percent of respondents have said that they would invest in residential property. Majority of this group (34%) have indicated that between 40 to 50% of their savings in physical assets would be in residential property and about 22 percent have said that 100% of their future savings in physical assets would be in residential building. 65% of respondents have said that they would invest in landed property of which, 31percent have said that the said investments would account for 40 to 50 percent of future savings in physical assets; similarly, about 15% of the respondents have said that investment in landed property would account for between 20 to 25% of their future savings in physical assets. About 35% of respondents have indicated that they would save in the form of non-residential property. In consonance of the findings as reported earlier regarding ownership of vehicles, it is not surprising that about 89 percent of the respondents have indicated that they would like to buy vehicles and 49 percent would invest in consumer durables. It is interesting to note that

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about 12 percent of Malaysian household have interest in art and artefacts; about 18 % have said that 20-25percent of their future savings would be in this form. This mode of savings preference is reflective of growing sign of prosperity of Malaysian household. About 74% of the respondents have said that they would like to save in the form of gold & jewellery of which, about 26% have said that it would account for between 40 to 50 percent of their future savings. Pattern of Savings Behaviour 14.7% of the respondents have indicated that they would save between 21-30% of their income; 37.5% would save between 11-20% and only 8.5% would save more than 31%. This finding reflects that the average level of saving of a typical Malaysian household would range between 11-30%. In other words, households who would save a high proportion (more than 30 percent) of their income as savings will be low. While reflecting on the time horizon in planning savings by Malaysian household, it is found that about 47% have a short-term(one year or less) perspective, 19 % have medium-term (one to four years) perspective, 18 % have medium to long term( four to ten years) and about 29 percent have a very long term (more than ten years) horizon. The three major saving motives of the respondents are found to be ‘return’ (46%); ‘risks/ emergency’ (34%) and ‘liquidity’ (20%).The major goals of savings of the respondents are found to be for retirement (26%), children education (21%); dream house (19%), acquisition of other properties (20%) and acquisition of business (12%). Children’s marriage accounts for 6.7% of respondents. It is not surprising to note that only about 19 percent respondents have indicated that they take independent decision regarding the household budget and household income. Savings and investment decision of majority (53%) of Malaysian household are joint decisions.

Pattern of Investment Behaviour The opinion profile of the respondents suggests that ‘Return’ is “extremely important” factor in the investment decisions in financial assets of the majority of households (45%); this was followed by liquidity(26%) and “safety”(19%). Tax savings has ‘somewhat important’ influence on the investment decision of the respondents. In the investment decision in physical assets of households, ‘market price’ of the asset plays the most significant role; 43% of the respondents have said so. This was followed by ‘location’(36%). Availability of proper infrastructure also plays an important role in their investment decision of physical assets. It is interesting to note that majority (52%) of Malaysian household are ‘moderate risk’ taker and another 43% are ‘less risk’ taker; only 5.2 percent are ready to ‘High Risk’. It appears that Malaysian savers are quite knowledgeable in terms of differentiating investment avenues; 84 percent respondents corroborated that they do not have difficulty in differentiating investment avenues.

Pattern of Consumption Behaviour On household consumption behaviour, we have listed seven basic necessities such as food, clothing, medicine, fuel, education and utilities and respondents must provide a percentage for each of the item which will total up to 100 percent. We note that about 31% of the respondents spend about 20 percent of their monthly household expenditure on food, about 24% spend 30

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percent on food, while 16% spend 40 percent on food. Expenditure on clothing indicates that about 31% allocates 10 percent and about 42% would spend 20 percent for it. 39% of the households spend 10 percent on medicine. Fuel consumption shows that about 69% of the respondents spend between 10-20 percent of their expenditure on it. As expected, a lot of consumers (72%) spend between 10-30 percent of their household expenditure on utilities. About 76% of households pay monthly instalment for loans taken. The response profile also reflects that ‘car loan’ is the most dominant form of loans of Malaysian household followed by ‘personal loan’. The monthly instalment of various types of loans of the majority of Malaysian households, who have taken loans like personal loan, car loan, housing loan, business loan etc., is less than RM1000. It is found that about 29% respondents spend 10 percent of their income on holidays; about 21% spend 20percent and another 15% spend 30 percent of their income on holidays. Though majority of households (67%) goes for holidays in domestic destinations, about 30% percent of Malaysian household combine domestic and foreign destination for their holidays. It is interesting to note that about 49% of the Malaysian household use their savings to pay for holidays and another 28 percent have said that they pay for holidays from ‘extra income’; 8.2 percent use credit card to make their payment for holidays. In case of surplus of income over expenditure, majority (60%) of the Malaysian households keep the surplus in savings bank, 20.5% in unit trust. 57 percent of the respondents have indicated that they draw down their savings in case there is deficit of income over expenditure. About 19 percent borrow from friends & relatives and 16 percent use credit card to meet their deficit.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Survey findings at the aggregate level suggest that there is a rather even distribution of male and female bank customers. Students account a visible percentage of bank customers. Relatively younger generation and middle aged customers form the dominant group. Majority of the responding customers are married individuals who are either professionals or executives belonging to a nuclear family with an average size of consisting of 3 to 6 people with two earning members. Majority of the households have more than one sources of income namely viz., salary, business and rental income. The average monthly income of bank customers is between RM2001 to RM5000; however, 20 percent earned between RM5001-RM10000 and high income group (with average monthly income of above RM 15000per month) constitute 8.4% of the sample respondent of bank customers. Majority of the respondents are found to be diploma holders or undergraduates implying thereby that a typical Malaysian would prefer to join a profession immediately after their tertiary education. Majority of bank customers have savings account and a sizeable percentage also have current accounts which is not surprising because there are multiple sources of income of a typical Malaysian household which includes business. Financial savings of Malaysian household is mainly distributed in EPF, Unit Trust/ Mutual Fund schemes, Insurance products and equity shares. Physical savings of Malaysian household are mainly in Residential properties and Landed properties. Savings in gold & jewellery is found to be at moderate level. It is however interesting to note that arts and artefacts has also figured in the present savings of households.

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The abovementioned savings avenue both in financial and physical form would continue to be the preferred mode of future savings of Malaysian household. The average level of future savings of a typical Malaysian household would range between 11-30% of their income and only an insignificant percentage of households would save more than 30percent of their income. Though in the case of majority of household think in terms of short-term while planning their savings, those having medium to long or very long-term horizon also constitute significant percentage of Malaysian households. It is found that return, risks/ emergency, liquidity are the three dominant form of savings motives of the respondents and retirement, children education, acquisition of dream-house and properties are dominant savings goal. Acquisition of Business is also a significant savings goal. Savings and investment decision of majority of Malaysian household are joint decisions. It is found that return, liquidity and safety are three important drivers of investment decisions of Malaysian households. Majority of households are either found to be moderate risk takers or less risk takers and they are found to be quite knowledgeable in differentiating investment avenues. Quite a significant percentage of Malaysian households pay monthly instalment for their loans especially car loans followed by personal loans. It is found that a sizeable percentage of household spend more than 20 to 30 percent of their income for holidays. Majority of the Malaysian household drawdown their savings to meet expense for their holidays or they use extra income for the said purpose. There is however household who use credit card to make payments for their holidays. It is also found that in case there is deficit of income over expenditure, Malaysian household borrow from their friends and relatives or use credit card to meet the short-fall.

REFERENCES Collins, S. M. (1991). Saving behavior in ten developing countries. In B. D. Bernheim and J. B. Shoven (Eds.), National savings and economic performance (pp. 349 – 376). Chicago: University of Chicago Press Ho, T. S. (2001). Consumer satisfaction in retail banking in Malaysia: An importance performance analysis. Unpublished master’s thesis. Multimedia University, Cyberjaya. Ang, J. (2010). Savings mobilization, financial development and liberalization: The case of Malaysia. MPRA Paper No. 21718. Retrieved from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/21718/ Delafrooz, N. and Paim, L. (2011). Personal saving behavior among Malaysian employees: Socio demographic comparison. 2011 International Conference on Social Science and Humanity IPEDR vol. 5. Singapore: IACSIT Press. Seong, L. C., Kai, S. B., & Joo, G. G. (2011). The analysis of psychological factors affecting savers in Malaysia. Middle Eastern Finance and Economics, 12, 77-85.

Nor Hayati Ahmad, Asish Saha, Mohamed Nasser Katib1 & Raj Yadav Universiti Utara Malaysia 1 Corresponding author’s email address: [email protected] and telephone number: 04-9285038

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148 Elemen Usability, Sociability dan Identiti dalam E-Masjid: Kajian Terhadap Masjid Utem Muhamad Faisal Asha’ari, Bushral Huda Abd Manan, Norlizam Md. Sukiban & Hidayah Rahmalan ABSTRAK Kadar lawatan terhadap laman web masjid masih di tahap yang rendah. Ia dikaitkan dengan rekabentuk laman itu sendiri yang tidak mesra pengguna dan juga unsur interaksi antara pengunjung dengan insitusi masjid mahupun sesama pengunjung yang agak terhad. Artikel ini memperkenalkan konsep laman web masjid (e-masjid) yang dibangunkan dengan tiga elemen iaitu usability, sociability dan identity yang diharapkan mampu untuk menampung kelemahan ini. Laman web masjid UTEM yang dibangunkan sejak Disember 2012 berasaskan kepada elemen usability. Manakala dua elemen lagi masih lagi dalam proses untuk dibangunkan berdasarkan maklumbalas yang akan diterima dari pengguna untuk menentukan aplikasi yang sesuai untuk dibangunkan. ABSTRACT The internet penetration in Malaysia to mosque website (e-masjid) is relatively low. It can be linked with the design of the website that is not user friendly and limited interaction between user and the webmasters and among users. This study introduces a concept e-masjid based on three elements namely usability, sociability and identity. It is expected to resolve the shortcomings of the most e-masjid. E-masjid UTeM is a website has been developed since December 2012 profoundly based on usability. Meanwhile, both sociability and identity are still under construction while waiting feedbacks from the users to determine the appropriate module for both categories. Kata Kunci: e-masjid, laman web masjid, Islam internet, online communication.

PENDAHULUAN Di Malaysia kewujudan e-masjid (laman web, portal serta blog masjid) telah wujud seawal tahun 2000. Tetapi penggunaan laman web di kalangan masjid masih di tahap yang kurang memuaskan, walaupun sejak akhir-akhir ini perkembangannya memberangsangkan. Terdapat usaha untuk membangunkan laman web masjid tetapi sebahagiannya menjadi sawang dan terhenti separuh jalan sahaja. Terdapat 11 kelemahan e-masjid yang disenaraikan oleh (Mohd Khairunnizam 2012) antaranya bersifat berita setempat dan informasi masjid semata-mata, tidak bersifat sumber rujukan atau knowledgebase, kandungan bersifat sehala, tidak mesra pengguna dan tidak catchy (hambar), tiada mekanisme maklumbalas dalam bentuk komen, undian, forum dan sebagainya. Namun, terdapat pula masjid yang berjaya membangunkan laman web dengan cemerlang

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walaupun ia bukan masjid yang dibiayai sepenuhnya oleh kerajaan. Masalahnya ialah adakah kemalapan ini berpunca dari laman web yang dibangunkan itu tidak memenuhi selera pengguna sehingga menyebabkan laman web yang dibangunkan itu tidak mendapat maklum balas yang menggalakkan dari pengguna. Ini boleh menyebabkan pembangun laman itu sendiri tidak bermotivasi untuk meneruskan usaha menguruskan laman berkenaan. Kegagalan menarik minat pengguna ini dikaitkan dengan kelembapan ini kerana dengan kadar tembus internet di Malaysia sangat tinggi sepatutnya mereka turut mengakses laman web masjid. Oleh sebab itu, kajian nilai guna amat diperlukan kerana pengguna merupakan penentu nilai yang dikehendaki ke atas sesuatu perkhidmatan berasaskan pengetahuan. Hal ini termasuk juga dalam e-masjid kerana minat dan keperluan pengguna terhadap laman ini mendorong mereka mengakses laman web masjid.

MODEL E-MASJID Singkatan “E” daripada E-masjid adalah elektronik masjid, digital masjid, online masjid dan juga penghubung masjid-masjid (connected mosque). Perincian maksud laman web (web site) menurut Azean et. al 2007 laman web merupakan koleksi helaian laman yang berhubungan, ianya di simpan di pelayar web (web server). Begitu juga dengan definisi yang dinyatakan oleh Coupey 2005:7, web ialah dokumen secara elektronik yang dipanggil web page. Laman web terdiri daripada sekumpulan fail web yang mengandungi maklumat berkenaan sesuatu perkara atau informasi komersial, dengan panggilan fail laman utamanya iaitu homepage. Laman web yang interaktif merupakan persembahan komputer yang menggabungkan elemen-elemen media iaitu teks, grafik dan bunyi secara sistematik untuk dijadikan sebuah laman web yang efektif (Isham Shah 2012: 27). Pembangunan laman web masjid juga perlu meletakkan nama dan logo mewakili organisasi, penyediaan butang ‘pencarian’ bagi memudahkan pengguna meneliti helaian yang diperlukan, tajuk-tajuk yang dimuatkan memudahkan kefahaman pengguna dan struktur laman memudahkan pengguna membuat imbasan semula (Rozinah Jamaludin 2007:124). Pemilihan e-masjid dalam kajian ini yang ada juga mewujudkan konsep komunikasi one-way dan one-to-many (Guerrero, A. Enterría: 2011) Terdapat tiga kriteria yang perlu ada dalam pembinaan e-masjid. Pembinaan e-masjid yang perlu dibangunkan ialah bersifat terkini dan semasa, komitmen dan konsisten dalam mengemas kini, perbahasan yang berilmiah dan tidak terlalu berat, komunikasi interpersonal, mempengaruhi prinsip-prinsip setiap pengguna dan komunikasi berkumpulan antara pengguna dengan pihak pentadbir masjid (Rahimah Shahar 2006). Ia juga perlu dilampirkan berbagai-bagai pautan bagi memudahkan masyarakat untuk memuat turun dan dijadikan sebagai rujukan dalam pelbagai kemaslahatan. Pembentukan tiga elemen ini berdasarkan integrasi hikmah dakwah dengan online persuasion iaitu: a) Usability b) Sociability c) Identity

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Di bawah ini adalah penjelasan pada setiap satu dari elemen di atas. i) Usability Usability menurut Jenny Preece (1993) menyatakan usability merupakan konsep yang wujud berdasarkan kajian Human-computer Interaction (HCI), iaitu mengenai pemerhatian untuk memahami bagaimana manusia menggunakan sistem komputer yang membolehkan pembangunan sistem yang lebih baik boleh dicipta bagi memenuhi kehendak manusia. Manakala, Nielsen (2000) menjelaskan usability didapati kelompok yang positif dengan peningkatan penggunaan sistem ini. Manakala Wiley dan Sons (2007) telah menjelaskan terdapat enam matlamat dalam usability iaitu berkesan untuk digunakan, cekap untuk digunakan, selamat untuk penggunaan, mempunyai utiliti yang baik, mudah untuk belajar dan mudah untuk ingat bagaimana untuk menggunakannya. Dalam konteks pembinaan bagi sebuah laman web yang mempunyai kriteria usability, terdapat dua elemen yang telah dinyatakan oleh Nielsen (2000) yang sesuai diterapkan dalam pembangunan laman web/blog E-masjid, iaitu: a) Page Design Di dalam page design ini, Nielsen menyatakan bahawa reka bentuk muka depan bagi sesebuah laman web amat penting di mana ianya perlu didominasi oleh isu ataupun kandungan yang boleh menarik perhatian pengguna. b) Content Design Di dalam content design ianya perlu dititikberatkan mengenai maklumat yang diletakkan dalam sesebuah laman web, di mana ianya perlulah ringkas, mudah, padat dan boleh difahami oleh pengguna. Penggunaan bahasa juga perlulah selaras supaya dapat memudahkan pengguna untuk memahami maklumat yang dibaca. Selain itu, tajuk bagi antaramuka dan tajuk bagi sesuatu maklumat perlu bersesuaian dengan isi kandungannya agar tidak mengelirukan pengguna. Di samping itu, item-item tambahan seperti gambar dan video perlulah mempunyai kualiti yang baik agar dapat menarik perhatian pengguna. Item video yang mempunyai elemen audio perlu mempunyai audio yang baik agar memudahkan pengguna untuk menonton video yang diletakkan di laman web. Berdasarkan pernyataan di atas usability ialah elemen yang memudahkan pengguna untuk menggunakan sesebuah laman web yang bercirikan mesra pengguna. Terdapat beberapa ciri yang perlu dititikberatkan dalam membina sebuah laman web E-masjid yang mesra pengguna. Elemen reka bentuk antara muka menurut D. Jadav (2003: 93-127) terdapat beberapa elemen penting bagi membentuk antara muka, iaitu: a. Warna. Ianya memberikan kesan yang sangat kuat dalam komunikasi dan memperlihatkan emosi, tindakan serta identiti bagi pemilik bagi sesebuah laman web. b. Elemen grafik (seperti jenis tulisan dan saiz tulisan). Ianya sama penting seperti warna. Sebagai pemilik bagi sesebuah laman web, grafik yang dipilih perlulah bersesuaian dengan jenis laman web yang bakal dibina. c. Susun atur (layout). Susun atur adalah penempatan atau meletakkan sesuatu objek dalam sesebuah laman web.

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d. Audio, video dan gambar e. Alat bantu pelayaran dan reka bentuk interaksi. Contohnya item butang (button), icons dan images. Justeru itu, dalam elemen usability ini, terdapat dua ciri yang penting iaitu: a. Layout (Susun atur) e-masjid. Layout ini perlu mempunyai beberapa kriteria iaitu kelajuan loading apabila pengguna membuka e-masjid dan saiz skrin yang sesuai untuk tatapan pengguna b. Grafik. Antara yang perlu ada dalam kriteria ini ialah warna bagi latar belakang (background) dan button serta tulisan yang mudah difahami dan saiz tulisan yang sesuai. ii) Sociability Sociability merujuk kepada perwatakan sistem komuniti maya yang menyokong ‘a state of being sociable’, di mana individu berinteraksi dengan individu yang lain termasuk berinteraksi dengan pemilik laman web/blog. Ianya bertujuan untuk memperoleh perkongsian komuniti melalui ruang teknologi yang dibenarkan. Menurut Sharp, Rogers & Preece (2007), dalam mencipta ataupun mereka bentuk ruang interaksi antara pengguna dengan pengguna dan pengguna dengan pemilik laman web, ianya melibatkan empat perkara asas iaitu mengenal pasti keperluan dan mewujudkan keperluan untuk pengalaman pengguna, memenuhi reka bentuk alternative yang memenuhi kehendak pengguna, mereka bentuk versi yang interaktif supaya memudahkan pengguna untuk berkomunikasi antara satu sama lain serta membuat penilaian ke atas apa yang telah dibina dan menawarkan pengalaman yang baik untuk pengguna. Preece (2002) menjelaskan sociability mempunyai hubung kait dengan interaksi di antara komuniti dengan bantuan teknologi. Preece (2000) turut menyatakan bahawa komuniti maya dengan sociability merupakan perwatakan yang ditunjukkan sesuai dengan persekitaran yang sebenar kepada interaksi sosial dan badan yang berautoriti mengikut peraturan interaksi yang telah ditetapkan terhadap pencapaian perkongsian komuniti. Preece et.al. (1994) juga menjelaskan bahawa terdapat pelbagai kaedah dalam berinteraksi, iaitu melalui soal jawab (question and answer dialogue), mengisi borang yang khusus terhadap sebarang pertanyaan atau maklum balas (formfills and spreadsheets), menggunakan bahasa yang menjadi bahasa perantaraan dalam sesebuah komuniti (natural language dialogue), dan manipulasi terhadap sesuatu isu agar memudahkan pengguna untuk memahami apa yang disampaikan (direct manipulation). Berdasarkan pernyataan di atas sociability merujuk kepada interaksi antara pengguna dengan pengguna dan pengguna dengan pemilik laman web. Ianya lebih kepada pengguna memberikan cadangan/maklum balas kepada pemilik laman web, sumbangan pengetahuan untuk dikongsi dan mempelajari antara satu sama lain, pertanyaan mengenai sesuatu isu yang diletakkan dalam laman web dan lain-lain bentuk interaksi. Sehubungan itu, dalam konteks pembangunan e-masjid, beberapa ciri Sociability yang telah diringkaskan oleh penulis, iaitu: a. Sharing (perkongsian). Perkongsian yang dimaksudkan ialah perkongsian maklumat yang bersesuaian dengan e-masjid. Contohnya artikel-artikel mengenai Islam. Secara tidak langsung, melalui perkongsian ini, pihak masjid dapat berkomunikasi satu hala dengan pengguna.

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b. Interaction (Interaksi). Interaksi yang dimaksudkan ialah interaksi berbentuk komunikasi dua hala antara pihak masjid dengan pengguna yang diwujudkan dalam e-masjid melalui ruangan soal jawab agama, forum, chat dan sebagainya. c. Respond (maklum balas). Ruangan maklum balas perlu disediakan oleh pihak masjid agar dapat mewujudkan komunikasi satu hala pengguna e-masjid dengan pihak masjid. Ianya bertujuan untuk mendapatkan maklum balas terhadap e-masjid ataupun apa-apa sahaja isu/hal yang berkaitan dengan isu semasa dan masjid khususnya. Maklum balas yang sangat penting untuk mempertingkatkan khidmat e-masjid kepada masyarakat. Maklum balas yang bersifat kritikan dijadikan sebagai panduan untuk peningkatan kualiti dan produktiviti. Ini merupakan kebiasaan bahan dan material dakwah berdasarkan maklumat dan sumber kredibiliti seseorang untuk meningkatkan kebolehpercayaan. iii) Identiti A. Diamond (1973), menjelaskan bahawa trademark adalah perkataan ataupun corak/lakaran (design) yang digunakan dalam iklan-iklan perniagaan untuk mengenali sesuatu produk yang telah dikeluarkan oleh sesebuah syarikat. Secara ringkasnya, brand name ialah satu daripada pelbagai jenis trademark. Trademark kebanyakannya digunakan dalam setiap produk sesebuah syarikat dan mungkin juga digabungkan dengan trademark yang lain. Setiap trademark mungkin perkataan yang bernilai tetapi tidak mempunyai apa-apa makna contohnya seperti Kodak, Nikon, Dacron dan Exxon. Trademark juga terdiri daripada perkataan yang biasa dan tidak mempunyai kaitan dengan produk yang dikeluarkan, contohnya Camel, Arrow dan Dial, ataupun trademark yang diambil daripada produk itu sendiri, contohnya Lux, Oreo dan Bon Ami. Trademark juga boleh diambil daripada nama pengasas kepada sesebuah syarikat, contohnya Ford, Singer dan Gillette. Trademark secara ringkasnya boleh diambil atau dicipta daripada pelbagai simbol, perkataan, nombor dan sebagainya yang boleh mewujudkan identiti bagi sesuatu produk. Wildbur (1979) menyatakan bahawa bagi merekabentuk sesuatu corak trademark ianya adalah satu cabaran kepada pereka yang mana perlu menitikberatkan pelbagai aspek bagi merekabentuk satu trademark yang boleh diingati oleh pengguna. Trademark yang mempunyai keunikkan dan boleh menarik perhatian pelanggan serta trademark yang bersifat terkini boleh memberikan impak yang baik kepada pelanggan untuk mengingati sesuatu produk. Wildbur (1979) turut menjelaskan cara-cara untuk merekabentuk trademark. Pertama ialah image selection yang mana ia menjadi asas kepada rekabentuk bagi trademark. Kedua ialah techniques (teknik) samada lakaran menggunakan pen atau pensil, seterusnya menggunakan perisian-perisian tertentu untuk menghasilkan rekabentuk trademark yang menarik. Terakhir ialah warna yang spesifik, pemilihan warna yang betul dan tepat akan menghasilkan trademark yang boleh menarik perhatian pelanggan. Menurut Steel, Nagappan & Lai (2006), fungsi identiti ialah: a. Peruntukan Pengguna (User Provisioning) . Ianya termasuk mencipta atau mentadbir identiti pengguna yang boleh mengakses sumber dan aplikasi perniagaan (iklan). b. Peranan dan Kumpulan (Roles and Groups). Ianya merujuk kepada bagaimana entiti boleh memenuhi peranan atau kumpulan yang berlainan untuk mengakses sumber perniagaan.

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c. Peruntukan/Keperluan dalam Khidmat Akaun (Account Service Provisioning). Ianya menunjukkan bagaimana akaun pengguna yang diperuntukkan dengan sistem yang berlainan berdasarkan akses yang betul dan profil pengguna. d. Pihak Pentadbir (Delegated Administration). Ianya membenarkan pihak pentadbir untuk mencipta atau pun update identiti pengguna dan berperanan untuk membenarkan pengguna menggunakan aplikasi dan sumber-sumber yang ada . Sehubungan itu, identiti/trademark e-masjid perlu direka bentuk supaya ianya dapat diingati oleh pengguna. Identiti/trademark ini merupakan salah satu komunikasi asas yang boleh mempengaruhi pengguna untuk mendekatkan diri dengan masjid. Ianya boleh dijadikan panduan dan teori kepada pihak pentadbir masjid untuk merekabentuk identiti/trademark laman e-masjid yang bertepatan dengan apa yang telah dijelaskan. Justeru itu, penulis telah meringkaskan beberapa ciri dalam elemen identiti/trademark e-masjid, iaitu; a. Grafik. Ciri grafik yang dimaksudkan ialah menggunakan tulisan kaligrafi jawi pada muka depan e-masjid. Selain itu, warna yang boleh melambangkan e-masjid yang dibina. b. Audio. Iaitu meletakkan audio yang bercirikan Islam. Contohnya nasyid, selawat dan sebagainya. Ianya secara tidak langsung boleh menarik minat pengguna untuk melayari lagi e-masjid dengan adanya tarikan audio yang menarik dan bersesuaian dengan e-masjid.

E-masjid UTEM Masjid Sayyidina Abu Bakar merupakan masjid universiti yang ini dikendalikan oleh Pusat Islam UteM yang telah disiapkan sepenuhnya pada 12 Mei 2011. Kewujudan masjid di pusat pengajian tinggi boleh dijadikan sebagai pusat mengalakkan aktiviti dan program pembangunan sahsiah pelajar. Ia akan menjadi lambang dan nadi kepada kemajuan serta mendokong hakikat bahawa ilmu adalah elemen dalam membangunkan peradaban. Bagi memastikan Masjid dapat berfungsi sebagaimana yang diwartakan, Pusat Islam telah menganjurkan pelbagai aktiviti yang boleh disertai oleh kakitangan atau pelajar UTeM. Untuk setiap aktiviti yang ingin dianjurkan, Pusat Islam akan menghantar satu surat jemputan kepada setiap pusat tanggungjawab bagi mendapatkan penyertaan dari kalangan staf UTeM. Di samping itu, maklumat tentang aktiviti yang ingin dianjurkan turut diwar-warkan dalam email setiap warga komuniti UTeM, yang dikenali sebagai INFO PUSAT ISLAM UTeM. Gambarajah 2 adalah contoh aktiviti yang diwar-warkan dalam email INFO PUSAT ISLAM UTeM. Setiap kakitangan atau pelajar yang ingin turut serta dalam aktiviti yang dianjurkan, mereka hendaklah memaklumkan kepada kakitangan Pusat Islam yang ditugaskan atau wakil pendaftar di setiap pusat tangggungjawab. Seterusnya, surat jemputan akan diberikan kepada peserta yang berminat dari setiap pusat tanggungjawab. Pada hari aktiviti tersebut dilangsungkan, para peserta dikehendaki menurunkan tandatangan pada senarai kedatangan peserta bagi menyatakan mereka hadir pada acara tersebut. Bagi peserta yang telah hadir ke aktiviti tersebut, senarai itu akan dimaklumkan kepada Unit Latihan bagi memperolehi mata Continuous Professional Development (CPD). Berdasarkan sistem yang sedia ada ini, antara permasalahan yang berlaku adalah rungutan beberapa kakitangan mengenai pengendalian data akibat berulangkali memberi data maklumat yang sama setiap kali ingin menyertai sesuatu aktiviti. Selain itu, terdapat masalah di mana pernah

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berlaku ahli komuniti yang lebih awal mendaftar, namanya tiada dalam senarai peserta. Hal ini disebabkan mana-mana ahli komuniti yang ingin menyertai aktiviti dikehendaki memaklumkan kepada pendaftar di pusat tanggungjawab atau wakil di Pusat Islam. Kebiasaannya, ahli komuniti akan memaklumkan kepada mereka melalui email dan masalah akan timbul apabila email tersebut tidak diendahkan tanpa sedar. Di samping itu, pengurusan mata CPD acapkali mengambil masa yang agak lama akibat ketidakcekapan kakitangan. Manakala, terdapat juga aktiviti yang menghadkan jumlah peserta dan terdapat juga ahli komuniti yang tidak dapat turut serta akibat terlupa tarikh atau sibuk dengan urusan lain.

Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid UTeM E-masjid yang dibangunkan itu dinamakan dengan Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid UTeM. Idea untuk membangunkan system ini timbul apabila beberapa kakitangan UTeM melahirkan rasa kesal mereka kerana terpaksa menghantar maklumat yang sama setiap kali ingin menyertai sesuatu aktiviti. Maklumat yang dimaksudkan adalah nombor staf atau matrik, pusat tanggungjawab di mana mereka berkhidmat dan nama penuh mereka. Justeru, bagi memahami proses pengendalian aktiviti yang dilaksanakan oleh Pusat Islam, sesi temubual telah diadakan beberapa kali. Setelah memahami proses pengendalian aktiviti yang dilakukan oleh Pusat Islam, Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid telah dibangunkan. Sistem ini dibangunkan dalam berbentuk aplikasi laman web yang mana ia boleh dicapai oleh komuniti UTeM melalui talian internet di mana-mana mereka berada. Ia dapat digambarkan dalam model seperti dalam Rajah 1 di bawah.

Rajah 1: Model interaksi antara admin dan user

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Gambarajah 4 di bawah adalah gambaran ringkas interaksi di antara admin dan user. Admin adalah pengendali Sistem yang terdiri daripada kakitangan Pusat Islam manakala user adalah ahli komuniti UTeM yang terdiri daripada kakitangan dan pelajar UTeM. Sistem yang dibangunkan ini memenuhi elemen usability e-masjid seperti yang telah dibangunkan sebelum ini. Berikut adalah perbincangan tentang aplikasi yang ditawarkan.

Aspek usability Terdapat empat modul yang ditawarkan bagi memantapkan Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid yang boleh dikalsifikasikan dalam aspek usability iaitu 1) Modul pendaftaran aktiviti Kakitangan dari Pusat Islam boleh mewar-warkan aktiviti ini melalui surat jemputan ke pusat tanggungjawab dan juga melalui email INFO PUSAT ISLAM UTEM. Mereka akan memasukkan maklumat asas berhubung dengan aktiviti yang bakal berlangsung seperti dalam Rajah 2. Maklumat itu ialah nama aktiviti, lokasi aktiviti akan dilangsungkan, tarikh mula dan tarikh tamat aktiviti akan dilangsungkan, tarikh akhir pendaftaran aktiviti, nama dan nombor telefon pihak penganjur, imej banner jika ada, dan keterangan mengenai aktiviti tersebut.

Rajah 2: Modul Pendaftaran Aktiviti

2) Modul pendaftaran peserta Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid akan menyediakan surat jemputan secara automatik kepada wakil di pusat tanggungjawab dan email ke INFO PUSAT ISLAM UTEM selepas maklumat asas sesuatu aktiviti didaftarkan. Menariknya, sistem ini turut membenarkan admin memilih peserta atau menghadkan bilangan peserta seperti yang terdapat pada Rajah 3, 4 dan 5.

Rajah 3: Paparan maklumat aktiviti pada email 1602


Rajah 4: Paparan senarai aktiviti

Rajah 5: Senarai penyertaan

3) Modul kedatangan Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid memaparkan senarai aktiviti pada bulan berkenaan. Ia memberi ruang kepada ahli komuniti untuk menyertai pelbagai aktiviti sekiranya mereka berminat. Untuk mendaftar, ahli komuniti tidak perlu lagi memberikan nombor staf atau matrik, PTJ dan nama penuh mereka. Sebaliknya, mereka hanya perlu klik pada aktiviti yang mereka ingin turut serta kerana mereka telah pun menekan link yang telah disediakan yang akan mengenalpasti identiti mereka. Sistem juga turut membenarkan ahli komuniti mendaftar tanpa melalui email. Ahli komuniti UTeM boleh mengakses kepada laman web ini dan klik pada senarai aktiviti. Seterusnya, senarai aktiviti seperti Rajah 6 akan diperlihatkan dan ahli komuniti memilih aktiviti yang ingin disertai. Kemudian, ahli komuniti hanya perlu memasukkan nombor staf atau matrik pelajar.

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Rajah 6: Paparan maklumat aktiviti

Bagi tujuan untuk mendapatkan tandatangan peserta yang hadir pada aktiviti tersebut, lampiran senarai peserta seperti Gambarajah 13 akan dijana secara automatik. Tindakan ini diyakini memudahkan urusan Pusat Islam dalam mengendalikan sebarang aktiviti. 4) Modul Continuous Professional Development (CPD) Bagi kakitangan UTeM, kehadiran mereka dalam aktiviti yang dianjurkan oleh Pusat Islam, membolehkan mereka memperolehi mata Continuous Professional Development (CPD). Ia yang dikenali dalam bahasa melayu disebut sebagai Pembangunan Profesional Berterusan adalah proses pembelajaran sepanjang hayat untuk membangun dan meningkatkan kompetensi individu yang banyak digunakan oleh badan-badan profesional seluruh dunia untuk tujuan pembangunan dalam profesion tertentu. Di UTeM, CPD yang dilaksanakan merujuk kepada satu program atau sistem pembelajaran sepanjang hayat yang berpusatkan kepada keperluan staf dan hala tuju organisasi. Program CPD merangkumi aktiviti pengembangan pengetahuan, kemahiran dan sikap yang membolehkan staf. Aktiviti yang dijalankan diharapkan dapat memahami dan mengaplikasikan pengetahuan dan kemahiran baru dalam bidang perjawatan masing-masing, membantu kakitangan UTeM menghadapi perubahan dan cabaran dalam pembangunan kerjaya, memastikan kakitangan sentiasa menghayati nilai-nilai murni dan bersikap positif dan menyokong objektif pelaksanaan penilaian kompetensi penjawat awam. Berdasarkan lampiran kedatangan senarai peserta, pihak admin seterusnya hanya perlu klik pada nama mereka yang hadir. Kemudian, lampiran senarai peserta yang hadir itu akan dicetak untuk dihantar ke Bahagian Pendaftar Universiti bagi memproseskan mata CPD. Lampiran yang bercetak perlu ditandatangani oleh kakitangan yang berautoriti dalam Pusat Islam sebelum ianya dihantar ke Bahagian Pendaftar Universiti.

Aspek Sociability dan identiti Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid Sayyidina Abu Bakar turut menyediakan tontonan video seminar dalam bentuk live streaming. Ini sekaligus dapat mengatasi masalah di mana berlakunya

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ahli komuniti yang tidak dapat turut serta akibat aktiviti yang dianjurkan terpaksa menghadkan jumlah peserta. Turut disertakan paparan hadith pilihan dan juga soaljawab agama bagi tatapan ahli komuniti yang dahagakan ilmu agama. Sistem juga menyediakan ruang untuk membuat liputan secara langsung (kuliah, ceramah dll) yang tidak sekadar boleh diakses menerusi laman web, tetapi juga menerusi telefon pintar. Walau bagaimanapun, kedua aspek ini masih lagi belum sempurna dibangunkan. Ia menunggu maklum balas dari pengguna untuk dibangunkan lagi untuk menentukan aplikasi yang sesuai untuk dibangunkan.

PENUTUP Masjid yang bergiat aktif merupakan aset yang bernilai dalam sesebuah negara kerana ia berperanan dalam membentuk komuniti masyarakat yang bertamadun. Dengan penggunaan teknologi internet yang kian meluas, masjid seharusnya lebih bersikap proaktif agar seiring dengan peredaran zaman. Konsep e-Masjid ini berasaskan kepada usability, sociability dan identity merupakan kajian awal yang perlu diketengahkan lagi pada masa akan datang. Kewujudan Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid Sayyidina Abu Bakar merupakan suatu percubaan untuk melestarikan lagi pengurusan laman masjid yang boleh diluaskan lagi ke masjid yang lain setelah sempurna pembinaannya. Ia diharapkan dapat membantu memudahcara pihak yang mengendalikan masjid, juga menyenangkan komuniti setempat, iaitu warga UTeM secara khasnya.

PENGHARGAAN Penghargaan diberikan kepada kakitangan Pusat Islam UTeM terutamanya Encik Mohd Nawawi Bin Muhamad dan juga pelajar UTeM Muhammad Suffian Sikandar Gani, Marhazli Kipli, Rizaini Ramli dan Norazlinda Ibrahim dalam menjayakan Sistem Pengurusan Aktiviti Masjid Sayyidina Abu Bakar ini. Penyelidikan ini dibiayai oleh Geran Penyelidikan Komuniti – UKM – 2012-002.

RUJUKAN A. Diamond, Sidney. 1973. Trademark Problems and How to Avoid Them. Chicago: Crain Books. Ahmad, Jauhar Ahmad. 2004. Al-I’lam Al-Elektroni Waqi’ Wa Aafaq. Cetakan pertama. Darul Kalimat: Mansurah. Azean, Juhazren, Shaharudin & et. al. 2007. Pembangunan Web Interaktif: Satu Pendekatan Sistematik. Batu Caves: Venton Publishing (M) Sdn Bhd. D. Jadav, Ameeta. 2003. Designing Usable Web Interfaces. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., Unpper Saddle River. Guerrero, A. Enterría. 2011. E-Islam: The Spanish Public Virtual Sphere. Online Journal Of The Virtual Middle East. 5 (1). http://www.cyberorient.net/article.do?articleId=6206 Isham Shah bin Hassan. 2012. Pengintegrasian Teknologi Mobil dan Teknologi Cad dalam Proses Reka Bentuk Untuk Penghasilan Produk Kreatif. Ph.D Fakulti Pendidikan. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia: Bangi. James Hick. 2011. Asia-Pacific Social Media Stats [infographic]. 16 September 2011. http://thetechscoop. net/2011/09/16/asia-pacific-social-media-stats/

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Lazarsfeld, Paul. Mass Media And Personel Influence. Seri VOA Series, Mass Communication Series. (8): 5-8 Mohd Khairunnizam bin Mhd Supian. 2012. Portal E-masjid: Satu Cadangan Model. Kertas Kerja Bengkel E-masjid. UNITEN, Selangor. 24 Mac. Nielsen, Jakob. 2000. Designing Web Usability: The Practice of Simplicity. Indianapolis, Indiana USA: New Riders Publishing. Rahimah Shahar. 2006. Pembangunan Laman Web Sebagai Media Pengajaran di Politeknik Port Dickson: Topik Garis Imbas. Tesis Doktor Falsafah (Ph.D). Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Preece, J. & Yvonne Rogers et al. 1994. Human- Computer Interaction. London: Addison Wesley. Preece, Jenny. 2000. Guide to Usability: Human-Computer Interaction. England: Addison-Wesley Longman Limited. Rozinah Jamaludin. 2007. Internet Dalam Pendidikan. Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia. Sharp, Helen & Rogers, Yvonne & Preece, Jenny. 2007. Interaction Design : Beyond Human Computer Interaction. 2nd Ed. London: John Wiley & Sons,Inc. Steel, Christopher , Nagappan,Ramesh & Lai,Ray. 2006. Core Security Patterns: Best Practices and Strategies for J2EE, Web Services, and Identity Management. United States: Pearson Education,Inc. Wildbur, Peter. 1979. International Trademark Design: A Handbook of Marks Identity. London: Barrie and Jenkins Ltd.

Muhamad Faisal Asha’ari, Bushral Huda Abd Manan, Norlizam Md. Sukiban & Hidayah Rahmalan Fakulti Pengajian Islam, UKM. Fakulti Teknologi Maklumat, Utem. Emel: [email protected]

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149 The Effectiveness of Person-Centered Therapyand Cognitive Psychology Ad-Din Group Counselling on Self-Concept, Depression and Resilience of Pregnant Out-of-Wedlock Teenagers Fauziah Mohd Sa’ad, Fatimah Yusooff, Salina Nen & Nasrudin Subhi ABSTRACT This study was carried out to assess the effectiveness of Person-centred therapy and Cognitive Psychology Ad-Din group counselling on self concept, depression and resilience of pregnant out-ofwedlock teenagers. This study involved 55 pregnant out-of-wedlock teenagers at three women’s refuge centres which are from KEWAJA, Rhaidatus Sakinah and Taman Seri Puteri Cheras (JKM). Subjects were classed into two treatment groups and one control group. The Multidimensional Self-Concept Scale (MSCS), Beck Depression inventory (BDI) and Adolescent Resiliency Attitude Scale (ARAS) was administered to assess self concept, depression and resilience of pregnant out-of-wedlock teenagers . The control pre and post test design was used for this study. The research data were analyzed using descriptive analysis, ANOVA, MANCOVA and Tuckey Post Hoc with significant level of .01 and .05. All treatment group received group counselling sessions for 7 consecutive week, once in each week. The Person-centred group and Cognitive Psychology Ad-Din group counselling showed significant reduction (pre-test to post-test) on depression, enhancing self concept and resilience of pregnant out-of-wedlock teenagers.

INTRODUCTION Group counseling is one of the interventions to help the teenagers in the counseling process. According to Gladding (2008), described group counseling as having the properties of prevention, development, and healing, and effective treatment effects. Thus the group counseling is an appropriate method to help deal with pregnant teenagers’ psychological problems. The studies conducted by previous researchers showed that pregnant out-of-wedlock teenagers have low self-concept (Pete, 1989; Paik, 1992; Drummond & Hansford, 1990; Pete-McGadney, 1995, Babington et al., 2009 ), high depression (Hack, Youngstrom, chartering et al, 2004; Gilbert, 2007), and low resilience (Guerra, 2010). Studies done by western and national researchers (Wan Abdul Kader, 1994; Abdul Malek, 2004; Sapora, 2007; Aziz Shah, 2008; Sun Choi, 2006; Michele, 1999; Miller et al., 2008 : Smith’s Ad-cock, and Vasiliauskas , 2011) have demonstrated the effectiveness of group counseling in the prevention, treatment and recovery has helped in the process of internal adaptation of their clients. 1607


In Malaysia, pregnancy out of wedlock is against the teachings of Islam and the culture of the country. Therefore, as an alternative to address the problem of teenage girls getting pregnant without marriage is through counseling services, counseling and consulting. Furthermore, when the youth has been in troubled behavior, it will risk them to be trapped in a worse outcome of the more problematic behavior (Burt, Resnick & Novik, 1998). Theory that is made integral to the construction of Person-Centered Group Counseling module was founded by Rogers (1940). The theory states humans will face a problem when a person is in a state of incongruence. This happens when he experienced conflict between selfperceived and actual experience. This theory emphasizes that the counselor should display friendly attitude, empathy, accepting and not punitive in nature (Corey, 2005; Othman, 2005; Wan Abdul Kader, 1986, Sapora, 2008). Among previous researchers who used this theory in their studies are Finney & Maloney, 1988; Andersan, 2000; Harry, 1991, Wan Abdul Kader, 1986 and Sapora, 2008. The second approach is the theory of Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology. This theory was founded by Othman (2001.2005). This theory is using the Islamic approach. Othman (2005), in the treatment of human pathology, understanding and ability to interpret the level and position of the individual nafs are important for counselors to be able to make interventions exploration on the client. Humans will experience low self-concept, high depression and low resilience when the level of the nafs is low. Ma’rifah or knowledge gained through counseling sessions are expected to be able to produce a calm soul and thereby improve self-concept, reduce depression and increase resilience. Previous studies showed a recovery intervention through counseling approach in particular has successfully promoted the development, prevention and cure. (Gadza, 1978). Studies done by western and the domestic researchers (Wan Abdul Kader, 1994; Abdul Malek, 2004; Sapora, 2007; Aziz Shah, 2008; Sun Choi, 2006; Michele, 1999; Miller et al., 2008 : Smith’s Ad-cock, 2008 and Vasiliauskas, 2011) have demonstrated the effectiveness of group counseling in the prevention, treatment and recovery, has helped in the process of internal adaptation of their clients. Therefore, this study will highlight the two modules based on Person-Centered Group Counseling (KKPI) approach and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KKPKAD) approach with emphasis on the development, prevention and healing. Group counseling will be used to improve self-concept (KK), reduce depression (K) and increase resilience (DT) of teenage girls who become pregnant out of wedlock. After the interventions have been conducted, the researchers will measure the effectiveness of interventions carried out.

STUDY PROBLEMS Unwed pregnancy cases in Malaysia is increasingly worrying. Statistics of the National Registration Department (JPN), which was presented by Heng Seai Kie, Deputy Minister of Women, Family and Community Development (2011) in Parliament has shown that a total of 152.182 children borned out of wedlock have been recorded from 2008 to 2010. Sabah recorded highest illegitimate birth with 41.490 people, Selangor with 18.983, 17.570 people in Sarawak, Johor with 16.298 people and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur with 12.095 people (Straits Times, 15 November 2011). Baby dumping cases lately have received wide spread coverage by the media. The phenomenon of baby dumping was recorded involving out of wedlock pregnant teenagers. Statistics of the 1608


Royal Malaysia Police (PDRM), showed 517 babies dumped in the country, ranging from 2005 to 2010. According to the police, this is done as an individual act of unwed pregnant girls who are worried that their vices will be exposed, besides having no place to share their grieves. The reality is,baby dumping cases involving teenagers getting pregnant out of wedlock is one of the country’s social problems that need to be addressed immediately. (Report of the Royal Malaysia Police, February 18, 2011). Therefore there must be an effective intervention to help these teens either at school or community level. Counseling intervention groups will give these youth the opportunity to share their problems with a trained counselor who will help and guide them in making the right decision. Apart from social problems that arise as a result of this act, out of wedlock pregnancy phenomenon can also contribute various types of dangerous diseases in the community. As a result of this illegitimate pregnancy can cause other sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis, HIV and hepatitis B. Report of the General Hospital Kuala Lumpur in August 2006 showed that the number of unmarried mothers rised from 202 in 2000 to 388 in 2005. Report of the Ministry of Health in 2002 also reported 7.000 new cases of HIV detected involving those aged less than 25 years old. (Utusan Malaysia, 12 April 2007). Therefore, the group counseling intervention approach is vital in helping these youth to enhance self-concept, reduce depression and increase resilience of these youth. In Malaysia, many parties have been involved in a variety of programs concerning the development and prevention interventions to address adolescent social problems. At the school level the role of the Guidance and Counselling Unit is enormous. Services provided by the Guidance and Counselling Unit at the school provide rehabilitation and treatment services as well as enrichment and enhancement services in all aspects of the development of the student. Various programs were conducted under the Guidance and Counselling Unit each year. In addition, the Guidance and Counseling Unit in collaboration with the District Education Office has also organized programs like Personality Enhancement Program, Person Development Camp, motivational programs to address social problems youths. However, the emphasis is not enough because they only emphasize the motivation and activities, but no group counseling. These teens should be given counseling groups to express themselves, with emphasis on self-concept, depression and resilience.

STUDY PURPOSE This study aims to see whether person-centered group counseling and Ad-Din cognitive psychology effectively improve self-concept, reduce depression and increase the resilience of out of wedlock pregnantteenagers.

STUDY HYPOTHESES The following hypotheses were built:

Hypothesis Nol 1 There was no significant difference in the mean size of the pre test and post test of dependent variables; self-concept (KK), depression (K) and resilience (DT) of experimental group compared 1609


to control group of out-of-wedlock pregnant teenagers following the Person-Centered (KKPI) Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling. Hypothesis Nol 1.1 There was no significant difference in the mean size of the pretest and posttestof dependent variables; self-concept (KK) of experimental group compared to control group with the approach of Person-Centered (KKPI)Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling. Hypothesis nol 1.2 There was no significant difference in the mean size of the pretest and posttest of dependent variables, depression (K) experimental group compared with the control group of Person-Centered (KKPI)Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling. Hypothesis nol 1.3 There was no significant difference in the mean size of the pretest and posttest of dependent variables,resilience (R) experimental group compared with the control group Person-Centered (KKPI) Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling.

Hypothesis Nol 2 There was no effect of treatment group centered counseling and group counseling treatment of cognitive psychology Ad-Din on the mean of pretest and posttest of self-concept, resilience and depression of the experimental group and the control group.

STUDY METHODOLOGY Structure of Study This study is quantitative in structure and conducted as an experiment. Quantitative study was to test the hypotheses and the relationship between thestudy variables explicitly (Cresswell and Miller, 2000). According to Azizi and colleagues (2007) experimentis considered as good research design and carried out to test the hypothesis. The design revealed a relationship between more variables or sought for influences of one variable on another variable. In a research,the researchers make one or more hypotheses that specify the nature of the relationship between desired variables. In order to see the effect on a relationship, this study used experimental method in which it is intended to determine the effectof group counselling treatment conducted on dependent variables namely the self-concept,depression and resilience. Study was done based on the experimental quasi experimental design. Experimental study was conducted in experimental and control groups. Analysis of the survey data was in the form of quantitative. Study analysis aimed at measuring the effectiveness of Person-Centered Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling modules on dependent variables of self-concept, depression and resilience of out of wedlock pregnant teenagers. This study used the pre and post test structures. 1610


Underlying the design of this study is quasi-experimental design proposed by Creswell (2008) as in the figure below; GROUP

PRETEST

INTERVENTION

POSTTEST

Control Group Selection

Pretest

No treatment

Posttest

Experimental Group Selection

Pretest

Experimental treatment

Posttest

Study Subjects Subjects consisted of 55 out of wedlock pregnant teenagers and selected by purposive sampling. The subjects have certain characteristics such as low self-concept of high depression and low resilience. The subjects did not follow any group counseling and have dangerous diseases. They must agree to follow the program and will not openly discuss anything related to the group counseling treatment during the treatment session.

Study Place The study was conducted in three women’s shelters; Raidhatul Sakinah, KEWAJA and Taman Seri Puteri Cheras (JKM).

Study Instruments Study questionnaire The questionnaire consists of three questionnaires: 1) Multidimensional Self Concept Scale (SKKM) ii) Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) iii) Adolescent Resiliency Attitudes Scale (SDTR). Multidimensional Self Concept Scale (SKKM) was built by Bracken (1992, 1996). Multidimensional self-concept inventory has six subscales; the social self, self-competence, self-feeling, academic self, family self and physical self. The reliability of measurement instrument measured by Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient value is .875. This study used the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), which was created by Beck et al. in 1961 and renewed in 1967. The researchers used Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) questionnaires for this questionnaire is in accordance with the depression theory put forward by Beck which is the Beck Cognitive Theory.The researchers have used Cronbach Alpha to test the reliability of Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Alpha value obtained was 0.826 which is at 0.05 confidence level. Resilience can be measured through a Adolescent Resiliency Attitudes Scale (ARAS) questionnaire designed by Biscoe and Harris (1995). ARAS measures resilience with seven subscales of insight, independence, relationships, initiative, creativity and humor, morality and self perseverance. The reliability of measurement instrument measured by Alpha Cronbach, alpha reliability coefficient value = 0.786 and at 0.05 confidence level. Counseling Session Module Group counseling modules used are person-centered group counseling module and group counseling module with Ad-Din cognitive psychology approach.

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Study Procedure Researchers will conduct Person-Centered Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology interventions for 7 sessions. Each session runs for an hour and a half to 2 hours. Before the start of the first session the researchers will give the pretest. After the end of the seventh session the researcher will give the posttest. Statistical Data Analysis Data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social package Science version 17.0 for Windows. Data were analyzed using inferential statistics (ANOVA, MANOVA and Tukey’s type Post-Hoc at the significant level 0.5) and descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used. Research Variables Independent variables in this study were two types of group counseling interventions which are Person-Centered Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology. Dependent variables are self-concept, depression and resilience.

RESULT AND ANALYSIS The use of statistical methods in this study is considered important because it is able to understand the character or nature of the data and explains to get some easy insight for this experiment. In addition to test the hypothesis of theory development, it is also to describe as well as draw conclusions on the subscales of self-concept variables, resilience and depression. Hence the hypotheses tests are described as below.

Hypothesis Nol 1 There was no significant difference in the mean size of the treatment effect in the pretest and posttest of the dependent variables; self-concept (KK), depression (K) and resilience (DT) of the experimental group compared with the control group of out of wedlock pregnant teenagers who were followingthe Person-Centered Group Counseling (KKPI) and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling. Hypothesis test was conducted with two methods which were one-way ANOVA and MANCOVA. One-way ANOVA was used to see the mean scores comparison of pretest and posttest while MANCOVA method, which analyzed the effect of treatment in the treatment group and the control group in both methods of group counseling approach;Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling and Person-Centered Group Counseling (KKPI). Thus the MANCOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Covariance) statistical analysis was used. This is because the pretest data is covariate and posttest data is variate. Statistical testing is intended to analyze the differences between the scores of the three variables of the study; the self-concept, resilience and depression in the treatment group and the control group. Presentation of line analysis diagram is used to show the change of scores for data pre-test and posttest. Further, if the finding of MANCOVA analysis is significant Tukey types post hoc is then conducted to see the impact of treatments on the treatment group. 1612


Based on the main hypothesis, the researchers built minor hypotheses based on subscales of each key variableof study for detailed mean scores of pretest and posttest results analysis before testing the effectiveness of treatment with MANCOVA statistics. As to the hypotheses, they are as follow: Hypothesis Nol 1.1 There was no significant difference in the mean size of the pretest and posttest of dependent variable; self-concept (KK) experimental group compared with the control group of PersonCentered Group Counseling (KKPI) and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling. Results of the analysis of pretest and posttest of the study variables as in Table 1 is a summary of the descriptive analysis which show the increase in mean of posttest scores from pretest mean scores of the study main variables which is the self-concept between the treatment group than the control group. TABLE 1. Summary of Descriptive Analysis of Pretest and Posttest Mean Score of Primary Dependent Variables Self Concept with Person-Centered Group Counseling (KKPI) and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling. Variable

Approach

Self Concept

Mean

Person-Centered Group Counseling (KKPI)

Pretest

Posttest

2.24 (0.72)

4.47 (0.58)

2.44(0.230

4.01(0.47)

Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology group counseling(KAD) ( ) = standard deviation

While the one-way ANOVA summary shows significant differences betweenPerson-Centered Group Counseling (KKPI) and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology (KAD) group counseling with the control group (KK). This shows that the treatment effect between Person-Centered Group Counseling and Ad-Din Cognitive Psychology in the pre and post testing on self-concept {F (1.18) = 25.30, p