Int. J. Sport Psychol., 2011; 42: 401-415
Physical activity, perceptual-motor performance, and academic learning in 9-to-16-years-old school children JOSÉ MORALES*, LUÍS-MILLÁN GONZÁLEZ**, MYRIAM GUERRA*, CARLES VIRGILI*, VISWANATH UNNITHAN*** (*)Facultat de Ciències de l’Esport Blanquerna. Universitat Ramon Llull. Barcelona, Spain (**)Facultat de Ciències de l’Activitat Física i l’Esport. Universitat de València. València, Spain (***)Centre for Sport, Health and Exercise, Faculty of Health, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on -Trent, UK
The relationship between physical activity in school children, academic performance and their perceptual-motor skills is unclear. The aim of this study was to look at the relationship between perceptual-motor and cognitive skills. 487 subjects (249 girls, 238 boys) from 6 public centres of primary and secondary schools in the Barcelona area (Spain) volunteered to participate in this study. The participants were divided into two groups (9-12 years old) and (13-16 years old). Four tests were used to evaluate cognitive (Linguistic Skills [LS] and Math Skills [MS]) and perceptual-motor skills (Tower of Cubes [TC] and Target Throwing [TT]). Stepwise multiple linear regression analyses demonstrated that TC and age were significant predictors of Linguistic Skills (LS) and Math Skills (MS) in both age groups. (R2=0.64, 9-12 years old) and (R2=0.45, 13-16 years old). The results from this study suggest that enhanced motor skills are associated with better academic performance. KEY WORDS: Cognitive skills, extra-curricular physical activity programmes, motor skills.
Introduction The findings have been equivocal with respect to the effect of physical activity on academic achievement in children and adolescents. Evidence from the extant literature has demonstrated three basic research lines: (a) those studies that relate participation in extra-curricular physical activity For correspondence: Jose Morales Aznar, Facultat de Psicologia, Ciències de l’Educació i de l’Esport Blanquerna, Universitat Ramon Llull, C/ Císter, 34, 08022 Barcellona, Spain (e-mail:
[email protected])
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programmes with school learning-related cognitive aspects within a school setting; (b) studies that relate results of physical fitness tests with academic learning; and (c) studies that relate results of perceptual-motor tests with academic learning. (a) Participation in sports programmes or extracurricular physical activity programmes implies carrying out “recreational activities” and low impact competitions, which result in an increase in the amount of hours of physical activity. Several research studies have assessed the relationship between participation in extra-curricular physical activity programmes and the improvement in academic results or other cognitive aspects. (McKenzie, Sallis, Kolody, & Faucette, 1997; Sallis et al., 1999). All of these large-scale experimental studies have been carried out within the framework of the SPARK project (Sport, Play and Active Recreation for Kids), this project aimed to evaluate the effect of the participation in physical activity programs on academic performance. The evidence suggests that extra-curricular physical activity has a strong relationship with learning-related aspects in school, improvement in personal relationships and other socio-cultural variables that may have a positive influence on improvement of school performance (Morales, 2004; Sánchez, Fernández, Hernández, & Velázquez, 1994). Nevertheless, research data suggest that participation in sports programmes and an increase in physical activity hours provide schoolchildren with better health, and this increase in time devoted to sports practice also has a positive influence on their academic outcomes (Coe, Pivarnik, Womack, Reeves, &. Malina, 2006; Sibley, & Etnier, 2003; Tomporowski, 2003). Evidence from intervention studies by Shephard (1997) (Vanves project) and Shephard and Trudeau (2005) (Trois Rivieres study) suggest that an increase in physical activity, results in an increase in academic achievement. Symons, Cinelli, James and Groff (1997) studied different behaviours that have an influence on health and learning, and concluded that physical exercise helps in interneuron connection and enhances concentration. Furthermore, Strong et al. (2005) recognised positive effects of physical activity on health, but doubted its direct relationship with higher cognitive achievement. Dwyer, Sallis, Blizzard, Lazarus and Dean (2001) developed a descriptive study with 7,961 Australian students and Lindner (1999) with 4,690 students from Hong-Kong; in both research projects, subjects were assessed on their sports practice habits, physical fitness, and academic outcome. Results demonstrated, in both cases, a significant, but low, correlation (r=.10 to.17, p
