Plastic Waste, Plastic Pollution

Plastic Pollution- Sources, Global Production, Global “Hotspots”, Impacts on Biodiversity & Seafood; Adsorption of Organic & Inorganic Chemicals, and Mitigation

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Plastic Pollution Sources, Global Production, Hot spots, Impacts, Adsorption, and Mitigation

Bergmann et al. 2017

Golam Kibria; 26 Aug 2018 Citation: Kibria, G. 2018. Plastic Pollution Sources, Global Production, Global Hot spots, Impacts on Biodiversity & Seafood, Adsorption of Organic & Inorganic Chemicals, and Mitigation. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.35028.24967 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327230697_Presentation_Plastic_Waste_Plastic_Pollution-_A_Threat_to_All_Nations

GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Outline of Presentation Summary (one page) What is Plastic Common types of plastics Classification of Plastics Global plastic production Facts about plastic pollution Marine plastic pollution

Most plastic polluting countries Plastic pollution sources Microplastics in Treated Waste Water of Plants Marine Plastic Pollution ‘Hot Spots” Impacts of Plastic Pollution- impacts on biodiversity Impacts of Plastic Pollution- adsorption of contaminants Transfer of Plastic Associated Toxins to Humans Research results • Contaminants Detected in Plastics in Adsorption Research Studies • Factors Related to Adsorption of Contaminants • Sorption of Contaminants in Various Plastics • Effects of Plastic Additives (phthalates, PBDE) • Seafood & Other Food Contamination by Plastics Mitigation measures • Biodegradable Plastics • Building Roads from Plastic Waste • MicroBeads Legislation Take Home Messages (one page) References


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Summary Plastic waste is ubiquitous and is reported from the Arctic to the Antarctic, from the surface to sediment. This presentation PPT (based on the latest peer-reviewed journal papers and other technical reports . The presentation provides an account of i) global consumption of plastic; ii) classification of plastics; iii) global plastic pollution; iv) plastic pollution sources; v) impacts of plastic pollution on global biodiversity, vi) effects of plastic additives; vii) global marine plastic pollution “hot spots” and viii) adsorption of organic and inorganic chemicals by different types of plastic; viii) factors related to adsorption of contaminants by plastics ix) innovative solutions to mitigate the plastic pollution across the globe Plastic production: Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers. They are most commonly derived from petrochemicals (natural gas, oil or coal). The common types of plastic are Polyamide (PA), Polyethylene (PE), Polyester (PES), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polypropylene (PP). They are classified as nano (200mm). The global plastic production was 0.35 mmt (million metric tonnes) in 1950 and in 2016 it was 335 mmt. Asia accounts for more than 49% of worldwide plastics production in 2015, of which China 28%, Japan 4% and the rest of Asia 17%. It is estimated that 4.8-12.7 million tonnes of palstics end up in the world’s oceans. Plastic pollution (PP) accounts for 60–80% of marine litter; 80% PP originates from land and 20% PP originates from fishing nets & ropes. Non-degradable plastic accounts for 73% of litter in any aquatic ecosystem, 50% of which is disposed of after a single-use. The Countries Polluting the Oceans most are China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam & Sri Lanka. Sixteen of the top 20 mismanaged plastic waste producers are low to upper middle-income countries, where fast economic growth is occurring but waste management infrastructure is lacking. The plastic pollution can be caused by illegal dumping, inadequate waste management, WWTPs (WWTPs cannot filter out micro-plastics and nano plastics), discharge of stormwater, coastal littering, natural disasters, accidentally lose or deliberately dump fishing equipment (nets, lines and rope, etc. To date, there are over 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic weighing over 268,940 tons floating on the world's oceans. There are five large patches of marine plastic pollution “hot spots” (North & South Pacific; North & South Atlantic; Indian Ocean). The North/Great Pacific Garbage Patch is the most polluted with plastic's topmost hot spot The North Pacific has the highest level of contamination with nearly 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic while the Indian Ocean comes second with 1.3 trillion. The Plastic objects identified in the North Pacific garbage patch were containers, bottles, lids, bottle caps, packaging straps, eel trap cones, oyster spacers, ropes, and fishing nets (Fishing nets represented more than 46% of the plastic load) Plastic pollution impacts: Plastic (bottles, etc) could cause pollution via blocking inland waterways, wastewater outflows; Micro plastics/microbeads (used in personal care products, toothpaste) could pose the following impacts i) environmental hazard for aquatic animals in freshwater and ocean water such as large plastic items (discarded fishing rope and nets) can cause entanglement or injury or killing of birds, mammals, turtles, whales, dolphins, seals and fish. Much smaller micro-plastic particles (microbeads) white in colour, mistaken by surface feeding fishes as food (plankton); iii) several marine species ingested plastic items (of all shapes) causing injuries and the blockage of the digestive tract (infection, suffocation, starvation, and ultimately mortality). micro plastic particles may accumulate high concentrations of POPs -polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or DDTs; toxins can cause lethal and sub-lethal effects on marine animals (if ingested) and the toxins may enter the entire food chain; plastic along shorelines has negative impacts on tourism (reduced tourism revenues, reduced recreational activities; may cause vessel damage & negatively impact on shipping, energy production, fishing, and aquaculture resources; micro plastics provide a transport service of epifauna and microbes to areas where they were not existing before Adsorption of pollutants/contaminants by plastics: Plastic particles are hydrophobic in nature and can adsorb high risk organic & inorganic contaminants from the surrounding aquatic; research results reveal 21 contaminants were adsorbed by different type of plastics including DDT, hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH), octylphenol (OP), nonylphenol (NP), PCB, PAH, and heavy metals; The adsorption of contaminants in plastics are affected by i) roughness or smoothness; ii) aged or pristine; iii) temperature; iv) salinity; v) discolour or non-discolourness; and vi) particle size; polymer such as PE has the highest adsorption capacity (greater diffusion of contaminants) compared to polymers (PET, PVC) which shows lower adsorption capacities; microplastics contain toxic plastic additives (phthalates, flame retardants- PBDE); phthalates suspected to have link to breast cancer, reduced sperm counts, histological changes in testes and reduced fertility; PBDE caused endocrine disruption (hormones disruption) in fish including reduced egg production, reduced gonad development, delayed hatching, altered swimming behaviour, and affected male gamete quantity and quality. Seafood & other food contamination with plastic particles: Globally, fish provides approximately 4.3 billion people with 15% of their animal protein intake (FAO, 2014), however seafood were reported to be contaminated with micropartcles (PA, PE, PET, PP, PS, PVC) such as fish (herring, whiting, haddock, cod, mackerel, cod, Dory, red gurnard, Dragonet, redband fish, sole); mussels, and other foods (honey, salt and sugar) Mitigation: Use of biodegradable plastics (starch or cellulose), building roads from plastic waste, implementing legislation to prevent addition of microbeads in personal care products, efficient wastewater treatment, preventing illegal plastic waste dumping, ban, levy, tax on use of plastic bags, and awareness & education on harms associated with plastic pollution are some of the measures can be taken to curb plastic pollution


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Beat Plastic Pollution

• Around the world, one million plastic drinking bottles are purchased every minute • Up to 5 trillion single-use plastic bags are used worldwide every year • In total, half of all plastic produced is designed to be used only once — and GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 4 then thrown away https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/beat-plastic-pollution/ Aug2018

What is Plastic • Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers (synthetic polymer resin formulations) that are versatile, durable and resistant to external shocks (Sebillec and Spathi, 2016) • from the Greek word plastikos, which means able to be shaped or molded • They are most commonly derived from petrochemicals (natural gas, oil or coal) • The first completely synthetic plastic was bakelite, which was made in 1907 by Leo Baekeland GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Common Types of Plastics Polyamide (PA)

Ropes

Polyethylene (PE)

Plastic bags, bottles, food bags Lifetime: 2-20 yrs

Polyester (PES)

Fibres, textiles Lifetime: 5-10 yrs

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Drink bottles, plastic films

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Pipelines, flooring Lifetime: upto 50yrs

Polypropylene (PP)

Bottle caps, drinking straws Lifetime: 15 yrs

Polystyrene (PS)

Plastic tableware, disposable cups, food containers Lifetime: upto 10 yrs GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Classification of Plastics Mega-, macro- and mesoplastics (few metres to 5 mm)

These items can be identified by the naked eye and include • wrappers, drink containers, single-use plastic bags, cigarette butts • medical and personal hygiene items such as diapers and syringes • Household appliances • tyres and car parts • fishing equipment (large volumes of mega- and macroplastic debris originate from ocean-based sources- fishing nets) ( Sebillec and Spathi, 2016)

Nanoplastics (NPs), particles up to 100 nm in size)

• the direct release of products containing nanoplastics or from the fragmentation of larger plastic particles in the environment • Potentially the most hazardous since nanoplastics may adsorb toxic compounds (POPs), leading to toxicity to marine life GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Classification of Plastics (Mrowiec, 2017; Germanov et al. 2018)

Microplastics (MP)

• small-sized plastic particles 500 um in treated WWTP Major Polyethylene

Microplastics (MP) 500 um, < 500 um) • The majority of MPs was identified as polyethylene (PE) (av. 59% in > 500 um; av. 40% in < 500 um); • All samples containedGolamK_Plastic synthetic fibres, with (PES or polyesters av. 74%) Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 19 Aug2018 (Mintenig et al. 2016)

Almost all of the World‟s Oceans Contain Litter (yellow dots), of which most of the Litters are Plastics (73%)

On a global scale, non-degradable plastic accounts for 73% of litter in any aquatic habitat (Bergmann et al. 2017) GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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The Worlds Oceans are Infested with 5.25 Trillion Pieces of Plastic (in the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian & Mediterranean sea)

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there are over 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic weighing over 268,940 tons floating on the world's oceans. GolamK_Plastic Pollution_27 The North Pacific has the highest level ofWaste_Plastic contamination with nearly 2 trillion pieces of plastic Aug2018 while the Indian Ocean comes second with 1.3 trillion

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Plastic Pollution Has Reached Antarctica! Greenpeace activist Dr Grant Oakes shows a water sample collected using a manta trawl in Neko Harbour, Antarctica. Microplastics were detected in nine of 17 water samples collected off the Antarctic peninsula by a Greenpeace vessel in early 2018;

We may think that the Antarctic is a remote place and should be pristine but in fact it is not!

https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-06-07/greenpeace-plastic-pollution-has-spread-antarctica


Seven of nine snow samples taken on land in Antarctica found chemicals known as PFAs (polyfluorinated alkylated substances), which are used in industrial products and can harm wildlife

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Marine Plastic Pollution „Hot Spots” The North/Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) • There are five large patches of marine plastic pollution “hot spots” (North & South Pacific; North & South Atlantic; Indian Ocean) • The North/Great Pacific Garbage Patch is the most polluted with plastic's top most hot spot ” • Roughly twice the size of the United States/3 times to Thailand .

• Marine PlaMarine Hot Spots” stic Pollution „Hot Spots” http://www.bluebirdelectric.net/oceanography/Ocean_Plastic_International_Rescue/Plastic_The_Great_North_Pacific_Garba ge_Patch.htm

5 1 4

2

3


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Case Study Plastic Pollution (PP) “Hot Spot (GPGP) Marine researcher/Yachtsman Charles Moore holds a sample of water with debris from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, which he first discovered in 1997.

The patch was discovered in 1997 by Charles Moore, a researcher/yachtsman who had sailed through a mishmash (mixture) of floating plastic bottles and other debris on his way home to Los Angeles. It was named by Curtis Ebbesmeyer, a Seattle oceanographer known for his expertise in tracking ocean currents and the movement of cargo lost overboard, including rubber duck bath toys and Nike tennis shoes. The patch is now the target of a $32 million cleanup campaign GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Case Study Plastic Pollution (PP) “Hot Spot” (GPGP) Fishing gear/ghost nets comprised 46% of the PP Crew on the R/V Ocean Starr pulling a Ghostnetsdiscarded or accidentally lost fishing nets from the Pacific Ocean during the 2015 Mega Expedition Great Pacific Garbage Patch

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A most recent research (Labreton et al. 2018) reveals that microplastics make up 94 percent of an estimated 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic in the patch (8% of the total mass) Contains 79,000 metric tons of plastic in the patch, most of it is abandoned fishing gear (46% by mass) —not plastic bottles or packaging materials

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/03/great-pacific-garbage-patch-plastics-environment/ GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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What is a Ghost Net? •

Lost or discarded fishing nets by fishermen known as “Ghostnets”

•

They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs including human diver

• Fishermen sometimes abandon worn-out nets because it is often the easiest way to get rid of them • From 2000 to 2012, the National Marine Fisheries Service reported an average of 11 large whales entangled in ghost nets https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_net


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Case Study (GPGP): Plastic Pollution “Hot Spot”The North/Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) Lebreton et al. 2018 quantified buoyant ocean plastics (various sizes and types) inside the GPGP • 1.6-million-square-kilomete which is twice the size of USA & located between Hawaii and California,) • It used 18 participating vessels to collect surface trawl samples (652 surface net tows) within and around the GPGP region (July-Sep, 2015), • in addition, aerial surveys (Hercules-C-130) were also carried out to obtain georeferenced imagery

The research found that • the North Pacific Garbage Patch(1.6-million-square-kilometer) is the largest plastic accumulation zone on Earth • It contains 1.8 trillion pieces of floating ocean plastic (79,000 metric tons of plastic) The Plastic objects identified include • containers, bottles, lids, bottle caps, packaging straps, eel trap cones, oyster spacers, ropes, and fishing nets • Fishing nets represented more than 46% of the plastic load GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

(Lebreton et al. 2018, Nature Scientific Reports. 8:4666 | DOI:10.1038/s41598-018-22939-w 22 March2018)

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Case study: Plastic Mass Distribution within the GPGP Ocean plastic size spectrum classes- H=pieces of hard plastic, plastic sheet and film; N = plastic lines, ropes and fishing nets; P=pre-production plastic pellets, and type; F= pieces made of foamed plastics)

Ghostnets, were the main contributors to the total mass of GPGP plastic (42,362t) (Lebreton et al. 2018) 42, 362t

6,380t Hard plastic, plastic sheet and film

9,971t Hard plastic, plastic sheet and film

Hard plastic, plastic sheet and film

N

Plastic lines, ropes and fishing nets

20,195t

H


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Case Study :Plastic Pollution “Hot Spot”- the GPGP is Rapidly Accumulating Microplastic Concentration in different decades (1965 to 2015)

The figure demonstrates that the ocean plastic pollution levels within the GPGP are increasing exponentially/ rapidly and at a faster rate than in surrounding waters (Labreton et al. 2018)

GPGP

Surrounding waters

Lebreton et al. 2018. Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic. Nature Scientific Reports. 8:4666 | DOI:10.1038/s41598-018-22939-w GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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This infoGraphic shows that there will (predicted) be more Plastic in the Oceans than Fish by 2050

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic#/media/File:More_Plastic_in_the_Ocean_than_Fish_Infographic.pn g

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Impacts of Plastic Pollution-Biodiversity


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Impacts of Plastic Pollution Mismanaged Could cause pollution via plastics (dumped • inland waterways, openly or in landfill) • wastewater outflows, • transport by wind or tides Micro Could pose the following impacts plastics/microbeads • an environmental hazard for (used in personal aquatic animals in freshwater care products, and ocean water (mistaken as toothpastes) food by fish) • they cannot all be filtered out in wastewater treatment plants • they can travel vast distances floating in seawater, or sediment to the seabed GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Impacts of Plastic Pollution (PP) Entanglement and ghost fishing

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Large plastic items (discarded fishing rope and nets) can cause entanglement or injury or killing of birds, mammals, turtles, whales, dolphins, seals and fish An estimated 100,000 marine animals are strangled, suffocated, or injured by plastics every year. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/03/great-pacific-garbage-patch-plastics-environment/

Ingestion of floating microplastics

• Much smaller micro-plastic particles (microbeads) white in colour, mistaken by surface feeding fishes as food (plankton) • several marine species ingested plastic items (of all shapes) causing injuries and the blockage of the digestive tract (infection, suffocation, starvation, and ultimately mortality )

Ingestion of micro plastics contaminated with toxins

• microplastic particles may accumulate high concentrations of POPs -polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or DDTs. • Toxins can cause lethal and sub lethal effects on marine animals (if ingested) and the toxins may enter the entire food chain.

Tourism

• Plastic along shorelines has negative impacts on tourism (reduced tourism revenues, reduced recreational activities)

Shipping and fishing

• May cause vessel damage & negatively impact on shipping, energy production, fishing, and aquaculture resources GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Impacts of Plastic Pollution (PP) Raft service

Raft service

Microplastics floating in water have the tendency of providing raft substrates for various epifauna and microbes (i.e., bacteria, algae, diatoms, barnacles, hydroids, tunicates) Microplastics provide a transport service of epifauna and microbes to areas where they were not existing before (Solomon and Palanisami, 2016)


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Impacts of Plastic Pollution

Wildlife Can Become Entangled in Discarded Fishing Nets & Plastic bags


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Whale Dies from Eating more Than 80 Plastic Bags in Thai Canal (3 June 2018) 80 kg plastic bags extracted from a whale’s stomach in Thailand

• • •

The whale vomited up to five bags during the rescue attempt The plastic bags had made it impossible for the whale to eat any nutritional food. Thailand is one of the world’s largest users of plastic bags https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jun/03/whale-dies-from-eating-more-than-80-plastic-bags GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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This dead albatross chick was found with plastics in its stomach on Midway Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/03/great-pacific-garbagepatch-plastics-environment/


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The Main Meal for Sperm Whales Plastics Debris Plastic debris found in the stomach of Sperm whales were (a) flower pot, (b) hosepipe, (c) greenhouse cover material, (d) plastic burlap, (e) rope, and (f) plastic mulch of greenhouse.

flower pot,

hosepipe

plastic burlap greenhouse cover material

rope

de Stephanis et al. 2013. As main meal for sperm whales: Plastics debris. Marine Pollution Bulletin 69 (2013) 206–214


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Impacts of Plastic Pollution- Adsorption of Contaminants


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Plastic Particles are Accumulator of Hydrophobic Pollutants”

Plastic particles are hydrophobic in nature They are known as vectors for priority pollutants (Wright & Kelly, 2017; Germanov et al., 2018)

Plastic particles can adsorb • high risk organic & inorganic contaminants from the surrounding aquatic environment including • pharmaceuticals • polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) • polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) • Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) • Pesticides (DDTs) • personal care products • Heavy metals (Cd, Zn, Ni, Pb) ) from the surrounding water (Mrowiec, 2017; Kibria, 2017; Germanov et al. 2018)

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Plastic Waste is a Carrier of „Priority Pollutants • Priority Pollutants (polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs) are Consistently found in Plastic Waste • These chemicals adsorb onto the Plastic due to Hydrophobic Nature at harmful concentrations (e.g. 100 times those found in sediments and 1 million times those occurring in sea water) ( Rochman et al. 2013. Nature. 494: 169-171)

• These priority pollutants can enter the tissues of aquatic species after they eat debris and can move up the food chain to human consumers (from eating contaminated fish/seafood/shellfish) • Seabirds that have consumed plastic waste have PCBs in their tissues at 300% greater concentrations than in those GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 that have not eaten plastic Aug2018 (Rochman et al. 2013. Nature. 494: 169-171)

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Hazard Associated with Plastics • Many plastics contain endocrine-disrupting and other toxic leaching additives, which are added during the manufacturing process, such as phthalates, organobromines (polybrominated diphenyl ethers- PBDE), heavy metals, styrenes, and antibacterials • Other waterborne toxins, heavy metals, POPs (DDTs, PCBs) adhere to plastics • Microplastics and associated toxins enter food webs through low trophic levels and transfer to higher trophic levels permeating through food webs and potentially adversely impacting filter-feeding megafauna and contaminating marine food resources (Germanov et al. 2018)


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Transfer of Plastic Associated Toxins to Humans via the Food Chain Microplastics contain toxic plastic additives (phthalates, flame retardants- PBDE) It adsorb persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as (DDTs) and (PCBs from the environment

Filter-feeding marine megafauna are particularly prone to microplastic ingestion and contamination by plastic-associated toxins because of the large volumes of water they ingest during feeding (Germanov et al., 2018) GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Contaminants that Have Been Found to be Associated with Plastic Debris (Alimi et al. 2018, page 1716)


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Research Results


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Contaminants Detected in Plastics in Adsorption Research Studies 21 contaminants detected; including DDT, HCH, OP, NP, PCB, PAH, Heavy metals


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Contaminants Detected


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Contaminants Detected


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Factors Related to Adsorption of Contaminants


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Factors Related to Adsorption

Relation of PCB77 sorption and particle size; The sorption capacity significantly increased with decreasing particle size Wu et al. 2016, page 561.


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Research Results Related to Sorption of Contaminants in Various Plastics


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Research Results


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Research Results


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Research Results


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Research Results


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Sorption Capacity is a Function of Plastic Type Rubbery polymers (PE and PP): higher sorption capacities, greater diffusion, greater affinity for contaminants, mostly score 1; Glassy polymers (PVC, PET): lower sorption capacities; score 3 to 5) (Alimi et al. 2018)


Score 1: the highest sorption capacity Score 4: the Lowest sorption capacity

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Figure Showing a Tendency of PE Pellets to Have a Higher Amount of PCBs than PP Pellets

PCBs concentration in PE and PP resin pellets derived from piece-by-piece analysis. Concentrations over the limit of detection (LOD) are plotted as solid diamonds, and those under the LOD as open diamonds (Endo et al. 2005, page 1107).


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Uptake of PCBs by Polyethylene, PVC, and Polystyrene (Pascall et al. 2005)


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Research: Possible Effects of Plastic Additives (Phthalates and PBDE) Phthalates (Di-2(ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP))

• • • • • • •

PBDE (polybrominate d diphenyl ethers)

• • •

widely used as plasticizers in shopping and garbage bags, fluid containers, clothing, toys, nail polish, flooring, food packaging, medicinal products and insect repellents Phthalates leaches from food wrapping materials, medical devices, carpets Phthalates suspected to have link to breast cancer (Dey et al. 2009) Phthalates may cause miscarriages and pregnancy complications in humans (Bolong et al. 2009) Phthalates reduced sperm counts, histological changes in testes and reduced fertility (Latini et al. 2006; Heudorf et. al. 2007) In China agricultural soils were contaminated with phthalate esters (Zeng et al. 2008) which lead to elevated uptake by crops and contamination of vegetables and human exposures DEHP is toxic to aquatic organisms (Kibria et al. 2010) PBDE is extensively used as flame retardants in consumer products such as plastics, textile, carpets, polyurethane PBDE is hydrophobic, and bioaccumulative and biomagnify in the food chain PBDE caused endocrine disruption (hormones disruption) in fish including reduced egg production, reduced gonad development, delayed hatching, altered swimming behaviour, and affected male Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 & Kibria, 2016) gameteGolamK_Plastic quantity and quality (Nugegoda Aug2018

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Research Results: Seafood & Other Food Contamination by Plastics PA=Polyamide; PE= Polyethylene; PET=Polyethylene-terephthalate; PP=Polypropylene; PS= Polystyrene; PVC=Polyvinyl chloride;

Seafood

Plastic detected

Contamination Route

Seafood (fish) PA, PE, PET, PP, PS, PVC North Sea, English Channel

Globally, fish provides approximately 4.3 billion people with 15% of their animal protein intake (FAO, 2014), It has been demonstrated in various lab studies that fish ingest and accumulates micro plastics in various organs ; in the wild, fish alos contaminated with plastics: (e.g. PE, PP, PET, SA (styrene acrylate) in North sea fish-Herring, whiting, haddock, and cod; PA, PE , PS , PET in English channel fish -Whiting, mackerel, cod, Dory, red gurnard, Dragonet, redband fish, sole and PE , PET , PS , PVC in fish from the Mediterranean Sea with (reviewed by Wright & Kelly, 2017)

Environmental contamination

Seafood (fish) Fibres and hard plastics Mediterranean coast of Turkey

Along the Mediterranean coast of Turkey, 1822 MP particles were extracted from stomachs and intestines of 1337 fish specimen with the majority of ingested particles represented by fibers (70%) and hard plastics (20.8%) (Güven et al. 2017)


Seafood (fish) Microplastics in coastal and freshwater of China

In different species of fish from coastal (21) and freshwater (6) of China, MPs were abundant in 26 species, accounting for 55.9-92.3% of the total number of plastics items in each species (Jabeen et al. 2017)


Seafood (fish) Plastics and microplastics in Norwegian coast

In Norwegian coast, lower level of plastics (including MPs) was measured in the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) fish with 3% of plastic found in the stomachs examined (Brate et al. 2016)


Seafood (fish) microplastics Adriatic sea

Microplastics in fish species: Sardina pilchardus, Squalus acanthias, Merluccius merluccius, Mullus barbatus and Chelidonichthys lucerna (Avio et al., 2015)

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Research Results: Seafood & Other Food Contamination by Plastics PA=polyamide; PE=polyethylene; PET=polyethylene-terephthalate

Seafood

Plastic detected

Contamination Route

Mussels (Mytilus edulis) from 22 sites of coastlines in China.

investigated microplastics mussels (Mytilus edulis) from 22 sites of coastlines in China. the number of total microplastics varied from 0.9 to 4.6 particles/g and from 1.5 to 7.6 particles/individual and the most common microplastics were fibres (Li et al., 2016)

Air and water borne

Mussels (Belgium & Canada)- Fibres

Wild and purchased farmed mussels in Canada and Belgium were contaminated by micro plastic fibers

Polypropylene lines used for farming

Shellfish (bivalve molluscs) PE, PET, PA (China)

Nine popular species of bivalves (clam, cockle, mussel, scallop, oyster, razor clam, carpet shell, Orient clam and oriental cyclina) purchased from a fishing market in Shanghai were found to be contaminated with microplastics - PE, PET, PA (Li et al. ,2015)

Air and water borne

Honey & sugar Fibers & fragments (Germany)

Synthetic microfibers (minimum 40 μm in length) and fragments (mostly 10−20 μm in size), An average of 166 fibers and 8 fragments/kg in honey, and an average of 217 fibers and 32 fragments/kg of sugar were reported (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2013)

Airborne by bees

Beer Plastic fragments (Germany)

Fragments (reaching up to 109 fragments/L); (Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2014)

Atmospheric deposition

Sea-salt PET, PE (China)

Up to 681 microplastics/kg sea salt, the most common type of plastic found in sea salt was PET followed by PE (Yang et al., 2015)

Coastal waters (major) and Atmospheric deposition


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Research: Exposure of Fish mullet, Mugil cephalus, under Laboratory Conditions to Polystyrene (PE) and Polystyrene (PS) CNTR: Control; PE=polyethylene treatment; PS=polystyrene

Microplastics particles extracted in gastrointestinal tract (A) and liver (B) of exposed fish. CNTR=control; PE=polyethylene treatment; PS=polystyrene treatment (Avio et al. 2015) GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Mitigation Measures


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Mitigation Measures Reducing Plastic Waste Generation (3 Rs) Preventing Illegal Plastic Waste Dumping Use Biodegradable Plastics (made from renewable raw materials- starch or cellulose or bio-synthesized materials) • Biodegradable bags are bags that are capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms. f Every year approximately 500 billion to 1 trillion plastic bags are used worldwide ("Store offers biodegradable bags." Aiken Standard (Aiken, SC) (Feb 17, 2009)]

Curb the growth of single-use plastics via ban, levy, tax on plastic bags Pollution_27 Collect and removeGolamK_Plastic old orWaste_Plastic abandoned fishing nets Aug2018

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Mitigation Measures • Efficient wastewater treatment, and waste disposal • Recycling of plastic materials • Raising awareness & education on plastic pollution (evidence and science based) of the harm caused by plastic pollution • Innovate biodegradable plastics and other alternatives GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Mitigation Measures Avoid cosmetics that contain microbeads

Ban the use of microplastic in cosmetics Equip washing machines with fibre filters Minimise buying and using disposable plastic Disposal personal plastic waste appropriately


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Mitigation Measures Build Roads from Plastic Waste

https://gulfnews.com/news/asia/india/watch-building-roads-from-plastic-waste-in-india-1.2122745

• Using recycled plastic to build roads not only curbs pollution but also creates jobs • plastic roads made from recycled materials are not only greener, but are also stronger and maintenance-free — they could last about three times as long as conventional road structures, according to new research. How it works • Plastic waste — mostly water or soda bottles — are first sorted. • After sorting, the material is cleaned, dried, and shredded. • The shredded plastic is mixed and melted at around 170°C. • Hot bitumen is then added and mixed with the melted plastic. • After mixing the mixture is laid as GolamK_Plastic one would with regular asphalt concrete Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Mitigation Measures Phase out of Plastic Bags Around the World via Banning, Taxing or Both In 2015, UK introduced the 5p charge on plastic carrier bags, it caused 9bn fewer bags being used http://www.climateactionprogramme.org/ne ws/plastic-microbeads-are-now-banned-inthe-uk

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Plastic_bag_legislation.svg


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Mitigation Measures MicroBeads Legislation: Prohibits the Addition of Microbeads in Certain Personal Care Products

Microbead legislation around the world ◼ Full ban; ◼ Manufacture and import ban; ◼ Regional manufacture and import ban


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Mitigation Measures Plastic Microbeads Are Now Banned in the UK (9 Jan 2018) As of today (9 Jan 2018) manufacturers of cosmetics and personal care products will be prohibited from adding tiny pieces of plastic to their products, with a ban on the sale to come later in 2018.

Plastic microbeads are usually found in beauty products such as skin cleaning products, facial scrubs, and makeup. In 2016, MPs called for a ban on such microbeads after they washed into the oceans & could be harmful to sea life and ultimately be consumed by humans via food chain. GolamK_Plastic Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 Aug2018

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Mitigation Measures EU to Ban Single-Use Plastics (May 2018)

The European Commission is proposing new EU-wide rules to ban 10 single-use plastic products which form 70 per cent of all marine litter items. The ban will apply to: • Plastic cotton buds • Cutlery • Plates • Straws • Drink stirrers • Sticks for balloons • Single use plastic products cannot be provided free of charge. • Member States will have to reduce the use of plastic food containers and drinks cups Waste_Plastic Pollution_27 GolamK_Plastic Source: May 29, 2018 by Waste Management Review http://wastemanagementreview.com.au/eu-ban-single-use-plastics/

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Mitigation Measures

Queen Elizabeth II Bans Plastic from the Royal Estate (13 Feb 2018) The Queen of the United Kingdom has reportedly banned plastic straws and bottles from being used across the various Royal homes and palaces

Royal Estate will only be using china plates, glasses or recyclable paper cups. Food packaging across all visitor cafes attached to Royal households will have be biodegradable. http://www.climateactionprogramme.org/news/queen-elizabeth-ii-bans-plastic-from-the-royal-estate


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Mitigation Measures

China Outlaws Plastic Bags 14 January 2008

China would ban production of ultra-thin plastic bags (0.025 mm thick) China will forbid supermarkets and shops from handing ultrathin plastic bags freely Chinese residents use up to 3 billion plastic bags a day (37 million barrels of crude oil each year to make the bags) http://www.climateactionprogramme.org/news/china_outlaws_plastic_bags


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Mitigation Measures

Ban on Plastic Straws Use

The coffee giant- Starbucks has announced it will eliminate all plastic straws from its 28,000 global stores, saving an estimated one billion straws each year It will introduce a new recyclable lid and alternative straw options (compostable and paper) to its worldwide customer base Selected stores in London have also been trailing the use of a 5p paper cup charge, which will soon expand to 950 locations http://www.climateactionprogramme.org/news/starbucks-to-save-1-billion-plastic-straws-with-global-ban-by2020?utm_source=ActiveCampaign&utm_medium=email&utm_content=Starbucks+to+save+1+billion+plastic+straws+with+global+ban+by+2020++Climate+Action+News&utm_campaign=CA+Newsletter+10+July+2018


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Take Home Messages Plastic waste is ubiquitous and is reported from the Arctic to the Antarctic, from the surface to sediment. This presentation PPT (based on the latest peer-reviewed journal papers and other technical reports . The presentation provides an account of i) global consumption of plastic; ii) classification of plastics; iii) global plastic pollution; iv) plastic pollution sources; v) impacts of plastic pollution on global biodiversity, vi) effects of plastic additives; vii) global marine plastic pollution “hot spots” and viii) adsorption of organic and inorganic chemicals by different types of plastic; viii) factors related to adsorption of contaminants by plastics ix) innovative solutions to mitigate the plastic pollution across the globe Plastic production: Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers. They are most commonly derived from petrochemicals (natural gas, oil or coal). The common types of plastic are Polyamide (PA), Polyethylene (PE), Polyester (PES), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polypropylene (PP). They are classified as nano (200mm). The global plastic production was 0.35 mmt (million metric tonnes) in 1950 and in 2016 it was 335 mmt. Asia accounts for more than 49% of worldwide plastics production in 2015, of which China 28%, Japan 4% and the rest of Asia 17%. It is estimated that 4.8-12.7 million tonnes of palstics end up in the world’s oceans. Plastic pollution (PP) accounts for 60–80% of marine litter; 80% PP originates from land and 20% PP originates from fishing nets & ropes. Non-degradable plastic accounts for 73% of litter in any aquatic ecosystem, 50% of which is disposed of after a single-use. The Countries Polluting the Oceans most are China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam & Sri Lanka. Sixteen of the top 20 mismanaged plastic waste producers are low to upper middle-income countries, where fast economic growth is occurring but waste management infrastructure is lacking. The plastic pollution can be caused by illegal dumping, inadequate waste management, WWTPs (WWTPs cannot filter out micro-plastics and nano plastics), discharge of stormwater, coastal littering, natural disasters, accidentally lose or deliberately dump fishing equipment (nets, lines and rope, etc. To date, there are over 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic weighing over 268,940 tons floating on the world's oceans. There are five large patches of marine plastic pollution “hot spots” (North & South Pacific; North & South Atlantic; Indian Ocean). The North/Great Pacific Garbage Patch is the most polluted with plastic's topmost hot spot The North Pacific has the highest level of contamination with nearly 1.8 trillion pieces of plastic while the Indian Ocean comes second with 1.3 trillion. The Plastic objects identified in the North Pacific garbage patch were containers, bottles, lids, bottle caps, packaging straps, eel trap cones, oyster spacers, ropes, and fishing nets (Fishing nets represented more than 46% of the plastic load) Plastic pollution impacts: Plastic (bottles, etc) could cause pollution via blocking inland waterways, wastewater outflows; Micro plastics/microbeads (used in personal care products, toothpaste) could pose the following impacts i) environmental hazard for aquatic animals in freshwater and ocean water such as large plastic items (discarded fishing rope and nets) can cause entanglement or injury or killing of birds, mammals, turtles, whales, dolphins, seals and fish. Much smaller micro-plastic particles (microbeads) white in colour, mistaken by surface feeding fishes as food (plankton); iii) several marine species ingested plastic items (of all shapes) causing injuries and the blockage of the digestive tract (infection, suffocation, starvation, and ultimately mortality). micro plastic particles may accumulate high concentrations of POPs -polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or DDTs; toxins can cause lethal and sub-lethal effects on marine animals (if ingested) and the toxins may enter the entire food chain; plastic along shorelines has negative impacts on tourism (reduced tourism revenues, reduced recreational activities; may cause vessel damage & negatively impact on shipping, energy production, fishing, and aquaculture resources; micro plastics provide a transport service of epifauna and microbes to areas where they were not existing before Adsorption of pollutants/contaminants by plastics: Plastic particles are hydrophobic in nature and can adsorb high risk organic & inorganic contaminants from the surrounding aquatic; research results reveal 21 contaminants were adsorbed by different type of plastics including DDT, hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCH), octylphenol (OP), nonylphenol (NP), PCB, PAH, and heavy metals; The adsorption of contaminants in plastics are affected by i) roughness or smoothness; ii) aged or pristine; iii) temperature; iv) salinity; v) discolour or non-discolourness; and vi) particle size; polymer such as PE has the highest adsorption capacity (greater diffusion of contaminants) compared to polymers (PET, PVC) which shows lower adsorption capacities; microplastics contain toxic plastic additives (phthalates, flame retardants- PBDE); phthalates suspected to have link to breast cancer, reduced sperm counts, histological changes in testes and reduced fertility; PBDE caused endocrine disruption (hormones disruption) in fish including reduced egg production, reduced gonad development, delayed hatching, altered swimming behaviour, and affected male gamete quantity and quality.

Seafood & other food contamination with plastic particles: Globally, fish provides approximately 4.3 billion people with 15% of their animal protein intake (FAO, 2014), however seafood were reported to be contaminated with micropartcles (PA, PE, PET, PP, PS, PVC) such as fish (herring, whiting, haddock, cod, mackerel, cod, Dory, red gurnard, Dragonet, redband fish, sole); mussels, and other foods (honey, salt and sugar) Mitigation: Use of biodegradable plastics (starch or cellulose), building roads from plastic waste, implementing legislation to prevent addition of microbeads in personal care products, efficient wastewater treatment, preventing illegal plastic waste dumping, ban, levy, tax on use of plastic bags, and awareness & education on harms associated with plastic pollution are some of the measures can be taken to curb plastic pollution


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