Predicting Changes in Athletes' Well Being From

Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport

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Predicting Changes in Athletes' Well Being From Changes in Need Satisfaction Over the Course of a Competitive Season Anthony J. Amorose , Dawn Anderson-Butcher & Jillian Cooper To cite this article: Anthony J. Amorose , Dawn Anderson-Butcher & Jillian Cooper (2009) Predicting Changes in Athletes' Well Being From Changes in Need Satisfaction Over the Course of a Competitive Season, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 80:2, 386-392, DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2009.10599575 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2009.10599575

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Amorose, Note—Psychology Anderson-Butcher, and Cooper Research Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport ©2009 by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance Vol. 80, No. 2, pp. 386–392

Predicting Changes in Athletes’ Well Being From Changes in Need Satisfaction Over the Course of a Competitive Season

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Anthony J. Amorose, Dawn Anderson-Butcher, and Jillian Cooper

Key words: burnout, self-determination, self-esteem

I

t is commonly believed that participation in structured sport programs leads to positive experiences and beneficial developmental outcomes for children and adolescents (see Coakley, 2007; Weiss, Amorose, & Allen, 2000). For instance, proponents of organized sport cite that participation can help build self-esteem, promote sportspersonship, encourage a valuing of physical activity, and provide a sense of enjoyment and well being. While there is some empirical support for the relationships between sport participation and these outcomes, research shows that children and youth can also experience a number of negative outcomes, such as high levels of stress, burnout, and low self-esteem as a result of their participation (see Brustad, Babkes, & Smith, 2001; Cahill & Pearl, 1993; Weiss et al., 2000). Thus, any positive effects of sport participation on psychosocial development and well being cannot be assumed to be an automatic consequence of participation—simply signing up to play will not guarantee positive results. Rather, the impact of sport on youth will ultimately depend on their experiences while participating. The goal of this study was to better understand how participation in sport leads to more or less positive outcomes for youth by exploring

Submitted: October 10, 2007 Accepted: April 21, 2008 Anthony J. Amorose and Jillian Cooper are with the School of Kinesiology and Recreation at Illinois State University. Dawn Anderson-Butcher is with the College of Social Work at The Ohio State University.

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the link between athletes’ psychological need satisfaction and their well being. A beneficial framework for understanding youth sport experiences is self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000b, 2002), which posits there are three fundamental psychological needs essential for optimal functioning and well being: (a) competence, which reflects the need to perceive our behavior and interaction with the social environment as effective (White, 1959); (b) autonomy, which represents the need to perceive our behaviors and thoughts as freely chosen and that we are the origins of our own actions (deCharms, 1968); and (c) relatedness, which represents the need to perceive we are connected to those around us and experience a sense of belonging (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). According to SDT, the extent to which these needs are satisfied or thwarted in a particular social context, such as sport, will ultimately affect psychosocial development and well being. A recently formalized subtheory of SDT, labeled basic needs theory (BNT), details the link between need satisfaction and well being (see Ryan & Deci, 2002). Specifically, BNT predicts that people who feel their needs are fulfilled will experience positive well being and optimal functioning, whereas a deficiency in need satisfaction will lead to nonoptimal functioning and ill being (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). A number of studies supported the predictions outlined in BNT (see Ryan & Deci, 2002), including a handful of studies in the context of sport (see Gagné & Blanchard, 2007; Weiss & Amorose, 2008). For instance, Gagné, Ryan, and Bargmann (2003) conducted a diary study, which, among other things, examined the relationships between indexes of positive and negative well being and the daily fluctuations young female gymnasts

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Amorose, Anderson-Butcher, and Cooper

experienced in their need satisfaction. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed that athletes who reported that their needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness were satisfied during practice experienced increases in positive well being in self-esteem, positive affect, and subjective vitality. Changes in negative affect did not relate to need satisfaction. In addition, Reinboth and colleagues conducted studies using BNT as a framework. In a cross-sectional study of adolescent soccer and cricket players, Reinboth, Duda, and Ntoumanis (2004) examined the relationship between various dimensions of coaching behavior and players’ need satisfaction and psychological and physical well being. Focusing on the key relationships identified in BNT—namely the link between need satisfaction and well being—they examined whether the degree to which athletes perceived their needs competence, autonomy, and relatedness had been satisfied could predict various dimensions of well being in the athletes’ self-reported subjective vitality and intrinsic interest in sport and the negative physical symptoms (i.e., health problems) experienced. Results showed that perceived competence and autonomy, but not relatedness, positively related to the athletes’ psychological well being, and perceptions of competence negatively related to physical symptoms. Reinboth and Duda (2006) extended these findings in a longitudinal study examining whether changes in need satisfaction predicted changes in well being outcomes over the course of a season. Male and female British university athletes from various team sports completed self-report measures of perceived competence, autonomy (as assessed by perceived locus of causality and perceived choice), and relatedness (coach and teammate), as well as indicators of positive (subjective vitality) and negative well being (physical symptoms) near the beginning and end of their competitive season. They conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses to test whether changes in need satisfaction over the season predicted changes in each well being variable after statistically controlling for scores at the beginning of the season. Partial support for the BNT predictions emerged. After controlling for preseason scores on the set of variables, the researchers found that autonomy, in terms of perceived locus of causality, and feeling of relatedness with their coach significantly predicted changes in subjective vitality. None of the needs were predictive of changes in physical symptoms after controlling for the preseason scores. In sum, a handful of studies provided some support for the relationships outlined by BNT in the sport context. The goal of this study was to add to this line of research by exploring the relationships among need satisfaction and positive and negative well being over time, similar to that of Reinboth and Duda (2006) albeit with a different set of outcome measures. There are a wide range of possible indicators of well being (see Gagné &

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Blanchard, 2007), including those focused on global or general psychological and physical functioning (e.g., selfesteem, subjective vitality, physical symptoms) and other more specific in terms of functioning within a particular time and situation (e.g., positive and negative emotional states, burnout in sport). We chose to explore how need satisfaction in sport related to both a global and more sport-specific marker of well being. Specifically, we tested whether changes in perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness over a competitive season were predictive of changes in athletes’ well being in their global self-esteem and burnout level in sport. Self-esteem, considered a key marker of general psychological adjustment and well being, reflects one’s affect toward and overall evaluation of worth or value as a person (see Harter, 1999). As noted, high self-esteem is commonly cited as a major benefit of sport participation (Coakley, 2007), and, therefore, is an important outcome to consider. The salience of self-esteem is further supported by the fact that scholars have shown athletes’ level of self-esteem is associated with many other cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes in sport (see Fox, 2002; Weiss & Ebbeck, 1996). Consistent with the theorizing of Ryan and Deci (2000a) and previous research (e.g., Gagné et al., 2003), we predicted a positive relationship between changes in need satisfaction and self-esteem. Burnout, according to Raedeke and Smith (2001), reflects a psychological syndrome characterized by feelings of emotional and physical exhaustion, a reduced sense of accomplishment, and a devaluation of sport by the athlete. Athletes experiencing these symptoms are not functioning at an optimal physical or psychological level. Thus, the degree to which someone experiences burnout reflects negative well being in sport. Studies have shown that high burnout levels are linked with less selfdetermined forms of sport motivation (e.g., Cresswell & Eklund, 2005a, 2005b; Raedeke & Smith, 2001), prompting Cresswell and Eklund (2006a) to hypothesize that burnout will likely occur as a result of athletes’ needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness being chronically thwarted. Although no studies directly tested the links between need satisfaction and burnout, Cresswell and Eklund (2006b, 2007) provided some support for their hypothesis in two qualitative studies with professional rugby players. Thus, we expected a negative relationship between changes in need satisfaction and burnout.

Method Participants The participants included 93 adolescent female volleyball players ranging in age from 13 to 18 years (M

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= 15.78 years, SD = 1.28). All players were members of a competitive club volleyball program in the midwestern U.S. The club has approximately 225 players representing over 20 teams competing in regional and national tournaments. The final sample of 93 included only those athletes who agreed to participate and completed both the pre- and postseason data collections.1 The average number of years of volleyball playing for this group was 5.80 (SD = 1.74), and the average number of seasons playing for the club was 2.49 (SD = 1.98). Most athletes identified themselves as Caucasian (90.60%).


Measures Need Satisfaction. We used three distinct measures to assess athletes’ level of need satisfaction. We assessed players’ perception of sport competence using the corresponding subscale of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (McAuley, Duncan, & Tammen, 1989), which has players rate their agreement with five items (e.g., “I am pretty skilled at volleyball.”). Response options for each item range from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. A 6item scale developed by Hollembeak and Amorose (2005) was used to assess participants’ satisfaction of their need for autonomy. Consistent with Deci and Ryan (1985), autonomy according to this scale is specified as the degree to which respondents perceive they have a choice in their behavior. The measure asks respondents to indicate the amount of choice or control they have when participating in their current sport (e.g., “I have a say in what I do when participating in my sport.”). Response options for each item range from 1 = not at all true for me to 5 = completely true for me. The satisfaction of the athletes’ need for relatedness was assessed using a sport-oriented version of Richer and Vallerand’s (1998) Feelings of Relatedness Scale, which asks respondents the extent to which they agree with a series of 10 adjectives (e.g., “supported,” “attached to them”) describing their relationships with members of their sport team, (i.e., coaches, teammates). Response options range from 1 = do not agree at all to 7 = very strongly agree. Each measure has demonstrated adequate psychometric properties with adolescent athletes in similar studies testing SDT (e.g., Amorose & AndersonButcher, 2007; Reinboth et al., 2004). Well Being. Two well being indicators were measured—self-esteem and burnout. Participants completed Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (1965) in which they indicated their agreement with 10 items (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.”). Response options for each item range from 1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree. Gagné et al. (2003) demonstrated the acceptable psychometric properties of the scale in their study testing SDT with adolescent gymnasts. Athletes’ level of burnout was assessed using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (Raedeke & Smith, 2001). Each of the 15 items tap one

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of three underlying dimensions of burnout, including emotional/physical exhaustion (e.g., “I am exhausted by the mental and physical demands of my sport.”), reduced sense of accomplishment (e.g., “I am not achieving much in my sport.”), and sport devaluation (e.g., “I have negative feelings toward my sport.”). Response options, which range from 1 = almost never to 5 = most of the time. Raedeke and Smith (2001) reported psychometric support for the measure. Consistent with others (e.g., Lemyre, Treasure, & Roberts, 2006), we combined the scores from all 15 items into a single global indicator of burnout as a way to keep the subject-to-variable ratio reasonable and minimize the number of separate analyses. Procedures Standard Institutional Review Board procedures were followed to secure assent/consent from parents/guardians, coaches, and athletes prior to beginning the study. Data were collected at multiple time points across the season. The preseason data collection occurred approximately 1–2 weeks prior to the beginning of the players’ competitive season (i.e., the first official competition). At this time, players who had parental/guardian consent received a verbal description of the project and the preseason questionnaires if they agreed to participate. Participants took as much time as needed to complete the questionnaire and were told that their answers would remain confidential. At the end of the competitive season, a second meeting was scheduled with the players who completed the preseason measures. Postseason questionnaires were administered at this meeting, which occurred approximately 1–2 weeks prior to the last official competition and approximately 4 months after the start of the season. Both data collections occurred at a regularly scheduled practice session and included all study measures. Coaches were asked to leave the area while the athletes completed the measures. Participants completed the surveys in approximately 15–20 min at each time point

Results Descriptive Statistics Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations for the study variables. All measures demonstrated an acceptable level of internal consistency, with α coefficients ranging from .73 to -.97. Consistent with expectations, all three needs significantly and positively related to self-esteem and significantly and negatively related to burnout at the pre- and postseason time points, respectively. Interestingly, significant relationships between the variables across time did not emerge, indicating that rank order of participants on the variables at the beginning

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of the season did not correspond to their rank order at postseason. Using paired t tests, we compared the mean pre- and postseason scores for each variable (see Table 1). No significant changes (p > .05) in any variable emerged; however, there was considerable intraindividual variability in the changes that occurred in perceived competence (M Δ = .21, SD = 1.44), autonomy (M Δ = .03, SD = .94), relatedness (M Δ = -.05, SD = 1.76), self-esteem (M Δ = .00, SD = .62), and burnout (M Δ = -.10, SD = .92).


Main Analyses Following the lead of Reinboth and Duda (2006), we conducted hierarchical regression analyses to examine whether changes in need satisfaction predicted changes in players’ well being. Separate analyses were conducted for self-esteem and burnout, with the postseason score on the respective variable serving as the criterion. For each analysis, the well being indicator and athletes’ perceived competence, sense of autonomy, and feelings of relatedness reported during the preseason were entered on Step 1. On Step 2, we entered the players’ perceptions of the three needs reported during the postseason. This approach provided information regarding the relationships between changes in the well being indicator and in need satisfaction after statistically controlling for the level of these variables at the preseason. In other words, the second step of the regression analysis predicted the residual variance of the well being indicator unaccounted for by the level of the variables entered on the first step (see Reinboth & Duda, 2006). Results indicated in the self-esteem analysis that the initial level of variables did not account for a significant amount of variance in postseason self-esteem (R2 = .08,

p > .05). However, the addition of the postseason need satisfaction variables on Step 2 significantly added to the prediction (ΔR2 = .34, p < .01, total R2 = .42). An examination of the standardized regression coefficients revealed that perceived competence (β = .50) and autonomy (β = .28), but not relatedness (β = -.01), significantly contributed to predicting self-esteem after accounting for the initial level of the variables. The interpretation, therefore, is that changes in perceptions of competence and autonomy over the course of the season positively related to changes in the athletes’ self-esteem. We found even stronger support for the predictions of BNT in the burnout analysis. The preseason scores entered on Step 1 did not significantly predict postseason burnout (R2 = .08, p > .05). There was, however, a significant effect after adding the postseason need satisfaction variables on Step 2 (ΔR2 = .39, p < .01, total R2 = .47). In this case, all three needs contributed to the relationship, with perceived competence (β = -.20), autonomy (β = -.38), and relatedness (β = -.21) significantly predicting burnout after controlling for preseason scores on variables. That is, changes in perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness over the course of the season negatively related to changes in the athletes’ burnout.2

Discussion The goal of this study was to add to the research testing BNT (Ryan & Deci, 2002) by exploring the links among need satisfaction and positive and negative well being over time. In general, the results show relatively strong support for the hypothesized relationships. At a

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables for all volleyball players (N = 93)

Variable

1. Perceived competence (pre) 2. Perceived autonomy (pre) 3. Perceived relatedness (pre) 4. Burnout (pre) 5. Self-esteem (pre) 6. Perceived competence (post) 7. Perceived autonomy (post) 8. Perceived relatedness (post) 9. Burnout (postseason) 10. Self-esteem (post) Mean Standard deviation Cronbach’s alpha (α)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

— .29* — .30* .21* — -.40* -.44* -.29* — .65* .32* .22* -.45* — -.12 -.16 -.14 .13 .03 — .10 -.16 -.11 -.17 .12 .33* — -.06 -.20 -.10 .14 .00 .37* .44* .02 .20 .06 .07 -.07 -.43* -.64* -.46* — -.04 -.22* -.02 .14 .08 .55* .46* .38* -.59* 5.71 3.79 5.47 2.05 3.21 5.50 3.76 5.51 2.15 .84 .64 1.15 .71 .45 1.07 .59 1.21 .64 .84 .73 .95 .92 .87 .92 .82 .97 .89

10.

— 3.21 .47 .85

Note. pre = preseason; post = postseason. *p < .05.

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basic level, the bivariate correlations at both preseason and postseason time points were consistent with BNT in that need satisfaction related positively to self-esteem and negatively to burnout. More importantly, the findings of this study provide evidence that changes in athletes’ need satisfaction over the course of their season related to changes in their overall well being. When combined with other sport-related research (e.g., Gagné et al., 2003; Reinboth et al., 2004; Reinboth & Duda, 2006), the extent to which athletes’ needs are supported or undermined while participating have important implications for their experiences and may explain how sport may lead to positive or negative outcomes. A number of points regarding the specific pattern of results are noteworthy. First, support for BNT predictions was strongest when considering burnout, insomuch as all three needs uniquely contributed to the relationship. This is interesting given that previous research testing the relationship between need satisfaction and indexes of negative well being have been less consistent, prompting some scholars to suggest need satisfaction is a better predictor of positive well being (see Reinboth & Duda, 2006; Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002). It could, however, be more a function of the type of negative well being indicator in question. Most of the sport-specific studies looking at negative well being focused on physical symptoms, asking athletes to report on the degree they recently experienced physical health problems such as a runny nose, headaches, stomach pains, and so on (e.g., Reinboth et al., 2004; Reinboth & Duda, 2006). Although burnout includes a physical dimension, namely exhaustion, the construct focuses more on the athlete’s psychological/emotional responses. Thus, as Reinboth and Duda (2006) suggested, the observed link between needs and psychological/emotional ill being may be more apparent relative to strictly physical outcomes. Future research should continue to explore a variety of positive and negative well being indicators to determine the extent to which need satisfaction affects athletes’ physical and psychological functioning. While changes in all three needs related to changes in burnout, as BNT (Ryan & Deci, 2002) would predict and as hypothesized by Cresswell and Eklund (2006a), only two needs—perceived competence and autonomy—significantly predicted changes in self-esteem. Why relatedness did not contribute to the prediction remains unclear. Although a similar lack of support was found by Reinboth et al. (2004) in predicting subjective vitality, intrinsic interest, and physical symptoms, most studies testing the links between need satisfaction and well being indicators in and out of sport support the role of relatedness (e.g., Gagné et al., 2003; Reinboth & Duda, 2006; Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon & Bettencourt, 2002). In fact, in their study of adolescent female gymnasts Gagné et al. reported

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a positive association between changes in relatedness and changes in self-esteem. Interestingly, perceptions of coach involvement moderated this effect. Specifically, daily satisfaction of athletes’ needs had a positive effect on changes in self-esteem from the beginning to end of practice. However, this effect emerged primarily in athletes who perceived their coaches were less involved. Perhaps, then, the nonsignificant finding here was a function of unobserved social contextual factors, such as the coaches’ behaviors or interactions with peers. Alternatively, differences between our study and Gagné et al. (2003) in the participants’ activity, namely team versus individual sports, may account for the variations in the findings. Understanding these relationships may require future studies to test the interactive effects of needs and other salient variables to more fully account for athletes’ well being and test whether the pattern of relationships is invariant across multiple contexts. A number of limitations in the current study may serve well as guides for future research. For instance, our sample was limited to female adolescent volleyball players almost all of whom were Caucasian. Even when combined with the other sport studies testing BNT (e.g., Gagné et al., 2003; Reinboth et al., 2004; Reinboth & Duda, 2006), the importance of need satisfaction on well being is limited to a relative select sample of athletes. We suggest studies expand to explore more diverse populations, other sports, and other competitive levels (e.g., youth vs. professional) to see if the predictions outlined in BNT (Ryan & Deci, 2002) are robust. Our study is also limited in terms of the pre-post design. Although we believe looking at changes from the season’s beginning to end is valuable, collecting and analyzing data from more than two time points, such as the diary study by Gagné et al. (2003), would likely provide richer evidence on the dynamic properties of need satisfaction and athletes’ psychological functioning. Furthermore, we suggest scholars consider expanding on the nature of the needs when testing BNT (Ryan & Deci, 2002). For instance, autonomy was operationalized as perceived choice in this study. Reeve (2002), however, argued that autonomy is a multifaceted construct comprised of perceptions of choice, perceived locus of causality, and volition. Using this conceptualization, Reinboth and Duda (2006) examined locus of causality and perceived choice (but not volition) to assess autonomy. Their results showed that changes in the athletes’ perceived locus of causality across a season predicted changes in their subjective vitality, whereas changes in perceived choice were a nonsignificant predictor of well being. These findings suggest that distinct dimensions of autonomy may differentially explain well being and, thus, may prove an important avenue for future research. Interestingly, Reinboth and Duda (2006) also treated relatedness as a multidimensional construct by differenti-

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ating the source of the need satisfaction. Our assessment considered feelings of relatedness with coaches and teammates together, whereas they assessed these social influences separately. The fact that they found feelings of relatedness with coaches to significantly predict well being, while relatedness with teammates was a nonsignificant predictor, suggests researchers should consider this need from a more expanded view. Finally, we did not directly assess any social-contextual factors that may have accounted for changes in the athletes’ need satisfaction over the season. According to SDT, numerous social-contextual events may help to satisfy or thwart people’s needs and, thus, can affect their well being (see Ryan & Deci, 2002). A number of studies in the sport domain found support for these links, especially when considering elements of coaching behaviors and leadership styles as the key social-contextual influences (see Amorose, 2007; Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, for reviews). For example, Gagné et al. (2003) reported positive relationships between coaches’ involvement and autonomy-support and athletes need satisfaction during daily practices, while Reinboth et al. (2004) found that the degree to which coaches provided autonomy-support, created a mastery motivational climate, and provided social support influenced athletes’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, respectively. While we believe our results contribute to the literature, understanding the specific determinants affecting changes in need satisfactions will be critical for a more complete understanding of youth sport experiences and, therefore, should be a focus of future research. In conclusion, the extent to which athletes’ psychological needs are satisfied during a season are linked to increases and decreases in their positive and negative well being. This suggests that attempts to satisfy athletes’ needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness by coaches, parents, or whomever interacts with them may ultimately contribute to their well being and promote more positive sport experiences. The literature provides a number of specific suggestions for using SDT to enhance need satisfaction, motivation, and well being (e.g., Amorose, 2007). For example, satisfying athletes’ need for competence may be maximized by activities designed to optimally challenge their skills and abilities and by contingent and appropriate feedback in response to mastery attempts. Involving athletes in decision making and goal setting and incorporating their ideas, interests, and needs into activities relevant to their participation should help promote feelings of autonomy. Finally, satisfying the need for relatedness may be enhanced when those in charge help athletes develop and maintain positive friendships via participation and provide opportunities for them to hang out and socialize. Ultimately, engaging in these behaviors should help promote the positive athletes’ experiences and development youth sport proponents desire.

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Notes 1. This project is part of a larger study exploring changes in athletes’ motivation over time. A total of 143 volleyball players from this club participated in some portion of the larger study. However, only 93 players were present for both the pre- and postseason data collections. To determine whether the 93 athletes were representative of the larger group, we tested for differences in the set of variables. No significant differences emerged between the players included in this study and the remaining 50 players from whom we had incomplete data (i.e., only one occasion of measurement). 2. We also analyzed the data using multiple regression analyses with change scores (pre- minus postseason) as the predictors (i.e., the three needs) and criterion variables (i.e., self-esteem, burnout). The results of these analyses lead to an identical interpretation of the results as reported with the hierarchical regression analyses. Although the change score approach is simpler, we opted to detail the hierarchical approach following the lead of Reinboth and Duda (2006).

Authors’ Note Please address all correspondence concerning this article to Anthony J. Amorose, School of Kinesiology and Recreation, Illinois State University, 227L Horton Fieldhouse, Normal, IL 61790-5120. E-mail: [email protected]

RQES: June 2009

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