and grasses in a prairie with nutrient content and productivity of .... Fire use in the shortgrass prairie of the southern Great Plains has its primary value in woody ...
Prescribed or Controlled Burning by Clenton Owensby, Professor of Range Science, Kansas State University Effects of Fire on Wildlife Can fires be good for wildlife? Animals may even help cause them. An interesting theory by Robert Mutch suggests that not only do some plant species enhance the possibility of fire, but also that animal species that benefit from fire possibly also exhibit such characteristics. Most frequent cause of natural fires is lightning. Squirrels may mutilate the tops of trees and influence the likelihood of a lightning strike. Large animals such as deer, elk, bison, and moose may alter the fuel in grasslands and forests to influence burning. Most evidence supporting this theory is conjectural, but other research has shown fire does create favorable conditioons for wildlife. Preferential use of burned areas by elk and deer has long been recognized. In a forest or preserve, fire may change forage quality and quantity and change existing vegetative characteristics. Fire will increase herbaceous plants in a forest and grasses in a prairie with nutrient content and productivity of forage will usually increase as well. Fire has been a major influence on the development of the vegetation on the Great Plains. Plants responded to fire and the resultwas a grassland dominated by fire-tolerant species. After the !nflux of European settlers, farming, roads and other practices reduced the influence of fire. As fire became less of a force in the vegetation of the Great Plains, woody plants invaded in some areas to replace the herbaceous plants used by herbivores. Understanding fire and its effects on vegetation is a prerequisite to using it as a management tool. Most range areas developed with fire as a major determinant in plant community structure. Fires favor grasslands and grasslands favor fire. It is doubtful that any of the major grasslands escaped periodic natural fires, and that influence, along with grazing by ungulate herbivores, shaped the grassland community structure greatly. Climatic influences may have been the dominant force during development, but fire was likely the major force in sustaining stability of most range plant communities.
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Pristine fires were primarily caused by lightning in the initial development of the prairie, but primitive man later set many fires for different purposes. Grasslands with large amounts of highly flammable fuels are particularly susceptible to frequent burning and are usually made up of fire-resistant species. Changes in range plant communities have been largely attributed to heavy grazing, but it is likely that there has been more change in those communities because of an absence of fire than from any other factor. Fire mayor may not be compatible with man's exploitation, but he certainly must recognize its importance.
Fire Uses in Range Management Fire is a two-edged sword and must be adequately controlled if it is to achieve desired results. If not controlled, it can damage the resource and spread destruction to adjacent units. Usually there is only a short period in which to burn to achieve fully the purpose of burning, and those who burn must understand the impacts of fire on vegetation, wildlife and on the entire system. They must know the consequences of burning and stand ready to accept the responsibilities. Uses for controlled burning vary greatly but primary uses include: 1. Woody plant control. 2. Control of weedy forbs and grasses. 3. Betterment of forage quality. 4. Improving grazing distribution. 5. Removal of excessive old growth. 6. Reduction of height of browse for wildlife. 7. Management of wildlife habitat. Fire can be a useful, economically attractive tool in range management. Those who condemn usually do so on the basis of wildfires which have burned at inopportune times. The present trend is to consider fire as a useful tool in managing range areas. Prairie Major concern by most who think about prescribed burning is that destruction of organic matter and subsequent nutrient loss and soil surface exposure will do irreparable damage to the soil. Since prairies have been subjected to repeated fires during their development, it is likely that compensating mechanisms within the ecosystem prevent catastrophic changes in the physical and chemical properties of soils.
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Fire in any vegetation type removes surface litter exposing the surface to compaction by raindrop action, thereby reducing infiltration capacity on finer-textured soils. Time of burning will determine the extent to which changes in infiltration capacity occur. The greater the length of time between burning and growth of the dominant species, the greater will be the effect on soil physical properties. Soil chemical properties as a whole are altered little. Nitrogen is lost through volatilization during combustion, but there appears to be increased fixation of nitrogen or reduced nitrogen losses on burned areas since most studies show no reduction in total soil nitrogen following burning. An important aspect of fire is the increased mineralization rate of organic matter in the soil due to increased soil temperatures as a result of more exposure of the mineral soil to direct sunlight. That increased mineralization rate increases nutrient availability early when most growth occurs. Effect that fire has on range vegetation depends on vegetation type, fuels, soils, moisture conditions, fire frequencies, and time of burning. Interactions of these factors affect herbage production, vegetative composition, flowering, and forage quality. Moisture conditions play an important role in the impact range burning has on herbage production. The more arid an area, the greater is the likelihood that burning will reduce subsequent herbage yields. Low natural ground cover coupled with a low potential for growth leave the soil surface barren for a long period, increasing the possibility for puddling by rainfall. Changes in composition of plant communities following burning are common, particularly when burning has not occurred for a long time. Fire-resistant species are favored by fire because of evolutionary adaptations, but time, frequency and intensity of burning also exert an influence on vegetation composition.
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A given species may be resistant to one fire, but fire in two to three successive years at the proper time may bring about its death. Fire may damage a species but not kill it, or if the fire is very intense, kill it. Another consideration is frequency of burning. Sprouting species usually are reduced in vigor by one fire but regain their former stature in the community rapidly if no further fires occur. Since the primary effect fire has on those species is to reduce their food storage and vigor, repeated fires are necessary to kill those species. That may take 3 to 5 years of consecutive fires to eliminate them from the stand or reduce their influence to a tolerable level. Great Plains Grasslands Southern Great Plains Shortgrass prairie. Improperly timed fire in the shortgrass prairie of the southern Great Plains has generally reduced herbage yields (Dwyer and Peiper, 1967). Effects of an accidental fire in pinon-juniper-blue grama vegetation type of New Mexico were studied. Forage production in the burned area was reduced the first season, but was not by the end of the second season compared to an adjacent unburned area. Forbs and woody species vary in their response to fire, some declining in abundance and others vigorously re-sprouting. Fire use in the shortgrass prairie of the southern Great Plains has its primary value in woody plant control. Junipers and cacti appear to be the most likely candidates for control. The reduction in heavy infestation of those species may overcome any temporary reduction in desirable herbage yield. Mixed prairie. Because southern mixed prairie grasslands are dominated by warm-season species and had fire as a part of their evolutionary development, most species are resistant to fire. Cool-season annual grasses, Texas wintergrass, and sideoats grama appear to be harmed by fire (Wright, 1974). Wright found that buffalograss, blue grama, and sand dropseed were neither harmed nor benefited by fire, but that vine-mesquite, Arizona cottontop, little bluestem, plains bristlegrass, and Texas cupgrass were benefited by fire. Tobosagrass communities appear to be the most resistant to fire injury. Heirman and Wright (1973) reported increased palatability and productivity of tobosagrass burned during normal and wet years. Most shrubby species are harmed by fire, depending on frequency. Several consecutive years of burning for sprouting species will reduce their abundance if burning occurs while they are susceptible to fire injury. Fire use in the mixed prairie of the southern Great Plains centers around brush control and increasing palatability and productivity of tobosagrass areas. Research to evaluate several successive years of burning is needed, as well as time of burning studies. Desert grassland. Reaction of perennial grasses to fire in the desert grasslands has been mixed, probably due to differences in time of burning and fire intensity. Humphrey (1949) reported that the major perennial grasses-black grama, brush muhly, Arizona cottontop, and tanglehead--decreased with burning compared to unburned, but Rothrock grama and threeawn species increased.
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Apparently, properly timed fires cause an initial reduction in perennial grass abundance, but recovery is rapid and during succeeding year’s abundance is greater on burned than unburned areas. Mesquite, cholla, pricklypear, and juniper all have been shown to be reduced by fire in the desert grassland. Humphrey (1974) has concluded that the vast increase in woody species in the desert grassland is largely a result of reduction in fire frequency. Primary use for prescribed burning in the desert grassland area is for woody species control. Low fuel amounts are a significant problem and also limit use of fire in the region. Central Great Plains Shortgrass and mixed prairie. Burning in the central Great Plains shortgrass region has generally reduced herbage yields. Most studies have reported on effects of accidental fires that came at in-opportune times. Recent work indicates that proper timing may reduce the detrimental effects of fire in shortgrass prairie. Launchbaugh suggested that shortgrass vegetation may respond favorably to burning under certain conditions. Fire should be useful in the shortgrass area for reducing mulch buildup on ungrazed areas prior to resumption of grazing or to improve grazing distribution by burning ungrazed portions of grazed pastures. Another use is control of prairie threeawn in infested regions. Tallgrass prairie. The tallgrass prairie is the only grassland that has been repeatedly burned as a management practice. Indeed, the area survives as a prairie largely because of periodic to regular burning. Research indicates that warm-season perennial grasses -big bluestem, indiangrass, and switchgrass-are favored by fire, and cool-season grassesKentucky bluegrass, sedges and annual bromes-are reduced in abundance by burning. Perennial forbs and most woody species-buckbrush, dogwood, eastern redcedar-are harmed by fire, but some woody species are resistant to fire injury-leadplant, smooth sumac. Native wildlife populations historically found in the area have not been adversely affected by controlled burning. Burn at beginning of growth of warm-season species. Burn for any of the listed reasons. Mesic mixed prairie. Proper timing of prescribed burns in the mesic mixed prairie area does not reduce herbage yield (Gartner and Thompson, 1972). They burned in late April in the area where Black Hills forest and grasslands overlap grass to reduce pine invasion into natural grassland areas. Pine seedlings were readily controlled by fire during late April. Fire in the region generally favors warm-season grasses over coolseason ones, though Kirsch and Kruse (1972) reported that needlegrass also increased. Wright (1978) reports that Kentucky bluegrass decreased dramatically in abundance on areas burned by Kirsch at Woodworth, N.D. Few species were harmed by fire in the research at Woodworth (Kirsch and Kruse, 1972). Most forbs and woody species increased or did not change in abundance following burning.
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Since properly timed prescribed burns usually are not detrimental to herbage yields or vegetative composition, range burning in the tall-grass prairie as well as in the mesic mixed prairie of the northern Great Plains provides an excellent tool to control vegetative composition, reduce woody species invasion, and promote grazing distribution. Other research in the northern True Prairie has been on ungrazed areas at a variety of dates. Spring burning has increased herbage yields, increased warm-season perennial grass amounts and reduced woody species. Primary use for fire in the northern True Prairie has been to maintain or improve grassland reserves where mulch accumulation has stifled productivity and cool-season grasses and woody species have invaded. In the western section of the North Dakota area, fire has been used to improve grazing distribution and vegetative composition (Barker, 1978) as well as control of woody species and cool-season grass invaders, reducing mulch accumulations in ungrazed prairie, and increasing forage quality. Fescue prairie. Bailey and Anderson (1978) reported that annual herbage production was not reduced by either a fall or spring burn if the desirable species were dormant. Grass cover decreased the first growing season after fire on both spring and fall burns. Spring burning was particularly detrimental to the cool-season perennial grasses, slender wheatgrass, and bearded wheatgrass. Shrub cover was reduced and perennial forb cover increased following a single spring burn. Prescribed Burning Techniques Planning the Prescribed Burn. Understanding effects of fire on range plant communities and fire behavior are prerequisites for conducting a prescribed burn, but until that knowledge is put into an orderly plan for a given area, no successful burn can be conducted. Fisher (1978) outlined a very detailed scheme for planning a prescribed burn. The burning plan should be written several weeks to months prior to the burn and approved by the necessary authorities. Since different states have different laws concerning prescribed burning, check with state and local government officials for applicable laws. Fire has the potential to be a major management tool in many areas of the Great Plains. Understanding fire behavior, fire effects on plants, and controlling fire are "musts." Fire, properly used, is an economical tool. If not used properly, it can be disastrous.
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References Ahlgren, C. E. 1974. Introduction. In T. T. Kozlowski and C. E. Ahlgren, eds. Fire and Ecosystems. Academic Press. New York. p. 1-6. Allen, L. J., E. F. Smith, R. R. Schalles, B. E. Brent, L. H. Harbers, and C. E. Owensby. 1976. Effects of range burning and nitrogen fertilization on the nutritive value of bluestem. J. Range Manage. 29:306-308. Anderson, Kling L. 1965. Time of burning as it affects soil moisture in an ordinary upland bluestem prairie in the Flint Hills. J. Range Manage. 18(6):311-316. Barker, W. T. 1978. Effects of burning on domestic livestock and forage production and utilization. Prairie Prescribed Burning Symp. And Workshop Proc. Jamestown, North Dakota. Dix, R. L. 1960. The effects of burning on the mulch structure and species composition of grasslands in western North Dakota. Ecology 41(1):49-56. Duvall, V. L., and L. B. Whitaker. 1964. Rotation burning: A forage management system for longleaf pine-bluestem ranges. J. Range Manage. 17:322-326. Dwyer, Don D. and Rex D. Peiper. 1967. Fire effects on bluegrama pinyon-juniper rangeland in New Mexico. J. Range. Manage. 20:359362. Ellwell, H. M. et al. 1941. The effects of burning pasture and woodland vegetation. Oklahoma Agric. Expt. Sta. Bul. No. E-247. Fisher, W. C. 1978. Fire use plan. In J. M. LINNE. BLM Guidelines for prairie/plains plant communities to incorporate fire use/management into activity plans and fire use plans. U.S. Dept. Int. BLM (In Press). Gartner, F. R. and W. W. Thompson. 1972. Fire in the Black Hills forestgrass ecotone. Proc. Tall Timbers. Fire Ecol. Conf. 12:37 -68. Heirman, A. L., and H. A. Wright. 1973. Fire in medium fuels of West] Texas. J. Range Manage. 26:331-335. Hulbert, Lloyd C. 1969. Fire and litter effects in undisturbed bluestem prairie in Kansas. Ecology Vol. 50:874-877. Humphrey, R. R. 1949. Fire as a means of controlling velvet mesquite, burroweed, and cholla on southern Arizona ranges. J. Range Manage. 2:175-182. --. 1974. Fire in the deserts and desert grassland of North America. In T. T. Kozlowski and C. E. Ahlgren, eds. Fire and Ecosystems. Academic Press. New York. 366-400. Kelting, R. W. 1957. Winter burning in central Oklahoma grassland. Ecology 38:520-522. Kirsch, L. M., and A. D. Kruse. 1972. Prairie fires and wildlife. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 12:289-303. Kozlowski, T. T. and C. E. Ahlgren. 1974. Fire and Ecosystems. Academic Press. New York. 542 pp. Mutch, R. W. 1970. Wildland fires and ecosystems-a hypothesis. Ecology 51,1046-1051. Trlica, M. J., Jr. and J. L. Schuster. 1969. Effects of fire on grasses of the Texas High Plains. J. Range Manage. 22(5)329-333. Wolfe, C. W. 1972. Effects of fire on a sandhills grassland environment. Proc. Tall Timbers Fire Ecol. Conf. 12:241-256.
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Wright, H. A. 1974. Effect of fire on southern mixed prairie grasses. J. Range Manage. 27:417-419. Wright, H. A. and A. W. Bailey. 1978. The role and use of fire in the Great Plains. In J. Range Manage. 27:417-419. . 1982. Fire Ecology-United States and Southern Canada. John Wiley and Son Pub. New York. 501 pp.
Keep Safety in Mind When Burning Grassland Setting fire to rangeland has become an April ritual on many Kansas ranches. Burning in spring helps control weeds and brush and improves the quality of the grass stand by making it more palatable and accessible to grazing cattle. Cattle gain faster and ranchers earn more money. Though "prescribed" burning has grown in favor with ranchers in recent years, it can be a dangerous exercise. As more ranchers burn more acres each year, the risk of property damage and personal injury goes up. And that makes Paul Ohlenbusch nervous. Ohlenbusch, extension range and pasture management specialist at Kansas State University, is concerned about the safe and effective use of fire. He's seen a few (and heard of many) near misses. Ohlenbusch's suggestions to help ranchers and their crews avoid lifethreatening situations include: 1) People with high blood pressure, a heart condition or respiratory illness should not participate in burning. 2) Members of a burn crew should wear clothing made only of natural fiber (cotton or wool, for example). Synthetic and fiber blends can melt at temperatures created by burning. 3) The burn crew should use a walkie-talkie or other radio communication among themselves or to reach an outside party that can relay an emergency message. 4) Avoid getting caught in front of a head fire, which often occurs with sudden wind shifts or when a member of the burn crew becomes disoriented. 5) Avoid night burning. 6) Hold a pre-fire briefing to discuss strategy. Every member should be familiar with basic fire burning and fire fighting techniques. 7) Notify neighbors and fire and police authorities of intention to burn. That will prevent undue alarm and unnecessary fire runs. 8) Select burning days when wind speeds are 5-15 mph. 9) Extra caution is needed when burning near an electrical powerline or high voltage transmission line. 10) Listen to weather radio or to an AM or FM radio for the daily rangeland fire danger index. Avoid burning on days of very high or extreme danger.
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Excerpt from “Guidelines for Increasing Wildlife On Farms and Ranches”, KSU Cooperative Extension Service, Manhattan, Kansas
Electronically Reproduced by Colorado State University Cooperative Extension April, 2003
April, 1988
