perspectives for solar energy - DEnzero - Debreceni Egyetem

DENZERO International Conference 9-10 October 2014, Debrecen, Hungary

PROCEEDINGS OF DENZERO INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE, VOLUME 2 9-10 OCTOBER 2014, DEBRECEN, HUNGARY

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY BY OPTIMAL INTEGRATION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

TÁMOP-4.2.2.A-11/1/KONV-2012-0041

FENNTARTHATÓ ENERGETIKA MEGÚJULÓ ENERGIAFORRÁSOK OPTIMALIZÁLT INTEGRÁLÁSÁVAL ii


iii


Scientific Committee

Bodnár, Ildikó (Hungary) Brumaru, Mariana (Romania) Csík, Árpád (Hungary) Csoknyai, Tamás (Hungary) Csomós, György (Hungary) De Carli, Michele (Italy) Fodor, László (Hungary) Husi, Géza (Hungary) Jóhannesson, Gudni (Iceland) Kalmár, Ferenc (Hungary) Kerényi, Attila (Hungary) Kozma, Gábor (Hungary) Lakatos, Ákos (Hungary) Rabenseifer, Roman (Slovakia) Szász, Csaba (Romania) Szegedi, Sándor (Hungary) Szűcs, Edit (Hungary)

iv


Published by University of Debrecen 4032 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1 Telefon (Faculty of Engineering): +36 (52) 415155 Fax (Faculty of Engineering): +36 (52) 418643 www.eng.unideb.hu Printed in Hungary ISBN: 978-963-473-736-0

v


CONTENT Mariana Brumaru STRATEGIES AND RESERVE POTENTIAL IN BUILDING RENOVATION ............................. 1 Roman Rabenseifer LOW-EMISSIVITY LAYERS IN GLAZING SYSTEMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ....................... 14 Franco Coren, Tamás Csoknyai, Árpád Csík, János Balázs MOBILE LOW COST THERMAL SYSTEM FOR MAPPING ...................................................... 25 Gabriele Bitelli, Tamas Csoknyai URBAN ENERGETICS APPLICATIONS AND GEOMATIC TECHNOLOGIES IN A SMART CITY PERSPECTIVE ....................................................................................................................... 34 Attila Kerekes, András Zöld THE FIANCÉE IS UNDULY BEAUTIFUL .................................................................................... 52 András Zöld, Dominika Kassai-Szoó EFFECTS OF ENERGY COLLECTING ELEMENTS ON THE ENERGY BALANCE OF BUILDINGS AND URBAN CLIMATE ........................................................................................... 64 Sándor Szegedi, István Lázár, Tamás Tóth EFFECTS OF MARCROSYNOPTIC WEATHER TYPES ON DEVELOPMENT OF THERMAL EXCESS IN SUBURBAN AREAS OF DEBRECEN ...................................................................... 75 Gábor Kozma, Mariann Marincsák, Balázs Kulcsár THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HUNGARIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY AND SPATIAL TENDENCIES BETWEEN 2000 AND 2012 .............................................................83 Ernő Molnár, János Pénzes, Károly Teperics, Zsolt Radics BUILDING ENERGETICS INVESTMENTS IN HUNGARY IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE NEW HUNGARY DEVELOPMENT PLAN.................................................................................... 93 Orsolya Bányai THE MAIN RESULTS OF A LEGAL RESEARCH ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY LAW ....... 104 vi


Szilárd Szabó, Péter Enyedi, György Szabó, István Fazekas, Tamás Buday, Attila Kerényi, Mónika Paládi, Nikoletta Mecser, Gergely Szabó LIDAR BASED ASSESSMENT OF ROOFS – PERSPECTIVES FOR SOLAR ENERGY ........ 114 Tamás Buday, György Szabó, István Fazekas, Mónika Paládi, Szilárd Szabó, Gergely Szabó, Attila Kerényi ANNUAL PATTERN OF THE COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE CONSIDERING SEVERAL HEAT PUMP TYPES AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES .............. 123 András Zöld WIND DRIVEN ACTIVE VENTILATION ................................................................................... 132 Sándor Hámori, Ferenc Kalmár THE EFFECT OF THE HYDRAULIC BALANCING ON THE ENERGY DEMAND OF A REFURBISHED BUILDING .......................................................................................................... 141 Imre Csáky, Ferenc Kalmár INDOOR TEMPERATURE MONITORING IN EAST ORIENTATION OFFICES .................... 155 Dr. Géza Husi, Dr. Péter Szemes, István Bartha, Sándor Piros, Attila Vitéz RECENT RESEARCH RESULTS OF ADVANCED BUILDING AUTOMATION .................... 165 Árpád Csík MACHINE BASED OPTIMIZATION OF BUILDING REFURBISHMENTS: A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY ................................................................................................................................. 174 Emil Varga, Attila Kerekes, Andrea Matkó BUILDING ENERGETICS PROGRAM (SOFTWARE) ............................................................... 183 Norbert Boros,, Andrea Szabolcsik, Ildikó Bodnár GREYWATER TREATMENT AND REUSE POSSIBILITIES IN HOUSEHOLDS ................... 193 Andrea Szabolcsik, Edina Baranyai, Ildikó Bodnár UTILIZATION OF MODERN ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR THE ANALYSIS OF HOUSEHOLD GENERATED GREYWATER SAMPLES ........................................................... 201

vii


Gabriella Antal, Erika Kurucz, Miklós G. Fári ALTERNATIVES OF BIOENERGY FEEDSTOCK PRODUCTION BASED ON PROMISING NEW PERENNIAL RHIZOMATOUS GRASSES AND HERBACEOUS SEMISHRUB CROPS IN HUNGARY ................................................................................................................................ 213 Gabriella Antal, Erika Kurucz, Miklós G. Fári REQUIREMENTS, RESULTS AND PROBLEMS OF LARGE-SCALE IN VITRO BIOMASS PLANT PROPAGATION................................................................................................................ 224

viii


LIST OF AUTHORS András Zöld Andrea Matkó Andrea Szabolcsik Árpád Csík Attila Kerekes Attila Kerényi Attila Vitéz Balázs Kulcsár Dominika KassaiSzoó Edina Baranyai Emil Varga Erika Kurucz Ernő Molnár Ferenc Kalmár Franco Coren Gábor Kozma Gabriele Bitelli Gabriella Antal Gergely Szabó Géza Husi György Szabó Ildikó Bodnár Imre Csáky István Bartha

52, 183 193, 25, 52, 114, 165 83 64 201 183 213, 93 141, 25 83 34 213, 114, 165 114, 193, 155 165

István Fazekas István Lázár János Balázs János Pénzes Károly Teperics Mariana Brumaru Mariann Marincsák Miklós G. Fári Mónika Paládi Nikoletta Mecser Norbert Boros Orsolya Bányai Péter Enyedi Péter Szemes Roman Rabenseifer Sándor Hámori Sándor Piros Sándor Szegedi Szilárd Szabó Tamás Buday Tamás Csoknyai Tamás Tóth Zsolt Radics

64, 132 201 174 183 123

224 155

224 123 123 201

ix

114, 123 75 25 93 93 1 83 213, 224 114, 123 114 193 104 114 165 14 141 165 75 114, 123 114, 123 25, 34 75 93


STRATEGIES AND RESERVE POTENTIAL IN BUILDING RENOVATION Mariana BRUMARU, Professor Dr. Affiliation; TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA, ROMANIA email: [email protected] KEYWORDS: energy efficiency, building renovation, benefits, barriers, renovation strategy, renewable energy Abstract: Buildings are the single largest end-user of energy, their demand being forecast to grow by almost 30% by 2035. The building sector also holds the largest untapped potential for energy saving, out of which 80% is not addressed today [1]. Solutions for building renovation and the attached strategies are now persistently discussed, based on the articles introduced by the 2010 EPBD recast and the Directive 2012/27/EU (EED) that provide a framework to MS in driving the reduction of energy use in buildings, thereby delivering a range of key benefits. The Commission reports generally show that too little progress has been made, if compared to the 2020 target and to the longer term objectives for 2050. The paper analyzes the state-of-the-art in achieving the high energy performance/nZEB standard in building design and renovation, providing an overall picture that helps professionals to get clear ideas about the necessary actions for the future development.

1. The general context The EU is committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in residential and services sectors, therefore better construction and use of buildings would influence 42% of the final energy consumption, about 35% of the carbon emissions, more than 50% of all extracted materials and could save up to 30% of water consumption [2]. In these circumstances, 80% of potential energy savings in the buildings sector are still not addressed today, at least because of two main reasons: the buildings’ diversity: old and new, public and private, ownership and functional diversity etc. and the complex and fragmented value chain, involving energy suppliers, utilities, building operators, real-estate companies, owners, tenants, investors etc. The potential for achieving energy savings in the EU presumably amounts at 65 to 95 Mtoe in 2020, with the perspective of accumulated energy savings to rise in 2030 at 127-190 Mtoe, depending on the level of investment in energy renovation of buildings [3]. The common framework within which Member States (MS) are required to set standards and provide performance levels for energy use in buildings is given by the main EU directives. These documents are setting numerous requirements for buildings in general, as well as minimum energy performance standards for buildings undergoing renovation, alongside with the requirement for MS to develop long-term renovation strategies for progressively transform their national building stock into an energy performing and climate neutral built environment.

1


Net-zero energy design is an iterative and collaborative process, setting clear expectations, where the integrated team consists of the owner, architect, engineer, contractor and others if the case is. All interested factors must have a clear understanding of how the building will be designed, built and operated with well defined high-performance goals. This vision requires the traditional design to evolve in a more integrative and holistic process. Reduction in CO2 emissions from buildings by 80% by 2050 compared to 2010 is achievable through a combination of energy efficiency measures and widespread deployment of renewable energy resources in and on buildings. Although the social and environmental urgency of a large-scale integrated retrofitting of the European building stock is widely acknowledged and supported by the Member States, devising a structural, large-scale retrofitting process and systemic approach is still a complex target, largely discussed - sometimes in a controversial way - and permanently open to improvements [4].

2. Benefits, barriers and challenges The impacts of undertaking sustainable energy renovation of buildings are reaching into many areas of the economy and society and can be summarised in a number of clear benefits (Table 1) [5]. Table 1. DOMAIN

BENEFIT ● energy cost saving

ECONOMIC

● job creation ● investment stimulation

Benefits of building renovation 1

RELEVANT DATA ● Net energy cost savings: € 1,300 bn up to 2050 ● 1.1 mil additional jobs up to 2050 ● Total investment: € 940 bn up to 2050

● Investment

● increased property values

● Energy + cost saving

● impact on GDP ● growth of R&D, industrial competitiveness & export ● impact on public finances

● Increase of €33.8 bn in 2020 (+2.7% compared to the baseline)

● Positive impact on public budgets, equivalent to 0.5-1.0% of GDP ● e.g.: achievement of 2020 targets could reduce Ireland’s energy costs by €2.3 bn/year

● reduced fuel poverty

SOCIETAL

● Investment ● Policy

● increased economic activity

● reduction of energy import bill

1

BASED ON: ● Energy efficiency

● health

● could be more than the energy cost savings, ● reduce by 87% the households to be in fuel poverty in 2016 in the UK

● Economic activity ● Stimulation of building renovation ● Investment in building retrofit ● Positive impact on the country’s balance of payments ● Deep building renovation make energy bills affordable ● Reduction of fuel poverty, healthier homes (less condensation/mould, improved indoor air

Source: [5] A Guide to Developing Building Renovation Strategies”, BPIE, February 2013 2


● savings by reducing economic losses through missed work ● increased comfort and productivity

MENTAL

ENVIRON

● carbon saving

● reduced air pollution

ENERGY SYSTEM

● energy security ● avoided new generation capacity

● reduced peak loads

● deep energy renovation could bring a reduction of carbon emissions from regulated energy use between 71-90% ● improved climate change policies can result in £24 bn by 2050 in the UK

quality etc.) ● Homes and workplaces easier to maintain at comfortable temperatures ● Deep energy renovation scenario

● Reducing the need for energy produced from fossil fuels ● Reducing energy demand ● achieving the 20% energy ● Energy efficiency efficiency target avoid construction of deployment equivalent 1000 coal fired power stations or 500.000 wind turbine installations ● Energy demand reduction measures

As opposed to the multiple benefits presented above, there are a series of obstacles preventing the uptake of renovation measures. This aspect was carefully analyzed in some of the BPIE2 studies wherefrom a summary of the main type of barriers is presented in Table 2 [5]. Table 2.

Main types of barriers in building renovation (Source: BPIE [5]) ● Access to finance ● Payback expectations

1.

● Investment horizon FINANCIAL

● Competing expenditure

BARRIERS

● Adequacy of price signals ● Regulatory and planning issues 2.

INSTITUTIONAL&ADMINISTRATIVE

● Institutional ● Structural ● Multiple stakeholders ● Information

3.

● Awareness of benefits

AWARENESS ADVICE&SKILLS

● Professional skills 4.

SEPARATION OF EXPENDITURE AND BENEFIT

● Landlord-tenant ● Investor-society

2

Building Performance Institute Europe 3


Many barriers exist to greater uptake of energy saving opportunities, including poor market transparency, limited access to capital and risk aversion/rejection. Buildings face major risks of damage from the projected impacts of climate change, likely to have significant regional variations in their intensity and nature. There are also barriers coming from occupants’ behaviour, awareness and information, ownership transfer issues etc. which should be assessed when designing renovation strategies and solutions to each of them should be identified. The new and updated EU directives indicate some urgency in tackling impediments to achieving the 2020 targets that could be obstructed by legislative ambiguities and superficial implementation at the national level – a notorious drawback of lots of well-intentioned EU Directives [6].

3. Building the long term renovation strategy The requirement for all MS to set out national strategies for the renovation of building stocks has triggered the move and concerted the efforts towards the analysis of all the factors that might impact the successful development of such strategy, mainly through increasing the energy efficiency by tapping the possible resources of any kind. A certain number of key steps in the development of such strategy are considered, divided into phases [5]: ● the preparation phase – should include establishing the project team, the identification of stakeholders and data gathering concerning: the building stock, treated by typology, energy use, current level of energy performance and identification of the barriers; ● the technical and economic appraisal comprehend the evaluation of the technical potential for improving the energy performance of the building stock and a range of renovation options/scenarios are appraised and priced. The following steps may be considered: building stock analysis, appraisal of renovation options and their cost, rate and depth of renovation, renovation scenarios, development of a long-term investment horizon and quantification of the expected benefits Delivering the long-term renovation strategy requires a fundamental review of the existing policy background and the introduction of new policies and measures that were not yet addressed.

4

DENZERO International Conference

Nr. of MS

9-10 October 2014, Debrecen, Hungary

Fig. 1: Main policies and measures in support of nZEB in the MS (Source:EC Report [7]) Although most Member States reported a variety of support measures to promote NZEBs, including financial incentives, strengthening their building regulations, awareness raising activities and demonstration/pilot projects (Fig.1), it is not always clear to what extent these measures specifically target NZEBs. Mandatory renovation requirements at national or local levels, mechanisms that simplify the investment environment, tailor-made economic support measures to overcome the upfront capital and owners’ purchasing power are some of the measures that should be considered when elaborating national long-term renovation roadmaps. 3.4 Drafting and consulting on the renovation strategy This phase brings together the previous two phases – the technical and economic appraisal and the policy measures – in order to elaborate roadmaps for the long term renovation of the national building stock. Once the strategy is drafted, with a range of options, it is highly recommendable that a consultation with the key stakeholders – representatives from the entire value chain - to be undertaken. After getting the feedback from the consultation phase, the renovation strategy can be finalised, published and delivered.

4. Renovation scenarios The main variables that influence the pathways for building renovation are: the rate of renovation (% of the building stock renovated in a given year), the depth of renovation (minor, moderate, deep, nZEB) and the cost of renovation, which varies with depth. The renovation depth, i.e. the proportion of energy savings achieved through a renovation is one of the key variables in terms of activity. Looking at the current depth of renovation undertaken in Europe, evidence points to the minor category. Deep renovations, where they occur, are frequently pilots or demonstration projects to assess the viability of achieving energy savings of 60% or more and to provide a learning 5


opportunity. The main variables concerning renovation rates are: the speed at which renovation activity ramps up, the percentage of stock to be renovated and the duration of the strategy. Various renovation scenarios can be modelled based on combinations of renovation rates and renovation depths. Each country may establish the own strategy in this respect, but studies have demonstrated that the deeper the renovation level, the better the results are if regarded from the most important points of view. Taking the example from the strategy set up by BPIE for Romania [1], there are four scenarios to be considered (Table 3): baseline, modest, intermediate and ambitious. The resulting costs, savings and other benefits are presented in Table 3.

Societal benefits

Carbon emissions

Lifetime costs and benefits

Energy savings

Table 3. Results of scenarios analysis – source BPIE (Source: BPIE [1]) SAVINGS AND OTHER BENEFITS SCENARIO Energy saving in 2050 Energy saving in 2050 compared to 2010 Investment costs up to 2050 Cumulative energy cost savings Net saving to consumer (at 8% discount rate) Net saving to society (at 4% discount rate) Internal rate of return Annual CO2 savings in 2050 2050 CO2 saved (% of 2010) CO2 abatement cost Employment generated

BASELINE 8.5

MODEST 31.1

INTERM. 44.8

AMBITIOUS 63.2

8.3

30.4

43.8

61.8

€ million (NPV3) € million (NPV) € million (NPV)

2,084

5,486

9,224

16,540

5,414

16,726

25,164

37,011

3,333

11,248

15,954

20,496

€ million (NPV) IRR MtCO2/yr

17,143

67,586

93,862

126,408

14.6 3

14.4 22

13.6 24

11.4 25

12

79

83

89

€/tCO2

-138

-40

-54

-70

Average jobs/year

4,403

15,854

24,888

39,726

TWh/yr %

%

The financial appraisal of the scenarios is presented synthetically in Fig.2:

3

Net present value 6


140000 120000

€M (present value)

100000 80000 60000

Investment

40000

Energy cost savings

20000

Net savings to consumers (8% discount rate) Net savings to society (4% discount rate)

0 -20000

Baseline

Modest

Intermediate

Ambitious

Fig. 2 Financial comparison of scenarios (Source: BPIE [1])

5. Sources for energy saving Fully justified, the retrofitting of the building envelope components and of the building systems took the stage from the very beginning, as the bulk of energy savings comes from here. The effectiveness of these sources is somehow stationary at the moment and may be triggered only as new materials and technologies emerge. It is a fact that, whatever the source for reducing the energy consumption would be, is worth it to benefit from, but it is only in the latest period when researchers grant a bigger importance to all the potential sources for energy saving, regardless of the size of their impact. These sources should be better acknowledged and harnessed, as many of them need little or no investment. According to the specific phase in a building’s life, the factors that impact the energy efficiency may come from any of the following phases: design, execution, service life or removal and recycling, some of them being further analyzed. 5.1 Building/energy codes The first condition towards improved energy is the reinforcement of current building codes by a gradual increase of the energy performance requirements as well as their systematic enforcement and compliance controls. Incorporating energy-related requirements during the design or retrofit phase of a building is a key driver for implementing energy efficiency measures, which in turn highlights the role of building energy codes in reducing CO2 emissions and reaching the energy saving potential of buildings. While the carbon emissions of buildings and their respective energy demand will be reduced and the renewable energy use increased, it is recommended to introduce an additional requirement in building codes concerning related CO2 emissions. Introducing a threshold 7


for CO2 emissions will ensure not only coherence and integration of climate, energy and buildings requirements, but also secure the sustainable development of building sector. There is clear evidence that legislation can shape market behaviour. Policymakers can use regulatory tools to promote energy efficiency investment and also can facilitate competition for high-efficiency buildings. There is also a need for clarity and certainty before investing, very much helped by the enforcement of existing regulations, even with penalties imposed for not complying with certain requirements. The best way to implement a building energy codes policy is for a governmental co-ordination body to ensure the development of training tools and compliance software and give the stakeholders free access to them. 5.2 Skills The quality of execution and management strongly (but not only) depend on training and qualification of the personnel involved: technicians and engineers dealing with site supervision, skilled workers dealing with the construction and facility managers dealing with the operation of a building. It is crucial the quality of execution to comply with the quality of the building design, therefore qualified skilled workers are important to ensure this quality in terms of building energy performance. In this respect, BUILD UP Skills project [8] addressing the training of 4 to 4.4 million workers in the construction industry across the EU is a new strategic initiative under IEE programme, having the objective to set up national qualification platforms and roadmaps to successfully train the building workforce in order to meet the targets for 2020 and beyond. The second step is that, based on the roadmaps, to facilitate the introduction of new qualifications (concerning new technologies and use of renewable energy in buildings) and/or upgrading of existing qualification and training schemes. The skills needed to build nZEB may require or not highly specialized skills, depending on the circumstances, but there is a need the current workforce to be further trained, especially when it comes to the correct execution of construction details and issues such as air tightness and thermal bridges. The example of thermal bridges [9] has two major issues of concern: increased energy losses and the risk of condensation and/or mould problems. Both aspects create a need for training of designers and craftsmen on how to minimize such problems, especially within the context of nZEB. The possible errors are not easy to identify and prove, it is therefore important to have a formal framework allowing checks at building level. There are also important legal requirements that, once implemented, will produce the need for training the designers and installers. 5.3 Operation and maintenance The true measure of high performance is assessed over the operational life of the building, as it should be understood that quality design alone does not necessarily produce high-performance buildings without correct operation and maintenance procedures. 5.3.1 Air infiltration and air quality control Air leaks can waste a lot of energy. A thorough and accurate measurement of air leakage in a home may be made through a blower door test or, in a more simple way, it may be tested on a windy day, carefully holding a lit incense stick or a smoke pen next to the windows, doors, electrical boxes, 8


plumbing fixtures, electrical outlets, ceiling fixtures, attic hatches and other places where air may leak. If the smoke stream travels horizontally, an air leak has been located that may need sealing or weather stripping. Some recommendations for improved air tightness are very simple actions, like: • replacement of door bottoms and thresholds with ones that have pliable sealing gaskets; • keeping the fireplace flue damper tightly closed when not in use; • sealing air leaks around fireplace chimneys, furnaces and gas-fired water heater vents with fire-resistant materials. Indoor air quality impacts energy consumption and plays a crucial role in occupants’ health. Depending on the building type and climate, filtration of outdoor air can prove energy intensive. A common strategy that high-performance buildings employ is demand-control ventilation, but if the sequences of operations or sensor calibration are not properly performed, may negatively impact the air quality. The role of an integrated design team, including the mechanical engineer and control system integrator, is to clearly communicate a sequence of operations for the HVAC controls and establish adequate sensor calibration procedures to ensure air quality [10]. 5.3.2 HVAC system Heating and cooling uses more energy and costs more money than any other system in a home, typically making up about 48% of the utility bill. Just like any building system or piece of equipment, HVAC system performance decreases over time, for different reasons. Occupancy changes, regular wear and tear, weather and seasonal temperature fluctuations, other building system upgrades, routine HVAC maintenance, outdated technology and building operators who do not fully understand the system can all affect the performance of the HVAC system. Some measures that proved to be beneficial are the following: • Regular HVAC audits may help extend the life of an HVAC system, keep tenants and occupants more comfortable and identify potential problems early. • Annual system check-ups often reveal operational deficiencies and problems that might need to be fixed. • No matter what kind of heating and cooling system is employed, saving money and increasing the comfort is possible by properly maintaining and upgrading the equipment within a “whole-house approach”. This approach considers the house as an energy system with interdependent parts, each of which affects the performance of the entire system. It also takes the occupants, site and local climate into consideration. To ensure that a new or renovated home takes full advantage of a whole-house system approach, it should be implemented from the beginning of the design process. • The designer can perform a whole-house computer simulation that compares multiple combinations of variables to arrive at the most cost-effective and energy-efficient solution. These variables include: site conditions, local climate, appliances and home electronics insulation and air sealing, lighting and daylighting, space heating and cooling, water heating, windows, doors and skylights. By combining proper equipment maintenance and upgrades with recommended insulation, air sealing and heating control measures (thermostat settings), about 30% on the energy bill can be saved while reducing environmental emissions. 9


5.3.3 Lighting Electric lighting is a major energy consumer, therefore switching to energy-efficient lighting is one of the fastest ways to cut energy bills. Using less electric lighting reduces heat gain, thus saving airconditioning energy and improving thermal comfort. Significant energy savings are possible using energy efficient equipment, effective controls and careful design. Timers and motion sensors save even more, by reducing the amount of time lights are on, but not being used. New technologies and systems - from the ability to adjust lighting levels for individual users to a range of automated and wireless controls - help reduce emissions and improve the quality of life for building occupants. There are many choices in energy-efficient lighting, the principle solutions being the following: • Replacing traditional incandescent bulbs with compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs), that can last up to three times longer. • Replacing old fluorescent tubes with efficient fluorescent tubes in local government and commercial buildings. • Using light emitting diode (LED) technology wherever possible. This is getting steadily cheaper and more accessible. • Although they can initially cost more than traditional incandescent bulbs, during their lifetime they save money because they use less energy. However, it should be carefully looking at how different systems interact and how to persuade users to change their behaviour in order to avoid missing both, business and climate change mitigation opportunities. 5.3.4 Metering and monitoring Evaluating the actual performance of a building, i.e. post-occupancy evaluation of building operations is vital, therefore a measurement and verification process should be standard practice for all high-performance building projects. The data can be harvested through utility meters and system submeters, building automation trend analysis or with portable data logging devices. Commissioning the submeters to confirm that they are designed, installed and calibrated to operate as intended is critical to ensure that high-integrity data is being harvested for analysis [10]. Measurement tools can sort the various steps that should be taken to save energy (according to the energy efficiency of the existing buildings), also suggesting building contractors and decision makers what to take into account when working on new projects and elaborating government programmes, respectively when implementing incentives in accordance with energy efficiency. An energy information system provides continuous feedback on utility performance enabling the personnel to target areas ready for energy conservation. The measuring and monitoring information is centralized by the company owing the system that generates monthly reports on consumption and costs for all utilities. Costs per square meter against similarly designed and used buildings can be compared. Each property, on an annual basis, also gets printouts for all the other properties, for comparison. The information is reviewed during an annual assessment visitation process of each property that covers several areas of engineering operation, including energy management. However, until now there has been no common methodology on how to measure energy efficiency or evaluate the savings achieved by it [4]. 10


5.4 Users behaviour Energy consumption is driven by wide ranging human behaviour, i.e. the users’ preferences, that vary across populations (e.g. by age, income), households of different sizes etc. Behaviour change measures can deliver sustained savings of between 5% and 10% of all energy use, but scenarios indicate that for developed countries, lifestyle and behavioural changes could reduce energy demand by up to 20% in the short term and up to 50% of present levels, by 2050 [11]. The human side of energy efficiency requires a multi-branch strategy to be set up and properly operated. There are numerous types of actions that may be carried on, among which: • installation of a programmable thermostat to lower utility bills and for the efficient management of heating and cooling systems ; • lowering the thermostat on the water heater; • taking short showers instead of baths; • using low-flow showerheads; • washing only full loads of dishes and clothes; • plugging home electronics, such as TVs and DVD players, into power strips; turning the power strips off when the equipment is not in use; • air drying clothes; • checking if windows and doors are closed when heating or cooling is on; • looking for energy-efficient light bulbs, home appliances, electronics and other energy efficient products. Looking at the various programmes implemented across Europe to test measures or packages of measures targeting consumer behaviour, a number of factors which are important to render these measures effective would be: • Application of behavioural measures in combination, when they are most effective. Successful combinations can include elements such as: regular feedback about energy consumption and information about energy saving measures, personalised advice and goal setting; • Community based projects; • Public organisations may play a key role; • Adequate energy market structure to be put in place; • Long-term monitoring of behavioural changes. 6. Conclusions In order to significantly progress on its way for energy-efficient renovation and drastic fall of CO2 emissions, the building sector needs to better understand its energy consumption and potential reductions. Transposing the EPBD recast as well as the requirements of other EC Directives into national legislation is an important step towards boosting building renovation, even if the implementation is not yet strong in all Member States and still has to be significantly improved. The research results are highlighting the activities in need of improvement, also targeting less usual/traditional sources for energy saving to be tapped for making the most of the buildings energy performance. Synthetically, the main conclusions resulting from the above analysis may be formulated as follows: 11


● Besides the clear benefits, barriers and risks should also be correctly assessed and dealt with in the design phase and solutions to each should be identified to achieve the 2020 target with minimum obstructions. ● Building the long term renovation strategy is a multi-sided process, with multiple factors that diversely impact its successful development. The key steps are divided into phases covering the whole process, out of which the technical and economic appraisal as well as the policy appraisal are the most complex phases addressing building stock analysis, renovation options&costs, rate and depth, quantification of the expected benefits as well as the fundamental review of the existing policy background and the introduction of new policies and measures that were not yet addressed. Mechanisms that simplify the investment environment are also necessary to be put in place. ● Designing the renovation scenarios is a critical part of the technical and economic appraisal, having as main variables the rate, depth and cost of renovation. Going for fast but shallow renovation, increases savings on the short term but locks in the economic potential for renovation in the future, therefore deep retrofits will be crucial to achieving lasting values. ● Besides the retrofitting of building components and systems, there are many less traditional sources for energy saving arising from all the stages of a building’s life cycle: design, execution, operation and removal, among which the following may be remarked: - implementation of improved building energy codes and enforcement of their application, to help shaping the market and to provide clarity and certainty before investing. This should be sustained by the development of training tools and compliance software, freely accessible by the stakeholders; - in order to reach high energy performance of buildings and/or nZEB standards, qualified skilled workers are important to ensure that design and execution will comply in quality, evidencing the need for continuing training of the designers and installers; - significant energy saving may be achieved during many of the building operation and maintenance activities, among which particularly important are the measures for preventing air infiltration, keeping HVAC systems under control, making lighting as economic as possible and carefully acquiring and using appliances. Metering and monitoring with adequate measurement tools/energy information systems will help take appropriate measures for both, energy saving and future approaches like: new projects, elaboration of government programmes and implementing incentives in accordance with energy efficiency; ● Finally, user’s behaviour is definitely a major source of either, wasting or saving energy. Behavioural changes are costless and totally depend on inhabitants’ awareness and willingness to comply with some simple rules. Effective measures in changing consumers’ behaviour are: successful combinations of behavioural measures (regular feedback about energy consumption and information about energy saving measures, personal advice and goal settings), community-based projects, long-term monitoring of behavioural changes etc. There are still many good practices among EU MS that should be highlighted and publicly shared to facilitate knowledge sharing in the process of developing long term renovation strategies. In order to develop effective and viable renovation plans, MS should elaborate standing and predictable policy and regulatory framework, periodically re-evaluated and improved. Mandatory renovation requirements at national or local levels, mechanisms that simplify the investment environment, tailor-made economic support measures to overcome the barrier of high up-front 12


capital and owners’ purchasing power, are some of the measures that should receive serious consideration in national long-term renovation roadmaps.

Acknowledgments The work is supported by the TÁMOP-4.2.2.A-11/1/KONV-2012-0041 project. The project is cofinanced by the European Union and the European Social Fund.

References 1. Staniaszek D., Filippos A., Anastasiu B., Danciu S., Faber M, Marian C., Nolte I., Ralpf O. (2014), Renovating Romania – a strategy for the energy renovation of Romania’s building stock, BPIE 2. Anastasiu B., Koulumpi I. & all. (2013) Boosting Building Renovation – an Overview of Good Practices, BPIE 3. * * * (2012) Multiple benefits of investing in energy efficient renovation of buildings, Copenhagen Economics, 5 October 2012, Report commissioned by Renovate Europe 4. Brumaru M. (2013), Key Aspects of Building Thermal Renovation, the C60 International Conference “Tradition and Innovation – 60 Years of Education in Constructions in Transylvania” 5. Staniaszek D. & all. (2013) A Guide to Developing Building Renovation Strategies”, BPIE 6. * * * (2013) Investing in energy efficiency in Europe’s buildings, a report from the Economist Intelligence Unit, The Economist 7. * * * (2013) Progress by Member States towards Nearly Zero-Energy Buildings, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council 8. * * * BUILD UP Skills – ENERGY TRAINING FOR BUILDERS, project under Intelligent Energy Europe programme, calls for proposals 2013-2014 (ongoing), www.buildupskills.eu 9. * * * (2014) Towards improved quality in energy efficient buildings through better workers’ skills and effective enforcement, A view of the Concerted Action EPBD on Challenges and Opportunities, Public Report 10. Barnwell R. M., Sundharam P. (2014) Lowering energy use, elevating building performance, Consulting-Specifying Engineer, p.32-39 11. Chalmers P. (2014) Climate Change Implications for Buildings, Key Findings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – Fifth Assessment Report, Climate Everyone’s Business

13


LOW-EMISSIVITY LAYERS IN GLAZING SYSTEMS AND THEIR EFFECTS Roman RABENSEIFER, Dr.-techn. Ing.arch. Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Building Structures, Radlinského 11, 813 68 Bratislava

KEYWORDS: low-emissivity layer, surface emissivity, glass Abstract The article deals with the importance of low-emissivity glazing layers to improve energy balance and in maintaining the interior visual comfort. It describes the physical nature of radiation and the associated surface emissivity and the effects of changes in surface emissivity of glass, depending on the position of low-emissivity layer. It also discusses principles, advantages and disadvantages of the most common combinations of glass and low-emissivity layer - the so-called “high performance” glass and the so-called “low-e” glass.

1. Introduction 1.1 Solar radiation Solar radiation is one of the most exciting, but at the same time the most sophisticated ways of heat transfer. It is electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths in different directions. Depending on what interests us the most, we are talking about the spectral (according to wavelength), directional or integrated (total) radiation. In terms of the direction of radiation two extreme cases are usually distinguished - direct and diffuse radiation. From the spectral point of view we talk often about the visible (light) and invisible (X-rays, UV, IR) part of the solar radiation. When hitting the Earth’s surface the radiation in dependence of its wavelength and direction, and also the nature of the material, to which it is incident, gets reflected, transmitted, or absorbed by it. In semitransparent materials (e.g. glass pane, water) all three phenomena occur, i.e.

ρ (reflection) + τ (transmission) + α (absorption) = 1

(1)

In opaque materials the transmission drops out and applies that

ρ (reflection) + α (absorption) = 1

(2)

The absorbed radiation raises the temperature of the material (mass), which in turn removes the excess heat energy by radiation. The amount of emitted energy is dependent on the emissivity (surface radiation), ε, which is one of the characteristics of materials. The emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface of the material to the radiation emitted by a black 14


body at the same temperature (Fig. 1) (Incropera & DeWitt, 1996). Black body is a perfect absorber and issuer of radiation, whereas the spectral distribution of the intensity of solar radiation according to wavelengths is approaching the spectral distribution of the intensity of blackbody radiation at a temperature of 5800 K. UV

Visible

IR

Spectral emissive power E [W/m2/nm] λ

β

Blackbody, I

λ Real surface, I λ

Blackbody

Real surface

Wavelength λ [ nm ]

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1: Comparison of blackbody and real surface emissions. (a) Spectral distribution, (b) Directional distribution (Iλ = radiation intensity, β = radiation angle) (Incropera & DeWitt, 1996) The intensity of blackbody radiation is defined by the emissivity at a given wavelength. According to Stefan-Boltzmann’s law, the radiation wavelength, and thus the emissivity of a black body depends on its temperature, whereas applies (Incropera & DeWitt, 1996) that Ib = Eb / π = σT4 / π

(3)

where Ib is the intensity of blackbody radiation in dependence on its emissivity (W/m2), Eb power as a result of emissivity (W/m2), π is number pi, σ Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant (σ = 5,670 x 10-8 W/(m2K4)) and T temperature in Kelvin. Then, in a very simplified way, the emissivity of the surface of a particular material is as follows

ε(T) = I(T) / Ib(T), resp. ε(T) = E(T)/Eb(T)

(4) (Incropera & DeWitt, 1996)

(5)

where ε(T) is emissivity of the material surface at a given temperature (-), I(T) intensity of the material surface radiation at a given temperature in W/m2 and E(T) power as a result of the material surface emissivity at a given temperature in W/m2. The above shows that the emissivity of a given material depends on the temperature of its surface and the wavelength of the emitted radiation. But also depends on the direction of the radiation (see Fig. 1). The emissivity deviations for radiation angles other than perpendicular to the surface plane (so-called normal ones (εn)) are negligible. Therefore for the normal use applies (Incropera & DeWitt, 1996) that 15


ε ≈ εn

(6)

Tables of surface emissivity values of individual materials published in the standards or professional literature respectively, mainly refer to values at a temperature of 300 K (26.85 °C) or for the most frequent situation of the use or occurrence (e.g. for ice at 0 °C). In the case of metals, values for several temperatures are referred to, because the emissivity as a function of temperature, and the related chemical processes, can vary substantially. According to Kirchhoff’s law for most materials at normal temperatures is true that

α=ε

(7)

The spectral distribution of the absorbed radiation and subsequent emission may differ, e.g. in the case of glass (ordinary glass “converts” the absorbed shortwave radiation into longwave radiation). If there is too much difference, the relation (7) must not necessarily be 100 per cent true (Incropera & DeWitt, 1996). 1.2 Glass The glass is without doubt one of the most attractive building materials. It allows visual link between building’s internal and external environment, as well as the use of daylight and solar heat. It has interesting properties (Encyclopedic Technology, 1963) - in addition to the transparency it is formable over flame and resistant to acids, which is of particular importance in the chemical industry. It is made of silica sand with addition (potassium carbonate, limestone, soda, or lead tetraoxide) by heating to a high temperature (approx. 1,600 ° C), formation and cooling. After cooling it hardens, but retains transparency. Method of cooling the molten glass decides on a number of crucial properties of the glass, especially on its strength. Flat glass is produced by casting, blowing, pressing, rolling or by drawing (Encyclopedic Technology, 1963). In the past, the largest share had drawn glass (Encyclopedic Technology, 1963): “Glass in the liquid state is sufficiently coherent to hang like a curtain on the window. There are several methods for drawing glass, but it always begins in that an iron frame, to which the glass is clamped, is immersed in the tub with enamel. When the frame is being pulled up, a wide (up to 300 cm) endless belt of flat glass is being created that passes through the rollers and coolers and is cut to the panes. The glass thickness can be controlled by changing the temperature and drawing speed. The thus prepared plate glass is not perfectly smooth and uniformly thick. It is therefore necessary to grind it. Another option is to pour melted glass on the surface of a liquid tin bath. In the liquid state the tin is perfectly flat and smooth and the glass is spilling on it into absolutely flat plate.” Another big advantage of the glass is its, almost, 100% recyclability. The process of treatment of the used glass is about the same as in the manufacture of new glass. According to Vetropack the most important limitation of glass recycling is its color. For the production of white glass only shards of white glass can be used. Hence, the share of the used glass in the production strongly depends on the color of glass produced (Vetropack).

16


2. Building physical properties of glazing Unlike non-transparent structures, mainly characterized by thermal conductivity factor, λ, in the case of glazing are important also properties that are attributable to the transmittance of solar radiation. There are two main types of these properties - solar and optical. The solar properties refer to, more or less, the entire spectrum of sunlight as the integrated radiation involving both spectral and directional radiation, the optical ones only to the visible part - the light and the direction of its impact and rebound. “The Betrayal” is that the symbols of both, the solar and optical characteristics, i.e. transmissivity (direct transmittance), τ, reflectivity, ρ, and absorptivity, α, are the same. It is good to add lower indices to them, like “sol” or “opt” respectively, in order to avoid misunderstandings. In addition to the characteristics listed above a global characteristic of the solar properties in form of the total solar energy transmittance coefficient, so-called solar factor, or the g-value is introduced. The solar factor (total solar energy transmittance), g, is defined by EN 410:1998 as the sum of the direct solar transmittance, τsol, and the secondary heat transfer factor, qi, of the glazing towards the inside. The secondary heat transfer factor is caused by convection and long-wave infrared radiation of that part of the incident solar radiation, which has been absorbed by the glazing. The respective equation for the g-value is then: g = τ sol + q i

(8)

The solar direct transmittance, τsol, is a glazing property. It is the portion of incident solar radiation that passes through the glazing and can be described as primary heat gain, g1, divided by the total incident solar heat flux, ϕe (several standards, e.g. ISO 15099:2003, use the symbol I instead of ϕe for the total density of heat flow rate of incident solar radiation). The secondary heat transfer factor, qi, is dependent on the absorption factors of glazing layers, their emissivities (long-wave infrared radiation), ε, and thermal conductance, Λ, including the cavities and surface heat transfer. It is the absorbed portion of incident solar radiation that is converted into conductive and radiative heat flow towards the inside, and can be described as secondary heat gain, g2, divided by the total incident solar heat flux, ϕe. Hence, another equation for the g-value is:

g=

g1 + g 2

(9)

ϕe

The solar factor is one of the most important characteristics of glazing systems because it allows an immediate and reliable assessment of the future performance of the glazing system in terms of solar heat gains. Thus solar as well as optical and thermal characteristics of glazing can be detected using computational procedures set out in international and European standards. A prerequisite, however, are the measured values of the characteristics of specific glasses, i.e. α, τ, ρ, ε and λ. These can be obtained from the glass manufacturers or quality databases, such as WIS (www.windat.org), respectively. The WIS database has the advantage that it also allows the calculation of the solar, optical and thermal characteristics of the glazing systems of any configuration, including spaces 17


filled with air / gas / vacuum, or ventilated spaces respectively, further reflective layers, shading elements and even frames. Values of boundary conditions can be entered freely or normative data may be used (for example ISO 15099: 2003 distinguishes between winter and summer boundary conditions). Results from WIS can be used in software for energy performance of buildings simulation, as well as daylight simulation.

3. Low-Emissivity Layer At present the properties of glass can be significantly modified (Encyclopedic Technology, 1963). In construction, two most frequent methods of glass treatment in terms of improving their solar properties are used - application of reflective films and so-called coating or plating. The first method, as the name suggests, is to improve the reflectivity of the visible part of the spectrum (light). It is used where we want to reduce the cooling load of internal spaces. The disadvantage of this method is that it also reduces the transmission of natural light, which can lead to increased use of artificial light and thus, ironically, increase the internal heat gains. The second method is based on reducing the emissivity of the glass by applying an extremely thin layer of metal. It happens either by pyrolytic plating during manufacturing of the glass (on-line process) or by so-called magnetron technology after curing glass (off-line process) (www.glassdbase.unibas.ch). Plating can reduce the glass emissivity from values of about 0.9 to 0.95 (clear glass) to the values of about 0.2. Such glass is called low-emissivity or “low-e” glass, if the coating is on the side of the glass facing the outside world. If it is on the side toward the indoor environment, while it is also low-emissivity glass, is often referred to as the so-called “high performance” glass (in German is used the term “Sonnenschutzglas”) in order to distinguish between the two of them. Reducing the infrared radiation inwards greatly reduces the thermal load on the cooling system, so the high performance glass is used mainly in the areas that need to be more cooled than heated. Conversely, the low-e glass is used in areas where we want to prevent heat losses and utilize the solar radiation. Nevertheless, its contribution to the reduction of heat loss is not as pronounced as the effect of high performance glass in reducing heat gain from solar radiation.

18


Low-emissivity layer

Low-emissivity layer

a) b) Fig. 2: Typical position of low-emissivity layer in double glazing. (a) High performance system, (b) Low-e system

Given that, in our climatic conditions, it is essential to use glazing systems with at least two panes of glass and closed cavity filled with air or vacuum or inert gases and their mixtures with air, the low-e layer may be placed in different positions. Fig. 2 shows typical positions of the lowemissivity layer within double glazing in the case of the use of low-e and high performance glass respectively. Fig. 3 shows the direct solar spectral transmittance, τsol, and solar spectral reflectance, ρsol, for a clear glass pane and Fig. 4 for a pane with applied low-emissivity coating when used as high performance glass (both for summer boundary conditions). Fig. 5 shows the direct solar spectral transmittance, τsol, and solar spectral reflectance, ρsol, of the same glass pane when used in a low-e way. All calculations were performed using the WIS database. From Figs 3 to 5 and provided the equations (1) and (7) are valid it is clear that: •

Clear glass absorbs almost no solar radiation in the visible part of the spectrum, i.e. approximately in the range from 380 to 760 ηm, has low reflectivity and a very high transmissivity in almost the entire spectrum. On the basis of the Wien’s Displacement Law, it should be that the maximum intensity of solar radiation in the long wavelength range is achieved at low temperatures and is not very high. Therefore, glass is for the infrared radiation almost opaque material. However, due to the high emissivity of clear glass, this little absorbed solar radiation is emitted into the environment in the form of longwave radiation. The solar factor of clear glass is usually very high, in this case has a value of 0.840 [-],

•

High performance glass has in the visible part of the solar radiation spectrum lower direct transmittance than clear glass, but significantly higher not only reflectivity, but also absorption. This higher reflectivity is probably due to the fact that the glass “converts” portion 19


of shortwave radiation that would otherwise have passed the low-emissivity coating on the inside of the glass pane, but with a changed wavelength is reflected back. As on the inside is the heat flow due to the emissivity almost stopped, the glass temperature rises and increases the thermal resistance. Radiant exchange takes place on the outside. The solar factor of this glass has a value of 0.472 [-]. •

Low-e glass has in the visible part of the solar radiation spectrum roughly the same direct solar transmissivity as the high performance glass, high absorption and almost no reflectivity. Low reflectivity is due to the fact that low-emissivity coating is on outer side of the glass and the incident solar radiation is in unchanged wavelengths. Both high performance and low-e glass extremely poorly transmit infrared radiation. However, unlike high performance glass in the case of low-e glass the shortwave radiation gets into the interior, as “conversion” to longwave radiation takes place beyond the low-emissivity coating. Longwave radiation, however, does not get back from the interior to the exterior, thus increasing the temperature of the interior space. The radiant exchange taking place mainly on the inside of the glass also contributes to this temperature increase. The g-value of this low-e glass is 0.583 [-].

Of course, the low-emissivity glass is not used alone, but in glazing systems. Hence, their efficiency can be increased, e.g. in the case of low-e glass by closed cavities filled with an inert gas or vacuum, in the case of high performance glass by ventilated air layers or reflective glass on the outer position. It is always good to analyze the planned glazing system, e.g. using appropriate software such as WIS, so that the subsequent daylighting or energy balances of investigated spaces best correspond to their real behavior.

Direct solar transmittance / reflectance [-]

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6

Direct transmittance Reflectance to exterior

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Wavelength [n m]

Fig. 3: Direct solar spectral transmittance, τsol, and solar spectral reflectance, ρsol, for a clear glass pane for summer boundary conditions

20



0.9 0.8


0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Wavelength [n m]

Fig. 4: Direct solar spectral transmittance, τsol, and solar spectral reflectance, ρsol, for a glass pane with low-emissivity coating when used as high performance glass (summer boundary conditions)


0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5


0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Wavelength [n m]

Fig. 5: Direct solar spectral transmittance, τsol, and solar spectral reflectance, ρsol, for a glass pane with low-emissivity coating when used as low-e glass (summer boundary conditions)

21


4. Selectivity The selection of suitable glass or glazing system depends primarily on the requirements for indoor comfort of the planned space, and they can be quite contradictory. For example, in office spaces the best possible daylight is required to be achieved, but we want to prevent them from overheating as well. The use of a low-emissivity layer reduces the light transmission of the glass or glazing system respectively, which is an undesirable side-effect of reducing the solar factor. Hence, in addition to g- and U-values the glass producers introduce also so-called selectivity of the glass or glazing system in order to demonstrate their suitability for specified conflicting requirements. The selectivity is the ratio of optical transmissivity, τopt, to g-value. The higher, the better suits the glass or glazing system in terms of conflict of requirements for daylight comfort and reduction of summer overheating. Maximum, by current technologies achievable selectivity is about 2. Table 1 shows the selectivity, S, light transmittance, τopt, and g- and U-values of the above mentioned clear, high performance and low-e glass. Of course, the specific values of other glasses may vary, depending on the manufacturer and the technology used. Values that can be achieved by today’s technologies are shown in Table 2 (Brandi, 2005).

5. Conclusions The design of suitable glazing system should be based primarily on the intended purpose of the internal space. If its predominant problem is overheating, properly designed glazing can significantly contribute to the reduction of thermal load on the cooling system. Conversely, if an overriding need is reducing the heating load, well-designed glazing can either allow the use of solar energy or significantly reduce heat loss where solar energy cannot be used. Striking values of those characteristics of glazing that are currently being required are realistically possible only by using low-emissivity coatings on suitable positions. Therefore, it is important to try to understand the physical principles of the use of low emission layers and, if possible, check the glazing system composition and its effect on the quality of indoor environment using existing databases and appropriate building physical software.

22


Table 1. light transmittance

g-value

(τopt) [-]

[-]

[W/(m K)]

[-]

Clear glass

0,885

0,840

4,69

1,05

High Performance glass

0,565

0,472

2,54

1,20

Low-E glass

0,565

0,583

3,96

0,97

Type of glass

U-value

selectivity, S

2

Table 2. Values of selectivity that can be achieved by today’s technologies (Brandi, 2005) Type of glass

light transmittance

g-value

selectivity, S

(τopt) [-]

[-]

[-]

0,70

0,60

1,17

0,25

0,21

1,19

0,66

0,33

2,00

Low-E (Thermally insulating glass) High performance glass (colored) High performance glass (color-neutral)


23


References Incropera F. P., DeWitt D. (1996). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, USA. Encyclopedic work (1963): Technology, Albus Books Ltd., London, UK (in Slovak). Vetropack: Sklo ostáva sklom (Glass remains glass), Company leaflet, Vetropack Nemšová s.r.o., SK (in Slovak). Brandi U. et al. (2005). Detail Praxis: Tageslicht / Kunstlicht. Grundlagen, Ausführung, Beispiele, Edition Detail, Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich, Germany (in German). Van Dijk D., Goulding, J. (2002). WIS Reference Manual, TNO - Building and Construction Research, Department of Sustainable Energy and Buildings, Delft, The Netherlands (www.windat.org). EN 410 (1998): Glas in Building – Determination of luminous and solar characteristics of glazing ISO 15099 (2003): Thermal performance of windows, doors and shading devices — Detailed calculations http://www.glassonweb.com/glassmanual http://www.glassdbase.unibas.ch

24


MOBILE LOW COST THERMAL SYSTEM FOR MAPPING Franco COREN, PhD, Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale, Italy, [email protected] Tamás CSOKNYAI, PhD Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary, [email protected] Árpád CSÍK, PhD, Széchenyi István University, Hungary, csik. arpad @sze.hu János BALÁZS, Széchenyi István University, Hungary, [email protected]

KEYWORDS: Thermal, Mobile, System, Inertial, Integration. Abstract: Summary text — in this paper we describe a fast, low cost and high productive automatic mobile thermal mapping solution based on an infrared thermal camera integrated with a GPS and inertial system. We developed a software to export the integrated data into one of the most powerful webbased mapping tool as GoogleEarth®. The acquired thermal images (data) are then loaded as Overlay Images into GoogleEarth®, generating a visual, georeferenced database describing the thermal distribution of the facades of the buildings along the acquisition path.

1. Introduction Efficient energy use in building is one of the tasks of the European project entitled “Sustainable energy systems by using optimal integration of renewable energy sources” with identity TÁMOP4.2.2.A-11/KONV-2012-0041. The basic aim of the project is drawing up suggestions to the Hungarian government to reach the optimal application of the energy strategy; the project is complex and covers several research fields; therefore, it has been structured in 10 research groups (e.g.: building services, building energetic, environment, climate etc.). One of the main topics is energy monitoring systems, addressed to identify those points in the building, where is maximum the thermal energy dispersion and therefore where is highly convenient to operate for reducing the energy loss. To pursuit this target, we developed a system that allows to perform systematic low cost thermal surveys in an environmental friendly approach. The objective is to make a new, costeffective thermal mapping system addressed to extensive data collection to control thermal emissivity of a building. We focus particular attention to the communication aspect in order to make the data acquired fully useful not only to the stakeholders but also to the entire community, trusting that the sensitization of the citizens to an efficient use of the thermal energy used for house heating can be obtained via a large-scale information and communication. In this paper, we describe a low cost, fast and high productive mobile thermal mapping solution based on an infrared thermal camera integrated with an inertial and GPS system. We developed a software to manage the acquisition and export the integrated data into one of the most powerful web-based mapping tool as GoogleEarth®[1]. With this low cost system, the acquired thermal images (data) are loaded directly

25


into GoogleEarth®, generating a visual, georeferenced database describing the thermal distribution of the facades of the buildings for the maximum usability by the local community.

2. The system The system consists of a thermal camera, we used an Optris 450 model, associated to an integrated navigation system (INS) which consist in a miniaturized Inertial Measurement System (IMU). The INS includes also a three axial fluxgate magnetometer (used mostly to stabilize the inertial measurements) and integrates a C/A code operating GPS (on L1 only). A specific mount guarantees a rigid coupling between the IR camera and the INS that have to work tightly coupled (see figure 1). In the detail the infrared cameras Optris PI 450 is one of the smallest thermographic cameras in its class, it operates at a maximum acquisition frequency of 80 Hz and its optical resolution is 382 x 288 pixels; being its thermal sensitivity of 40 mK makes it specifically suited for detection of small temperature differences. This device has a thermal measurement range between -20°C up to 900°C which is an overshooting for our target. The thermal sensor is a micro bolometer Focal Plane Array (FPA) uncooled type detector [2] with 25 µm x 25 µm pixel dimension. This detector is sensitive in the range between 7 to 14 microns; to maximize the surveyed area we choose a wide-angle lens with 8 mm focal length, which covers a horizontal field of view (HFOV) of 62° and a vertical field of view (VFOV) of 49°. Obviously, by turning the device of 90° around the focal axis, we can swap the field of view between horizontal and vertical allowing increasing the coverage swath in the vertical plane. This solution should be adopted when the acquisition occurs for instance into a city characterized by toll buildings and in general when there is a need to monitor relatively tall objects from a relatively low distance.

Fig.-1: Overview of the system, from bottom: the thermal camera with tightened (secured by two yellow plastic strips) IMU on the top (orange colour box). On the top of the IMU we find the small L1 GPS receiver (small black box). For the test survey the emissivity was set as ɛ=1 being this value near to that representing asphalt, concrete, bricks and glass[3];in this case the temperature estimated by the thermal camera on 26


metallic surfaces (and more in general in every material characterized by values far away from the unity) differs significantly from reality. The camera works in integration with an INS (Inertial Navigation System) which integrates an IMU (inertial Measurement Unit), a GPS (global positioning system) and a three-axial fluxgate magnetometer to provide a full attitude and heading reference system (AHRS). We used an MTi-G-700 GPS/INS device; this is a full-integrated solution that includes an on board GPS receiver (operating in C/A code only on L1). The device is thus capable for not only to compute GPS-enhanced 3D orientation but it can also outputs AHRSaugmented 3D position and velocity, so that velocity and position accuracy significantly improves with respect to the accuracy of the GPS receiver alone. Furthermore, the system provides 3D sensors data, such as acceleration, rate of turn, magnetic field, the navigation solution of the GPS receiver and static pressure. Data generated from the strapdown integration algorithm [4] (orientation and velocity increments ∆q and ∆v) are available, as well as all other processed data, at a 400 Hz sampling frequency. Table 1 reports a brief description of the accuracy of the positioning and attitude data. This level of accuracy is more than enough to geocode the thermal pictures in the space maintaining the standards required by the application. Figure 2 shows an overall view of the system as it appears mounted on an alloy pole rigidly fixed on a bicycle chart and ready for acquisition. A Laptop PC controls the acquisition, but due to the low request of computation resource, also a netbook or a micro-PC should be used to manage the acquisition process.

Fig-2: Overview of the mobile solution, on the top of the alloy mast we placed the camera and INS system; by means of two screws the camera can be tilted and oriented in a full 360°x360° space. The mast is fixed on the bicycle-towed chart fully mounted on shock absorbers. The control PC is located on the chart inside a wooden box which is fixed on the chart frame by means of four shock absorbers. 27


The arrangement of the system on board of a bicycle chart is just one of the possible mounts; obviously, it is possible to mount the system in a more fast vehicle (as a car) but our choice was driven by the idea to operate in an environmental friendly way with a zero emission vehicle. Table -1: attitude and positioning error of the INS system Parameter Value Roll 0.3° Pitch 0.3° Yaw 1.0° Position 1m (1σ STD)

3. The software The design adopted for the application software minimizes the user interactions; then an automatic approach has been adopted. The software first synchronizes the camera output thermal images with the INS output; the result is an image tagged with geographical coordinates (latitude, longitude), ellipsoid height (in WGS84 system[5]), and attitude angles; the output consists in a TIFF or JPG image with a specific header that reports the spatial and attitude information. Once acquisition is over a second software allows to process the data; in this step we can insert the lever arms (distance between camera and IMU reference frame) and calibration angles (angle difference between IMU reference frame and camera reference frame) to correctly compute the position and orientation in the local reference frame (latitude, longitude, elevation). In this phase, based on the separation (WGS84-geoid[6]) model EGM96 [7] we compute an approximate orthometric elevation [8], which we then use for exporting in the KLM file. Figure 3 describes the overall simplified block model of the processing flow. The software process the data automatically and computes for every thermal image the: 1the focal axis vector 2the camera (focal point) corrected position (latitude, longitude, elevation) Being our thermal camera not Exif compliant [9] the software user have to manually insert the angles describing the vertical and horizontal field of view. In addition, user must insert a parameter describing the mean distance between the camera and the target. Fed with the data the software computes the orientation of the thermal images and convert them directly in the format that GoogleEarth®needs to read a PhotoOverlay file[10].

28


Fig-3: Processing flow adopted for data acquisition and processing.

Fig-4: Final product of the survey. The thermal images are represented directly as PhotoOverlay in the framework of GoogeEarth®. The blue line represents the trajectory of the vehicle; purple dots are the focal point position of the images.

29


In the detail angular value of the limits of the FOV (leftFOV, rightFOV, bottomFOV, topFOV) are computed from the focal vector attitude values measured by the IMU; the user have just to set the full HFOV and VFOV and the “near” value which represent the distance between the focal point and the plane of projection. The portion of the KLM file where the camera orientation and FOV parameters are stored is here reported for clarification: -Skip lines 0 0 0 0 0 - Skip lines

Fig-5: Close up of part of figure 4. In this figure, we can see clearly the resolution and aspect of the final product.

30


The final result of the acquisition and processing phases is shown in figure 4. Because we project the images on an arbitrary plan the match between the images is far away to be consistent, nevertheless for the purposes of the project there is no meaning to perform a more accurate geometrical correction of the thermal images.

4. Application possibilities The processed thermal images of the building facades can be then directly used either for qualitative evaluation of individual buildings or for qualitative comparative evaluation of different buildings. On the level of individual buildings, the most interesting output is the detection of the so-called thermal bridges and hot spots; practically points highlighting the structural elements of the building shell. Individual retrofit actions can be planned based on such results. If a city decides to carry out a monitoring in all streets, such a database would be interesting for every individual building user. However, the main advantage of the instrument is its large-scale application possibility: a whole district can be surveyed in a quick and efficient manner. City planners and developers can easily detect the buildings with the highest heat loss and thus set up development plans in a more cost optimal way. If the survey is carried out in a relative short time while the weather conditions (e.g. outdoor air temperature) do not vary significantly, the results of different buildings are comparable without any corrections. However if there are significant variations in the outdoor conditions then the thermal effects of such variations have to be considered during the evaluation. A further development possibility of the tool is to handle this problem with an automatic correction process. Another development option is to use this tool not only for qualitative, but also for quantitative analysis. Calculation of the heat loss of a facade in an accurate way is not a realistic option, because of several disturbing effects (e.g. non-steady state thermal processes in the structures), but it is possible to develop new coefficients expressing the general quality of the building shell, or the density and the significance of the thermal bridges. Such coefficients could be used for comparing different buildings in an automatic way, so that the most critical buildings could be detected with minimised manual work. In the EnergyCity project of the EU Central Europe Programme [11] a similar tool has been developed with the participation of the authors, but focusing on roofs. Thermal quality of roofs on city level has been surveyed by means of aerial thermography using airplanes and the processed results have been integrated into a thermal mapping tool. We foresee in the future the possibility to integrate the two software, thus not only the facades, but also the roofs could be analysed simultaneously. Such an application would cover the majority of the building envelope where significant heat loss appears. Both tools are designed for quick and efficient city level analysis, thus the potential in the synergic effects is significant.

5. Conclusions and results We conducted several tests to verify the functionality of the system during its construction and the development of the software. In figure 5 we show a close up of the standard output product (already displayed on figure 4) acquired running along the streets of a small town which we adopted as test area. The overall result is series of thermal images describing the temperature of the buildings facades. This type of information, once available to the community can help the citizens to plan the 31


actions for mitigating the thermal losses and therefore to reduce the energy consumption of the building. In addition, this instrument can support stakeholder decision process for addressing social initiatives or targeting co-funding procedures or as database.

6. Technical further developments Next step we foresee is to develop a specific APP (application for mobile devices such as SmartPhones) that using the internal navigation resources of the modern mobile device, (GPS and in-build attitude sensors) by simple integration with a thermal camera linked for instance via a wi-fi communication will have the same functionality of this system.


References [1] http://www.google.com/ [2] R. A. Wood, 1993, "Uncooled thermal imaging with monolithic silicon focal planes", Proc. SPIE, vol. 2020, pp.322 -329. [3] Maldague X. P. V., Jones T. S., Kaplan H., Marinetti S. and Prystay M. 2000. "Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Infrared and Thermal Testing: Part 1. Principles of Infrared and Thermal Testing," in Nondestructive Handbook, Infrared and Thermal Testing, Volume 3, X. Maldague technical ed., P. O. Moore ed., 3rd edition, Columbus, Ohio, ASNT Press, 2001 [4] Y. Wu, 2006. "On "A unified mathematical framework for strapdown algorithm design"," Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, vol. 29, pp. 1482-1484. [5] NIMA Technical Report TR8350.2, 1997 "Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984, Its Definition and Relationships With Local Geodetic Systems", Third Edition, [6] Meyer, T.H., D. Roman, and D. B. Zilkoski. 2004. What does height really mean? Part I: Introduction. Surveying and Land Information Science 64(4):223-34. [7] Lemoine, F. G., S.C. Kenyon, J.K. Factor, R.G. Trimmer, N.K. Pavlis, C.M.Cox, S.M. Klosko, S.B. Luthcke, M.H. Torrence,Y.M.Wang, R.G. Williamson, E.C. Pavlis, R.H. Rapp, and T.R. Olson, 1998, “The Development of the Joint NASA GSFC and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) Geopotential Model EGM96”, NASA/TP-1998-206861 [8] Meyer, T.H., D. Roman, and D. B. Zilkoski. 2005. What does height really mean? Part II: Physics and Gravity. Surveying and Land Information Science 65(1):5-15

32


[9] Technical Standardization Committee on AV & IT Storage Systems and Equipment, 2002. Exchangeable Image File Format for Digital Still Cameras. Version 2.2. Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association. JEITA CP-3451. Retrieved 2008-01-28. [10] https://developers.google.com/kml/documentation/kmlreference [11] http://www.energycity2013.eu/

33


URBAN ENERGETICS APPLICATIONS AND GEOMATIC TECHNOLOGIES IN A SMART CITY PERSPECTIVE Gabriele BITELLI1, Tamas CSOKNYAI2 1

DICAM – Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering University of Bologna, Italy, [email protected] 2 BME – Department of Building Service and Process Engineering – Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary, [email protected]

KEYWORDS: thermal mapping, airborne imaginary, geomatics, remote sensing, thermography

Abstract The management of an urban context in a Smart City perspective requires the development of innovative projects, with new applications in multidisciplinary research areas. They can be related to many aspects of city life and urban management: fuel consumption monitoring, energy efficiency issues, environment, social organization, traffic, urban transformations, etc. Geomatics, the modern discipline of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering digital spatially referenced information, can play a fundamental role in many of these areas, providing new efficient and productive methods for a precise mapping of different phenomena, by traditional cartographic representation or by new methods of data visualization and manipulation (e.g. three dimensional modeling, data fusion, etc.).The technologies involved are based on airborne or satellite remote sensing (at visible, near infrared, thermal bands), laser scanning, digital photogrammetry, satellite positioning and, first at all, appropriate sensor integration (online or offline). Aim of this work is to present and analyse some new opportunities offered by Geomatic technologies for a Smart City management, with a specific interest towards the energy sector related to buildings. Reducing consumption and CO2 emissions is a primary objective to be pursued for a sustainable development and, in this direction, an accurate knowledge of consumptions and waste due to heating of single houses, blocks or districts is needed. A synoptic information regarding a city or a portion of a city can be acquired through sensors on board of airplanes or satellite platforms, operating in the thermal band. A problem to be investigated at the scale of the whole urban context is the Urban Heat Island (UHI), a phenomenon known and studied in the last decades.UHI is related not only to sensible 34


heat released by anthropic activities, but also to land use variations and evapotranspiration reduction. The availability of thermal satellite sensors is fundamental to carry out multitemporal studies in order to evaluate the dynamic behaviour of the UHI for a city. Working with a greater detail, districts or single buildings can be analysed by specifically designed airborne surveys. The activity has been recently carried out by the EnergyCity project developed in the framework of Central Europe programme, established by EU. As demonstrated by the project, such data can be successfully integrated in a GIS storing all relevant data about buildings and energy supply, in order to create a powerful geospatial database for a Decision Support System assisting to reduce energy losses and CO2 emission. Aerial thermal mapping could be furthermore integrated today by terrestrial 3D surveys realized by Mobile Mapping Systems through multisensory platforms comprising thermal camera/s, laser scanning, GPS, inertial systems, etc. In this way the product can be a true 3D thermal model with good geometric properties, enlarging the possibilities in respect to the conventional qualitative 2D images with simple colour palettes. Finally, some applications in the energy sector could benefit from the availability of a true 3D City Model, where the buildings are carefully described through three-dimensional models. Automated and semi-automated 3D building extraction from the processing of airborne LiDAR datasets can provide such a new generation of 3D city models.

1. Thermal mapping of a city by remote sensing surveys Thermal remote sensing is the branch of remote sensing that deals with the acquisition, processing and interpretation of data acquired primarily in the thermal infrared (TIR) region of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. Thermal remote sensing measures the radiations 'emitted' from the surface of the target, as opposed to optical remote sensing where the radiations 'reflected' by the target under consideration are measured. Within the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, an excellent atmospheric window lies between 8-14 µm and this is the portion preferred by thermal remote sensing.

35


Figure 1–Electromagnetic spectrum and Thermal Infrared region Thermal remote sensing exploits the fact that everything above absolute zero (0 Kelvin or -273.15 °C) emits radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum. The quantity of energy radiated, and its wavelengths, depends on the emissivity of the surface and on its kinetic temperature. Emissivity is a ratio value varying between 0 and 1, representing the emitting ability of a real material compared to that of a black body; it is a spectral property that varies with composition of material and geometric configuration of the surface. For most natural materials, it ranges between 0.7 and 0.95. Kinetic temperature is the surface temperature of a body/ground (measured in K, °C or °F) and is a measure of the amount of heat energy contained in it. Thermal remote sensing has recently been widely used in urban landscapes, because it provides a synoptic and time synchronized grid of temperature data even on very large areas and therefore permits analysis at different scale levels on urban building materials, energy use and losses, surface energy budgets and urban heat island effects. Purposes and methodologies of the studies depend mainly on the pixel size of the thermal imagery used, that can vary from sub-meter to hundreds of meters, and also on the type of platform used to acquire images that can be satellite, airborne or ground-based. The following Table try so summarize some main characteristics of the surveys performed through airborne or satellite missions.

Aircraft-based survey • • •

Satellite-based survey

High spatial resolution (dependent on sensor type and flight altitude), permits analysis at individual building scale Very useful to create heat loss maps Higher flexibility in the execution, but 36

• •

Coarse spatial resolution (due to low radiation emitted in thermal infrared bands) Higher spectral resolution (TIR sensors acquire more than one band generally)


• • •

needs a detailed mission planning Less influenced by interactions with atmosphere Lower coverage Possibility of simultaneous survey of several parameters (temperature, humidity, pressure, water vapour content)

•

Imagery available at regular temporal intervals, providing systematic monitoring • No specific mission planning • Requires strong atmospheric corrections to obtain real surface temperature • Larger coverage (permits analysis on broad areas) • Lower cost Table 1. Main characteristics of remote sensed thermal surveys

The development and deploying of new sensors can open new perspectives for a sustainable management of urban areas, with important fallouts in terms of economic and social issues. In this framework, some technical questions arise and different data processing strategies can be applied, depending on the scale of the analysis and the different processes evaluated (Bitelli & Conte, 2011a).

2. Urban Heat Island and its monitoring by satellite imagery The Urban Heat Island, a phenomenon known to the scientific community since the last decades (Oke, 1973; Gartland, 2008), is indicative of the rise in the temperature of urban areas in comparison with peri-urban and rural neighbourhoods. The intensities of this phenomenon have been quantified in the range of 1–3 K (Voogt, 2003); the same author observed that under certain conditions the maximum observed heat island magnitudes can be as high as 12 K. The magnitude of the UHI effect can be expressed in terms of Urban Heat Island intensity, indicated by the temperature difference (in K) between simultaneously measured urban and rural temperatures. An example of a short-term measurement of the phenomenon, performed in the framework of the recent Central Europe project “UHI”, is shown in Figure 2; it is referred to the mean hourly UHI intensity measured in several European cities. Other approaches refer instead to long-term studies, aiming to analyse the trend over the years.

37


Figure 2 - Mean hourly UHI intensity distribution for a reference summer day in several European cities (Kiesel et al., 2013) The measure of the UHI can be performed using different methods (Gartland, 2008): fixed stations, mobile traverses, remote sensing, vertical sensing, energy balances. The results need to be afterwards applied in appropriate models to plan and monitor mitigation strategies. UHI is basically due to changes in land use (figure 3), where vegetable canopies are being more and more substituted by urban surfaces, which are characterized by different biophysical properties such as emissivity, thermal inertia and conductivity. Buildings have in particular different radiative properties respect to vegetated areas (albedo and emissivity) and their geometry induce complex reflection of radiation (Roth, 2002); also thermal mass is strongly higher if compared to natural surfaces, causing heat storage in daytime and heat release during nights. In addition to that, the large and increasing fraction of impervious surfaces reduces run-off and moisture availability for evapotranspiration, and the presence of obstacles for airflows affects the transport of energy and mass, and enhance turbulent flows (e.g. “urban canyon” effects). Finally, emissions of heat, aerosols and greenhouse gases from human activities affect radiative processes and add waste heat and water vapour to the urban atmosphere. Some authors (e.g. Grimmond, 2007) investigated also the relationship between UHI and global climate change. The effects of UHI phenomenon can be analysed in the city environment, at local ( Total Roof Area Table 1. Roof Type

Slope

Low - Sloped Roof

7,5

The surface temperature of roofs has no direct effect on the open air thermal comfort conditions. No doubt low reflectance increases the solar gain of the rooms under the roof although in case of pitched roof the attic acts as a buffer zone. Nevertheless the strict thermal performance requirements in force and the planned regulations result in very well insulated roof slabs (U values between 0,1 – 0,2 W/m2K) with good diminuation and time lag and the heat transmission through the roof slab – with a few exceptions – is not the most serious component of the cooling load in comparison with the greenhouse effect and internal heat sources. On the other hand the high temperature of roofs generates upwelling of hot air intensifying the urban breeze: the air circulation from the outskirt to the city centre which may have positive effects on outdoor thermal comfort conditions and decreases the pollutant concentration.

Figure 1: Scheme of Urban Heat Island 2.2. The temperature of energy collecting elements As far as solar collectors are considered the aim is to get the highest possible energy carrier (air, fluid) temperature which requires the highest possible absorber temperature and low heat losses of the collector itself. The absorber has a high absortance, sometimes selective coating, the transparent cover high transparency. In ideal case the energy carrier temperature can be as high as 50 – 70 oC. 66


On the back side of flat plate collectors usually efficient thermal insulation is applied (Fig. 2.). On the exposed side typically a transparent cover and an air gap represent the resistance between the absorber and the environment which does not exceed 0,2 m2mK/W thus the temperature on the outer surface is extremely high (excepting the rarely applied vacuum flat plate collectors where the insulation of the absorber on its top-side is better). One can argue that the circulation of energy carrier cools down the absorber however on one hand the temperature of the energy carrier is high, on the other hand even in summer the stagnation of the system (when the storage tank is “full” and the consumption is much less than the available solar energy) is an abundant phenomenon (pressurising of solar circuit to prevent the boiling is a standard measure in the practice).

Figure 2. Schematic energy balance of flat plate collectors The case of vacuum collectors is different. Due to the vacuum the absorbing surface is well insulated, the surface temperature of the tubes themselves is less extreme. As far as photovoltaic elements are concerned their high temperature is not aimed at since it worsens the power output. Nevertheless the absortance is intentionally increased applying antireflecting layers. 2.3. Where and how to put energy collecting elements? On flat roofs the photovoltaic arrays and flat plate collectors are put on metallic racks with possibly optimal orientation and tilt. The arrays shadow a part of the roof in most of the day: from the point of view of surface temperatures here the question of the roof-reflectance is irrelevant since the surface temperature of energy collecting elements plays role in the development of heat island. The LEED evaluation system does not count with this option however it seems to be obvious that the shadowed roof area simply should be excluded from the evaluation. We propose to exclude the area which is in shadow in June from 0900 to 1500 (astrological time to be corrected according to the longitude and eventual summer time shift). The same procedure may be applied for areas in shadow of any object on the flat roof, such as elevator engine rooms.

67


If the remaining roof area has a high reflectance the reflected radiation may hit the backside of the array. For the flat plate collectors it is favourable since the heat loss will be less however it is more relevant aspect in winter than in summer. For photovoltaic arrays this case is explicitly negative. Green roof augurs well as a compromise since it is acknowledged in LEED and other labelling systems. Providing green roof is applied on areas in shadow there the irrigation is less problematic: as a consequence of shadow the evapotranspiration is less intensive. The green roof should be of extensive type with plants unaffected by droughts in a soil mixture which rapidly absorb and keep for long time the water. The evapotranspiration of plants cools down the roof and as a side effect the soil increases the heat storage capacity of the floor slab. The load bearing racks should not pierce neither the hydro nor the thermal insulation, the setting should be provided by weight (Fig.3.).

Fig. 3. Collector and photovoltaic arrays on flat roofs and green roofs. Vacuum tube collectors may be arranged horizontally because they are not sensitive to tilt and orientation either because the tilt of absorber can be adjusted within the tube or the absorbing surface is cylindrical. There are some types where the radiation reflected by the roof hits that part of the absorbing surface which is “invisible” by the direct solar radiation – in this case the high reflectance of the roof is favourable from both points of view of energy production and cooling load of building (Fig. 4.).

68


Fig 4. High reflectance of the roof increases the performance of some types of vacuum tube collectors In case of pitched roof the first hypothesis is that the energy collecting array should have the same orientation and tilt as the relevant part of the roof in order to prevent an aesthetic chaos destructing the prestige of “solar buildings”. Both photovoltaic modules and flat plate collectors are watertight themselves and arrays can be set together with appropriate sealant along the edges. This fact raises the option to use the arrays for waterproofing thus integrating functionally and constructively the sealing and energy collection. Good examples already exist (Figs. 5. and 6.)

Fig 5. Roof-integrated collector array

Fig 6. ” Photovoltaic tiles”: roof-integrated PV array 69


Applying such integrated arrays the cooling load of the building slightly increases since the arrays are organic layers of the boundary constructions. A thin ventilated air gap between the array and the thermal insulation (or eventual secondary waterproof but “breathing” folia) has important role from the point of view of vapour diffusion but can be insensible as far as the cooling is concerned. Providing the attic is not occupied its intensive ventilation may partly counterbalance the cooling load. From the point of view of flat plate collectors their performance will be higher since the back side is better insulated whilst the power output of photovoltaic modules will be lower – due to the same fact. This problem can be solved by ventilated air gap under the photovoltaic array intensifying the air movement with a linear solar chimney (Fig. 7.). Here the absorber of the solar chimney can be put in the middle plane of the air gap – in this case its both sides will be in contact with the air. Using expanded sheets as absorbers the heat transfer can be further intensified. Considering the cooling of photovoltaic arrays it is worth of consideration that – even if it less elegant – the photovoltaic array should be in a second plane, above and parallel with the roof providing this way a ventilated air gap which promotes the cooling of the back side. This is the usual way of mounting on existing pitched roofs and measured data prove that the air gap considerably decreases the frequency of high indoor temperature in the inhabited attic rooms [Küttler, 2011]. (Certainly the indoor temperature depends on the other components of the cooling load and that through the roof seems to be of low importance.)

Fig. 7. Cooling of roof-integrated photovoltaic array using ventilated air gap and solar chimney.

3. Neighbourhoods and urban tissue

70


It can be seen that several pros and cons should carefully be considered if the reflectance of the roofs and that of the energy collecting elements are considered: energy production of the lasts, cooling load of buildings, urban heat island effect. Besides the above listed aspects a further one is the height and location of the building in the urban tissue from the point of view of pollutant transport and concentration. High rise buildings can be found typically in the down town area. This is the result on one hand of the concentration of public and prestigious buildings, on the other hand the expensive building sites. Nevertheless even in the down town great differences of building’s height may occur, e.g. if a historical building is kept or the function of the building does not require many floors. In the outer districts and outskirt low rise buildings are typical however islands of high rise buildings are not rare exceptions even in this area. They can be the result of conscious city management (to provide local centres), speculative investments. The consequence is that considerable differences can be found between the heights of the buildings either the zones of the city or between two neighbouring buildings. High-rise buildings anywhere and buildings in the down town area - where otherwise most of the high rise buildings are concentrated significantly influence the air flow patterns. Their heat output from the facades – which is inevitable even if the façade is of high reflectance - generates an upstream of the air which effect is intensified if the roof is warm. This air movement then intensifies the urban breeze. If there is a regional wind then on the exposed side roughly from the mid-height airflows down and up develop whilst on the lee-side intensive turbulence takes place in the stalling bubble. Each phenomenon results in uplifting and mixing of pollutants and a lower pollutant concentration on street level – Fig. 8. [Lajos T. et al, 2006]. The more intensive urban breeze promotes the ventilation of the streets and may improve the outdoor thermal comfort conditions. At the same time in a high-rise building the warm roof

71


Fig.8. Scheme and visualisation of air flow patterns around high rise building [Lajos T. et al 2006]. influences directly (and not considerably) only the cooling load of the rooms on the uppermost floor. Following the same train of thought it is clear that around the down town the low-rise buildings should have cool roofs since more or even all room’s cooling load is directly influenced by the roof temperature. (Certainly this aspect is less important if the U value and heat storage capacity of the roof slab is good.) From urban climate aspect it should be taken into account that the lower boundary surface of the canopy layer theoretically is the envelope of roofs. Nevertheless there may be big jumps in the heights of neighbouring building and the air movement (either the urban breeze or a regional wind) will be more or less heated up whilst flowing on, and contacting with, the roof of lower building and may transport the heat just to the upper part of the façade of the higher building.

4. Recommendations Pondering the above listed pros and cons the following solutions are recommended. - High rise building surrounded by lower ones, flat roof, flat plate collector or photovoltaic arrays: low reflectance is favourable which intensifies the upstream of hot air and the urban breeze, the last decreases the pollutant concentration and improves the thermal environment in open air spaces. Low reflected radiation will hit the backside of arrays which slightly improve the performance of photovoltaic cells. Only the rooms of uppermost floor are directly – and not considerably – affected by the heat flow through the roof. It is to be mentioned that the reflectance of the roof itself may become irrelevant question if the total roof area is used for arrays. The higher the building the more likely is this case since the energy need is proportionate to the total floor area: comparing the floor area with the roof area most

72


part if not all of the last will be used for allocation of energy collecting array. Nevertheless the outmost envelope, thus the arrays will act as generators of upstream and urban breeze. - Buildings of more or less same height or buildings much lower than the nearby buildings, flat plate collectors or photovoltaic arrays: high reflectance or green roof is favourable which moderate the development of urban heat island. The reflected radiation worsens the performance of photovoltaic cells therefore in this case the green roof should be preferred. More rooms are affected by the heat flow through the roof. Lower temperature of air flowing on, or in contact with, the roof is especially interesting if the air flows towards the façade of a nearby much higher building. In case of low rise buildings it is not likely that most part of the roof will be occupied by energy collecting arrays. Certainly the lasts have low reflectance but the remaining roof area will be determining. - Any roof with vacuum tube collectors of certain types: high reflectance is favourable if the vacuum tube collector does not have some kind of built in or added reflectors. - Pitched roof, flat plate collectors: The best way is to integrate the collector array in the roof; the remaining roof area should have high reflectance excepting high rise buildings surrounded by lower ones. - Pitched roof, photovoltaic array: The integration of the array with the roof is a good solution however the backside of the array needs intensive cooling. The usually applied air gap fulfils its original function (vapour transport) but under the array a wider air gap is necessary. The cooling may be intensified by linear solar chimney. The traditional solution (the array is above the roof) is less elegant but the cooling of the backside is acceptable.

73


5. Conclusions Solar systems are of prevailing importance from the point of view of sustainability. Their energy collecting elements have “ex officio” very low reflectance. This is a disadvantage from the point of view of urban heat island. Nevertheless careful analysis of individual buildings as well as their neighbourhood dissolves most of the contradiction.


References Lajos T. - Goricsán I. - Régért T. - Suda J. - Balczó M.: Légszennyező anyagok terjedése városokban. Magyar Építőipar , 2006. 4. 139-146. LEED: Green Building Rating System for new construction & major renovation. Version 2.2 October 2005. Kuttler, W. Klimawandeln in urbanen Bereich. Teil 2, Massnamen. Environmental Sciences Europe 2011. http://www. Enveurope.com/content/23/1/21 Unger J. – Sümeghy Z. – Kántor N. –Gulyás Á.: Kisléptékű Környezeti Klimatológia. Szegedi Egyetemi Kiadó, 2012, ISBN 978-963-315-068-9

74


EFFECTS OF MARCROSYNOPTIC WEATHER TYPES ON DEVELOPMENT OF THERMAL EXCESS IN SUBURBAN AREAS OF DEBRECEN Sándor SZEGEDI, István LÁZÁR, Tamás TÓTH University of Debrecen, Department of Meteorology, Hungary [email protected] KEYWORDS: automatic weather stations, Debrecen, Péczely’s macrosynoptic types, synoptic conditions, urban heat island Abstract: Impacts of macrosynoptic weather patterns on development of thermal excess in suburban areas of Debrecen are traced in this paper. Temperature datasets have been recorded at two heights by three automatic weather stations mounted in Debrecen (east Hungary) and a small settlement in its vicinity. An additional automatic weather station is used as a reference station outside Debrecen. Urban heat island (UHI) intensities have been calculated from the raw datasets. Impacts of synoptic conditions have been analyzed on the base of Péczely’s macrosynoptic types. It have been found that anticyclone types are much more favorable from the aspect of UHI development, while cyclone types, especially the passage of warm fronts can effectively hinder the formation of strong heat islands in Debrecen.

1. Introduction Accelerated urbanization has triggered widespread environmental problems. These adverse effects impact on a dynamically increasing population (about 3 billion people) directly with the growth of cities. Meteorological and climatologic consequences are among the most important issues. The altered physical characteristics of artificial urban surfaces and change of chemical composition of atmosphere in the cities lead to deterioration of air quality and changes of each meteorological element compared to areas outside cities (Landsberg 1981). The term "urban climate" refers to the unique local climate of the built-up urban spaces, significantly different from the climate in rural areas (Oke, 1997). The present work deals with one of the most remarkable phenomena of urban climate, the thermal excess in the cities compared to the rural countryside, called urban heat island (UHI). Changes of climate elements in built-up urban spaces arise from alterations in the energy and water budget in cities, principally (Chen et al. 2014). Temperatures show a sudden increase at the border of a buildup area called the “cliff”, increase gradually through the suburban areas called the “plateau” and increase strongly again forming a “peak” in the city center (Oke, 1987). Potential UHI intensities (the maximal thermal difference between the city and its unbuilt environment) are determined by the size, population and built-up structure (ratio of non-evaporating surfaces, sky view factor) of settlements mainly (Krüger and Emmanuel 2013). It means that great cities with 75


compact buildup structures generate stronger urban climate with more intense heat islands than small ones (Oke, 1973). The border between the settlement and its environment is important from the aspect of the heat island development, because the “cliff” is located in that zone, where horizontal thermal gradients can reach 1 °C/100 meters. Strong cliffs can be found in areas only where the border between the buildup and unbuilt areas is sharp (Szegedi et al. 2013). Suburban areas occupy the major part of the settlements. They are characterized by low or medium heat island intensities (Szegedi et al. 2013) consequently, they are more sensitive from the aspect of synoptic conditions than city centers, where heat islands are the most intense. For this reason our main aim was to trace the impact of synoptic conditions on the development of urban heat island in the “cliff” and "plateau" zones of Debrecen.

2. Study area and methods Temperature profile datasets were gathered at four sites: three sites in suburban areas in and outside the city of Debrecen and one used as a reference site. They are situated in similar physical geographic environment with low elevation, almost the same vegetation cover without large water bodies. The main difference lies in the buildup characteristics of the environment of the sites. Site 1 is the Weather Station of the University of Debrecen (UDWS). This site has the most complex neighborhood since it is situated on the edge of different urban morphological types: • A high density residential area, a housing estate with high raised blocks of flats. • A low density residential area, 1-2 storied houses with gardens. • Public institutions with large green areas, the UD main campus with sports grounds, parks and high buildings. • The close-to-natural forest of the “Nagyerdő. Site 2, the Renewable Energy Park (REP) is situated in a low density residential area, 1-2 storied houses with gardens. Additionally, an industrial park with medium height light structure buildings can be found in its vicinity. Site 3 is located in a low density residential area, 1-2 storied houses with gardens in a small settlement (suburb) 10 km off Debrecen. It was used as a control site. Site 4 is the Agrometeorological Observatory of the Center of Agricultural Sciences of the University of Debrecen used as the reference site 5 km off Debrecen in an agricultural area. Figure 1 shows the location of the measurement sites. Resistance thermometer sensors were mounted with an accuracy of ± 0,1 °C on columns to heights of 2 and 10 meters at each measurement site. Data gathered by the sensors were recorded on digital data logger units. Sampling intervals were set to 10 seconds, while averaging interval was 10 minutes. Datasets were processed in Microsoft Excel 2010. Results presented here represents the measurement period between 19 October-31 and December 2013.

76


Fig. 1: Location of the measurement sites

3. Results and discussion In order to gain comparable values UHI intensities were calculated from raw measurement data for 2 and 10 meters for each site by subtracting temperature data measured at the reference station from temperature data of the measurement sites. Mean UHI intensities of the studied period at the three sites are presented in figure 2. It can clearly be seen that the order of the sites is UDWS, REP and Bocskaikert. It is in accordance with our assumptions, since the environment of the UDWS belongs to the urban plateau, while the REP is located in the zone of the cliff and Bocskaikert is a control site outside the city. A bit higher UHI intensities were found closer to the surface (figure 2). However, there are not significant differences in the values at 2 and 10 meters at the three sites: differences do not exceed 0.3°C. Effects of synoptic conditions on development of UHI were analyzed on the base of Péczely's macrosynoptic types. Types are determined using front maps of Europe of the Hungarian Weather Service for 0 hour UTC each day by dr. Csaba Károssy. Generally, anticyclone types are advantageous for UHI development, while cyclone types hinder the development of strong heat islands, due to cloudy and windy weather and rain connected to them. Table 1 presents the 13 macrosynoptic types of Péczely.

77


Fig. 2: Mean UHI intensities (°C) at the three measurement sites between 19 October and 31 December 2013

Fig. 3: Relative frequency (%) of macrosynoptic types of Péczely between 19 October and 31 December 2013

Table 1. Codes, letter codes and short descriptions of the Péczely's macrosynoptic types No.

Codes

Descriptions Types with northern air currents (type-group MN)

1

mCc

Hungary lies in the rear of a western European cyclone

2

AB

anticyclone over the British Isles

3

CMc

Hungary lies in the rear of a Mediterranean cyclone Types with southern air currents (type-group MS)

4

mCw

5

Ae

6

CMw

Hungary lies in the fore part of a western European cyclone anticyclone in the east of Hungary Hungary lies in the fore part of a Mediterranean cyclone Types with western current (type-group ZW)

7

zC

zonal cyclone

8

Aw

anticyclone extending from the west

9

As

anticyclone in the south of Hungary Types with eastern air currents (type-group ZE)

10

An

anticyclone in the north of Hungary

11

AF

anticyclone over the Fennonscandinavian region Central types

12

A

anticyclone over the Carpathian Basin

13

C

cyclone over the Carpathian Basin 78


Figure 3 presents the relative frequency of macrosynoptic types of Péczely in the studied period. It can be seen that types 7 (zonal cyclone), 11 (anticyclone over the Fennonscandinavian region) and 13 (cyclone over the Carpathian Basin) had not occurred during the studied period. The frequency of types 2 (anticyclone over the British Isles), 3 (Hungary lies in the rear of a Mediterranean cyclone), 4 (Hungary lies in the fore part of a western European cyclone), 6 (Hungary lies in the fore part of a Mediterranean cyclone), 9 (anticyclone south of Hungary) 10 (anticyclone north of Hungary) are around 5%. The most frequent types are 12 (anticyclone over the Carpathian Basin), 8 (anticyclone extending from the west), 5 (anticyclone east of Hungary), and 1 (Hungary lies in the rear of a western European cyclone). Normally, anticyclone types are more frequent in the Carpathian Basin, they govern the weather of Hungary for weeks in the midwinter and midsummer-early autumn periods. However, late autumn and early winter weather is ruled by cyclones formed over the North Atlantic or the west Mediterranean Seas. Anticyclone macrosynoptic types are favorable for Development of intense urban heat islands: the lack of rain, calm winds and undisturbed radiation conditions help the development of the thermal excess in the buildup areas of the settlements. Warm and cold fronts of midlatitude cyclones cause windy, cloudy and often rainy weather, what is absolutely unfavorable for UHI development. Especially, slow moving warm fronts are effective in preventing the formation of heat islands (Szegedi et al. 2013). On this base we assumed that anticyclone types will be found to be favorable and cyclone types will be proved to be unfavorable from the aspect of UHI development in the studied period.

Fig. 4: Mean UHI intensities (°C) of macrosynoptic types of Péczely between 19 October and 31 December 2013 Figure 4 shows the mean UHI intensities of different macrosynoptic weather types at the three sites at 2 meters in the studied period. Weak heat islands have been found in types 1 (Hungary lies in the 79


rear of an eastern European cyclone), 3 (Hungary lies in the rear of a Mediterranean cyclone), 4 (Hungary lies in the fore part of a western European cyclone), 6 (Hungary lies in the fore part of a Mediterranean cyclone) and 10 (anticyclone north of Hungary). With the exception of type 10 they are cyclone types, what supports our hypothesis. High intensities are associated with types 2 (anticyclone over the British Isles), 5 (anticyclone east of Hungary), 8 (anticyclone extending from the west), 9 (anticyclone south of Hungary) and 12 (anticyclone over the Carpathian Basin). All of them are anticyclone types what proves that our assumption was right. Days of highest and lowest UHI intensities haves been examined also. The first and third highest intensity heat islands have been detected under macrosynoptic conditions when anticyclones in the east of Hungary ruled the weather of the Carpathian Basin. This Type is one of the most favourable ones for heat island development according to our previous studies (Szegedi, – Kircsi 2003). The second strongest UHI occurred under cyclonic conditions, when a cold front of a western European cyclone formed the weather of our region. Table 2. Highest and lowest intensity urban heat islands between 19 October and 31 December 2013 with their Péczely's macrosynoptic codes high intensity heat islands

low intensity heat islands

Date

intensity (°C)

code

Date

intensity (°C)

code

29 12 2013

4.66

05 (Ae)

03 11 2013

0.98

01 (mCc)

20 12 2013

3.98

01 (mCc)

18 11 2013

0.94

10 (An)

26 12 2013

3.94

05 (Ae)

25 11 2013

0.91

03 (CMc)

Generally, this type is not favorable for UHI development when it follows a slow moving warm front, but in the days before that case an anticyclone over the Carpathian Basin established a strong heat island, what could resist the passage of the fast moving cold front. The lowest intensity heat island occurred under cyclone conditions when a cold front of a Mediterranean cyclone passed over the Carpathian Basin after a slow moving warm front. The two fronts could effectively eliminate the development of the thermal excess in the city. The second weakest UHI occurred in an anticyclone type, when cold air masses filled the Carpathian Basin, fog and stratus clouds hindered the formation of the UHI. It is mirrored in the 2 and 10 meters data what show an inverse thermal profile. The third weakest heat island developed when a cold front of a western European cyclone passed over our region. In that case relatively strong winds caused the weak UHI.

80


4. Conclusions •

•

•

Our results have proved that synoptic conditions determine the possibility of the formation of the UHI. Péczely's macrosynoptic classification is an effective tool for determination of conditions of UHI development. Most favorable conditions are those, when anticyclones govern the weather of the Carpathian basin due to low wind speeds and cloudiness connected to them. However, frequent thermal inversions in the winter period cause problems from this aspect. In some cases 24-48 hours after a cold front strong heat islands could develop. The different heat budget of the natural and artificial surfaces manifested more clearly under such circumstances. It means that a fast moving cold front does not eliminate the development of UHI completely. Slow moving warm fronts, followed by fast moving cold fronts could eliminate the development of the UHI or could destroy a well-developed UHI more effectively. During, or shortly after the passage of a strong warm front weak heat islands were detected only. Results emphasize the importance of the synoptic conditions of 2-3 day long periods before measurements. Since artificial surfaces accumulate significant amounts of heat from one day to another, the development of a strong heat island is a several day long process. For this reason a short unfavorable weather event (e.g. a cold front without a heavy rainfall) cannot eliminate completely a well-developed heat island. On the other hand, after 2-3 day long periods of disadvantageous macrosynoptic conditions, strong heat islands could not develop within 24 hour long favorable periods.

Acknowledgments The work is supported by the TÁMOP-4.2.2.A-11/1/KONV-2012-0041 project. The project is cofinanced by the European Union and the European Social Fund. Authors would like to thank Prof. hc. Gábor Szász and Csaba Rácz for the meteorological datasets of the Agrometeorological Observatory of the Center of Agricultural Sciences of the University of Debrecen; and dr. Csaba Károssy for the Macrosynoptic types of the studied period.

References Landsberg H.E. (1981). The Urban Climate, Academic Press, New York-London-Toronto-Sydney, San Francisco, 83-126 pp. Oke T.R. (1973). City size and the urban heat island. Atm. Env. 7, 769-779 pp. Oke T.R. (1987). Boundary Layer Climates. Routledge, London-New York, 405 p. Oke T.R. (1997). Urban climates and global environmental change. In Applied climatology (Eds. Thompson, R.D. and Perry, A.), Routledge, London and New York, 273-287 pp.

81


Szegedi S., Tóth T., Kapocska L., Gyarmati R. (2013). Examinations on the factors of urban heat island development in small and medium-sized towns in Hungary Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences Volume 8, 2013 - Number 2 Krüger E., Emmanuel,, R. (2013). Accounting for atmospheric stability conditions in urban heat island studies: Thecase of Glasgow, UK Landscape and Urban Planning 117 (2013) 112– 121 Chen F., Yang X., Zhu W. (2014). WRF simulations of urban heat island under hot-weather synoptic conditions: The case study of Hangzhou City, China Atmospheric Research 138 (2014) 364–377 Oke T.R. (2004). Urban observations, World Meteorological Organization, IOM Report N_ 81, WMO/TD n_1250. Szegedi S. Kircsi A. (2003). The Development of the Urban Heat Island under Various Weather Conditions in Debrecen, Hungary – Klysik. K., T.R. Oke, K. Fortuniak, C.S.B. Grimmond, J. Wibig (ed.) Proceed. ICUC-5, Lodz, Poland, vol 1 pp.139-142.

82


THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE HUNGARIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY AND SPATIAL TENDENCIES BETWEEN 2000 AND 2012 Gábor KOZMA, Associate Professor, Mariann M A R INCSÁ K , PhD-student Department of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning, University of Debrecen; [email protected]; [email protected] Balázs KULCSÁR, Assistant Professor Faculty of Engineering, University of Debrecen; [email protected] KEYWORDS: Hungary, construction industry, counties Abstract: The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the tendencies of development in the construction industry, one of the most important foundations of economic development, between 2000 and 2012. The key findings of the study may be summarized in the following: - In the period between the 2000 and 2012, after the increasing tendency that could be observed in the first half of the first decade in the new millennium, a significant drop occurred both in terms of the value of production and the number of employees in the construction industry. - From the three subsectors of the construction industry, it was the construction of buildings on which the economic crisis that started in 2008 had a negative impact. - The territorial tendencies of the construction industry were influenced by large-scale infrastructural investments (motorway construction, railway network development).

1. Introduction The construction industry is less and less considered as a key sector of the economy; nevertheless, its economic significance is quite big for two reasons (Bernát, 1979; Barta, 2002; Coe et al., 2007; Combes et al.,, 2008). On the one hand, combined with the closely related sectors, it accounts for approximately 10-15% of the economic performance of developed countries (in Hungary, the construction industry produced 4.05% of the GDP). On the other hand, the performance of the construction industry may, to a certain extent, also refer to the other economic opportunities of a given territorial unit; however, due care must be used in the interpretation of the data, as low values clearly indicate a decline, but the effect of high values is ambiguous. While the investments realized involve job creation and create new values in each case, at the same time, construction projects in connection with urban renovation, transportation infrastructure development projects, or investments made for new production facilities would have very different economic significance and impact.

83


With a view to the above, the aim of this paper is to examine the performance of the Hungarian construction industry in the period between 2000 and 2012 from a territorial perspective. In the framework of the above, first we will examine the sector’s national economic performance and the number of employees between 2000 and 2012; second, we will investigate the situation of the individual sub-sectors; and third, we will explore the differences between the individual territorial units (counties). In the course of this inquiry examination, we will devote particular attention to the analysis of the effects of the economic crisis.

2. The most important changes that may be observed in the construction industry In terms of the value of the activities of the construction industry, a significant increase may be observed in the first half of the first decade after 2000 (Figure 1), both in terms of absolute value and the figures corrected with inflation. There are fundamentally two factors in the background of this increase. On the one hand, this was a period of economic boom, and as a consequence, the construction industry also has a good performance. On the other hand, in certain cases, the impact of political factors is also well discernible: the governing political powers (and this also holds true for local governments) generally try to concentrate the completion of the most important investments for election years, and this also had a positive influence on the performance of the construction industry. This phenomenon can be clearly identified twice in the period examined. First, the extent of the increase in the years 2001-2002 (approximately 24%, which was largest year-to-year increase) was significantly higher than rate of increase from 2002 to 2003 (approximately 7%); and secondly, an outstanding value can also clearly be observed as related for the elections of 2006. The period after 2006, however, can already be considered a period of recession, behind which there are three main reasons. On one hand, after the elections, the austerity measures introduced by the new government meant a decline in the investments (in terms of absolute figures, the performance of the construction industry actually stagnated for 2-3 years), and on the other hand, the economic crisis that started in 2008-2009 further deteriorated the situation of this sector. An examination of Figure 1 reveals that the changes in the data corrected with inflation appear particularly negative: the performance of the sector in the years after 2010 did not reach the values of year 2000 if calculated at 2000 prices. In terms of the number of employees in the construction industry (Figure 2), with a slight difference, a similar tendency can be observed. Between 2000 and 2001, there was still a decline, but the next several years showed a considerable increase, coming to a peak in 2006. The decline after 2006 was followed by stagnation between 2007 and 2010; however, no further decrease as a result of the economic crisis can be observed during 2011 and 2012. It is interesting to note that the drop in the number of employees in the sector only took place a year after the decline in the production value, which seems to indicate that the enterprises first considered the problems to be transitory only, and while they were still waiting for business to pick up, they did not carry out any larger downsizing of their workforce. 84


250

200

150 A B

100

50

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Fig. 1: Changes in the performance of the construction industry between 2000 and 2012 (2000 = 100%, A – value calculated at current prices, B – value corrected with the inflation rate) Source: Central Statistical Office 120000

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000

0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Fig. 2: The number of employees in the construction industry between 2000 and 2015 Source: Central Statistical Office 85


As far as the three main subsectors within the construction industry are concerned, in the period between 2008 and 2012, the most important role was played by the construction of other structures (e.g. road and railway building, the construction of public utilities), the second place was held by specialised construction activities (e.g. the installation of building services, building completion works), while the significance of the construction of buildings (e.g. the structural completion of industrial, educational, healthcare and residential buildings) can be regarded as smaller (Table 1). On the basis of the analysis of the changes in the production value and relative weight of the individual subsectors, we can conclude that the relative weight of the construction of other structures increased (between 2008 and 2009, the value of this activity remained at the same level if calculated at current prices), while in the other two subsectors there was a decrease in terms of both the relative weight (percentage) and the absolute figures (this decrease was bigger in case of the construction of buildings). The special position of the building of other structures subsector can be primarily attributed to the fact that in these years, the road, railway and public utility constructions financed by the European Union played an important role among investments. Table 1. The distribution of the individual subsectoral activities within the construction industry between 2008 and 2012 (%) 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 average construction of buildings 30.2 26.3 25.8 23.1 23.4 25.9 construction of other structures 34.1 41.9 38.2 38.5 42.3 38.9 specialised construction activities 35.6 31.7 36.0 38.4 34.3 35.1 Source: Central Statistical Office

3. Changes in the territorial structure of the construction industry If we examine the territorial structure of the construction industry (Table 2), we can conclude, on the one hand, that more than 1/3 of the value was produced in a Budapest and Pest county, with only Hajdú-Bihar, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén and Győr-Moson-Sopron counties having a share of more than 5% each. At the same time, the analysis of the per capita values primarily indicates the effect of two factors. On the one hand, we can observe that in economically more developed territorial units (e.g. Budapest, Győr-Moson-Sopron counties) there is a significant amount of activity in the construction industry, while in economically less developed areas (e.g. Békés, Nógrád, Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg counties), the value produced by the construction industry is also quite low. On the other hand, the effect of infrastructure development having a large total cost can clearly be identified: in all the counties where significant road construction (primarily motorway construction) projects were implemented (including, for example, Csongrád, Somogy, Zala and Tolna counties), the relative indicators of the construction industry also significantly exceeded the national average.

86


Table 2. Indicators reflecting the territorial structure of the construction industry in the period between 2000 and 2012 the share of the individual counties from the value the per capital value produced produced by the construction by the construction industry industry between 2000 and between 2000 and 2012 relative 2012 (%) to the national value (%) Baranya 4.04 102.7 Bács-Kiskun 4.32 81.3 Békés 2.51 66.4 Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 5.93 83.2 Budapest 24.79 145.1 Csongrád 4.67 111.1 Fejér 4.38 103.1 Győr-Moson-Sopron 5.00 113.3 Hajdú-Bihar 5.10 93.8 Heves 2.61 82.4 Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok 2.94 73.5 Komárom-Esztergom 2.95 94.7 Nógrád 1.07 50.8 Pest 10.38 89.5 Somogy 3.63 111.4 Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg 4.14 72.6 Tolna 2.59 108.5 Vas 2.54 97.3 Veszprém 2.90 80.5 Zala 3.51 120.8 Magyarország 100.00 100.0 Source: Central Statistical Office When analysing the characteristic features in terms of employment (Table 3), it can be concluded that, similar to the results shown in Table 2, the highest values can be found in Budapest and in Pest county; however, in this respect, it was only the data of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén that were above 5%. As far as the efficiency indicator is concerned (Table 3, column B), the most important conclusion that can be drawn is that lower values (i.e. efficiency that is significantly below the national average) are mainly characteristic in economically less developed counties (e.g. Békés, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Nógrád), while the opposite of this statement (higher level of efficiency in case of economically more developed counties) cannot be proved (e.g. Győr-Moson-Sopron and Fejér counties). 87


Table 3. The distribution of the territorial structure of employment in the construction industry in the period between 2000 and 2012 A B Baranya 4,0 101,7 Bács-Kiskun 4,0 107,1 Békés 3,0 83,3 Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 6,9 86,2 Budapest 23,2 106,9 Csongrád 4,7 98,9 Fejér 4,5 97,1 Győr-Moson-Sopron 5,3 93,6 Hajdú-Bihar 4,8 106,5 Heves 2,7 96,6 Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok 3,1 95,7 Komárom-Esztergom 2,8 105,1 Nógrád 1,2 90,1 Pest 9,8 105,5 Somogy 3,5 103,3 Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg 3,9 105,7 Tolna 2,6 100,4 Vas 2,7 93,5 Veszprém 3,8 97,1 Zala 3,4 101,9 Magyarország 100,0 100,0 A – distribution of employees among the counties (the average of the years between 2000 and 2012, in %), B – the average of the per capita value produced by the construction industry between 2000 and 2012, relative to the national average). Source: Central Statistical Office Examining the changes between 2000 and 2012 on the level of counties (Table 4), we can observe significant changes, primarily depending on which areas the larger-value investments were realized in in the given period. The investments were mainly related to the development of transport infrastructure (motorway construction, e.g. Somogy county in 2003-2005, Bács-Kiskun and Csongrád counties in 2005, Hajdú-Bihar county in 2006, Baranya county in 2008-2010, SzabolcsSzatmár-Bereg county in 2012; railway development: e.g. Békés and Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok counties in 2012), with only 1 or 2 larger industrial investments able to significantly improve the situation of the given county (e.g. Bács-Kiskun county – Mercedes, in 2010; Győr-Moson-Sopron county – Audi, in 2012). 88


Table 4. The distribution of the construction industry activities in the period between 2000 and 2012 (the percentage value of the given years, divided by the average of the value in the period between 2000 and 2012, in %) A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T

2000 74.9 82.1 94.9 101.8 113.0 74.5 98.1 109.8 79.3 124.2 95.9 85.5 139.9 99.7 59.8 76.1 76.4 144.6 127.5 123.0

2001 60.8 74.0 98.8 104.0 112.6 69.0 135.0 98.9 91.8 75.6 84.9 90.7 168.7 107.2 69..7 126.5 89.6 92.7 98.2 98.3

2002 88.7 80.0 101.6 97.3 101.3 67.7 118.4 84.5 106.8 168.2 84.1 97.1 101.1 105.8 114.6 100.0 89.8 101.9 116.4 86.8

2003 86,4 91,1 117,6 141,4 100,3 95,1 71,8 88,4 118,6 85,5 88,1 114,0 109,8 89,9 149,6 71,6 67,7 101,0 99,5 114,4

2004 70.2 100.9 114.3 130.9 89.4 103.2 91.4 91.1 121.0 88.2 79.5 123.6 97.1 92.7 156.4 79.2 75.6 112.6 99.5 139.4

2005 66.1 133.5 91.9 78.3 85.4 194.2 108.9 74.9 119.7 73.9 92.9 110.8 76.2 97.5 183.1 115.0 64.3 85.6 93.8 93.2

2006 85.4 95.1 108.3 78.7 88.0 93.4 98.1 86.9 149.4 110.3 132.6 114.9 116.9 99.6 121.2 128.8 73.9 92.0 114.8 104.1

2007 77.8 80.5 105.6 85.9 103.1 87.6 100.3 109.4 106.0 115.6 122.3 113.6 91.3 113.2 81.8 107.4 61.1 91.3 93.9 111.8

2008 154.9 77.2 88.2 93.1 114.6 87.4 88.8 93.3 71.0 74.0 90.5 103.7 85.4 116.3 71.3 81.2 116.9 96.3 92.7 91.5

2009 220.0 91.6 56.9 76.8 97.3 132.5 112.4 98.3 82.7 78.4 79.2 74.7 97.5 96.4 65.7 84.8 223.5 94.8 75.4 88.6

2010 131.5 170.4 88.9 97.9 98.9 119.8 93.5 97.1 84.1 100.6 78.2 96.1 79.9 90.8 77.9 89.0 125.2 105.5 88.8 84.4

2011 89.6 113.1 99.8 116.2 98.7 108.5 103.0 117.7 85.4 109.6 121.6 97.1 60.2 92.0 80.4 100.2 121.9 94.3 106.4 73.9

2012 93.6 110.6 133.2 97.8 97.4 67.2 80.3 149.5 84.2 96.1 150.2 78.3 76.1 98.8 68.5 140.2 114.4 87.3 93.1 90.6

A – Baranya county, B – Bács-Kiskun county, C – Békés county, D – Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county, E – Budapest, F – Csongrád county, G – Fejér county, H – Győr-Moson-Sopron county, I – Hajdú-Bihar county, J – Heves county, K – Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok county, L – KomáromEsztergom county, M – Nógrád county, N – Pest county, O – Somogy county, P – SzabolcsSzatmár-Bereg county, Q – Tolna county, R – Vas county, S – Veszprém county, T – Zala county Source: Central Statistical Office An examination of the characteristic features of the individual subsectors of the construction industry in the period between 2008 and 2012 (Table 5) reveals that it is only in the construction of buildings subsection that this figure significantly (by more than 20%) exceeds the national average. In all likelihood, this is due to the fact that in the given time period there were hardly any largescale motorway construction investments, and the developments implemented did not require building service installations costing significant amounts. The construction of other structures subsector only shows an outstanding proportion in three counties (Baranya, Tolna, Zala), the first two of which can be explained with the M6 motorway construction project. In addition, in certain counties, this subsector may be considered to be very significant in individual years, which is due to the developments of the railway system (e.g. Békés county – 2012, Fejér county – 2009, JászNagykun-Szolnok county – 2012). The specialised construction activities subsector only had high values in two territorial units: these can be explained, in the case of Budapest, by the high-quality projects which, therefore, require significant building service installations, and in the case of GyőrMoson-Sopron county, the high technical content of the investment made by Audi. 89


Table 5. Indicators reflecting the territorial structure of the three subsectors of the construction industry in the period between 2008 and 2012 (%) the relationship between the distribution of the production distribution of the production value value and the national data A B C A B C Baranya 24.8 48.2 27.0 95.9 123.9 76.8 Bács-Kiskun 30.7 38.0 31.3 118.7 97.7 89.1 Békés 35.5 39.6 24.9 137.0 101.8 70.9 Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén 25.4 36.9 37.8 98.0 94.8 107.6 Budapest 22.9 35.0 42.2 88.3 89.9 120.1 Csongrád 26.2 38.6 35.2 101.2 99.2 100.2 Fejér 21.3 44.8 33.9 82.2 115.2 96.6 Győr-Moson-Sopron 22.0 31.1 46.9 85.0 79.8 133.7 Hajdú-Bihar 29.9 33.6 36.5 115.6 86.3 104.0 Heves 25.1 42.5 32.3 96.9 109.4 92.1 Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok 36.4 40.0 23.6 140.4 102.9 67.2 Komárom-Esztergom 30.8 34.4 34.8 119.1 88.3 99.1 Nógrád 41.2 31.9 26.9 159.1 82.0 76.7 Pest 21.7 42.1 36.2 83.9 108.1 103.2 Somogy 33.4 40.2 26.4 128.8 103.4 75.3 Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg 33.5 40.6 25.8 129.5 104.5 73.5 Tolna 19.5 55.1 25.5 75.3 141.5 72.5 Vas 27.8 37.8 34.3 107.5 97.3 97.8 Veszprém 31.6 31.8 36.6 122.0 81.8 104.2 Zala 28.9 49.7 21.4 111.5 127.9 60.9 Magyarország 25.9 38.9 35.1 100.0 100.0 100.0 A – construction of buildings, B – construction of other structures, C – specialised construction activities Source: Central Statistical Office An examination of the change over time in the number of employees in the construction industry in the individual territorial units (Table 6), we can conclude that two characteristic national tendencies may be observed in most counties: in 2001, the number of employees still decreased from the previous year (with only three counties being exceptions), and the top year in terms of employment, due to the reasons outlined above, was 2006 (with the exception of only two counties). By contrast, in the second half of the decade, the economic crisis affected the individual counties in different ways, and in all likelihood it was due to the effect of the 2010 elections that in 2009 and 2010, the number of employees increased from the previous year in approximately half of the 90


counties (in production value, the same tendency can be observed in much fewer counties even if calculated with current prices, and especially if the figures corrected with inflation are used). At the same time, the decrease of the number of employees between 2000 and 2012 cannot be considered as a nationwide tendency, since there was an increase in the period concerned in as many as seven counties, and what lends special interest to this is the fact that the counties concerned are not among the economically most developed territorial units. Table 6. The figures indicating the changes in the number of employees on the level of counties in the period between 2000 and 2012 (%) A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U

2001 89.2 85.1 89.9 83.2 94.7 95.3 92.8 85.1 102.3 61.9 84.3 86.5 84.9 90.0 103.2 122.2 99.8 81.0 75.8 85.9 90.2

2002 115.2 99.7 114.6 120.9 108.9 103.2 87.0 104.2 108.6 112.2 123.5 107.7 75.0 101.7 154.8 104.3 113.8 111.0 113.9 101.0 108.6

2003 105.4 121.1 114.3 137.1 97.3 110.5 99.1 115.4 134.4 115.4 112.5 138.5 96.7 113.2 104.4 89.4 93.4 120.5 114.9 108.3 109.8

the number of employees relative to the previous year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 105.2 107.9 134.0 68.7 92.5 127.7 103.0 120.1 99.6 71.2 91.6 124.1 114.4 86.7 100.7 87.6 75.1 91.6 107.1 81.0 123.2 81.5 85.9 93.5 104.4 102.3 115.8 86.9 108.2 93.7 125.1 138.7 111.3 69.3 82.6 126.0 146.4 76.9 145.5 83.2 90.3 123.5 103.1 90.8 123.8 96.2 78.8 101.2 102.2 97.5 119.3 86.1 79.2 106.4 113.4 94.1 131.2 99.7 80.4 96.8 102.3 104.2 119.0 93.0 79.0 109.6 96.7 109.1 106.0 96.9 86.1 94.8 106.3 105.9 147.8 79.0 93.2 94.3 112.5 107.2 115.6 105.6 107.0 91.0 83.1 121.8 107.0 71.5 98.7 89.9 115.8 128.5 131.4 67.6 80.7 120.8 117.3 104.5 99.2 79.7 140.6 142.3 89.2 96.0 112.4 95.3 80.1 128.8 116.8 94.0 122.9 79.9 94.7 116.3 102.6 95.7 100.3 87.8 97.9 115.1 107.3 101.8 117.2 85.1 94.2 104.1

X 2010 120.1 106.9 120.9 129.8 92.9 89.5 86.5 111.5 100.2 105.3 98.8 98.0 80.1 89.8 111.6 105.4 79.3 100.0 77.9 84.4 97.7

2011 67.6 85.4 93.3 82.9 78.5 81.5 86.0 78.1 84.5 92.2 107.4 84.4 71.5 83.6 109.0 72.1 72.6 55.8 76.2 77.4 81.2

2012 102.3 115.2 96.2 118.8 85.7 73.3 77.5 118.2 92.1 77.3 100.8 80.5 121.2 78.7 69.6 102.6 117.7 96.5 96.5 117.6 93.4

111.0 107.8 77.0 123.2 68.2 80.7 70.1 93.6 100.3 65.2 128.0 76.0 49.4 87.7 97.2 114.7 139.3 55.3 67.5 70.4 85.2

A – Baranya county, B – Bács-Kiskun county, C – Békés county, D – Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county, E – Budapest, F – Csongrád county, G – Fejér county, H – Győr-Moson-Sopron county, I – Hajdú-Bihar county, J – Heves county, K – Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok county, L – KomáromEsztergom county, M – Nógrád county, N – Pest county, O – Somogy county, P – SzabolcsSzatmár-Bereg county, Q – Tolna county, R – Vas county, S – Veszprém county, T – Zala county X – the value in 2012 relative to the value in 2000 Source: Central Statistical Office

4. Conclusions The key findings of the study may be summarized as follows: - In the period between the 2000 and 2012, after the increasing tendency that could be observed in the first half of the first decade in the new millennium, a significant drop occurred both in terms of 91


the value of production and the number of employees in the construction industry, with political factors and the economic crisis influencing the processes. - From the three subsectors of the construction industry, it was the construction of buildings on which the economic crisis that started in 2008 had a negative impact. - The territorial tendencies of the construction industry were influenced by large-scale infrastructural investments (motorway construction, railway network development).


References Barta Gy. (2002). A magyar ipar területi folyamatai. Dialóg Campus Kiadó, Budapest-Pécs, p. 272. Bernát T. (ed.) (1978). Általános gazdaságföldrajz. Tankönykiadó, Budapest, p. 362. Coe N. M. – Kelly P. F. – Yeung W. C. (2007). Economic geography. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, p. 426. Comber P-P. – Mayer T. – Thisse J-F. (eds.) (2008). Economic Geography. Princeton University Press, Princeton-Oxford, p. 399.

92


BUILDING ENERGETICS INVESTMENTS IN HUNGARY IN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE NEW HUNGARY DEVELOPMENT PLAN Ernő MOLNÁR, PhD; János PÉNZES, PhD; Károly TEPERICS, PhD; Zsolt RADICS, PhD Department of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; KEYWORDS: energy efficiency, building stock, Environment and Energy Operational Programme. Abstract: Approximately 40% of the primary energy consumption in Hungary is realized in the building stock. The improvement of energy efficiency in the buildings moderates the dependency on import fossil energy resources playing nowadays also decisive role in the Hungarian economy, mitigates the burden on the environment contributing to the fulfilment of EU goals related to CO2 emissions, as well as creates new work places first of all in the construction and production of building materials. Our empirical analysis dealing with improvements aiming energy efficiency in buildings is based on data of investments realized from EU development funds within the programming period 20072013. The analysis concentrates on the Northern Great Plain Region which is one of the most underdeveloped regions of Hungary and the EU. Based on information by support design and on settlement level, we examine the complexity and spatial characteristics of the developments.

1. Energy efficiency of building stock as a strategic question Hungary, consuming too much energy compared with its GDP (Gross Domestic Product), is one of the most energy demanding economies of the European Union. On the other hand, fossil fuels, playing central role in the emission of greenhouse gases, have a share of about 78%, while other non-renewable fuels have 14% in the energy consumption (2010). The majority (62-63%) of the fuels consumed by the Hungarian economy derives from import because of the lack of local energy resources. There are some alternative options for a more optimal energy structure, but it is undoubted that the thrift, environmental sustainability and the decrease of external dependency simultaneously can be reached by energy saving, by more efficient energy consumption. According to the EU strategic goals related to the energy economy (Energy 2020), as well as because of the strategic interests of Hungary, the efficiency appears as an important objective in the documents of Hungarian energy policy. 40% of the total energy consumed in Hungary, is used in the building stock which makes the energy efficiency of the buildings important.4 On the other hand, about 70% of the 4,3 million flats and a significant share of the public buildings need serious developments in their energy efficiency. This

4

Nemzeti Energiastratégia 2030 (Nemzeti Fejlesztési Minisztérium, 2012); 132 p. 93


is also because of the relatively slow renewal of building stock: between 1990 and 2010 the number of the newly built dwellings fluctuated between 20 and 44 thousand per year (0,48-1,13% of the total dwelling stock in these years), but in 2013 (in the year with the worst data after the change of regime) did not reach even the 8 thousand. According to the data of the census of 2011, hardly 10% of the total dwellings was built after 2000, and a little bit more than 15% after 1990. The small number of low energy buildings is also charasteristic: according to the statements of National Energy Strategy, there were built up maximally a few hundred pieces in the last years. From the point of view of energy efficiency, blocks of flats and dwellings with district heating play a specific role: in 2011 about 550 thousand belonged to the first group, to the second one nearly 650 thousand flats (but the number of dwellings in housing estates and built by industrialized technology is bigger). The phenomenon, concentrated in larger cities (first of all in Budapest, Debrecen, Miskolc, Szeged, Pécs, Győr, Nyíregyháza, Kecskemét, Székesfehérvár), is typical not only for Hungary, but for all transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe confrontating with energetic problems of the obsolete housing estates from the socialist era. According to the importance of building stock in the enhancement of energy efficiency, the Hungarian Energy Strategy places emphasis on building energetics investments. Between 2009 and 2011 – based on the revenues of international quota trade (Kyoto Protocol of the UN Framework Convention) – Hungary implemented a so-called Green Investment Scheme. As first country in the world, Hungary sold CO2 emission quotas for Belgium, Spain and Japan, and in the framework of a „hard greenification”, all revenues spent for climate protection purposes, namely for improving the energy efficiency of buildings. 2009 the GIS Climate Friendly Home Panel Sub-Program and the GIS Climate Friendly Home Energy Efficiency Sub-Program, 2010 the GIS Energy Efficient Household Appliance Replacement Sub-Program and the GIS Energy Efficient Bulb Replacement Sub-Program, 2011 the GIS „Our Home Renovation” and „Building New Home” Sub-Program, as well as the GIS Sub-Program for Promotion of Renewable Energy Usage (Solar Systems) were announced. GIS had a total amount of 38,5 billion HUF (about 128 million EUR) for the reconstruction of dwelling stock, from which until Spring 2013, 24 billion HUF (80 million EUR) was paid out. The measures contributed to the modernization of 62,5 thousand flats (1,4% of total dwelling stock). More than three-fourth of the funds was concentrated on reconstruction of blocks of flats, but the biggest per household savings were achieved in the case of family houses: according to the calculations of ÉMI report in 2013, approximately 0,09% of the primary energy consumption and CO2 emission was spared due to the realized investments.5

2. Building energetics investments in the EU programming period 2007-2013 The strategic goals for a more efficient energy use were integrated also into the New Hungary Development Plan which coordinated the investments within the framework of EU cohesion policy in the programming period 2007-2013, spending on developments with national co-financing a total sum of approximately 26,3 billion EUR.6 On the other hand, the measures having effects on building energetics were dispersed in more operational programmes. The Environment and Energy 5 6

Zöld Beruházási Rendszer. Záró jelentés (Építésügyi Minőségellenőrző Innovációs Nonprofit Kft., 2013); 55 p. New Hungary Development Plan (The Government of the Republic of Hungary, 2007); 194 p. 94


Operational Programme concentrated on the communal sector (local governments, public institutions, municipal and private enterprises providing district heating) and on the small and medium-scale enterprises (but focusing only on the energetic modernization of their plants / buildings). Supports for more energy efficient production technology could be applied in the framework of the Economic Development Operational Programme, while measures aiming the efficient energy use of dwellings were integrated into the rehabilitation programmes of settlements appearing in regional operational programmes of the seven NUTS II regions. (The EEOP financed energetic reconstructions apart from dwellings.) Besides the above-mentioned programmes, Transport Operational Programme and Social Infrastructure Operational Programme also contributed to the declared aims.7 Although the Environment and Energy Operational Programme concentrated – after Transport Operational Programme – the second largest fund between 2007-2013, the efficient energy use played a relatively marginal (3,14%) role in its spending structure: from a total support of 4916 million EUR was given out hardly more than 154 million EUR for this purpose. 53% of the total sum was concentrated on waste, sewage and drinking water management, and further nearly 29% was spent on water management and environmental remediation. In the priority axis targeting efficient energy use, in four support constructions more applications were announced (Table 1). The target groups were enterprises, public institutions as well as non-profit organizations. Third party financing (TPF) schemes played also an important role: in that case, investments enhancing energy efficiency were realized by enterprises in public institutions, foundations and churches while the partners paid for the service first of all from the savings after the modernizations.8 There were more supported activities integrated into the development constructions, such as improving energy efficiency of equipment producing, transporting and transforming heat as well as modernizing electricity and lighting systems in public institutions and private small and mediumscale enterprises, furthermore building up remote control and monitoring system of gas and electricity use. Besides the reconstruction of energetics systems, reducing heat losses in the buildings as well as enhancing the efficiency of district heating and public lighting systems were also important issues. In some support constructions, the general enhancement of energy efficiency was combined with the use of renewable energy resources. Within these support constructions could be submitted applications with a support demand of at least 1 million HUF (about 3300 EUR) – 10 million HUF (33000 EUR) in cases of the 5.1.0 and 5.4.0 constructions – maximally 50 million HUF and 500 million HUF (800 million HUF in cases of some health care institutions). There were provided in all cases non-repayable supports financed by the Cohesion Fund of the European Union. According to the situation of 6th August 2014, within the 5th priority axis of Environment and Energy Operational Programme aiming efficient energy use, nearly 600 projects were supported and more than 41,5 billion HUF (138 million EUR) were given out (the total amount of supports is similar to the volume of Green Investment Scheme). Almost 70% of projects and 85,5% of total supports were related to the applications of the third support construction (building energetics investments). There were large differences in the support intensities, depending mostly on types of 7 8

Environment and Energy Operational Programme (Government of the Republic of Hungary, 2007); 166 p. Environment and Energy Operational Programme (Government of the Republic of Hungary, 2007); 166 p. 95


applicants, activities, as well as on regions of the realization. The public institutions and non-profit organizations as applicants, the more complex projects integrating also the use of renewable energies as activities, as well as the projects from the most underdeveloped regions (Northern Great Plain, Southern Great Plain, Northern Hungary, Southern Transdanubia) received relatively bigger supports (data of supported applications are presented in Table 1). Table 1. Data of supported applications in the different constructions of 5th priority axis of EEOP; source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary Supported applications (pcs)

Support constructions KEOP 5.1.0 Enhancement of energy efficiency KEOP 5.2.0 Third party financing (TPF) schemes KEOP 5.2.0/A/09 Third party financing (TPF) schemes KEOP 5.3.0/A/09 Building energetics development KEOP 5.3.0/B/09 Building energetics development KEOP 5.4.0/09 Energetic modernization of district heating Total

Support value (HUF)

39

1 698 523 451

54

446 026 011

69

1 175 489 110

357

29 793 399 294

52

5 753 705 646

21

2 690 478 456

592

41 557 621 968

Support intensity (%) 10-50% (depending on regions) 10-14,5% (depending on activities) 20-25%; (depending on activities) 25-75% (depending on applicants and activities) 30-70% (depending on applicants and activities) 25-50% (depending on regions)

3. Building energetics investments in the Northern Great Plain Region The Northern Great Plain – due to its big population and relative underdevelopment – appears as one of the preferred regions of the New Hungary Development Plan. Having in 2012 a (second worst) per capita GDP value of 64% of the national average, the region has the second place according its absolute share in supports of the whole plan as well as in supports of the Environment and Energy Operational Programme. Because of the water management investments, it had outstanding share in the sources of EEOP: four of the biggest ten projects in the Northern Great Plain were related to flood prevention. On the other hand, in the framework of the 5th priority axis of EEOP aiming efficient energy use, the region had only a moderate performance. More than 5276 million HUF (about 17,6 million EUR) was the total sum of supports given for these developments in the region, which meant nearly 13% of the national spendings for the purpose in question between 2007-2013. The per capita supports in the region achieved only 85% of the Hungarian average (data of supports of NUTS II regions are presented in Tables 2-3). Table 2. Share of NUTS II regions on the supports within the framework of the New Hungary Development Plan (2007-2013); source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary Central Hungary Central Transdanubia Southern Transdanubia

New Hungary Development Plan 32,5 9,5 8,0

Environment and Energy Operational Programme 18,8 9,1 8,7 96

EEOP 5th priority axis for efficient energy use 33,2 13,1 8,7


Western Transdanubia Northern Hungary Northern Great Plain Southern Great Plain Hungary total

8,7 10,2 17,0 14,2 100,0

10,0 10,3 21,0 22,2 100,0

9,5 10,0 12,7 12,9 100,0

Data according to the situation of 6th August 2014 Table 3. Per capita supports in the NUTS II regions within the framework of the New Hungary Development Plan (2007-2013) in percentage of national average; source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary Central Hungary Central Transdanubia Southern Transdanubia Western Transdanubia Northern Hungary Northern Great Plain Southern Great Plain Hungary total

New Hungary Development Plan 109 87 85 88 84 113 109 100

Environment and Energy Operational Programme 63 84 92 101 85 140 170 100

EEOP 5th priority axis for efficient energy use 112 120 92 96 83 85 99 100

Data according to the situation of 6th August 2014 Nearly 90% of all sources aiming efficient energy use within the Environment and Energy Operational Programme in the region was given out for building energetics investments (EEOP 5.3.) (the national average is also more than 85%). The per capita values of Northern Great Plain Region were below the average in all measures, but in the cases of Third party financing (TPF) schemes aiming the modernization of heating and lighting systems and building energetics investments were close to the 90% of the national average (data of EEOP supports are shown in Tables 4-5). The most significant investments of the region (University of Debrecen, Police Headquarters of Hajdú-Bihar County, Nuclear Research Institute of Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Debrecen, Hospital of Hungarian State Railways in Szolnok, as well as a joint project of seven municipal institutions in Nyíregyháza) were related to building energetics measures. Table 4. Share of NUTS II regions on the supports within the framework of the 5th priority axis of EEOP (2007-2013); source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary Central Hungary Central Transdanubia Southern Transdanubia Western Transdanubia Northern Hungary Northern Great Plain Southern Great Plain Hungary total

EEOP 5.1. 19,7 23,8 12,7 12,6 7,2 4,7 19,4 100,0

EEOP 5.2. 17,7 11,0 11,2 21,2 2,5 13,2 23,3 100,0

EEOP 5.3. 36,6 11,7 6,2 9,2 10,4 13,3 12,5 100,0

EEOP 5.4. 5,0 25,6 36,7 4,3 11,5 9,7 7,1 100,0

EEOP 5. total 33,2 13,1 8,7 9,5 10,0 12,7 12,9 100,0

Data according to the situation of 6th August 2014 97


Table 5. Per capita supports in the NUTS II regions within the framework of the 5th priority axis of EEOP (2007-2013) in percentage of national average; source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary Central Hungary Central Transdanubia Southern Transdanubia Western Transdanubia Northern Hungary Northern Great Plain Southern Great Plain Hungary total

EEOP 5.1. 66 218 136 127 59 31 148 100

EEOP 5.2. 60 101 119 213 21 88 178 100

EEOP 5.3. 124 107 66 93 86 88 96 100

EEOP 5.4. 17 235 391 44 96 65 54 100

EEOP 5. total 112 120 92 96 83 85 99 100

Data according to the situation of 6th August 2014 About 10% of the settlements within the region had developments aiming efficient energy use: they were relatively equally dispersed in the three counties, but the biggest investments were concentrated into the county seats (Debrecen, Nyíregyháza, Szolnok). Hajdúböszörmény as middlesized town had also a kind of importance, because of a bigger development of the University of Debrecen which has a local pedagogical unit in the settlement. On the other hand, some inner and outer peripheries had a significant lack of developments (the spatial dispersion of supports and supported investments within the framework of EEOP are shown in Figures 1-2).

98


Fig. 1. Supports aiming efficient energy use within the Northern Great Plain; source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary (minimum: 1 million HUF; maximum: 1221 million HUF)

99


Fig. 2. Total project costs aiming efficient energy use within the Northern Great Plain; source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary (minimum: 5 million HUF; maximum: 1664 million HUF) Table 6. Supports and total project costs aiming efficient energy use within the Northern Great Plain Region by different settlement categories; source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary County seats Other towns Rural settlements County seats Other towns Rural settlements North Great Plain

EEOP 5.1. 37,1 62,9 0,0 41,1 58,9 0,0 100,0

EEOP 5.2. 52,0 37,6 10,4 41,8 47,7 10,5 100,0

EEOP 5.3. 56,2 31,2 12,6 54,2 32,5 13,3 100,0

EEOP 5.4. 100,0 0,0 0,0 100,0 0,0 0,0 100,0

EEOP 5. total 57,9 30,4 11,7 55,1 33,2 11,7 100,0

Data according to the situation of 6th August 2014

100


Table 7. Supports and total project costs aiming efficient energy use within the Northern Great Plain region by different applicant categories; source: Ministry for National Economy, Hungary Enterprises Local governments Other institutions Enterprises Local governments Other institutions North Great Plain

EEOP 5.1. 0,0 62,9 37,1 0,0 58,9 41,1 100,0

EEOP 5.2. 100,0 0,0 0,0 100,0 0,0 0,0 100,0

EEOP 5.3. 10,8 24,1 65,1 13,6 26,8 59,7 100,0

EEOP 5.4. 34,7 65,3 0,0 35,2 64,8 0,0 100,0

EEOP 5. total 15,4 25,7 58,8 27,3 26,1 46,6 100,0

Data according to the situation of 6th August 2014 Nearly 58% of all supports and 55% of the total project costs (100% of the investments into district heating) within the framework of the 5th priority axis of Environment and Energy Operational Programme were concentrated into the three county seats, while further 30% of the supports and 33% of the total project costs were related to the small and medium-sized towns. We can state that according to the geographical pattern of public institutions and enterprises the developments were realized basically in cities and towns. Among the applicants, public institutions played a dominant role, but local governments and private enterprises can be mentioned too: the latter group, because of the lower intensity of supports, had a bigger share in the project costs, than in case of the received supports (support data by settlement and applicant categories are presented in Tables 6-7).

4. Conclusions The thrift, environmental sustainability and reduction of external dependency as main goals of the Hungarian energy strategy can be reached at the same time by more efficient energy use. A key target of the investments should be the building stock giving approximately 40% of total energy consumption: the development of the sector was integrated into the strategies, and also significant investments were realized in the framework of Green Investment Scheme and by the New Hungary Development Plan. In the EU Programming Period between 2007 and 2013, the Environment and Energy Operational Programme dealt the most directly with efficient energy use: its developments were focused on public institutions as well as building energetics of small and medium-scale enterprises. The Northern Great Plain Region was underrepresented in the realized supports aiming more efficient energy use the investments were concentrated into the public institutions and towns (especially into the county seats). Due to the investments of the last years, the energy efficiency of the building stock was improved. On the other hand, the applied financial and technological solutions – according to the experiences – resulted mostly 10-40% energy savings in Hungary, despite the fact, that nowadays technologically even 85% could be reached. In the long run, these suboptimal reconstructions include the danger that the Hungarian energy economy comes to a path with relatively high energy consumption and CO2 emission durably (lock-in). From this direction can turn the economy only by huge additional costs, in order to fulfil the later prospectively tightening minimum emission requirements. This is the reason why it is regarded so important to increase the depth of 101


reconstruction in case of building energetics investments of the next years (till 2030 60% on the average, but after 2020 70-85%). The deep reconstructions result a significant fall of energy consumption: a reduction of energy demand for building heating by 30%, makes it possible to decrease the total primary energy consumption by more than 10%. This is important not only because of the similar reduction of energy costs and emitted CO2: the import of natural gas also can be cut by 30-40% (in January 50-60%), so in this way, decrease of external energy dependency can be also achieved. As further advantage can be mentioned it is the larger employment potential. According to a related research, a complex reconstruction programme of greater volume aiming the enhancement of energy efficiency – taking into consideration also the losses in the energy sector – till 2020 even 130 thousand new workplaces can be created (in construction industry, in sectors serving the construction industry, as well as because of the increased purchasing power caused by higher employment rate). In addition, spreading the learning-by-doing approach, there is also chance to position Hungary among the technology developers in this segment of the economy.9 The exact volume of positive economic effects generating by building energetics investments can be disputable on national and regional level (depending also on the volume and depth of developments). But, from a geographical point of view, these investments offer additional growth opportunities for the regional economies, while their distribution can be much more equal regionally than many other factors of regional economic development.


References Egy nagyszabású, energia-megtakarítást célzó, komplex épület-felújítási program hatása a foglalkoztatásra Magyarországon (Central European University, Center for Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Policy; European Climate Foundation, 2010); 167 p. http://zbr.kormany.hu/download/e/b2/00000/CEU%20Tanulm%C3%A1ny%20m%C3%A9lyfel%C3%BAj%C3 %ADt%C3%A1sr%C3%B3l.pdf (12.09.2014)

Environment and Energy Operational Programme (Government of the Republic of Hungary, 2007); 166 p. http://www.google.hu/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CCQQFjAA& url=http%3A%2F%2Fpalyazat.gov.hu%2Fdownload%2F1783%2FKEOP_070628_ENG.pdf&ei=6skSVJ2IKsjP aIazgZAH&usg=AFQjCNFdiA5LJzpn7was7pstAEnaUM1zBw&bvm=bv.75097201,d.d2s (12.09.2014)

Magyarország II. Nemzeti Energiahatékonysági Cselekvési Terve 2016-ig, kitekintéssel 2020-ra (Nemzeti Fejlesztési Minisztérium, 2011); 68 p.

9

Egy nagyszabású, energia-megtakarítást célzó, komplex épület-felújítási program hatása a foglalkoztatásra Magyarországon (Central European University, Center for Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Policy; European Climate Foundation, 2010); 167 p. 102


http://zbr.kormany.hu/download/c/6c/40000/Magyarorsz%C3%A1g%20II%20Nemzeti%20Energiahat%C3%A9 konys%C3%A1gi%20Cselekv%C3%A9si%20Terve.pdf (12.09.2014)

Nemzeti

Energiastratégia

2030

(Nemzeti

Fejlesztési

Minisztérium,

2012);

132

p.

http://www.google.hu/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&sqi=2&ved=0CB8QF jAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nih.gov.hu%2Fnemzeti&ei=gskSVIb2EtjcapPogKgC&usg=AFQjCNHpKnea BlgFz09bWNrbAoiL2LDVaw&bvm=bv.75097201,d.d2s (12.09.2014)

The New Hungary Development Plan (The Government of the Republic of Hungary, 2007); 194 p. http://palyazat.gov.hu/download/16836/80825_UMFT_angol_4_teljes.pdf (12.09.2014)

Zöld Beruházási Rendszer. Záró jelentés (ÉMI – Építésügyi Minőségellenőrző Innovációs Nonprofit Kft., 2013); 55 p. http://energiakontrollprogram.hu/sites/energiakontrollprogram.hu/files/zaro_jelentes.pdf

103


THE MAIN RESULTS OF A LEGAL RESEARCH ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY LAW Orsolya BÁNYAI, Senior lecturer University of Debrecen, Faculty of Law, Agricultural, Environmental and Labour Law Department, HUNGARY [email protected] KEYWORDS: energy law, environmental interests, sustainable development Abstract I have been doing research on sustainable energy law for a couple of years. Taking into consideration that the DEnzero project will be finished soon, this conference gives a good opportunity to introduce my research and its main conclusions on this field. Therefore, the main goal of this article is to summaries my whole research on sustainable energy law, including its subject, hypothesis, aims, and main results. I have come to the conclusion that my research is most useful for the higher education, while the evaluation of the energy regulation - from the aspect of ecological sustainability - is rather interesting and unique. However, the terms ‘principle of sustainable development’ and the ‘green energy law’ sound great, they actually no more than empty slogans having no weight or significance.

1. Introduction (the history and the aim of this article) I have been doing research on sustainable energy law for a couple of years. Taking into consideration that the DEnzero project will be finished soon, this conference gives a good opportunity to introduce my research and its main conclusions on this field. Therefore, the main goal of this article is to summaries my whole research on sustainable energy law, including its subject, hypothesis, aims, and main results 1.1. The subject, the hypothesis and aims of the research First of all the subject of my research is the regulation of energy consumption and renewable energy sources at international, European and Hungarian level. The presentation of this topic 104


brought the necessity of categorization of the numerous related provisions, thus I set the categorisation also as a goal. Despite these two aims (presentation and categorisation) alone are really elementary, their realisation stops a gap in relation to Hungarian law literature. Nevertheless, I did not stop at this level and I chose an unusual benchmark to evaluate this regulatory area: the ecological sustainability (which is the strong interpretation of sustainable development, as it will turn out hereinafter). I did not suspect at all that I was going to undertake a very sensitive and complex task. However my research is based on this benchmark. My assumption on one hand is that the international law, the European Union (hereinafter: the EU) and the Hungarian law does not declare the principle of ecological sustainability, on the second hand, however, the international, European and Hungarian regulation does not meet the requirement of ecological sustainability. As it can be seen it was necessary to clarify questions such as the meaning of sustainable development, ecological sustainability and the role of law in the realisation of those. Thus that part of the Research concerning these questions is inevitable not only in order to ground the whole topic, but also because it shows perfectly how closely they - general environmental and special energy law questions – are connected with each other. Because in relation to the interpretation of energy law provisions, it is not just the same if the legislation declares the principle of sustainable development or the much stringent ecological sustainability. The principle of sustainable development - which legal nature is also controversial - requires only taking into account environmental, economical and social interests with the same weight.10 In other words, this is the weak interpretation of sustainable development. In contrast to this interpretation the ecological sustainable development requires the primacy of ecological interests.11 Moreover, beside the evaluation of regulatory framework concerning the above mentioned area from the ecological sustainability point of view, I also tried to designate - in the form of de lege ferenda suggestions – those ways to where the regulation in force in relation with energy consumption and renewable energy sources shall go on further. In this context it seemed inevitable to review regulating methods regarding mitigation of energy consumption and the greening of energy-supply structure and to draw up those advantages and disadvantages, although I did not want to transcend an imaginary line in this aspect, otherwise it would disrupt the systematic presentation and evaluation of the observed area. 1.2. The actuality of the research and the reasons of theme selection I suppose that regarding theme selection I should clarify two main questions. The first one is why the energy sector is the subject matter; the second is why ecological sustainability is the benchmark. Concerning the first question, the answer is that everything needs energy (e.g. cooking, 10

See the Decison of the Intenational Court of Justice in the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros case. 25.09.1997. Parayil, G. (1998) Sustainable Development: The Fallacy of a Normatively-Neutral Development Paradigm. Journal of Applied Philosophy, Vol. 2. p. 191.; Bosselmann, K. (2008) The principle of sustainability – Transforming law and governance. Ashgate Publishing Company, Aldershot, p. 53. 11

105


heating, car using, food manufacture, etc.) thus the quality and the volume of energy supply 12 play a significant role in ecological footprint reduction. The reduction of ecological footprint is needed, because the Humanity already passed the carrying capacity of the Earth which threats with the collapse of human society.13 This is also the answer to the question why I chose the ecological sustainability as my point of view. The healthy environment is a fundamental requirement of our existence, and both the society and the economy are based on it. However, sometimes it still can shock me that how this fact can be neglected. This is reflected also in the concerning regulation and I wanted to highlight this problem by choosing this unusual point of view. The main role of energy sector in the mitigation climate change and in the realisation of sustainable development is already recognised by the world community – including the EU and Hungary – and a strategy and law making process have started, which aims to reduce environmental harms caused by the energy sector. In this context new goals are set (e.g. the EU set a goal to reduce with 20% its final energy consumption by 2020) and the development of the relating regulatory framework is also started. However, by this time it was not examined (in the Hungarian literature) that what are the real effects of these goals and developments, how ‘compromise-natured’ they are, and whether they meet with the ecological, environmental requirements. Sparsely there are some articles relating to energy law, although these concentrate mainly on the schematic presentation of European and Hungarian regulation, in which the emphasis is on papers concerning energy market liberalisation with competition law approach. There are only few articles with focus on the integration of environmental aspects into energy law. The international literature pay more attention to this topic, which can be indicated by the numerous articles concerning international and European regulation, although only a fraction of these articles relating to law and more fewer which integrate environmental and legal aspects in the same time. 1.3. Methods of the research As a starting point of the research I tried to survey the relating regulatory framework, and to collect and elaborate papers from the literature. I strived to evaluate the regulation in force by the help of these articles. The theme – because of its interdisciplinary nature – is very complex, therefore beside of legal a number of economical, political, technical, statistical, sociological, and

12

See: Top Ten Problems of Humanity for Next 50 Years, R. E. SMALLEY, Energy & NanoTechnology Conference, Rice University, May 3, 2003. According to the Ecological Footprint Atlas in 2010 (EFA, 2010) and the 2007 Report of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) the energy supply together with the transportation responsible for the 39% of the carbon-dioxide emissions. Climate change 2007: Synthesis Report. 14. (http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessmentreport/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf) 30.06.2010. In Hungary the energy sector also has an important role, because it is the cause of almost 75% of the green house gas emissions. Source: A Nemzeti Éghajlatváltozási Startégia [29/2008. (III.20.) Ogy. hat.]; Wackernagel, M. et al. (2001) Ökológiai lábnyomunk: hogyan mérsékeljük az ember hatását a Földön? Föld Napja Alapítvány, Budapest. 13 Wackernagel, M. et al. (2001) Ökológiai lábnyomunk: hogyan mérsékeljük az ember hatását a Földön? Föld Napja Alapítvány, Budapest.; Meadows et al. (2005) A növekedés határai harminc év múltán. Kossuth Kiadó, Budapest, p. 25. 106


even ethical literature was elaborated, but in a not exhaustive way.14 The literature is based on articles mainly, but there are also some monographs (e.g. which introduce the international, European regulation or the energy regulation of Australia). In accordance with the goals of the research the primary subject of the legislation analysis was the international, EU and Hungarian regulation, and I also examined regulatory solutions in third countries but only where it was needed. Therefore it can be said that the method of legal comparison also appears, but I have to accept that this method was not used consequently only occasionally. It can be my excuse that the goal of the research allows me this kind of looseness, ‘third country outlooks’ added only further colours to the results of the Research (e.g. PhD Dissertation). The interdisciplinary cooperation with other researchers (economists, engineers) was very helpful in the evaluation of the legislation and the literature, thus so deep (mainly practical) problems was identified which would have remained hidden without this cooperation. This also indicates that beside the evaluation of the concerning regulation I also tried to highlight the weak points of the current regulation. 1.4. The structure of the Research The Research had two substantive phases. In the first phase the theoretical framework was created, while in the second research phase the energy regulation for sustainable development were examined and assessed. In the theoretical part I dealt with the definition of sustainable development (and its levels), requirements in respect of energy regulation, and dogmatic basics in general. In the second main part of the Research I reviewed the international, European and Hungarian regulation concerning the reduction of energy consumption and stimulation of the utilisation of renewable energy sources (this is the so called sustainable energy law).

2. New scientific results of the Research In the followings the main outcomes of the Research will be introduced. The first result of the Research was the presentation of the international, European and Hungarian level regulation regarding the reduction of energy consumption and renewable energy sources.15 This was obviously a smaller segment than the one contains all provisions that serve the integration of environmental aspect into energy law. The presentation of this special topic brought the necessity of categorization of the numerous related provisions, which was solved not only by the differentiation of regulatory levels (international, European and Hungarian), but also by the differentiation of horizontal and vertical regulation. I have not met previously with such a categorisation in the literature; this could 14

János Ede Szilágyi emphasizes the importance of the interdisciplinary method of research. According to his opinion the science of law has the right to be only as applied science. In: Szilágyi, J. E. (2008) Borjog, különös tekintettel az eredetvédelem kérdéseire. Doktori Értekezés, Miskolc. 3. 15 Of course, here is no place to introduce the whole regulation, but it can be find in my Dissertation, and in my published articles. 107


help to survey easier this complex and diversified area (this can be useful either in the high-level education). Despite both of these results (presentation and categorisation) were really elementary, their realisation stops a gap in relation to Hungarian law literature.16 Nevertheless, I did not stop at this level and I chose an unusual benchmark to evaluate this regulatory area: the ecological sustainability Beside the systematic presentation of relating regulation, the evaluation of those from the point of view of ecological sustainability, was also an important goal. My hypothesis on the one hand was that the international law, the European Union and the Hungarian law does not declare the principle of ecological sustainability, on the second hand was that the international, European and Hungarian regulation does not meet the requirement of ecological sustainability. Moreover, these two assumptions built on each other. This is because, in my opinion, without the declaration of ecological sustainability, it is not possible to interpret such a special and sectoral regulation as the energy regulation in a restrictive way. Hereinafter, the main conclusions will be summarised in four sections: general conclusions and suggestions; main results regarding the regulation of sustainable energy law at international, European Union and Hungarian level. 2.1. General conclusions and suggestions The legal regulation has role to make aware that the Human society have ecological boundaries, and the boundaries should be respected. The law could contribute to this task by the declaration of the principle of ecological sustainability.17 This is a crucial step in order to more efficient measures could be taken to protect the environment.18 However, it should be emphasized that changes in the legal environment can not be happen by one day to another, therefore the planning and the ‘step by step’ principles should be taken into account in the realization of the primacy of environmental interests. Beside of the declaration of the ecological sustainability as legal principle, it is also needed that the ecological sustainability be an organizer principle of the international cooperation, EU and the Hungarian government. This means that ecological sustainability should be underpinned by further procedural guarantees (e.g. planning and reporting commitments).19

16

Bányai, O. (2013) Regulation concerning reduction of energy consumption and promotion of renewable energy sources from the viewpoint of ecological sustainability. PhD Dissertation, University of Debrecen Marton Géza Doctoral School of Legal Studies, Debrecen 17 However, it is interesting that the Constitutional Court of Hungary expressly does not support the primacy of environmental interests. See Decision of the Constitutional Court of Hungary No. 14/1998 (V.8.). 18 Ross, A. (2009) Modern Interpretations of Sustainable Development. Journal of Law and Society. Vol.1. p. 38. 19 Ross, A. (2010) It’s time to get serious – Why legislation is needed to make sustainable development a reality in the UK. Sustainability, Vol. 2. p. 1115. 108


In respect of energy sector the ecological sustainability means the absolute reduction of energy consumption20 and the promotion of utilization of renewable energy sources.21 It should be added that simple improvement in energy efficiency is not the same as absolute reduction of energy consumption, because of the possible rebound effects.22 Furthermore, at strategic level should be declared that there is a definite hierarchy between reduction of energy consumption and the promotion of the production of energy from renewable energy sources. In order to regulate energy consumption and renewable energy sources the best regulatory solution is the mix usage of different regulatory methods (smart regulation).23 However, in order to avoid the too complex and elaborate regulation it is worth to improve the horizontal regulation instead of the further specialization of vertical (sectoral) regulation. In order to implement the policy regarding the reduction of energy consumption, command and control regulatory tools should get greater emphasis. It means for example the limitation of energy production or - as it could be seen regarding renewable energy sources – mandatory energy reduction goals. 2.2. Main results regarding the international regulation of sustainable energy It can be fixed that the international law should have a role in the greening of energy sector. However, at this time international regulations do promote in an efficient way neither the reduction of energy consumption, nor the utilization of renewable energy sources.24 In order to improve the current inefficient regulation, an international agreement (which can be connected to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) should be adopted, which contains mandatory energy reduction goals and/or renewable energy targets; in a less ideally case a non-mandatory international declaration could be the framework of the international cooperation. Regulation in relation with renewable energy sources could be formed as the concerning regulation in the EU: a common target should be performed regarding the proportion of renewable energy sources and special targets for each Party.25

20

Szarka, L. (2010) Szempontok az energetika és környezet kapcsolatához. Magyar Tudomány, Vol. 08. p. 959-979.; Steinberger, J. K. - Niel, J.– Bourg, D. (2009) Profiting from negawatts: Reducing absolute consumption and emissions through a performance-based energy economy. Energy Policy, Vol. 37. p. 367.; Lior. N. (2012) Sustainable energy development: The present (2011) situation and possible paths to the future. Energy, Vol. 43. p. 189. 21 Jess, A. (2010) What might be the energy demand and energy mix to reconcile the world’s pursuit of welfare and happiness with the necessity to preserve the integrity of the biosphere? Energy Policy, Vol. 38. p. 4676-77. 22

Greening, L. A. - Greene, D. L. – Difiglio, C. (2000) Energy efficiency and consumption — the rebound effect — a survey. Energy Policy, Vol. 28, p.179. 23 Dawes, R. (2010) Building to Improve Energy Efficiency in England and Wales. Environmental Law Review, Vol. 12. p. 275. 24 Hirschl, B. (2009) International renewable energy policy—between marginalization and initial approaches Energy Policy, Vol.37, p. 4413.; Bradbrook, A. (2001) Development of a Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law, Vol. 5. p. 60. 25 Bányai, O. (2013) International law regarding reduction of energy consumption and promotion of renewable energy sources. Jogtudományi Közlöny. Vol. 9. p. 436-444.

109


2.3. Main results regarding sustainable energy law in the EU The EU regulation concerning reduction of energy consumption is considered highly developed in international comparison. Moreover, the EU regulation concerning mitigation of energy consumption is improved in the right way, thanks for the adoption of the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED). Regarding the targets, the EED undoubtedly took a step forward by providing legally - binding frameworks for the reduction of energy consumption (as compared to the previous political and non- binding energy efficiency goals) and has done this in not in a relative, but in absolute way, which is the most important requirement from ecological point of view.26 Therefore, the Directive inevitably is a step forward. However, neither the title, nor the Recital of the Directive does not refers to the need of for absolute reduction regarding in energy consumption (instead of single energy efficiency improvement). Therefore, although a few provisions of the Directive have already met the ecological requirements, in reality, the regulation misses such theoretical ground. My opinion is that in order to EU regulation regarding energy consumption will be able to improve, the creation and adoption of ecological grounding is essential.27 By the adoption of Directive 2009/28/EC the European regulation concerning renewable energy sources also are developed, although it still needs few corrections. For example, sustainability criteria to solid and gaseous biomass should be evolved as soon as possible. 2.3. Main results regarding to the Hungarian sustainable energy law Regarding the sustainable energy regulation in Hungary, it can be fixed that there is no a coherent regulation. Besides, the national regulation is considered suitable to handle neither the reduction of energy consumption, nor the promotion of renewable energy sources. First of all, the need of absolute energy consumption appears only in the National Sustainable Energy Strategy, in the legal regulation it is not reflected. Furthermore, Hungary has no long term vision regarding energy usage; the Parliament still has not formulated its long term concept regarding the reduction of the country’s energy consumption. It is also a problem, that there are several different strategy regarding green energy policy, but without operational correspondence. All relating strategy should refer to the necessity of the stabilisation and later the reduction of total energy consumption. Unfortunately, Hungary, in its strategy vision of future, primarily counts on the utilization of atomic energy, renewable energy sources have marginal role. Perhaps this is the main reason why the national regulation regarding renewable energy sources has serious deficiency; in its current form it is not appropriate to perform its function. Therefore, it should be improved too.

26

Bányai,O. (2013) Regulation concerning reduction of energy consumption and promotion of renewable energy sources from the viewpoint of ecological sustainability. PhD Dissertation, University of Debrecen Marton Géza Doctoral School of Legal Studies, Debrecen. 27 Bányai, O. – Fodor, L. (2014) Energy efficiency obligation schemes in the Energy Efficiency Directive – an environmental assessment. Pro Futuro, Vol. 2. In press 110


3. Conclusions It can be concluded, that my assumptions were confirmed. Firstly I did not find such a legal requirement which, in order to respect the ecological boundaries, expects the priority of environmental interests. The different legal documents accept only the principle of sustainable development which legal nature is controversial and requires only taking into account environmental, economical and social interests with the same weight. Furthermore, in order to the regulation regarding the reduction of energy consumption meet the principle of ecological sustainability and to avoid rebound effects, it is necessary to declare the absolute energy consumption reduction as a legal requirement. This requirement was appeared in European Union law (see Energy Efficiency Directive, EED) by the requirement of 20% decreasing of the energy consumption by 2020 (more precisely the final energy consumption must not be more than 1078 Mtoe or no more than 1474 Mtoe of primary energy). However, both the previous requirement and the EED in general miss eligible theoretical grounds.28 Unfortunately, in the international law I did not meet with the requirement of absolute energy consumption at all. At Hungarian level it appears in a strategy, although only in a marginal way. This is regrettable, because the self-restriction in the field of energy consumption would be an important factor in the development of the human society. Regarding renewable energy sources the regulation would serve ecological sustainability with two requirements. The first is the declaration that the stimulation of the utilisation of renewable energy sources should be worthy in line with the reduction of energy consumption, the second is that the rate of renewable energy sources should be increased according to the geographical characteristics and renewable sources potentials of an area. The international regulation in this field does not fulfill these two requirements, and is also remarkably incomplete. The regulation of the EU is more serious and the EU develops it continuously, but it is of no avail, because it is derailed due to it is not connected to the requirement of the reduction of absolute energy consumption. The Hungarian regulation in this field has the same problem as the EU regulation, and taking into account our country’s potential on renewable energy sources, the regulation cannot be considered effective at all. I did not deal with the economical, social and or environmental consequences of a regulation based on the above mentioned requirements (or at best partial). To determine these consequences we need further - and primary not legal - analysis, although I do not feel myself competent to carry out that. In my opinion my suggestions (which are supported also with literature notions) are essentially true, unless those effects would harmful just to the environment. The society and the economy are only sub- systems of the Earth’s ecosystem, thus the regulation should not serve primary economical and social interests.

28

Bányai, O. – Fodor, L. (2014) Energy efficiency obligation schemes in the Energy Efficiency Directive – an environmental assessment. Pro Futuro, Vol. 2. In press 111


Finally I have thought it over whether this research, which summarises the last few years work, helps anybody. I have come to the conclusion that my research is most useful for the higher education, while the evaluation of the energy regulation - from the aspect of ecological sustainability - is rather interesting and unique. However, the terms ‘principle of sustainable development’ and the ‘green energy law’ sound great, they actually no more than empty slogans having no weight or significance. Though some of the de lege ferenda suggestions may be appropriate to improve the current regulation, the radical suggestions are ahead of their time, as an article title refers.29


References Bányai O. (2013) Regulation concerning reduction of energy consumption and promotion of renewable energy sources from the viewpoint of ecological sustainability. PhD Dissertation, University of Debrecen Marton Géza Doctoral School of Legal Studies, Debrecen. Bányai, O. (2013) International law regarding reduction of energy consumption and promotion of renewable energy sources. Jogtudományi Közlöny. Vol. 9. 436-444. Bányai, O. – Fodor, L. (2014) Energy efficiency obligation schemes in the Energy Efficiency Directive – an environmental assessment. Pro Futuro, Vol. 2. In press Bosselmann, K. (2008) The principle of sustainability – Transforming law and governance. Ashgate Publishing Company, Aldershot. Bradbrook, A. (2001) Development of a Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, New Zealand Journal of Environmental Law, Vol. 5. p. 55-90. Dawes, R. (2010) Building to Improve Energy Efficiency in England and Wales. Environmental Law Review, Vol. 12. p. 261-281. Fawcett, T. (2010) Personal carbon trading: A policy ahead of its time? Energy Policy, Vol. 38, p. 6868-6876. Greening, L. A. - Greene, D. L. – Difiglio, C. (2000) Energy efficiency and consumption — the rebound effect — a survey. Energy Policy, Vol. 28, p. 389-401. Henryson, J. – Hakansson, T. – Pyrko, J. (2000) Energy efficiency in buildings through information – Swedish perspective. Energy Policy, Vol. 28. p. 169-180. Hirschl, B. (2009) International renewable energy policy—between marginalization and initial approaches Energy Policy, Vol.37, p. 4407-4416.

29

Fawcett, T. (2010) Personal carbon trading: A policy ahead of its time? Energy Policy, Vol. 38, p. 6868-6876. 112


Jess, A. (2010) What might be the energy demand and energy mix to reconcile the world’s pursuit of welfare and happiness with the necessity to preserve the integrity of the biosphere? Energy Policy, Vol. 38. p. 4663-4678. Lior. N. (2012) Sustainable energy development: The present (2011) situation and possible paths to the future. Energy, Vol. 43. p. 174-191. Meadows et al. (2005) A növekedés határai harminc év múltán. Kossuth Kiadó, Budapest Parayil, G. (1998) Sustainable Development: The Fallacy of a Normatively-Neutral Development Paradigm. Journal of Applied Philosophy, Vol. 2. p. 179-194. Ross, A. (2009) Modern Interpretations of Sustainable Development. Journal of Law and Society. Vol.1. p. 32-54. Ross, A. (2010) It’s time to get serious – Why legislation is needed to make sustainable development a reality in the UK. Sustainability, Vol. 2. p. 1115. Steinberger, J. K. - Niel, J.– Bourg, D. (2009) Profiting from negawatts: Reducing absolute consumption and emissions through a performance-based energy economy. Energy Policy, Vol. 37. p. 361-370. Szarka, L. (2010) Szempontok az energetika és környezet kapcsolatához. Magyar Tudomány, Vol. 08. p. 959-979. Szilágyi, J. E. (2008) Borjog, különös tekintettel az eredetvédelem kérdéseire. Doktori Értekezés, Miskolc. Wackernagel, M. et al. (2001) Ökológiai lábnyomunk: hogyan mérsékeljük az ember hatását a Földön? Föld Napja Alapítvány, Budapest.

113


LIDAR BASED ASSESSMENT OF ROOFS – PERSPECTIVES FOR SOLAR ENERGY Szilárd SZABÓ, PhD, associate professor, University of Debrecen, Department of Physical Geography and Geoinformatics, [email protected] Péter ENYEDI, research fellow, Károly Róbert College, Research Institute of Remote Sensing and Rural Development, [email protected] György SZABÓ, PhD, associate professor, University of Debrecen, Department of Landscape Protection and Environmental Geography, [email protected] István FAZEKAS, PhD, assistant professor, University of Debrecen, Department of Landscape Protection and Environmental Geography, [email protected] Tamás BUDAY, assistant, University of Debrecen, Department of Mineralogy and Geology, [email protected] Attila KERÉNYI, DSc, professor, University of Debrecen, Department of Landscape Protection and Environmental Geography, [email protected] Mónika PALÁDI, assistant, University of Debrecen, Department of Landscape Protection and Environmental Geography, [email protected] Nikoletta MECSER, PhD student, University of Debrecen, Department of Physical Geography and Geoinformatics, [email protected] Gergely SZABÓ, PhD, assistant professor, University of Debrecen, Department of Physical Geography and Geoinformatics, [email protected]

KEYWORDS: LiDAR, point cloud, roof detection, solar radiation Abstract: According to the Horizon 2020 climate and energy package, legislation has to meet the 20-20-20 target. It means that EU member countries have to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases by 20%, to increase the proportion of renewable energy to 20% and to improve the energy efficiency by 20%. Regarding the energy production issues, locally produced solar energy can be a possible solution installed on the top of the buildings. In this study we made an attempt to register the roofs of the buildings and evaluated the roof planes whether they are appropriate for the installation of 114


photovoltaic solar panels. Main question was the correct roof geometry, but most of our roof models showed high correspondence with real forms. We calculated the annual solar radiation and evaluated with geoinformation techniques and statistical methods.

1. Introduction Usage of renewable energy resources is the new goal of the EU’s 8th Framework Programme, the Horizon 2020 [1]. Accordingly, EU member countries should reach 20% of greenhouse gas reduction, 20% of surplus in the usage of renewable energy and 20% increase in the energy efficiency. This is a big challenge for the next years due to the costs of structural changes of the energy production and the energy efficiency of those building are being new (built in the past 3-10 years) and did not followed the guidelines of lower energy demand. Increasing the proportion of passive houses; furthermore, the larger application of solar energy panels can be a possible tool to fulfil the requirements (Farkas, 2010; Kozma et al. 2013; Lázár, 2011). In this study we focused our research on the assessment of the possibilities for larger usage of locally produced solar energy. It has both advantages and disadvantages. In the current economic environment (September 2014) private properties are not supported to install photovoltaic solar systems, but something had started, first tenders were open in this summer for local governments. Thus, high costs of the installation is big disadvantage, but it can mean continuous energy for institutions and households completely or partially. Besides, there is no loss on transportation of the energy. A limiting factor that not all roofs can be appropriate for installing solar panels. It depends on the aspect and slope of the roof planes. Shadows generated by the roof elements, chimneys, antennas, or by the trees and pylons of the street can deteriorate the efficiency seriously. We carried out an assessment of the possibility of registering the roofs with automatic technique, using Light Detecting and Ranging (LiDAR). The aim was to extract the roofs and to evaluate them focusing on the solar potential of the appropriate parts.

2. LiDAR technology as a tool of geodetic surveys Active remote sensing is one of the most up-to-date technique in data collection and had a quick development. Due to the decreasing costs of these surveys, it spreads in more and more parts of life. Measurements are based on emitting and detecting the reflected electromagnetic signs; the emission source and the detecting equipment is placed on the same platform. In case of LiDAR technology the emitted sign is a laser beam, which is reflected on the surface objects. At the beginning, this signs were detected as a first and a last reflection (as e.g. the top of a tree and the ground), but nowadays we arrived to the detection of the so called full-wave form of the emitted laser beam. The application of this technology yields a high accuracy digital terrain model (the ground without objects) and a digital surface model (with the data of the top of the objects).

115


Fig. 1. Schematic draft of LiDAR scanning Result is a point cloud that can be processed in several ways, as the aims require the analysis. Production of highly detailed digital elevation models (Király, 2004; Liu, 2008) are the most popular application fields, in natural or urban environment (Ghuffar et al. 2013; Zlinszky et al. 2014) or to extract different parts of the surface, such as geomorphic forms (Dorninger et al. 2011), trees (Király et al. 2012; Mücke et al. 2013), city buildings, or street furniture [Priestnall et al. 2000]. Numerous publications consider the detection of buildings based on LiDAR. In the research of Yu et al. (2010) the accurate detection of city buildings was the aim just like in the case of Zhou and Neumann (2013). Filtering buildings was also the goal in the works of Mongus et al (2014) and Li et al. (2013). While Alexander et al. (2009) dealt with roof structure, Lukac et al (2014) especially focused on the potential solar radiation of built-up areas with LiDAR data.

3. Methods Our study area was a 1.1 km2 area of Debrecen (Eastern-Hungary; Fig. 2), where a LiDAR (Leica ALS70-HP) survey was conducted in the height of 1000 m, with 12 points/km2. Parallel, in the same platform, a Leica RCD 30 RGBN 60 MP camera was applied for an RGBN aerial imaging. Inside the whole study area we delineated two smaller “pilot areas” where a detailed analysis was conducted.

116


Fig. 2. Location of LiDAR survey and the pilot areas (plotted on Open Street Map) We applied the TerraScan extension of MicroStation (Bentley) for the classification of the point cloud. A multiple-grade TIN algorithm was applied for the interpolation. Then, we filtered out the vertical outlier data (e.g. chimneys, antennas). Afterwards, we applied a semi-automated roofselection, extracting the vector features of the buildings based on the filtered points. During the procedure of vectorization we tended to set optimal parameters of the minimal roof-part size to reach the most accurate and detailed building models. After getting the correct roof geometry, we queried the roof planes being appropriate for installing solar panels (see Fig. 3). Annual solar radiation was calculated for each pixel of the digital surface model of the pilot areas and summarized by the roof planes in ArcGIS10.

117


Fig. 3. Flowchart of data procession of LiDAR data

4. Results We detected 16474 roof planes inside the pilot areas. The main characteristics were summarized in Table 1. Area data of roof planes had serious skew, due to the data distribution as it was reflected in the difference between trimmed (!) mean (i.e. 5% of the outlier data was removed) and the median. Median is a more reliable measure of the approximation of the mean when a dataset does not follow 118


normal distribution. Median showed that 3.4 was the middle number, while the trimmed mean was 8.64 m2. It was important, because solar panels usually have the area of 1.5-2 m2, and it is not neutral information whether 1 or 4 panels can be installed on the average. Also, lower quartile indicated that 25% of the roof planes had 6) reduce soil aeration and permeability (Kariuki et al., 2012), and Na (ee) % values > 45 (GR, 2008) limited the applicability of given water sample for irrigation. Thus using IC measurements for the characterization of GW samples helps us to control the reuse of these streams. According to the Na (ee) % and SAR values of GW samples laundry and kitchen streams are not recommended for irrigation without treatment. Table 2. Existing limits from Drinking Water Directive (83EU/1998) Limits from EU directive Components Chloride

UNIT mg L-1

250

Bromide

mg L-1

-

Nitrate

mg L-1

50

o-Phosphate

mg L-1

-

Sulphate

mg L-1

250

Lithium

-1

-

-1

200

-1

0,5

-1

-

-1

-

-1

-

Sodium Ammonium Potassium Calcium Magnesium

mg L mg L

mg L mg L mg L

mg L 207


Summarizing IC measurements and their results it was shown that numerous ionic components and calculated parameter were determined in our analysis. These results effectively help the reuse and treatment of GW fraction in households. Comparing to control samples shower and bathtub GW samples represent the less polluted fraction between the analysed GW streams. 3.2 Results of MP-AES measurements The elemental concentration of the collected GW samples determined by MP-AES method is summarized in Table 2. Since drinking water samples were applied as control samples, the results are evaluated and discussed by comparing them to the existing Drinking Water Directive (83EU/1998). Our results show a very similar tendency compared to what Palmquist and Hanæus (2005) found in their study where they investigated the hazardous substances in GW samples from Swedish households. The concentration of iron was significantly higher in all the collected GW samples compared to the control drinking water but only exceeded the limit (0.2 mg L-1) of Drinking Water Directive (83EU/1998) slightly in case of samples originating from laundry and kitchen sink/dishwasher. The same phenomenon was observed in the concentration of manganese which limit concentration given in 83EU/1998 is 0.05 mg L-1. The concentration of aluminium increased significantly in the separately collected GW samples compared to the control and exceeded three times the 83EU/1998 limit value (0.2 mg L-1) in samples from laundry. The level of barium did not elevated significantly except in greywater from kitchen sink/dishwasher yet its concentration was below the limit value (0.7 mg L-1) determined by the World Health Organization Guideline (WHO/1996). The concentration of zinc was higher also only in samples from kitchen sink/dishwasher and stayed well below the regulated level (3 mg L-1) of WHO/1996 (barium and zinc concentrations are not regulated by 83EU/1998 directive). Lead, chromium, cadmium and nickel are the contaminants with major health risk affecting both humans as well as the aquatic and terrestrial environment. Our results show a significantly higher led concentration in GW samples from kitchen sink/dishwasher exceeding the limit value (10 µg L-1) reported by 83EU/1998. Determination of the elemental concentration of GW samples is of high importance in order to establish the proper treatment methods. Our results suggest that detergents generally used in households elevate the level of hazardous substances such as aluminium and lead in GW which can affect its further use. The higher level of contamination was observed in GW originating from laundry and kitchen sink/dishwasher compared to the fraction from shower/bathtub, proving the higher applied volume and less environmental friendly detergents.

208


Table 2. Different elemental concentrations by MP-AES from GW samples (n: number of samples, SD: standard deviation;